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XV. No. 1 JULY 15, 1914 *K Cents
E,W. ROBISCHON 1h
No king ever enjoyed such sportas this, Four to five hundred miles without pause, ata speed of more than a mile a minute.
Five hundred thousand passenger miles with- out one serious acci- dent. Used by six Governments and by private owners nearly everywhere.
(é1e CURTISS TRAINING SCHOOL
Offers Instruction in the Construction, Care and Operation of Aeroplanes and Flying Boats
@ For capable men who are ambitious and seek a permanent foundation for future work in Aviation, it offers unsurpassed advantages.
@ An open field for pleasant, remunerative employment.
@ Classes limited to ten students under the personal supervision of Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss.
@ Opportunity to keep directly in touch with latest developments in Aviation.
THE SPRING CLASS HAS GRADUATED AND THERE ARE A FEW VACANCIES IN THE MID-SUMMER CLASS Se ee eee
Our Booklet “*Yraining’’ is Illustrated and gives Full Particulars GET YOUR COPY TO-DAY THE CURTISS AEROPLANE CO., Hammondsport, N. Y.
Manufacturers of Aeroplanes, Motors and Equipment for the Leading Governments of the World.
J
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
Aeronautical Engineers
those who have designed the engines which hold the world’s records for speed, endurance and altitude, have chosen none but
Bosch Magnetos
to provide the essential spark. The selection has not been due to price —ignition is too important a factor for that consideration—but because the use of Bosch Ignition results in maximum speed, reliability and power. You cannot afford to chance it.
Specify Bosch and Be Satisfied
Correspondence Invited
Bosch Magneto Company
201 West 46th Street : New York
In answering advertisements please mention this magazine.
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
Page 3
HOW TO FIND THE WAY ACROSS THE OCEAN By LEON GOLDMERSTEIN
Associate Editor A. S. M.E. Journal, Chairman Technical Board Aeronautical Society of America
When Lieutenant Porte Tatacts Bcross the Atlantic one of the great- ést difficulties facing him will be to find his way to Europe. The ship’s captain is in a far better position “in this respect. In the first place, he has a vessel which can keep its direction much better than an air- ship. It is less liable to drift, and the captain has far better facilities for making an estimate of the pos- sible drift, if any, because he knows the currents, and can easily estimate the force and direction of the wind. Also, the steamer, especially the modern passenger vessel, is rather overengined than otherwise, and, bar- ring gales, will cleave its way no matter what the wind or tide may be. Finally, the captain has elabo- rate instruments for making observa- tions and carefully worked-out tables for taking care of all possible errors, whether those of observation, or due to lack of precision in the _ indica- jon of his instruments. What is
il! more important, however, is that the ship’s captain has all the time he wants and pretty comfort- able surroundings for making his calculations, while, even if he should commit a small error (and this is not likely), he would still have enough fuel and provisions to get to his destination.
The position of the airship pilot is entirely different. He has only a limited knowledge of the drift of his ship, as there may be movements of large bodies of air which can carry his craft miles and miles out of his way without his having the slightest intimation of the deviation. He has only the scantiest instruments at his command, and the dip and zigzag of the flight, together with the jar and whirr of the engine, make correct observation a matter of the greatest difficulty. The use of nautical tables in his case depends on his knowledge of his elevation, which he does not have, as barometer readings at his level would be of value only if he knew what the barometer reads at sea level, which, of course, he does not. It is hardly necessary to add that the present day aeroplane is not the kind of place peculiarly suitable for performing mathematical calcula- tions, and an error would be espe- cially dangerous, owing to the fact that both fuel and provisions have to be taken only in such amounts as
would permit the fliers to reach their goal. In fact, from what is known of the flight of Porte, it appears is rather to risk going without break- fast on the last day, than carrying any American food over to the Brit- ish market.
The problem rises, therefore, as to whether there is any way of finding the way across the sea without hav- ing to carry a certified navigator aboard, and running the risk to lose the way notwithstanding. What is known as the wireless radio-goniom- eter, a long name for a compara- tively simple thing, may prove to be the solution of this particular diffi- culty.
The essential part of a _ radio- goniometer, or wireless direction- finder, is a system of two loops of wires of equal size, suspended verti- cally and crossing each other at right angles. This forms what is known as the aerial circuit, and in- cludes, in addition to the wire loops, a coil of wire and a condenser in series with each of the loops. The two coils of wire, with their con- denser, are contained in a box pro- vided with a handle which permits to vary both condensers simultaneous- ly. Inside the crossed coils there is a third coil, called the exploring coil, mounted on a vertical spindle so that it can be set at various an- gles with respect to the fixed coils. The detecting system, which is con- tained in a separate box and con- nected by wires to the exploring coil, consists of a pair of telephones and a crystal of carborundum, in series with a potentiometer and bat-
tery, the latter being required to sensitize the carborundum crystal. The exploring coil picks up the
signals from the aeria! circuits, and passes them on to the detector, where they are rendered audible in the telephone.
The finding of the direction by means of this apparatus is based essentially on the following con- siderations: The relative strength of the current induced by an in- coming electric oscillation depends on the angle which the direction of the aerial forms with the direction of the propagation of the wave. The currents induced in the aerial pass later on through the coils in the direction-finding instruments and
THE TRANSATLANTIC FLYER
After three weeks of experiment- ing it has been decided to apply the ‘‘sea-sled’’ principle to Rodman Wanamaker’s flying boat, America. Trials of the machine, hastily equipped with a false bottom in the shape of an inverted V, proved this construction to be the one best bet for raising a heavy load off the sur- face of the water.
Thus fitted out, the America planed nicely at twenty miles an hour and with only half the avail- able power. Therefore, Glenn H. Curtiss has started work on an en- tire new hull of the sea-sled type and the work will be finished by July 26. Present indications are that the Wanamaker expedition will start for Newfoundland on August
1 and that Lieutenant John Cyril Porte and George E. A. Hallett will make their attempt to fly the At- lantic about August 10. Following is a detailed tion of the machine as it now stands: Length over all, 37! feet; length. of hull, 33% feet; width of hull, 7 feet; depth of hull, 6 feet;
descrip-
length of cabin, 7 feet; height of cabin, 5 feet; width of cabin, 4 feet; spread upper wing, 74 feet;
spread lower wing, 46 feet; chord, hoth, 7 feet; gap, between wing, 7! feet; weight, empty, approximately 3,000 Ibs.; weight, fully loaded, ap- proximately 5,000 Ibs.; speed, 62-65 miles per hour in still air; to this add or substract speed of wind ma- chine is traveling with or against.
produce there two magnetic fields, the relative strength of which de- pends on the relative strength of the currents induced in the two aerials, and, as the fields are at right angles to one another, they produce a resultant field at right angles to the direction from which the signals are coming. The ex- ploring coil will receive its loudest signals when its plane is at right angles to the resultant field, or in the direction from which the signals are coming.
The theory of the apparatus is somewhat complicated, but its actual manipulation is extremely simple, and in less than half a minute one can
locate the ‘direction from which the signals are coming. There will be no trouble to design the ap-
paratus so that it would weigh not more than a few pounds, and be easily adjustable to a given length of wave. By combining the direc- tion with some kind of amplifier, such as an audion detector or gas amplifier, signals coming from a considerable distance could be easily heard even above the noise of the engine.
The system to be used would be, therefore, to have a number of land stations—such as Newfoundland, Long Island, Massachusetts, Ireland, etc.—send out for one minute every half hour signals on a wave length not used for messages, say goo meters. The pilot figures them out beforehand, and the angle he has to keep with the beeline from -the station to which he refers, and all he has to do is, every time he gets the signals, to correct his direction with respect to them. He has no calculations to make, and if he misses some signal he will get one next time.
This system might be considerably elaborated by providing for vessels at sea to send both signals and their position, and equipping the aviator for each trip with a special chart giving direct readings of his position for each angle with the signal line from a ship, no matter what the position of the latter may me. That would really mean hav- ing a modified and very much sim- plified Bowditch for aerial naviga-
tion, and we do not see how this could be obviated otherwise. ‘é ” AMERICA Description of hull: Forward section, for 16 feet 6 inches is of the inverted Vee-bottom contruc- tion, or “‘sea-sled” type. Aft of this a conical tail terminating in a point twenty feet from the main
body of the boat. Over the main section a rigid top fitted with cel- luloid windows, forming an enclosed cabin or pilot house. Here are seats for the two pilots; dual con- trols throughout, so that either may operate the machine, or both simul- taneously.
Construction of hull: Over a framework of closely spaced ash ribs a planking of spruce, covered with heavy canvas set in marine glue. The bottom of the forward section is double skinned and inter-
Page 4
\18
x THE “AMERICA” WIfH TEN ON BOARD
laid with Sea Island cotton set in tanks have a total capacity of 312 taking views both from the rear marine glue. Fastenings are several gallons of gasoline; two tanks and front of the machine. thousand brass screws and copper mounted on the engine beds have It will be noticed that the ruins rivets. a capacity of 30 gallons of lubri- were still smoking and very hot.
Description of wings: Wings are cating oil. Six main tanks are lo- Webster found the air very turbu- composed of seven sections; a cen- cated just aft of the pilot house; Jent, of whirlwind variety, with a ter panel of ten by seven feet these drain simultaneously, and the strong ascending column in the cen- above the power plant; four main fuel is pumped to a gravity feed ter. The successful operation of sections (two upper and two lower) tank midway between the motors the machine through these air con- approximately 18 x 7 ft., and two by a rotary gear pump. A special ditions with a man walking from overhangs on the upper surface gauge on the side of this gravity forward to back of the fuselage, a measuring 15 x 7 ft. each. The tank indicates the action of the distance of eight feet, gives one an shape of the wings is known as the pump. In case the gear pump fails jdea of the stability of the Burgess- N. P. L. wing section, which after the aviators have an auxiliary hand })ynne seaplane and widens the exhaustive experiments made at the pump. In 30 hours the two en- area of possible usefulness of air- National Physical Laboratory, Ted- gines consume a little over 280 Graft. is dington, Eng., was considered most gallons of gas and 9% gallons of i ; J efficient for this work. The wing oil, after a 30-hour run of each | The air-craft industry of France frames are built up solidly of ash engine. aissis. mostly confined to the manufac- and spruce, covered with a heavy Instruments: The compass is ture of aeroplanes, 1,350 of a total ribbed silk which is coated with a nearly as large as ship’s, especially motive force of 80,000 horsepower.
special water and fireproof dope. Controls: The aerial rudder for turning from left to right has a depth of five feet and a length of four and one-half feet. The ele- vators are located on either side of the main rudder, and their di- mensions are six feet by four and one-half _ feet. The ailerons or trailing flaps at the extremities of the wings are at present single act-
ing, and measure fourteen feet in length by a maximum of four feet in depth. These are used to cor- rect the lateral balance of the ma- chine. If one side tips up the flap on that side is pulled above the normal level of the plane, with the
combined result of slowing the speed of that side and at the same time depressing it through the pres- sure on the upper side of the flap. These controls are operated as fol : The rudder, by turning the wheel to left or right; the elevators, by pulling the wheel forward or back; the ailerons, by foot pedals. Power Plant: Consists of two Model O-X Curtiss aviation motors ated at 90-100 h p. each, “‘Bosch equipped, of course.’’ These are mounted midway between the planes, each four and a half feet from the center. Two propellers, one to each motor, are bolted di- rect to the motor shafts. They turn at a maximum speed of 1,250 to 1,300 revolutions per minute, but the machine is expected to fly un- der perfect control with the mo- tors turning at less than 1,000 revo- lutions per minute. The machine is expected to fly with either one or both should oceasion demand. Fuel supply: Seven gasoline
by the late Lord Kel- vin’s firm in England, which makes the instruments for the British ad- miralty. Tachometers show engine eed, aneroids show altitude, spe- cial Waltham watches for time, the standard Pitot tube speed indicator as used on all Curtiss boats, incli- nometers, fuel and oil gauges com- plete the equipment, except for the Sperry drift indilator which shows on a dial directly the drift from a straight course, having been tested out on a U. S. Navy airboat flown by Lieut. Towers. In the cabin are Lieut. Porte’s navigation instru- ments, such as sextant, chart table, ete.
constructed
BURGESS INAUGURATES AERIAL JOURNALISM
Under the auspices of the Boston Journal, the Burgess-Dunne sea- plane took the first pictures of a news nature ever taken in this country from an aeroplane so far as may be recalled.
Less than 12 hours after the great lem fire, piloted by Clifford Webster, the Bur s-Dunne_ sea- plane carried a photographer over the blazing ruins at an ex- tremely low altitude.
The photographer rose from his seat, walked forward and snapped the pictures, leaning out over the front of the fuselage to the side of Webster. The flight lasted an hour ind five minutes, in which a large number of pictures were taken, The photographer was on his feet most of the time excepting when chang- ing plates and had no difficulty in
7 dirigibles of an aggregate of 1,760 horsepower and 64,500 tons capa- city having been manufactured in 1912. The financial condition of the aeronautical industry was fair during 1913. Most of the orders received were for air craft for mili- tary and naval purposes for the French and foreign Governments, principally Great Britain and Rus- sia. There were 272 aeroplanes, valued at $5,707,782, exported in 1913, and 13 hydroaeroplanes, wale ued at $297,606.
Your magazine has come to hand, and read with interest, for it is in- teresting to one who is not espe- cially interested in the work beyond a general understanding of the world’s progress, and to those who are directly interested, owners or contemplated owners, it certainly must be indispensable.
Will say that for the uninitiated your journal inspires contidence to believe more readily and to know how to believe more that is seen in the “every-day press.”
M.
W. W. McC., San Pedro, N.
This story is being told of George Beatty, the w. k. aviator. It seems, according to the relator, Mrs. Beatty wanted to buy George a present. but couldn’t seem to find anything just suited, so she ex- plained her quandary to another of
Mineola’s products, saying: ‘George doesn’t smoke or drink, or go out nights or play cards and I don’t know what to buy.”
The friend:
“Ts he fond of fancy work?”
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
Page 5
WIRELESS AS CONNECTED WITH AERONAUTICS WILLIAM DUBILIER, RS.A., A.A.LE.E.
[Abstract from Mr. Dubilier’s paper read before the Aeronautical Society of America, June 11th,
where he prefaced his remarks with a note on the history of wireless and its adaptation to aeronautics. At the conclusion of his considera- tion of various systems he showed Jantern slides of various experimen- tal sets which have been employed here and abroad in military and civilian trials, and then showed in operation two complete sets as have been adapted and ordered by the English and the American Govern-
ments for aeroplane and_ balloon work. ]
For wireless installations on board aeroplanes and balloons the most important consideration has been to install apparatus which will conform to the limitations of the
weight and space, and still provide a suitable and efficient means for transmitting messages to the de- sired points with the small aerial
wire system and power limited to the size of air craft. The demand for light and easy removable sta-
tions for Army and Navy work is
constantly increasing. During the time of war, wireless communica- tion, due to the way in which the
stations can be quickly removed, is of great service in connection with aeronautics, for it enables the lead- ers of the battle to send commands rapidly and to receive the position of the enemy. The operator is usually carried as a passenger and transmits signals at the same time as he makes observations. The ap- paratus used in all respects is inter- changeable with the portable field sets, as this enables any operator of the field signal corps to work the aeroplane outfit when necessary. It is so arranged that the machines are of double key type so that messages can be sent by either the aviator or the passenger.
The current is obtained from a generator friction driven from the fly wheel of the engine or from stor- age cells. Experiments have also been made with wind motors, where the generator was driven by an aero fan.
The equipment at present used by the U. S. Government has an output of about 125 watts, weighs about 75 pounds, and it has been claimed that a radius of 30 miles has been obtained. The new equip- ment designed by the author has a total weight of less than 20 pounds with double the capacity and less than % the space, so that immedi- ately one will be able to see the advantages from every standpoint.
Recently several European gov- ernments have been making experi- ments with apparatus for army work and have arranged conditions contrary to those which have been planned and adopted by all wire- less workers up to date; in fact, have gone back to old days when the ordinary Hertz oscillator, un- tuned and of open circuit, was used. Now several officials have suggested the use of apparatus wherein the transmitter is not tuned, and they advance several points in its favor.
First, in transmitting a sharply tuned signal it takes a longer time for the receptor to get into proper adjustment for receiving these sig- nals.
Secondly, the transmitter can be more quickly adjusted, as it is not necessary to carefully adjust the oscillating circuits in order to bring them in resonance.
Thirdly, messages can be sent in
secret code, hence it does not matter whether the enemy receives them or not. Then if the signals
sent out are not tuned sharply, the greatest hindrance can be done to
the enemy by interfering with their stations, for it will be difficult for them to tune out these highly damped waves. It has therefore been desirable to send out waves with a flat resonance curve.
In order to get the largest amount of power out of the transmitting station and to arrange the circuits in rescnance, the following figures will be of great interest to give one an idea of the size of the aerial and capacities that is necessary in installations The speed of electric waves is about one billion feet per second. If oscillations or waves of a frequency of one million is de- sired, it will be necessary to have a wave length of about 1,000 feet, for to send messages with wave lengths of very much less, is not practical, due to many difficulties, such as absorption, heat losses, in-
duction losses, etc., therefore, if signals are to be sent longer wave lengths should be obtained by using larger inductances. The size of these are also limited, for the ma- chine again becomes inefficient when too much inductance and too
little aerial capacity is used, hence, a compromise must be made, where- by sufficient aerial length and_ sur- face is used, coupled with a fairly large inductance. To get an idea of the length of the aerial, roughly, the wave length transmitted is 5 times the length of the aerial, plus 10 times the length of wire in the coil or helix. To make up the length, usually a trailing wire is
used, which is let down from the aeroplane or balloon or an auxiliary balloon used for elevating wires. This plays a very important part
in determining the range of a wire- less station, for, roughly, it varies directly with the height of an aerial and cube root of the power.
Many different kinds of apparatus for aeroplane supplied
have work,
been designed Portable stations
by the Marconi Company, type L, especially adopted for aeroplanes, weigh 50 pounds, have a capacity of
50 watts and a radius of about 10 miles. Type L1 weighs 200 pounds, has a capacity of about 500 watts and a sending radius of 50 miles, while type M. for dirigible balloon work, has a capacity of 1,500 watts, a sending radius of 200 miles and weighs 500 pounds. One of these installations was tried on board the Flanders, a British machine, and was made up in 2 separate con- tained units with the idea of dis- tributing the weight. It fitted un- derneath the pilot and passenger seats. and the only part exposed
was the manipulating key with sev-
eral controller switches, which were placed in the most convenient posi- tion for the operator to carry out
the simultaneous work of observing and reporting.
Another aeroplane installation used is one constructed by the Lor- enz Company, using a quenched dis-
charge gap for the production of nearly continuous oscillations. The outside dimensions of the box are 15 x 15 x 21 inches. The weight of the transmitter without the gen- erator is 100 pounds, the dynamo
used is 500 volts with a capacity of 500 watts. This apparatus consists of a discharge gap made of 2 large electrodes, each electrode shaped like a half ball and cooled by a hydro-carbon vapor. Although this
Page 6
efficient, it has
apparatus 1s not by several
already been installed foreign governments.
The Company have also made an apparatus for aero- plane work which has a capacity of about 300 watts and occupies 3 cubic feet. A small dynamo is used, belt or friction driven from the main engine, and this apparatus has a sending radius of from 15 to 20 miles.
For balloon installations, where large aerials can be constructed, much greater distances could be ob- tained. It has been reported that the Zeppelin airships are transmit- ting signals 200 miles with 5 kw. installation, and all the eppelin airships that are making public trips have on board regular telegraph forms, the same as used on ship stations, and passengers can send their messages at published rates to any part of the world.
The greatest danger balloons from wireless installations is the fact that the gas may be- come ignited by sparks produced by induced currents that occur in metal parts. This danger cannot be eliminated with the larger instal- lations where high voltage trans- formers are used, but there are cer- tain systems, such as the Poulsen, Lorenz and that devised by the au- thor, where the voltage of the transmitting oscillations are greatly reduced, thus eliminating to some extent the danger of induced cur- rents. All metal parts, such as the valves, etc., must be thoroughly covered with a thick coating of some form of insulating varnish, For balloon work the wireless tele- phone is the most practical method for _ transmitting communications, for it eliminates the telegraph op- erator, the danger of explosions by brush discharges and makes possible quick transmission of signals. Fig. I shows Dubilier wireless tel phone installations for balloons and aero- planes.
The aerial on board the Zeppelin balloon is almost 600 feet long, and a 500 cycle generator is driven by
Telefunken
attached to
an independent engine at a speed of 3,000 revolutions per minute. The wave length varies from 400
to 1,200 meters. The illustration (Fig. II, Dubilier
wireless telegraph apparatus for aeroplanes) herewith shows a port- able Dubilier apparatus weighing 20 pounds with a ma imum ca-
pacity of 1% kw. The system de- vised by Mr. Dubilier eliminates the use of the difficult high frequency alternator. A small direct current dynamo is used, and then by a sim- ple device alternating currents are produced having any desired fre- quency from 200 to 800 cycles, thus sending signals with musical notes. The apparatus is much easier and cheaper to construct than any yet provided for portable work, is much smaller and much more compact for a given power, therefore more port- able and
readily adapted for trans- port purpos It is especially de- signed for aeroplane installations,
where power, space and weight are important considerations.
From tests made both by the Brit- ish and United States Government the apparatus has proven itself 100 per cent. more efficient than any of the machines yet tried. In a re-
port issued by Captain LeFroy, at Aldershot, a 60 watt, 110 volt set was used, and signals were sent
from a standard portable aerial and
AER
received on a service peck aerial 30 feet high consisting of 2 wires in parallel, 4 feet apart. <A ground net with a peg driven 12 inches into the earth was used as a balanced Capacity. The station was erected on grass, and 104 volts direct cur- rent were used for transmitting. The current in the aerial vas 1% amperes. The condenser capacity
was .0015 mf., a loose coupler be-
ing used. The maximum voltage across the spark gap was 7,000, which was of the quenched type ad- justed to give the best readings in the aerial. Tests were made with three ranges, in connection with a 300 watt Marconi installation ) alongside for comparisons. From Aldershot a motor car with a port- able installation went out to three distances, first to Hook Common, 9 miles; second to Overton, 20 muics: third, to Whitchurch, 25 miles. In the first two places signals were received clear and good, being 8 times audibility at the latter test. At the third test the receiving end was connected to the wrong side of the aerial, which was directive and which was in a valley so that no signals were obtained. Captain Le- Froy reported that this apparatus, which weighed but 15 pounds less the generator had a safe range of 20 miles over land. The same ap- paratus operated on a 50 volt ac- cumulator weighing 35 pounds had a radius of approximately the same distances.
ONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
Roughly, the principal used is the producing of pulsating currents of a musical frequency from direct currents by means of a tuned cir- cuit. This circuit contains a con- denser charging device, condenser and an inductance. The condenser charging device is set in operation mechanically or electro mechanical- ly, and by means of springs is given a certain definite working
Fig. 1.
frequency, say
1 500 cycles. Then the inductance
and capacity is so varied that its natural frequency is also 500 or a harmonic of the frequency of the oscillator. Under this condition the primary current is transformed into pulsating cur- rents having a sine wave with over 90 per cent. efficiency. A suitable
analogy can be shown by having constant water flowing out of a faucet, which will represent direct current, and then having another
faucet with water running out into a cup or into a vessel which oper- ates a lever by means of its weight when it becomes filled. This lever closes a valve, and at the same time
drops and turns over the vessel, which releases the water. The re. lease of the water operates the
lever in the opposite direction, due to its lighter weight, and the vessel is then brought up again in posi- tion. The valve is simultaneously opened and the water again allowed to flow into the vessel until it is filled, and then the operation is re- peated. Hence, we have quantities
.
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
of water being thrown out instead of a continuous flow; so does this system operate on direct current.
The inductance of the primary oscillating circuit acts as the pri- mary of a high tension transformer, the secondary discharge of which produces oscillations in the well- known manner. <A quenched spark is used of a special design and is shown on the cover of the appa- ratus. This gap consists of long copper bars with smoothly planed ends placed about .003 of an inch apart, the discharge taking place be- tween the planed ends. Any num- ber can be connected by a_ small short circuiting rod. The induc- tance is mounted in back of the instrument and is connected to a hot wire ammeter, which indicates the amount of power that is being radiated.
In experiments carried out by
Mr. E. J. Simon and L. J. Lesh, an aerofan was used to drive the generator. This was equipped on board a Curtiss military hydro-aero- plane and was of about % kw. ca- pacity, with a 500 cycle generator driven by a fan 20 inches in diam- eter, and aerial wire 600 feet long was wound on a reel and weighted by a 3-pound piece of lead; this was used as the trailer and taken in as it became necessary. The in- stallation weighed 105 pounds, and it was found necessary to attain a fairly good speed to generate enough power to operate the appa- ratus efhciently.
In connection with aeroplane mil- itary work, a motor car installation is being used by the English Gov- ernment. The capacity is 1% kw., and the generator is run by the motor engine. The aerial can be erected in a short time and when
Page 7
folded up fits on the side of the car. It has been found that these motor car stations are only suitable for well-constructed roads. The range of the apparatus was from 50 to 70 miles.
The question of receiving signals on board aeroplanes and _ balloons has been a very difficult one, for the noises and vibrations of the en- gines and air currents make it un- practical to receive signals with a telephone receiver. A receiving ap- paratus was designed for the Aus- trian Government in which a visible signal was used. The operator is able to observe dots and dashes by means of a small light. It is ad- visable to use Prof. Flemming’s os- cillation valve or Dr. De Forest’s audium, for they act as amplifiers to the received signals and are not affected by vibrations.
THE LAW OF SIMILITUDE
As to the means of stepping from the model to the aeroplane; it is known that the force on a sur- face due to the wind may be writ- ten as KSV?, S being the area of the surface, V the speed of the wind, and K a quantity which for two similar surfaces similarly placed is approximately a constant, independ- ent that is of the velocity and the area. If K were really constant the step from model to aeroplane would be simple; to obtain the force on the aeroplane at a given speed it would merely be necessary to measure that on the model at some speed and increase it in the ratio of surface of the aeroplane to that of the model and of the squares of the respective velocities. But ex- periment proves that the force is not strictly proportional to the square of the speed. If the lift and drift coefficients of an aerofoil, t.e., the ratio of the lift or of the drift to the square of the speed. be determined, they are found to vary with the speed. This is shown in Figs. 2 and 3, which represent the result of such a series of experi- ments, and in which, as the speed
changes from 10 to S50 feet per second, there is a growth in the coefficients.
At an early point in the work of the Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics, Lord Rayleigh called atten- tion to the fact that if K be not
dimension of the kinematic
linear and v
L_ some surface,
rent, the
Variahone of Lift _Geficient of a model acrofat
awh changer of speeee
Lift Gofftcunt (absolte)
constant for similar surfaces it
must depend on the quantity
uv
or in mathematical terms be ex- : ‘ VL pressible as a function of —— v
where V is the velocity of the cur-
viscosity of the air. If then we plot the value of K as found for an aerofoil in a given position, but for different values of the velocity against VL, the spots ought to be on a smooth curve and the form of this curve will determine K as a function of VL. This has been done in Fig. 4, where the values of the lift to the drift ratio are plotted against VL (or rather, for convenience, against log VL) for the series of experiments shown in the preceding curves.
Again, experiments have been made at the Aerodynamical Labo- ratory of the University of Paris on full-sized aerofoils. These have been repeated at the Laboratory on models 1-16 of the scale, and when the results are reduced by the above law, the agreement in the lift experiments is practically complete; the measurement of the drift is more difficult and the agreement is less good, but the results for the ratio are given in Fig. 4, and it appears that at the highest value of VL yet reached in the model ex- periments the value of the ratio lift-drift is somewhat less than for the full scale experiments, but that values for the coefficient found from the 50 ft. per sec. observa- tions in the channel do not differ greatly from those belonging to the
Page 8
actual machine. This point can be checked more fully when the large channel is complete, and the neces- sity of checking it afforded a strong reason for the building of that channel.
From ‘The Development of the Aeroplane,’ being the second Wil- bur Wright Memorial Lecture, de- livered by Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, FE; IR: S3 oF, Atel SS) before’ the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, at the Royal United Serv- ice Institution, Whitehall, on Wed- nesday, May 20, 1914.
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
tures. The beams are very deep and strong, and the ribs are built up in the most improved monoplane fash- ion, closely spaced and with light, false ribs between every one to preserve the special shape of the wing and prevent any sagging of the cloth. The wings are covered with linen treated with four coats of aero varnish and two coats of spar varnish; tMus giving the planes a smooth finish that is proof against weather and seas. The struts which fit into special steel sockets are of streamline form wrapped with linen and treated with the same varnish
— YARITION of US Seer nim LV — — b+ leogt of cont +> feet — —Y > Velocihy > feet per ace —
to Ss
—— Coaile¥
SLOANE FLYING BOAT
The first trials of the new Sloane flying-boat were concluded at Stein-
way Beach, L. I., the latter part of June. ; This flying-boat, using the Dep-
monoplane style of rib, which was expected to compare favorably both in quick rising and weight carrying with the best military monoplanes and tractor biplanes. At the first trials, with three people aboard and the throttle only half open, the new craft literally “tore off the water,’ with Gilpatrick as pilot.
This “sporting type’ belongs to the class of long hulled water- planes. The central hull furnishes the flotation, as well as acting as
a fuselage to carry tail planes and rudder,
Just as the main hull is construct- ed of solid mahogany, are the two wing tip pontoons. These wing tip pontoons only weigh about six pounds apiece. The motor is placed a little over midway between the planes, affording a space for two passengers in the rear, just in back of the two front seats, from which the craft is controlled. The hull is of single step type, V_ bot- tom. in front, and constructed in the usual manner with spruce and ash frames. The front dash is low and gracefully shaped, affording an efficient wind and spray shield. The
so
hull itself measures 23 feet long and 36 inches wide, with a beam of 36 in. at the bottom and 44 in. at the top. The height of the hull is 40 in., which keeps the wings well above the water. The top wing has a span of 42 ft. and a chord of 6 in., and the lower wing
has a span of 30 ft. and a chord of 5 ft. 6 in. The ailerons are fitted to the outer extremities of each wing, and each measure 9 ft. x 30 in. The planes
of the special fea-
construction
of the
interior is one
craft a speed of sixty miles an hour on the water and seventy miles an hour in the air,
AT JOHNSON’S SCHOOL
Consistent good weather has been productive of much flying at the W. E. Johnson School of Aviation at Conesus Lake. The machines have been in the air from daylight till dark practically every day for the past three weeks, and great num- bers of people have watched the flying daily. Not a few people have taken advantage of the opportunity and taken a ride over the lake.
Walter Johnson brought up the new school boat and put it through its paces successfully, and it has been doing good work every day. This boat is equipped with one of the new Kirkham 70 h.p. motors, and seems to have considerable ex- cess power.
The school has purchased two new motors and will have dual control boats for both inside of a couple of weeks, and from all appearances will have use for all of them, as the summer class is pretty well filled.
KANTNER WINS NEW YORK RACE
Harold Kantner, with a Schmidt
monoplane, won in 43 m 26 1/3 s.
20 es Soover Albert S. Heinrich in a Hein-
rich monoplane (46 m. 46 4/5 s.)
Ese in the July 4 air race from Goy- as used on the wings, making them ernor’s Island, in New York Har- proof against the elements and ren- bor, to Spuyten Duyvil, back down dering them almost incapable of the river to the Atlantic Yacht rotting or splitting; an important Club at Seagate and return to the consideration in flying-boat work. starting line between Governor’s All the guy wires are doubled, as Island and. Mistress Liberty. The are also all the control wires. The Heinrich machine was flown to
tail planes, elevator and rudder are of ample size and pleasing lines, which blend in with the rest of the machine.
Governor’s Island from its shed at Hempstead. The flying boats
(Curtiss), Niles
of Verplanck (Boland) and
The new Sloane three-in-one con-
trol has been designed especially for flying-boat use and to better meet naval requirements. The con- trol is operated entirely through
the steering wheel, leaving the op- erator’s feet and shoulders free. It is in duplicate and operates in the following manner—pushing the wheel backward and forward steers the machine up and down, rocking the whole wheel from side to side, works the ailerons, while turning the wheel to the right and left op-
erates the rudder. The power plant consisted of a 110 H. P. Boland motor turning
an 8 ft. diameter by 6 ft. 6 in. pitch Charavay propeller, which gave the
Burnside (Thomas) were to have gone in the race, but the heavy water off Coney Island prevented getting off. Burnside had flown down from Dobbs Fe On July 6 Mr. and Mrs. Burnside flew back to Dobbs Ferry in a sensational flight which ended in a_ forced descent on the water when the 100
Daimler motor quit.
I consider AERONAUTICS a re- markably interesting paper.
One especially nice feature is the illustrations, which I find very in- structive.
HD ass
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
Page 9
U. S. ARMY AEROPLANE COMPETITION
Brigadier-General George ips Scriven has just issued a circular covering conditions of a contest to be held at the Signal Corps Avia- tion School at San Diego around October 14, this year.
The contest is open to all build- ers, and the matter of royalty to The Wright Co. will probably be taken care of by the Government! whose privilege in the matter of patent rights has been fully ex- plained in AERONAUTICS.
lf five or more machines qualify, the Signal Corps will purchase the three which make in order the greatest number of points; the first for $12,000, the second for $10,000, and the third for $8,000. If but three or four qualify, the first two will be purchased at $12,000 and $10,000, respectively. If but two qualify, the one making the highest number of points will be purchased at $12,000.
All inquiries concerning this competition should be addressed to the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, Washington, D. C.
The type desired, a military re- connaissance aeroplane, must pos- sess following characteristics: Bi- plane, erclosed fusilage, two seater, dual control, maximum speed of rot less than seventy and a minimum spee’ of not more than 40 miles per hour when carrying fuel and oil for four hours’ flight at sev- enty riles ver hour and a useful load cf 450 pounds, and vnder these conditions of load, to climb 4,000 feet in ten minutes. First class material and workmanship. Head resistance to be kept down. Power plant is to be located in front of the occupants and suited to the requirements of the aeroplane. The motor must be capable of throttling to 20 per cent. of full speed and running without overheating over the land. The motor must be sup- plied with a positive means of stop- ping by a short circuiting device,
by release of compression or by other suitable means. It is desir- able that the radiators, if used,
should conform to stream-line re- quirements and act as an effective shelter for the motor. The motor should be provided with positively driven pump for pumping gasoline from the reservoir to the service tank and will also be provided with attachments for hooking on a flexi- ble tachometer, the shaft for this purpose to come off the motor at right angles to the propeller shaft, preferably downward. The propel- ler or propellers should be of suff- cient form and construction and suited for the particular machine and possessing a minimum efficiency of 70 per cent., that is to say, to have a slip of not over 30 per cent. The controls should be of such a type as approved by the Chief Sig- nal Officer of the Army. During the trials the builder may use such controls as are familiar to his dem- onstrator. but the Signal Corps de- sign shall be substituted at the builder’s expense prior to delivery and acceptance of any machine ac- quired as a result of this competi- tion. Wear and friction in the con- trol. leads must be eliminated in every possible way, and the leads shali be as direct as possible. Leads to pitching and steering shall be in duplicate. The landing gear to be
as strong and simple as possible to be efficient in absorbing shocks in landing and running at full speed over rough and plowed ground. The maximum gliding angle shall under no condition exceed 1 on 6, that is to say, one foot of drop for each six feet of advance. All parts shall be efficiently protected from the ac- tion of the weather by the use of suitable paint or furnished with cov- ers. The power plant shall be so arranged as to be readily removed and replaced bodily without disturb- ing the alignment or the fastenings of the planes or landing gear. The machine complete shall be capable of being assembled from transpor- tation cases in not to exceed two hours by four mechanicians and of being disassembled and packed in transportation cases in not more than one hour and a half by the same number of mechanicians. No part shall be of such length that when packed in its case the case shall exceed twenty feet in length.
The manufacturers who desire to enter this competition shall inform the Chief Signal Officer of the Army on or before September 1, 1914, of this fact in writing and shall supply the President of the Board of Officers who will conduct the tests, the following data on or before October 1, 1914:
(a) Weight, fully loaded fully equipped.
(b) Normal angle of incidence in horizontal flight.
(c) Gliding angles.
(d) Safe ranges of angle of in- cidence.
Q) Fuel oil and water consump- tion with certificate of performance (subsequently described).
(f) Blueprint or diagram to scale of aeroplane and motor complete.
(g) Stress diagram of planes showing tensile and bending stress on beams, struts and brace wires, clearly indicating the material used and the factor of safety in each member, together with moment dia- grams.
(h) Itemized weight of parts.
The certificate of performance shall consist in a certified test of the motor as follows:
1. One hour run at the rated B. H. P. on the test stand.
2. Half hour run at the maxi- mum power on the stand.
3. A run of half hour at 20 per cent. of the rated revolutions per minute. During the test, the fol- lowing data shall be reported:
Revolutions per minute at the rat- ed B. H. P.
Revolutions imum B H. P
Minimum revolutions per minute.
The oil per B. H. P. and the fuel per B. H. P.
‘\ statement of the condition of the motor at the end of a half hour run.
In addition to the above data, the following information shall be not- ed on the certified test sheet to accompany each motor:
‘The maker’s number, horsepower, stroke, diameter of shaft, piston displacement, type of magneto, type of tachometer used in test, weight complete, starting arrangement, car- bureter (trade name), cooling sys- tem, lubricating system, type of spark plugs used, date and place of test. the type, pitch, number of
when
per minute at max-
blades and blade area of the pro- peller or propellers used and if geared down, the ratio of gearing.
The machines entering the com- petition must be delivered on the ground of the Signal Corps Avia- tion School at San Diego, Cal., on or before October 20, 1914, at the manufacturer’s expense. Each man- ufacturer shall supply a demon- strator. The Signal Corps will pro- vide suitable housing for the ma- chines and the fuel and oil for the tests. The competitive test will be conducted by a Board of Officers to be appointed by the Chief Signal Officer of the Army under detailed rules to be promulgated later.
To enter the competition, each machine must qualify by demon- strating by actual trial that it com- plies with the above requirements by making a non-stop flight of four hours in the air and by making the climb fully loaded, of 4,000 feet in ten minutes. The machines will be graded by points, taking into con- sideration the following:
Constmuction and workmanship, speed, maximum and minimum, climbing and manoeuvering ability, ease of handling, gliding angle, in- herent stability, suitability of land- ing gear, distance of run on the ground when starting and landing, field of vision, etc.
NAVAL APPROPRIA- TION PASSED
The President signed the Naval Appropriation Bill on June 30. It is with the greatest regret, how- ever, that we record the fact that the $1,297,700 extra to the appro- priation recommended by the Board of Aeronautics (see AERONAU- TICS for Jan. 31) was not added by the Naval Affairs Committee so that aeronautics in the Navy will have to drag along about as before, depending on what the various bu-
reaus can spare, which will prob- ably be in the neighborhood of $200,000.
Thus plans for an enlarged air
navy will have to wait another year and give other countries still more of an opportunity to equip them- selves in advance of the United States.
Tony Jannus carried a 340-pound man recently in one of the many passenger flights he has been mak- ing from Sandusky, where he has established himself. His brother, Roger Jannus, has been flying the Renoist “Lark of Duluth,” owned by William Jones of that city.
BALLOONISTS FOUND
Roy Donaldson and Wilbur Hen- derson, who were almost given up
for lost in_ the balloon race from Portland, Ore., June 11, returned to Portland June 17. They were
six days finding a habitation and were emaciated and on the point of collapse when they staggered to a hut and asked for food.
ee
FOR SALE—Our last year’s mono- planes and biplanes; very cheap for
cash, or trade for anything of value. F. M., 1522 Norwood ave., Toledo, Ohio.
Page 10
PANAMA PICTURERS PINCHED
San Francisco, July 10.—War- rants for the arrest of Charles K. Field, editor of “The Sunset Maga- zine,” a photographer, and Riley E. Scott of bomb-dropping fame, were issued today at the request of John W. Preston, United States District Attorney. They are charged with disclosing military secrets, and the penalty is ten years’ imprisonment or a $10,000 fine for such disclosure if made abroad, and one year or a $1,000 fine if made in the United States.
In April “Sunset” published an article entitled ‘‘Can the Panama Canal Be Destroyed from the Air?” Reproductions of photographs taken from an aeroplane accompanied the text.
“By the act of March 3, 1911, Congress strengthened the regula- tion, so that it is now a violation of a plain statute for a civilian to take or publish photographs of any
fortification, whether complete or in process of construction. The War Department regards the en-
forcement of this law as absolutely essential, and my instructions are emphatic in this case.”
The fact that the pictures com- plained of in this case were taken from an aeroplane raises for the first time an interesting point of jurisdiction by the national author- ities over the upper air and_ in- volves a decision as to whether a person sailing over a_ reservation can be held to have unlawfully en- tered it. This point is quite as Important in a military view as the right to take photographs, because a military expert might by merely passing over a_ fortress observe enough to enable him afterward to draw an accurate sketch of the de- fenees.
In this instance, however, depart- ment officials pointed out, the pub-
lication specifically directed atten- tion to alleged shortcomings of the defence system of the Panama Canal.
BUSINESS TROUBLES
Fargo, N. D., June 18.—It is said Bob St. Henry, the birdman, bor- rowed some money once when here on an aviation exhibition. A local man, who indorsed his note, has been looking for some way to get even. Recently St. Henry’s aero- plane, being shipped from Montana to Winnipeg, was taken off the train here to be transferred. The local man heard it was on the depot plat- form and had it attached. There is some legal red tape to unwind, but he hopes to secure the machine and will start some of his frie:ds in the aviation business.
_ Pittsburgh, Pa., July 7.—Follow- ing a meeting of several hundred stockholders of the “Italian Aero- plane Co.,” Louis Maida and M. Loretio Manasterio were arrested, charged with failure to show the books of the company. The com- pany is said to have been organized about nine months ago and scores of Italians bought $1 shares in the concern. Peter Angelo was made head of the company shortly after 1tS | organization. Announcements were made that one of the com- pany’s machines would make flights at Brunots Island July 4, but the flight did not take place. Maida and Manasterio were committed to the county jail charged with em- bezzlement.
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
Richmond, Va., July 3.—Simeon Scott paid to see a ball game at Broad Street Park on April 19, 1913. Before the game was over an aeroplane swooped down from the heavens and swiped him on the back. He therefore brought suit against the Park, demanding dam- ages in the sum of $300, claiming the aeroplane was an advertised at- traction.
The defendant demurred to the plaintiff's evidence, declaring that it had no connection whatever with the aeroplane, and that it was not one of its duties to guard against dangers it could not foresee such as the falling into the park of an aeroplane which it had not em- ployed or hired.
The jury thought that Mr. Scott should recover $150 for his injuries, and brought in a verdict for that
amount July 2. Judge Crump however, sustained the defendant's demurrer, and setting aside the
jury’s finding, entered a verdict for the defendant.
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS
Imports for May, 1 and _ parts valued at $5,776, the aeroplane re- maining in warehouse on May 31.
Exports, 1 and parts, $4,558. No exports of foreign made machines. Goods in warehouse May 31, $5,276.
NEW CORPORATIONS
Sanaudres Wireless & Aero Visi- ble Message Co., develop system of telegraphic optic acoustics on aero-
planes, semaphoric signal system, $100,000; C. B. Mason, A. Mat- ters, A. Sanaudres, 124 Thompson street.
Lansing, Mich., June 22.—Inter-
national Flying Boat Transit Co., Detroit, $10,000; stockholders are D. B. Hartley, John H. Fietzell, P. M. Coates, etc.
The Southern Ballooning Com- pany, Cherryville, N. C.; capital,
$3,000 authorized and $1,000 sub- scribed by J. F. Weathers and others for giving public exhibitions of balloon ascensions and _ aerial
flights.
Deselektro Company, Augusta, Me., to manufacture and deal in battleships, aerial craft and all
other vessels of war; capital, $1,- 000,000. President, R. S. Buzzell; treasurer, L. J. Coleman, Augusta.
ARMY BUYS MARTIN TRACTOR
The Signal Corps has accepted a new Glenn Martin tractor (Curtiss 100 h.p. motor), recently completed, upon its meeting the usual require- ments of the Army in tests at San Diego. Observers report this latest acquisition one of the finest ma- chines ever seen outside of France. A second machine may also be bought from Martin. On July 7 Martin flew 71 miles over the ocean from Balboa Bay to North Island. Martin carried Lieut. T. Bowen as a passenger and made the trip in 175 minutes, with his Army ma- chine.
Flying done at the S. C. Aviation School, San Diego, Cal., week end- ing July 4, 1914: 28 flights; 4 h. 28 m. in air; 14 passengers carried.
Summary, January 1, 1914, to July 4, 1914: 1,151 flights; 314 h. 5% m. in air; 559 passengers car-
ried.
ALTITUDE RECORD IS NOW 24,600 FEET
On July 14 Heinrich Oelrich estab- lished a new world altitude record, 24,600 feet (7,500 metres), from Leipsic. Otto Linnekogel made the previous record on July 9, 6,600 metres, at Johannisthal.
DIRIGIBLE UP 35 HOURS
The dirigible duration record has been increased to 35 h. 20 m. by the French airship “Adjutant Vin- cenot,” which carried its pilot and eight passengers this period on June 29, beating the German record held by the Zeppelin L-3, 34 h. 59 m.
"PLANE RECORD NOW
24 HOURS Reinhold Boehm (Albatross bi- plane, 75 h.p. 6 cyl. Mercedes motor), using the same machine
employed by Landmann in making his non-stop fight of 21 h. 49 m, on June 28, flew on July 11 from Johannisthal non-stop for 24 h. 12 m. Speaking of his wonderful flight. he said:
“My provisions consisted of a vacuum flask filled with cold milk, several packets of chocolate, and a few cakes. Despite the heavy load, I ascended easily, and in order to save petrol flew slowly around the aerodome. First I did not go high- er than 30 feet. As night wore on I went higher and for an hour or two I left Johannisthal and flew across Berlin and Potsdam.
“T returned to the aerodome at midnight and then took up my weary circuit. How many rounds
I made I suppose nobody will ever know. I must have covered round- ly 1,350 miles, as my speed aver- aged 3714 miles an hour. The en- gine was working perfectly at the finish. If I had had enough petrol I could easily have flown another twelve hours. I finished fresher than I started, although I was on duty for twelve hours without rest before I went up. The Atlantic flight is sure to be accomplished soon. It is only a case of a pow- erful enough machine. No machine, in my opinion, will be practicable which does not contain three en- gines, none of which should be worked to its limit. There should also be two separate pilots. I found myself growing stronger after the first ten or twelve hours. If you can survive the strain of that period the rest is easy.’’
Toward the end of the flight a fierce thunder storm burst over the aerodome, but Bohm refused to give up. During the daylight hours Bohm put in a good deal of time reading, but usually had to contend with brisk winds, especially at the higher altitudes. When the storm came on he had been alert. His hands were sore and hardened from the steering.
The machine was equipped with Bosch plugs, magneto and _ starter.
A new world’s record of 18 hours 10 minutes was made on June 24 by. Gustav Basser at Johannisthal, aviator alone. He used a Rumpler military biplane, Bosch equipped. The American record is—oh, what’s the use?
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
J ERONGCT
Combined with “FLY”
Published semi-monthly in the best interests of Aero-
nautics BY
AERONAUTICS PRESS INC. 250 West sath Street New York Telephone, Columbus 8721 Cable, Aeronautics, New York
Editor
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Page 11
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Page 12
GOODYEAR WANTS NA- TIONAL BALLOON RACE
The balloon “Goodyear,” piloted by R. D. Preston, M. D. Tremelin, aide, won the National Balloon Race from St. Louis July 11. They landed near Constance, Ky., July 12, less than 24 hours after the start. Ralph H. Upson, who used the same balloon in win- ning the international race last fall, and Preston will comprise two of the American team this year, Capt. H. Eugene Honeywell being the third, in the international race from Kansas City in October.
The contestants were as follows, in the order in which they finished. Official distances have not yet been measured:
1.—‘‘Goodyear,” R. A. D. Preston and M. D. Tremelin to Constance, Ky., 320 miles.
5.—‘“‘America III,” Dr. Jerome Kingsbury and C. P. Wynne, presi- dent Pennsylvania Aero Club, landed near Princeton, Ind, 143 miles
8.—‘“San Francisco 1915,” E. S Cole and R. E. Emerson landed near McLeansboro, IIl., 98 miles
2.—‘‘Pennsylvania II,” Arthur
T. Atherholt and P. T. Sharples landed near Rockville, Ill, 214 miles.
6.—‘Miss Sofia,’ William Ass mann, no aide, landed near Flat Rock, Ill., 132 miles.
4.—“Uncle Sam,” Paul J. McCul- lough and Wm. H. Trefts, landed near Lewis, Ind., 154 miles. 3.—‘‘Aero Club of St. Louis,” John Berry and Albert Von Hoff- mann, landed near Terre Haute, Ind., 161 miles.
7.—-‘*Kansas City Tey John Watts and W. F. Comstock, landed near Enfield, Ill., 105 miles.
Berry was asked for damages to a cornfield when he and a young woman made their landing on a farm near East St Louis on June 18 and the balloon was held by the farmer for payment.
The “America III” is the gift of Rodman Wanamaker to the Aero Club of America. It made its trial ascent the first week of July with Dr. Kingsbury, Clarence P. Wynne, A. R. Hawley, Henry Woodhouse and C. Jerome Edwards. The bal- loon was made by Leo Stevens.
SPERRY WINS STABIL- ITY PRIZE
The Sperry g
yroscopic stabilizer, fitted to a Curtiss flying boat, won $10,000 of the safety prizes offered by L’Union pour la Securite en Aeroplar as noted in AERO- NAUTICS for April; 1913. A note on the Sperry apparatus was pub lished in the issue of Feb. 14, 1914. The U. S. Navy stands ready to purchase one or more of these in- struments upon satisfactory demon- stration Various trials were made heretofore, but changes suggested and no perfected instrument has yet been installed for sale-demon-
stration to the Navy
The French contest was con- cluded near Marseilles on July 2. In the demonstration Lawrence
Sperry operated his Curtiss ma- chine at all angles, leaving the stabilizer to correct the forced in- stability In one instance Sperry rose in the machine and held his
of the National Aerial League, flew
with one wing up at an angle of 45 AERONAUTICS, the machine may instrument
disturbances, be set to keep the machine level
gyroscopes is attached to the lateral
illustration perfected apparatus, of the flying boat, and the plate anemometer. Altogether committee competition
competitors After a very long sitting
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
it was decided, as was anticipated, not to award the Grand Prix of $77,200. Two prizes were awarded, one of $10,000 to the Sperry Gyroscopic Co. and the other of $6,000 to the Paul Schmitt biplane with variable angle of incidence. It was also decided to award seven consolation prizes as follows: $3,000 to Caudron Brothers for their two- seated biplane, $2,000 to the Doutre stabilizer, $2,000 to the Société Avi- Auto for the Lelarge carburettor, $1,600 for the Eteve stabilizer, $1,000 to the Moreau monoplane, $400 to the Robert parachute, and $200 to MM. Philippe and Perron for their “‘demarreur.”
— 7 Ue .
BROCK AGAIN WINS
London, July 12.—Walter L. Brock, our American friend, flying an 80 h. p. Morane-Saunier, won the race from London to Paris and back, covering the 502 miles in 7 h. 3 m. 6 s., an average speed of 71% m.p.h.
The only other competitor to fin- ish was Garros, whose net flying time was 8 h. 28 m. 47s., with the same type of machine. This is the third big race Brock has won abroad, the other two being the aerial Derby, as previously men- tioned, and the London-Manchester race,
GARAIX SECURES ANOTHER RECORD
At Chartres on July 2 Garaix on
the Schmitt biplane, in which Au- gust Belmont is interested, fitted with 160 h.p. Rhone motor, suc- ceeded in regaining for France the duration record for pilot and three passengers which had been held by Gsell with 3 h. 11 m. 30 s. The new record made by Garaix is 4 h. 3S aM ec Os
AERONAUTICS,
uw
July 1914 Page 13
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Page 14
AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
“AIRHOLE” AT LANDING.
The velocity of the air at the surface of the earth is not the same as at some elevation from it, and the air may be perfectly still at the ground level while at a comparatively slight height there may be a wind of some 10 m. (32 ft.) per sec. This is due to the pro- tection afforded the lowest layers of air by the un- evenness of the earth surface.
f a flyer runs against a wind of 10 m. per sec., with an absolute velocity of 25 m. per sec., his relative velocity is 15 m. per sec., and when he suddenly enters a stratum of still air his velocity remains only 15 m. per sec., which is not enough for planing; as a result he hits’ the ground with a thud, having struck an airhole. In landing, it is always a safe thing to select a fully open place where there ts nothing to keep the wind out. The height of fall through an airhole is directly proportional to the velocity of the aircraft. Let G be the weight of the apparatus; wv the velocity of the aircraft in still air; v, the wind velocity; h the height of fall. Further, let ey =10. When the craft is in air having v, = 10, its linetic energy is
Gv? A, = 2g where g = 9. 81. When the craft passes into the air having v, = 0, it loses some of its kinetic energy, which then becomes A, = — (v—v»,)? 2g
» in miles
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The difference between the values of A, and 4, indi- cates the kinetic energy A required to bring the aircraft back to the speed that would allow it to float in the lower air stratum. In this case v, = v—10, which gives after substitution:
A
(v— 5)
g What is wanted, however, is to establish the relation between v and h. When a craft of weight G falls through ht, a kinetic energy 4 = Gh_ is liberated, and therefore Gh may be substituted for A in the preceding equation, which finally gives
10
h = — (v—5),
& But g is approximately equal to 10, and therefore h=v—s5
may be accepted as being approximately correct. This equation shows that the height of fall through an airhole increases with the speed of the aircraft, and that it is independent of the weight. of the aircraft (the latter because G does not figure in the equation for h). ‘Table 1 gives the height of fall through an air- hole due to the craft coming from air moving against it at 10 m. (say 32 ft.) per sec. into still air, as functions of the speed of the airship.—(Das “Luft-
loch” bet der Landung, E. Heinkel. Der Motorwagen, Vol. 16, No. 4, p. 91, Feb. 10, 1913. 1% pp. 1 fig. ptd.) vein ft. per sec. hinm h in ft 46 9 29.5 69 16 52.5 92 23 75.5 115 30 98 138 37 122
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i
| AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914 Page is
Constructors,
as well as Auiators, are
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90-100 H. P. MAXIMOTOR being successfully tested for brake horse-power, developing 110 actual brake horse-power, at 1300 revolutions. Weigh- ing 370 pounds complete with Magneto, Carburetor and Propeller Coupling.
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A popular technical work of interest to the general student as well as to the man who is in aviation as a profession. To the amateur builder of aeroplanes in the United States it will be of incalculable benefit. Chapters include:
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Page 16 AERONAUTICS, July 15, 1914
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Some Competitive Trophies Won in 1913—With
CURTISS 0-X MOTORS
Except by Their Products, the Curtiss Companies were not Directly Represented in Any of These Events : :
JULY 31, 1914
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Page 18 AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
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HERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
Page 19
A SUGGESTION FOR THE POWER PLANT OF AN
By DAVID L. GALLUP, M.E ,
This paper has to deal indirectly with the question of power plant in an aeroplane, and has in reality two objects in view: First, to bring to your attention certain principles and their effect upon the perform- ance of the gasoline engine, and, secondly, to do this in as brief and concise a manner as is possible.
Some of you are aware of the ap- paratus installed at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute some years ago for the purpose of testing aeroplane propellers, and possibly are ac- quainted with the results, a few of which were presented in a paper at one of the branch society meetings last fall; but in order that those who are not familiar with them may appreciate the value and sig- nificance of the experiments con- ducted, a brief resume will be given here. (Report and description of eat and tests was given in AERO-
AUTICS, July, 1911.)
The main bea at a lake about five miles from the institute, and consists principally of a steel boom 85 feet in length, and which is free to rotate about a vertical axis at the center of the boom. At the end of this boom is placed the propeller, which is driven, through a system of gears, by an electric motor located at the center of the boom. The axis of the pro- peller shaft is at right angles to that of the boom, and is therefore tangent to the circle described by the same.
Rotation of the propeller about its own axis produces a thrust which is available for rotating the boom at any desired speed, and which may be controlled in various ways.
Arrangements have been made whereby the speed of the propeller in r.p.m., the speed of the boom tip in m.p.h., the thrust of the pro- peller in Ibs., and the h.p. delivered to the propeller may be readily de- termined by instruments suitably placed.
An additional scheme for testing
was embodied in the use of an ice- boat driven by an aeroplane pro- peller, and which made possible the obtaining of very high speed in a Straight line. Many tests have been made with these two forms of apparatus, and on many styles of propellers, with the result that there is on hand some very interesting data con- cerning the performance ot propel- lers under conditions similar to those in actual service.
Perhaps the most notable feature which was developed from tests of the average propeller was the drop in thrust as speed through the air increases, and the approach to zero thrust as this continues to increase.
In the type of propeller put out a few years ago, with a pitch of 5 to 7 feet, this drop is very notice- able. In such cases the “standing” thrust is the maximum _ obtained, and this falls off as flight begins, and in almost direct proportion, un- til at ordinary speeds through the air the thrust exerted by the pro- peller_ is approximately not over half of the maximum obtained when stationary.
Later types of propellers having large pitches, such as 9 to 12 ft., give a characteristic somewhat dif- ferent from that just mentioned, in that the maximum thrust is obtained after the aeroplane has begun to move through the air. The speed
plant is located
AEROPLANE*
Professor of Gas Engineering at Worcester Polytechnic Institute
at which this is obtained is ap- proximately 10 to 25 m.p.h., after which the thrust falls off as before.
Still other forms of propellers, notably the “variable pitch’’ type, may be so constructed as to give a fairly uniform thrust throughout what might be termed the working range of speeds, and which is, of course, the ideal condition.
Simultaneously with the experi- ments for obtaining the thrust char- acteristics of propellers, was obtain- ed data showing the ‘“‘effectiveness’” of the latter at various r.p.m. ‘‘Ef- fectiveness” in this case has refer- ence to the thrust in pounds per h.p. necessary to drive the pro- peller, and is, as can be readily seen, the only proper measure of the value of a propeller.
Time will not permit of going into a tabulation of this data, but a study of the same seems to indicate that a relatively low r.p.m. is more desirable than what is now common practice, and which runs from 1,000 to 1,800 r.p.m. These high speeds result in a great deal of energy loss due to the needless churning of the air, and also on account of the fact that the time involved in a half revolution’ of the propeller is so small each blade of the latter is brought to do its work in a dis- turbed atmosphere, all of which
naturally tends to reduce the “ef- fectiveness” of a propeller. The Wright propeller, of large
diameter, large pitch and low r.p.m., is an excellent example of a highly effective propeller doing with a small engine practically what some of the larger engines, driving pro- pellers of small diameter, low pitch, at high r.p.m., accomplish.
In the majority of cases, propel- lers are direct-connected to the crank shaft of the engine, and for the two reasons that transmission through gearing or chains introduces a greater possibility of breakdown, and also since it has always been supposed that high r.p.m. of the pro- peller was preferable. High r.p.m. naturally goes with the customary type of gasoline engine, and this in turn follows, since it is established that for a given h.p. output a high speed engine weighs less, and hence is an argument for its adoption in aeroplane practice.
The real object of this paper is to endeavor to show that there are many reasons why these ideas should be abandoned in favor of an engine of the slow-speed type, driving a propeller of large diameter and large pitch.
Taking up the propeller, as be- fore stated, the average high-speed type is working at ordinary flight speeds at greatly reduced “eftec- tiveness,” and this can be material- ly bettered by reducing the r.p.m., or rather by increasing the pitch to correspond to the reduced r.p.m., in order that the thrust may not be lessened. ‘This will give a greater per cent. of efficiency for the whole system, and for the reasons stated in the beginning.
Turning now to the engine, an analysis of its performance indi- cates that, generally speaking, with a given bore the power is propor- tional to the piston speed. This may be effected by increasing the
r.p.m. for a given stroke, or in- creasing the stroke for a _ given r.p.m.
A concrete illustration of the point it is desired to bring out may be fcvne in the following. Two en- gines of identical bere, but having in me case a stroke equal to the bore and in tre ether a stroke equal to twice the bore, with, other things being equal, deliver exactly the same h.p. at a certain r.p.m. for the first, and at half that r.p.m. for the second. Piston speeds and gas speeds are identical in both en- gines. There are, however, certain differences, and it is on these that the argument depends.
In the short-stroke motor, although the total jacket loss per minute is the same as in the long-stroke mo- tor, the surface exposed to the heat is half as great and the number of times per minute is twice as great, necessitating a much heavier duty per sq. in. of wall surface in the short than in the long-stroke motor. The significance of this is apparent when it is considered that the popu- lar motor for aeroplane purposes is air cooled.
Following this, the number of r.p.m. is in the long-stroke motor being reduced for a given power
Oviput, the shocks due to reciproca- tion are correspondingly less, and this point may be extended to cover many of the parts of the engine. The value incident to this is self- evident. Valve breakages, crystal- lization, valve-spring trouble, loose bearings, etc., are to a large extent reduced, and in some cases entirely eliminated.
The only real disadvantage which can be traced to the adoption of the long-stroke motor, of the slow- speed type, is represented by the increased total weight making the weight per h.p. output greater. To just what extent this would be is not absolutely known, since auto- mobile engineering has not prog- ressed sufficiently for conclusions to be drawn regarding relative weights per h.p. for equivalent designs, since few, if any, exist; but the general Opinion seems to prevail that the per cent. increase would be relatively small—say 10. This, of course, is negligible when all factors are taken into consideration, since all of the preceding statements have attempted
to show that much more “effective- ness” per Ib. of engine and aero- plane would result if these ideas
were adopted.
Briefly, then, the arguments are:
1. Increased effectiveness of pro- peller;
2. Increased life of engine.
As both of these have a direct hearing upon the safety of the avia- tor or his passenger, there should be no further need for argument, if the data upon which the statements are based is correct.
In conclusion, then, it is stated that the ideal arrangement consists of the long-stroke motor of such dimensions that 700 to 1,000 r.p.m. is the speed at which maximum h.p. is developed, and direct connected to this a propeller of such dimen- sions as to absorb the maximum h.p. at the speed mentioned, and also to give its maximum thrust after flight has begun if of the constant-pitch type.
*Paper read before the New Ha- ven Branch of the American So- ciety of Mechanical Engineers, May 1.
Page 20
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
THE INTERNATIONAL CODE OF AERIAL LAW
Juridic organ-
In 1909 an International Committee on Aviation vy ized at Paris and with the year 1910 began publishing the “Revue juri- dique international de la Locomo- tion aerienne.”’ The committee on
January 16, 1910, decided upon the outline of a legal code of the air. The committee itself consists of jurists, lawyers and legal students in principal countries. The national membership forms a national com- mittee acting through a representa- tive executive committee in Paris. This executive committee makes
general studies upon a point of law and issues its preliminary decisions to national committees, which report back their opinio The text de- cided upon in this way is definitive- ly passed at annual congresses.
The impertance of such work is shown by the experiences of the Institute of International Law, whose preliminary studies have been the foundation of every interna- tional law codification in existence. Beyond question the committee’s code will be the basis of diplomatic action when time for that is ripe.
The American committee consists of James Brown Scott, 2 Jackson Place, Washington, national dele- gate to executive committee; Charles F. Beach, 95 rue des Petits- Champs, Pa national reporter; Denys P. Myers, 40 Mt. Vernon Street, Boston, national secretary; Arthur K. Kuhn, New York City; Goy. Simeon E. Baldwin of Con- necticut, George Whitelock of Maryland, William W. Smithers of Pennsylvania, Joseph Wheless of Missouri and Ambrose Kennedy of Rhode Island.
Through the procedure scribed the following text decided upon:
above de- has been
Public Aerial Law.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES CIRCULATION,
Book I.
CHAPTER I. AERIAL
Art. 1. Aerial circulation free, ex- cept for right of subjacent states to take certain measures with a view to own security and that of persons
OF
and property of their inhabitants. Art. 2. It is prohibited to pass ahove fortified and military works, ete., or neighborhood within a radius determined by the military authorities. Art. Administrative and police authorities regulate or
prohibit circulation above built-over
areas.
CHAPTER IT. ISTRATION
Art. 4. Every aircraft must have one nationality only. Art. 5. Na- tionality of aircraft that of owner.
NATIONALITY AND REG- OF AIRCRAFT.
If aireraft belongs to a company, nationality that of headquarters of company. If owners of aircraft are
of different nationalities, its nation- ality will be that of joint owners who possess two-thirds value. Art. 6. Every aircraft must bear sign in- dicative of nationality. Art. 7. very aircraft must carry descrip- tive dvcument containing informa- tion proper to individualize. Art 8. Every owner before putting craft into citculation outside private aero- dromes must have obtained from public authorities inscription upon E register of matriculation kept by proper authority. Each state regu- lates registration within own. terri-
tory. Art. 9. Aircraft must bear distinctive mark indicating place ot registration. Art. 10. Registration lists will be published. CHAPTER III. LANDING AND ALIGHT- ING ON WATER. Art. 11. Aircraft may land upon
unenclosed properties; also alight upon and navigate all waters. Art. 12. Except in the case of “force majeure,” this right is prohibited to them: (a) in the boundaries of closed properties; (b) within the boundaries of areas built over, ports and roadsteads, outside of spaces reserved for this purpose; (c) in navigable channels where the dif- ficulty of passage necessitates this prohibition, which must be expressly formulated by the competent author- ities. Art, 13. Every aircraft which enters above a prohibited zone is to alight at first signal from competent authorities as soon as possible.
CHAPTER IV.
Art. 14. Jettison consists in any voluntary Poet overboard of ob- je Art. Jettison of all nature to injure seesan or property pro- hibited, except in case of imminent danger. Art. 16. In any case, dam- age done gives cause for reparation.
CHAPTER V. WRECKS.
Art. 17. Whoever finds all or part disabled and abandoned aircraft must make declaration thereof to proper authority. Art. 18. Com- petent authority, when duly advised, will immediately take the measures ry to assure the preservation kk and discovery of owner. Art. 19. Owner of wreck may reclaim it from the authorities in charge with- in period of one year from discov- ery by paying expenses of preserv- ing. In addition he must pay finder premium of discovery calculated on the basis of 10 per cent. of value on the day of restitution, minus ex- penses.
JETTISON.
of
CHAPTER BLE AND IN RESPECT TO Art. 20. Aircraft which is above
the high sea or territory not under
the sovereignty of any state is sub-
VI. LEGISLATION APPLICA- JURISDICTION COMPETENT AERIAL LOCOMOTION.
ject to legislation and jurisdiction of country whose nationality it Art. 21. When an air-
s above territory of a foreign the acts committed and the
state, deeds occurring on board, which are of a nature to compromise security -or public order of subjacent state, are regulated by the legislation of
and
22.
territorial state judged by its courts. Art. Reparation for damages caused to the persons and goods above the territory of the subjacent state by an aircraft is regulated by the law of this state. The action for relief may be brought either before the courts of this state or before the courts of the state whose nationality the air- craft possesses. Art. 23. Acts com- mitted and deeds occurring in space on board an aircraft and which do not affect the security or the public order of the subjacent state remain subject to the legislation and the jurisdiction of the country whose nationality the aircraft possesses. Art. 24. In case of a birth or a leath on board during an_ aerial voyage, the pilot will make record
thereof on the log-book. In the first place where the aircraft shall land the pilot will have to deposit a copy of the record which he shall have made. The deposit will be made as follows: If the place is part of the territory whose national- ity the aircraft possesses, to the proper public authority; if the place is situated in foreign territory, in the hands of the consul whose na- tionality the aircraft possesses. In case there is no consul in this place, the copy of the record will be sent by the pilot by registered mail to the consular authority, or to the competent authority whose national- ity the aircraft possesses.
Book II. Private Aerial Law.
CIVIL. CHAPTER I, PROP-
ERTY ABOVE.
TITLE I.
Art. 25. No one may, on account of a property right, hinder the passage of an aircraft under condi- tions which do not present for him any appreciable inconvenience. Art. 26. Any abuse of the right of pas- sage gives cause against its respon- sible author for action for damages.
CHAPTER II. REPARATION FOR DAMAGE CAUSED BY AIRCRAFT,
Art, 27. Reparation for damage caused by an aircraft either to per- sons or goods that are on the sur- face of the earth falls on the cus- todian of the aircraft, the right of the injured person to look to the one responsible at common law be- ing unimpaired. Art. 28. The cus- todian, held to reparation for the damage done, has a recourse against the responsible author thereof in accordance with the common law. Art. 29. In case the damage should be due wholly or in part to the act of the person injured, the judge shall have the right to pronounce the total or partial exoneration of the custodian. Art. 30. The cus- todian may bring the exception of seth majeure’”’ as a defense. Art.
The provisions of Art 27 are not aanlicable if, at the moment of the accident, the person injured or the thing damaged were transported by aircraft, or if the person injured was himself occupied in the manage- ment of the machine.
The remaindcr of the code is yet to be worked out.
‘PATENT ON NON _ INFRINGING DEVICE
Te Lawrence Semon
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
THE SELLERS QUADROPLANE.
Are we now to have the Ford of the air? An aeroplane which costs little, economical in upkeep and re- pairs, eliminates the professional driver, cuts shed cost and adapts pleasure flying to the proletariat?
Matthew B. Sellers, whose contri-
butions to AERONAUTICS have been invaluable, has been flying
his novel machine at the Aeronauti- cal Society’s aerodome at Oakwood Heights, Staten Island, during the last of July. Readers are familiar with flights made from time to time
during the past six years. The feature of rising automatically from the ground and the wheels auto- matically raising to land on _ skids was used by Mr. Sellers in his gliders in 1908 and since in the power machine, with which he began flying in 1909. (See patent and
drawings in October, 1909, issue.)
The disposition of the planes in steps is due to wind tunnel experi-
ments made by Mr. Sellers in 1903 and to results obtained with models made at that time and later. The same machine, without an engine, was used as glider in the summer of 1908 and in December, 1908, made its first short flight, using a French Dutheil-Chalmers 2. cyl. opposed engine giving about 5 h.p.
This engine was used intermittently till the present engine (Bates 2 cyl. opposed, 8 b.h.p.) was put on and flights made with it in the fall of 1910. Since then various im- provements have been tried out and experiments made to determine the dimensions of the most efficient pro- peller for the conditions. In com- paring this machine with others in regard to horsepower it must be re-
membered that, for simplicity, this Propeller is direct connected, and that if geared, greater efficiency
would be obtained—this may be done later on.
The machine in its present form does not embody the final construc- tion and it is certain that when a full set of double surface wings and a-proper fuselage are used the eff-
ciency will be considerably im- proved. Experiments have also been
made with the propeller behind on an extension shaft, employing, in that case, a warping vertical rudder.
The machine spreads 18 ft., is 12 ft. total length and about 8 ft. high. There are four supporting planes, 3 ft. by 18 ft., arranged in steps, the highest in front. These have, in the past, been single surfaced, but a trial is now being made with two of these double surfaced. The ribs, in pockets, are 1.5 ft. apart, made
of spruce. The curve is 1 in 16 and set at 5 degrees, the normal angle of flight, the c. of p. comes about 2/5 from the front edge. The fabric is cotton cloth, coated with Conover varnish. The cambre is
2% _ ins. The planes are spaced 2 ft. 2 vertically apart.
in. They are supported
on inclined struts attached to the front spar of each plane, the rear of the wing being supported by posts from the inclined struts, these posts being nearly vertical The upper wing acts as an_ elevator,
being pivoted on the front spar. The machine is stabilized laterally by de-
pressing either ends of the two up- per planes to lift the low sides of the machine, the high side of the planes being left to flatten out by anv inc ase air pressure,
Control of elevation is effected by
which axis;
a handle bar is rotated about its horizontal left and right steering by movement about its ver- tical axis in the manner bicycle is steered; while lateral bility is maintained by rocking the handle bar in a vertical plane, the bar being universally mounted.
same asa
sta-
Page 21
he operator sits on a spring seat, slightly in front of the c. of g. on a level with the skids. The machine runs on 3 wheels, the rear wheel being spring mounted so that as the propeller is started the whole ma- chine is tipped forward, raising the rear of the machine, that the planes are at a very small angle. As speed over the ground increases, the spring on the rear wheel is ex- tended and the rear of the machine depressed, thereby increasing the angle of the planes and causing the machine to leave the ground without any operation of the elevator plane
so
When the motor is cut off for land- ing the two front wheels auto- matically spring up and low the machine to alight on its skids. The machine stops within about 30 feet.
The weight of the machine con:- plete is about 110 lbs., without gas nd oil. The speed is 21 m.p.h. The aviator, Mr. Sellers, who weighs
140 lbs., brings the weight carried up to 250 Ilbs., which is 31 Ibs. per h.h.p. and 1% Ibs. per sq. ft. of surface, the total lifting surface being 200 sq. ft.
The vertical rudder is triangular in shape, with about 7 sq. ft. of surface. There is also a fixed flat surface set at a negative angle of 4 degrees about on a level with the second plane from the top This has about 8 sq. ft. of surface.
In flight, banking for a turn is done entirely with the rudder. The warping is not used as a rule but is ceasionally used to prevent over-
banking.
EMERSON ENGINES AGAIN MARKETED.
The well known two cycle engine, the Emerson, has been placed on the market again by the Herfurth Engine Co., Alexandria, Va. The
manufacture of these has been taken this company and for a lim- ne, in view of the removal to
a la
factory, special prices are quoted—$1,200 for the six cylinder, 100 h.p., and $900 for the four cyl- inde 60 h.p., the former prices of the Emerson Engine Co. being $2,- 100 and $1,400, respectively. Ouick deliveries can be made of these.
View of the Sellers Machine with Propeller in the Rear.
The engine is a 2 cyl., 35¢ ins. by 354 ims., opposed 4 cycle Bates motor, air cooled, driving a tractor
screw 5 ft. 6 ins. diam. by 27 ins. pitch at 1,350 r.p.m.; standing thrust 90 Ibs. The engine is rated
at 10 h.p. and tests show it develops 8 h.p. at 1,350 r.p.m.
All repair parts can now be fur- nished for those engines now in service. It will be remembered that the flights of Tony Jannus in Wash- ington in earlier days made this engine well known Jannus is to this day an exponent of the two
cycle motor and a user.
Page 22
THE “AMERICA’S” FLIGHT POSTPONED.
The preliminary trials with the Rodman Wanamaker transatlantic flying boat America were concluded
with two impressive flights. First Glenn H. Curtiss flew the ma- chine with a total useful load of
considerable more than a ton. He started out with more than 200 gal- lons of gasoline and one passenger. 3y degrees this load was increased by two more passengers and some four hundred pounds of sand. The weight carried was considered to equal the weight of enough gasoline and oil to fly the America for twen- ty-four hours. Three 100 h.p. mo- tors were used, the third being placed on the top plane, driving a tractor Lieutenant Porte estimates
screw. that the flight from New Found- land to the Azores will take from seventeen to twenty hours, accord- ing to wind conditions.
Next day Lieutenant Porte made the longest flight so far made with the machine. Leaving the flying camp about 7 o’clock he flew to the Penn Yan end of the lake. There a short stop was made, and the re- turn flight may be said to have been made after dark. On this flight Porte was accompanied by George Hallett, the assistant pilot selected for the transatlantic project.
WHY THE POSTPONEMENT.
Following these tests Mr. Curtiss, Lieutenant Porte, and Mr, Gash, personal representative of Mr. Rod- man Wanamaker, held a_consulta- tion of war to debate the advisability of trying to get the machine in con- dition to ship to New Foundland on Wednesday. Mr. Curtiss thought it possible the machine could be patched up and crated in time to catch the August 1 boat from New York, but advised enough delay to give him an opportunity to properly rebuild the bottom of the boat and to incorporate in the rebuilding such modifications as had been suggested by the series of twenty-seven ex- periments carried out. Lieutenant Porte did not like the delay be- cause he knew if he failed to catch the boat sailing August 1 he could not get another ship before August 8; that would mean arriving at New Foundland August 13 or 14 and it would be at least the 17th or 18th
before the machine could be as- sembled ready for the big adven- ture. As the period of equinoxial
storms begins between the 10th and 20th of August, and these would prevail until the latter part of Sep- tember. In other words, if the boat were shipped Friday instead of Wednesday a delay of two months in starting the flight must result. Mr. Gash sided with Mr. Curtiss and stated emphatically that Mr. Wanamaker would not favor making a start until every possible thing fo insure its ultimate success had been taken care of. Lieutenant Porte finally was won over to the side of the others and the post- ponement of the attempt until Octo- ber 1 was announced to the press correspondents.
PRESENT ACTIVITY.
Monday the work of taking apart the machine was begun. The hull, somewhat battered by five weeks of exposure and rough handling by man and the elements, was taken to the Curtiss boat shop and will be thor- oughly overhauled. The _ original bottom will be torn out and a_ new ene fitted in its place. Some changes will be made in the form
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914:
EUROPEANS BATTLE IN THE AIR.
AIR FLEETS OF THE POWERS.
Paris, August 4.—German army aeroplane reported to have dropped three bombs on the garrison town of Luneville, killing fifteen persons. Three German dirigibles reported maneouvering over Brussels. Nu- merous aeroplanes from French avia- tion centers said to be flying over Paris in flotillas of twos, threes and fives toward Germany. German dirigible supposed to have dropped explosive on a French town, an- nihilating a patrol of troops.
August 3.—The famous aviator, Roland Garros, cable dis- patches state, drove his aeroplane headfrat into a German airship, kill- ing himself and the 25 men of the crew of the ship when the latter ignited and burned from the ram- ming.
Paris,
Brussels, August 6.—German aero- plane and Zeppelin dirigible re- ported destroyed by Belgians. A per- sonal conflict is reported between a Belgian and a German aviator who fired revolvers at each other and then planed to the earth.
All cabled stories of operations of aircraft in the present European war must be accepted with a grain of salt. Very little reliable news of any kind is coming from the scene of conflict and wierd stories like that of the Garros incident must be discounted until verified. The possibility of an aeroplane being able to accomplish this without being hit by the airship’s guns is most re- mote, not to mention the unlikeli- hood of Garros’s patriotism being carried to the extent of deliberate personal destruction, His value to his country is greater alive than dead, as an economic proposition.
A few aviators, whose names come to mind, might well be spared for such feats, but as these are not the kind likely to enlist we will prob- ably be spared the misery of hear- ing of their sacrifice.
There are no less than 105 air- ships, from the vedette type to the monster Zeppelin, on hand or under construction by France, Germany,
Russia, England, Japan, Italy, Aus- tria, Brazil, Belgium, Spain, Bul- garia, Chile and _ Turkey. The
powers now at war have 84 of these. Twenty-six powers have more than 2,048 aeroplanes on hand. Russia alone has 336 more ordered. The powers now fighting in Europe have not less than 1,575 aeroplanes in service, with a minimum of 3,224 officers and enlisted men on aviation duty. This latter number is cer- tainly far below actuality as no figures on men, non-pilots, attached to aviation are available for four out of these six countries. It is safe to estimate that this figure should be increased by at least 2.500, making 5,724 men on aviation duty. These figures do not include, either, men assigned to dirigibles, which would add another thousand to the air forces of the quarreling nations.
France has 22 airships, Germany 20 in service and 20 more to draw
on; Russia has, with orders, 22; England 8: Austria 10; Belgium 2. The colossal sums invested in
preparations for war in the air by the powers now involved in the ti- tanic struggle totals the staggering sum of $117,645,000 expended in the six vears up to 1914. Of this, in round figures. Germany has al- readv spent $28,000,000: France, $22.000.000: Russia, $12,000,000; Ttaly, $8,000.000: Austria, $5,000,- 000. and England. $3,000,000.
Public subscriptions, $7,100,000 in all, separate from the above. add $3,500,000 to Germany, $2,506,000 to France, $1,000,000 to Italv and $100,000 to Russia. Yet this is not all of the hoard being poured into death machines of the air. The appropriations of the governments for 1913 were: France, $7,400,000; Germany, $5,000,000; Russia, $5,- 000,000: England, $3,000,000: Italy, $2,100,000; Japan, $1,000,000, and Mexico, $400,000, as against $125,- 000 by the United States, making additional expenditures of $24,025,- 000 during the current year. Now that war is on it is probable that the overwhelming appropriation made by Germany of $37.000,000 to he expended during 1914-18 may be drawn upon.
of the bottom; it will be wider all over, a little longer, and consider- ably flatter at the step. Technically,
it will have more flotation and a more efficient planing surface. The special C. M. O. propellers will have a new sheathing of metal, better fastened than the original metal cover. It was the tearing loose of the original copper cover, which broke its way through the upper plane, that was largely responsible
for the postponement of the start. Two to three weeks will be con- sumed jn the work of reconstructing and refurnishing the machine; then a few test flights wil be made to guarantee the rightness of every- thing and the machine will be shipped to New Foundland. Whether or not Lieutenant Porte succeeds in piloting the America safely across the Atlantic Ocean the development of the machine seems to have been well worth the work expended on it. A series of unique experiments were conducted by Mr. Curtiss working in conjunction with Lieutenant Porte, Captain Creagh Osborne, Dr. A. F. Zahm, Lieuten- ant Towers and other men of high
standing in this field. The results of the different trials were care- fully checked and tabulated, and will doubtless prove of great value to the future of hydroaviation.
TRANSATLANTIC FLYER MAY STOP AT FLEM- ISH CAP.
A transatlantic flight is a mere bagatelle. or ought to be. All the experts have figured it out and it is all verv simple. Take any one of the different advices and the thing is done. Only one little er- ror was made in all the gratuitous offerings and that was the sug- gestion that stop be made at Flemish Cap, the eastern end of the New- foundland Banks. Unffortunately this piece of “land,” which is about 50 miles long by 25 miles wide, is 58 fathoms under water at the least depth, according to the United States Hydrographic Office, which department, however, may be en- tirely wrong in its surmise, or per- haps the expert had in mind carry- ing a demountable submarine.
he
eS
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
MEASURING HORSE-POWER IN THE AIR
To measure horsepower in the air, there is yet to be discovered a direct method other than a special rigging. If the propeller be mounted directly on the engine shaft, and the engine bed so mounted as to turn on an axis parallel to the engine shaft, the turning moment can then be meas- ured during flight and the power computed from that and the r.p.m. If the propellers are chain driven, idler spockets can be inserted in the chain and its tension measured dur- ing flight; or, this could. even be measured directly by having the pro- peller shafts especially supported, as in a machine like the Wright.
In most cases it would be sufficient to know the revolutions of the en- gine during flight and the power when standing just before a flight. Then by means of the power curve of the engine it would be simple to get a close approximation of the power during the flight. There would always be the chance that differences of carburetion and cool- ing between standing and flying would make an error, but if the power curve of the engine had been determined originally with an arti- ficial wind blowing onto the engine, if air cooled, or on the radiator, if water cooled, the error ought not to be so great.
Taking an example, suppose:
1. R.P.M. before flight = 1,150.
2, Bar. =a, Therm. = 0, just be- for flight.
3. R.P.M. during flight = 1,300.
4. Bar.=a, Therm.=b, during
flight.
5. Block test power curve of motor is as per diagram.
6. Propeller takes 75 H.P. for 1,200 R.P.M. when Bar. =m, and Thermometer = n.
First correcting for barometer difference a—m, and thermometer differences b—n we find, let us say, that there is such a correction that it would take 78 H.P. to turn propeller 1,200 R.P.M. on the day of the flight.
Now engine actually turned pro- peller only 1,150 on day of flight.
Correcting for revolutions (1,200 —1,150) the power of the motor as indicated by propeller revolutions on day of fight is 68 H.P. at 1,150
R.P.M. Now, block test power curve shows 78 H.P. for 1,150 R.P.M. Therefore, engine is 10 H.P. weak on day of flight or about 12% per cent. weak, as compared with its showing on the _ block. Revolution during flight was 1,300.
H.P. according to block test power curve is 84 at 1,300. Deduct 12% per cent. and we have 73 H.P. dur- ing flight.
In this way a record of revolu- tions before the flight and during the flight, when taken in conjunc- tion with the barometer and _ther- mometer will give us the power if we know the characteristics of the motor and propeller made at some previous block test. But we must be sure that propeller has not warped. This can best be checked by seeing if standing thrust corre- sponds to the observed R.P.M. after thermometer and barometer correc- tions are made.
1000 «61050 100 1150
1200
1300
1350
1280 i400 =REM
AT SAN DIEGO.
The return of six aviators and forty-two men from Galveston, Tex., on July 17, to North Island brings the United States Government force up to seventeen officers and ninety- four men at the camp.
Flying done at S. C. Aviation School, San Diego, Cal., week end- ing July 25, 1914: Flights, 58; time in the air, 15 hours 18 minutes; passengers carried, 30.
Summary, January 1 to July, 25, 1914: Flights, 1,296; time in the air, 349 hours 17 minutes; passen- gers carried, 635.
For the week ending July 11, 1914: Flights, 34; time in the air, 8 ‘hours 22 minutes; passengers car- ried, 23
Summary, January 1 to July 11, 1914: Flights, 1,185; time in the air, 322 hours 27% minutes; pas- sengers carried, 582.
AERO MOTORS FOR SPEED BOATS.
Aeronautical motor manufacturers are finding a new field—purchasers of skimmers and sea sleds. A Gyro motor has been installed in a ma-
chine whose speed has been reported as 2% miles in two minutes flat. Certainly this is extraordinary speed for motor boats. Of the sea sled type, with surface propellers, Sturte-
vant motors have been supplied. Vincent Astor is one purchaser and the United States Navy another. The Navy’s sea sled will be used in connection with the air fleet at Pensacola.
NEW PUBLICATIONS.
REpPoRT ON European AERONAUTI-
cAL Laroratories, with 11 plates, by Albert F. Zahm, Ph. D., pub- lished by Smithsonian Institution
from the Hodgkins Fund. The pam- phlet reports the visit of Dr. Zahm and Assistant Naval Constructor Jerome C. Hunsaker, U. S. N., to the principal laboratories near Lon- don, Paris and Gottingen for the purpose of studying, in behalf of Smithsonian Institution, the latest developments in instruments, meth- ods, resources used, etc., for the prosecution of aeronautical research- es. Copies of this pamphlet may be had upon application from Smith- sonian Institution, Washington,
Page 23
AERO SCIENCE CLUB OF AMERICA BULLETIN.
At the recent flying boat con- test held by this club, at Dyker Heights, Brooklyn, N. Y., Mr. Charles V. Obst was the winner with a flight of 18 4/5 seconds, winning the bronze medal offered by Mr. Harry Schultz. As this was the first contest of this kind ever held it proved to be very
interesting and was attended by a great number of spectators.
On the last Sunday of August a _hydroaeroplane duration contest will be held at Union Course Pond, Woodhaven, L. I. Mr. Edward Durant and Mr. George Bauer have kindly consented to act as judges to time the flights. No entry fee will be charged and all persons in- terested are cordially invited to at- tend and enter the contests. The
contest will be held between the hours of 2 and 5 p. m. In order that sufficient time be
given tO prospective contestants and all other interested persons the club bas decided to name all contests two months ahead. Therefore the con- test for the month of September will be for speed. The following are the rules adopted for this contest:
All models are to start at a cer- tain line and the first model cross- ing a mark 800 feet from said line is the winner.
All models are to rise from the ground with the wind.
Models must be in full flight when crossing the finishing line.
_ This contest will be held on September 20, 1914, at Van Cort- landt Park, New York City.
This contest is expected to be of great help in the development of the model as regards streamlining and reduction of resistance.
This club meets every Saturday at the rooms of the Aeronautical So- ciety, 29 West 39th Street, New York City. All persons interested are invited to attend. For further information address the secretary, Mr. Harry Schultz.
HE SIMPLY DOESN’T BELONG
Picking a balloonist for president of the aero club is a good deal like picking the propelling power of a jinrickshaw as president of the American Automobile Association.— N. Y. American.
FOR SALE, on account of sick- ness, aeroplane, very cheap for cash, or trade for anything of value. E. M., 1522 Norwood ave., Toledo, Ohio.
BACK NUMBERS WANTED— December, 1910, and March, 1911, issues of AERONAUTICS (Ameri- can) wanted. Fifty cents each. Address Secretary, Aeronautical
Society of Great Britain, 11 Adam st., Adelphi, London, W.
Page 24 NEW MAXIMOTOR The advent of the flying boat, with its ever increasing popularity
and safety’s demand for larger and higher powered motors, has made it imperative that the Maximotor mak- ers accede to this demand with the new improved Model “B,” 100 h.p., 6 cylinder vertical type.
These improvements are the cul- mination of months of experimental work achieving toward the objective points, Power, Reliability, and Dur- ability.
In a three hour test, the company
states, coupled to a_ hydro-dyna- mometer, this motor developed in of 111 actual brake h.p. at r.p.m., which is phenomenal
a 5 in. by 5% in. six cylinder engine. (The A. L. A. M. rating for this size is 60 h.p.) During
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
100 HORSEPOWER.
head. They are machined both in- side and out, so as to allow for uni- form expansion, and equal weight.
The connecting rods are drop forgings of chrome-nickel _ steel, double heat treated, and are very light in weight, as, in fact, are all the reciprocating parts.
Some very fine detailing is to be found in the crankshaft design. This is cut out of a solid billet, or slab, of heat-treated crome-nickel steel imported from Germany. After the shaft is cut, it goes through a machining process which brings it down to within several thousandths of its finished size. The shaft and crankpins are then hollow bored and the whele ground and finished to size to within one one-thousandth of an inch.
this test the motor consumed 8% gallons of fuel and 7 pints of lubri- cating oil per hour and showed a throttle range, without skipping, of 350 to 1,400 r.p.m. under load. The weight of the motor complete as it was mounted on the stand was 372 pounds.
Among the numerous improve- ments to be found on the new Model 6 is the improved overhead valve system, with parts strength- ened and bearing areas increased; a double set of large ball bearings, carrying the propeller end of crank
shaft and mounted in a steel disc housing, instead of aluminum, as heretofore; an arrangement for a double individual magneto ignition system; double force-feed oil pumps; wider wrist-pin bearings; and a strengthened crank case, especially the supporting arms which have been just doubled in size. Also a compression release device is pro-
vided where desired.
The new Maximotors are built of the highest grade of imported Eng- lish and German materials.
As will be seen from the companying cut, the cylinders are of the overhead valve type (all valves mechanically operated by ad- justable push rods), cast in pairs. This arrangement tends to produce a ve compact construction, gives the cylinders greater strength for equal weight, and reduces the mani- fold joints and connections just about one-half in number. The ma- terial from which the cylinders are cast is a high grade vanadium com- position, containing 30 per cent. steel. Strength and lasting qualities are claimed for the formula, as well
ac-
as clean, smooth castings free from defect. Pistons, likewise, are cast from the same material as the cyl-
inders and are heavily ribbed in the
Five imported annular ball bear- ings are employed to carry the crankshaft. The propeller end of the crankshaft is especially rigidly supported by two extra heavy com- bined radial and thrust ball sets. These heavy duty ball bearings are mounted in a vanadium steel hous- ing which is in turn recessed and bolted to the crank case proper by six nickel steel stud bolts.
Lightness is secured in the cam shaft member by utilizing nickel steel tubing of large diameter arid
heavy wall. The cams are of spe- cial carbon steel tempered and ground and are held in place by taper pins. All the valves are
operated by tubular push rods and nickel steel rocker arms from a single cam shaft.
An equalizing intake manifold of cast aluminum is bolted to the cyl- inder intake ports and a_ special manifold muffler (shown in the end view of the six cylinder motor il- lustration) can be fitted for silencing the exhaust.
In addition to the “B’’ 6 and the other stock models, the Maximotor makers are putting on the market as a standard a 125 h.p., eight cyl- inder, V-type along general M motor lines, the first of which appear in the very near future.
will
NILES LOOPS THE LOOP FOR CONEY.
Beginning July 28, Charles F. Niles, in his Moisant monoplane, began a week’s exhibition at Coney Island, looping the loop, flying up- side down, and so forth, under the auspices of the merchants’ associa- tion. On one day he dropped a dummy from the air to the horror of thousands who watched his antics.
PARLA TO TEACH CUBAN OFFICERS.
The well known Cuban aviator, Augustin Parla, a Curtiss pupil, is to be given charge of instructing officers in the Cuban army in flying and aeronautics generally. Last year Sr. Parla, who at that time was the first and only Cuban aviator, became the hero of the Republic after his flight from Key West to Cuba in a Curtiss hydroaeroplane, and since then he has flown in most of the larger towns of the Island. He made some remarkable flights above Santiago on May 20 last. His recent book, written in Spanish, entitled “Augustin Parla y Aviacion en Cuba,” tell in a descriptive man- ner of some of his numerous ex- ploits.
SCHMITT VARIABLE AN- GLE MACHINE MAY COME HERE.
It is not unlikely that in the near future a Paul Schmitt variable angle biplane may be brought to this country. This idea is in con- templation by August Belmont, who is interested in the machine. Read- ers are acquainted with the general characteristics of this machine as published in the April 15 number and with the scores of new world records made by Garaix as pilot.
“SAFE AND SANE” MA- CHINES FOR ARMY
AND NAVY. The first Burgess-Dunne machine has been shipped to the United
States Navy from the Burgess works at Marblehead and the one for the Army will be delivered within a few weeks. This Government will be the first to own one of these inherently stable machines and its undoubted success in the Army and the Navy will be watched with interest by all.
The Burgess-Dunne seaplane was recently converted into a land ma- chine and a number of flights made with it on the old Squantum field near Boston. Flight after flight was made by Mr. Webster running over the field and leaving the ground without any guidance whatsoever, the controls being locked. It climbs well over 300 feet per minute and its balance in the air is quite as good as with the boat attachments which were transferred back onto the machine in just an hour and forty minutes, when the machine was flown to Marblehead, a distance of 18 miles, in ten minutes—natu- rally with a strong wind.
JANNUS MAKES GOOD FLIGHT.
Cleveland, July 23.—Tony Jan- nus carried Miss Lilly Irvine from Cedar Point to Euclid Beach, a dis- tance of 60 miles, in his flying boat.
I enjoy reading your interesting and instructing paper every month from beginning to end, and look forward to its arrival each time with pleasure. I am very glad to see that you do not intend to have any fake rumors in it, but just the facts. so that all its readers can rely upon it implicitly. I shall always be glad to help you in anyway I
can, W. B. S., Worcester, Mass.
AERONAUTICS, July 31,
WHAT AMERICAN AVIA- TION NEEDS.
Support by the public.
Support by the Government.
Federal control of flying. (For years urged by AERONAUTICS.)
Endowed aeronautical laboratories.
Aeronautical engineering courses in technical colleges.
Scientific construction methods.
Improved motors.
Before the Committee on Mili- tary Affairs last fall Colonel Reber said:
“Congress has not appreciated the importance of or given adequate
support to military aviation. On the other hand, the great nations
of Europe have realized its im- portance and France has led the world in its utilization. Aviation
has appealed more strongly to the imagination and esprit of the French people than to the rest of the world. This nation, seeing an opportunity of increasing its mili- tary strength over that of its neigh- bors, who have not been so prompt to realize the utility of aviation, raised large sums of money by popular subscription for the pur- chase of aviation material for the army and public opinion has. forced the government to support and de- velop the fourth arm of the French army. The French and English governments have for the past two years given direct support and en- couragement to manufacturers by money awards at _ military trials, and subsequent orders for the ma- chines winning in the trials.
“Experience, experiment and_ap- plication of engineering principles have advanced the construction of the aeroplane far beyond the pioneer machines of our chief inventors. Judging, however, from the large number of freak machines that are to be seen in the hangars around our aerodromes, there is no gen- eral realization that the correct de- sign of an aeroplane calls for a new branch of engineering—aero- nautical engineering — which em- braces physics, mechanical engineer- ing, meteorology and even marine engineering and naval architecture. It is to be hoped that the day will soon come when the carpenter shop or backyard will no longer serve as a factory nor the would-be con- Structor obtain his plans from an octavo volume on ‘How to Build an Aeroplane,’ or from the pages
of an aeronautical journal. The number of imitators of successful designs is great, but the really
competent designer is a in this country.”
‘rara avis’
HALL-SCOTT OPTI- MISTIC.
We are looking forward to the Government trials in San Diego, which are scheduled to be run on or about the Ist of October. If the Government does contemplate order- ing forty machines from the win- ner, and prizes for the second and third contestants, we believe it will be a great stimulant to the American manufacturers in this line of busi- ness. At the present time we have two of the best concerns in the United States building special planes for our 100 h.p. motors to enter these tests, and frankly speaking, believe they will be record break- ers. If you could have seen the
1914.
pile of junk installed our 100 h.p. in which Blakley flew from here to Bakersfield and made such a wonderful record. you would also have great confidence in the wonder- ful ability and lasting qualities of this large motor.
Most of the aviators have left town to fill dates, but presume they will return within the month. Wel-
we
don B. Cook is doing nicely in the exhibition business, and believe he will be in a position to purchase
one of our large motors to install in his flying boat in which he ex- pects to carry passengers across the
Bay. Glenn L. Martin has just taken delivery of one of our new 100 h.p.
motors to install in his military boat which will be tried out shortly in the South.
MAXIMUM PROPELLER SPEED.
On the question whether or not there is a known maximum speed or velocity beyond which a propeller blade should not move, Spencer Heath, the manufacturer of Paragon propellers, states:
“T am convinced that there is such a point and I place the maximum velocity of the ends of the blades at something like 40,000 ft. per min. This would make about 2,000 r.p.m. the maximum turning speed for a 6 ft. propeller and it would be pos- sible to use up advantageously a whole lot of power with a 6 ft. pro- peller at this speed. There is also a minimum blade tip velocity which I think is around 10,000 or 12,000 ft. per min., which means that a 6 ft. propeller would do poor work at less than 500 or 600 r.p.m.”
SELENIUM CELL FOR AUTOMATIC STA- BILITY.
A recent lecturer on aeronautics, as quoted in your March 31 issue, having declared that “It is essential to the success of any automatic con- trol that the forces called into play to make the corrections of trim should not react on the director of those forces, whether this is a pen-
dulum or gyroscope or any other equivalent device.” I write to suggest a means of
accomplishing this without any fric- tional contact whatever with the pendulum or gyroscope or combina- tion of the two—namely, the use of selenium, with its wonderful prop- erty of being a very good electrical conductor in the light and a very poor one in the dark. On the pen- dulum or gyroscope would be ar- ranged two arcs of about 90 degrees, opaque at their centers and also on opposite halves of each arc, and shaded gradually to transparent at the ends of the other halves, with two steady lights and two selenium cells, one of each on opposite sides of these arcs and in fixed position on the machine, so that when the machine is level (or otherwise bal- anced, as in proper banking) the lights and selenium cells will be in line with the opaque centers of the pendulum’s arcs, and so that any variation from this balanced position would permit one light or the other to shine through a correspondingly
translucent part of its are onto its selenium cell, thus regulating the strength of the current flowing
through the cell and restoring bal- ance by electrical means when that
Page 25
In- natural or abso- antimonium — sulphide fantimonite) could be used, having the advantage of “no troublesome inertia,” according to experim nts described im a scientific journal of March 2, 1912.
Another method of using a_pen- dulum or gyroscope for balancing a flying machine without disturbing the equilibrium of such a balancer, would be to simply enclose it in a transparent case in front of the aviator, or, rather, together with an upward extension of the pendulum, so that, by the aviator simply mov- ing his lateral-balance lever always in unison with the latter toward the
side of the machine is too high. stead of selenium, lutely pure
too-high side, balancing might be successfully accomplished even by a novice, as in learning without an accompanying instructor, and_ this device might also aid aviators not having a _ well-developed balancing faculty, or “bird sense,” or by the upper lever extension being made
very long it could possibly be made more sensitive to small or incipient disturbance of equilibrium than the best aviators. This would also have an advantage that every automatic balancing device should possess— that of being instantly suspendable at the will of the aviator.
The writer has not patented either of these devices, but secured a caveat on the first-described one some four years ago, and anyone is privileged
to use them. eee Gas wie. Cal., July 13, 1914.
Livermore,
BRITISH LABORATORY REPORT
The technical report for 1912-3, the fourth of the series, of the Brit- ish Advisory Committee nautics has just The report summarizes undertaken, and lars are given. cover general
on Aero- published. the work detailed particu- The investigations questions in aerody- namics, experiments on wind chan- nels, including description of the new 4-ft. wind channel at the Na- tional Physical Laboratory; experi- ments on models of wings, bodies, etc.; models of complete aero- planes; stability, efficiency of pro- pellers, strength of construction; hydroaeroplanes and design of their floats; fabrics, researches on alloys, etc. The volume contains over 400 pp-, with many plates, and is pub- lished by Wyman & Sons, Fetter Lane, London, E. C.; price, $2.43.
been
The Chilean Government has es- tablished an aviation school near Santiago, Chile, where army and navy officers are being trained with good results. There have been sev- eral serious accidents, but only two deaths. It is proposed to fly over the Andes to Argentina, which calls for a sustained flight for an hour or more at an altitude of about 15,- 000 feet. The longest flight yet made in Chile was from Concep- cion to Santiago, a distance of about 300 miles. No aeroplanes are manufactured in Chile, those im- ported practically all coming from Europe.
Page 26
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
“SELF - RISING”
MODEL MONOPLANE A. B. C.
No. 62
The data and drawings of this model have been kindly furnished me by its designer and constructor, Mr. A. B. C., of a prominent Lon- don model aero club.
The model has been designed especially to withstand hard and continuous wear and is the result of five months’ experimenting with various models capable of rising under their own power With a model similar to the one described Mr. C won the first ‘‘self-ris-
Setr-Risinc Move: AgRopiane.
‘ ” ABC. 62.
ing’ competition with a flight of
762 ft. The actual distance flown
by path was over 1,000 ft. On a
fairly calm day the model will at-
tain a height of 80 ft. and finish its flight with a splendid volplane and land gracefully on its wheels.
The fuselage is triangular and is constructed of two pieces of % in.
sq. by 32 in. long silver spruce, connected at the rear with a stream-line cross bar. The latter,
also the cross-stay, situated midway along the fuselage, are _ firmly bound to the main members with % in. silk ribbon soaked in hot glue; this makes a joint that is almost unbreakable.
The bearings at the rear are com- posed of the usual “L” pieces of stiff brass, bound with silk to the ends of the main longitudinals and drilled to take the propeller shafts. Rigidity is given to the fuselage by
cross bracing with No. 30 (std. wire ay piano wire as shown in plan view. No wire strainers are used,
but tension is given to the trussing wires by curling the hooks to which the wires are fastened (see sketches 2 and 3).
The main plane is rectangular in shape, the span being 25 in. and the chord 5 in. The frame is con- structed from birch. The spars are 3g in, by 1/16 in. and the ribs % by 1/16 in. The ribs are bound to the spars with strong cotton and glued This frame is then covered with light Jap silk and is proofed
This proof- weather con- air-tight
with the best gold size. ing is unaffected by ditions and is thoroughly and water-proof.
The elevator is 9 in. by 2% in. (max. chord) and is made from 1/30 in. spruce wafer. The tips of the elevator are upturned as shown on sketches 2 and 3. The elevator is mounted on piano wire attachment, which allows a_ very fine adjustment of the elevation to be made (see sketch).
iser
The main plane is attached to the fuselage with fine iron florist’s wire,
but the elevator is fastened to its attachment with rubber bands.
At the apex of the fuselage a continuous piece of 18 s. w. g.
piano wire is used for making the
and is made of bamboo. The main central skid is extended forward and upwards at the nose of the model so as to form a_ protecting skid. Two pairs of wheels are used: one pair 1% in. diam. and the other 15¢ in. These wheels are tin and come off a cheap toy motor and will be found quite strong enough and very much bet- ter and lighter than those of equal strength sold on the market at the present time.
The supporting struts of the chas- sis are about 5/16 in. by % in. and are streamline. They fit into small tin lugs bound to the fuselage. The central skid is 1% in. by 1/16 in. thick and should extend about 5 in. to the rear of the main axles so as to prevent the propeller from touch- ing the ground.
The propellers are carved from
solid mahogany and are 9 in. diam., pitch 20 in. These propellers some- what resemble a scythe and revolve outwards from the top as viewed from the rear. This shape has proved a great deal more efficient than ordinary helical screws and considerably better than the bent wood screws. “The power consists of 6 strands of ™% in. by 1/32 in. strip rubber to each propeller, and about 900 turns can be given to each when well lubricated.
The total weight complete is 4% oz. The average distance flown is 250 yards, but flights of over % mile have been accomplished a num-
ber of times. Tess ess
MORANE-SAULNIER — Latest type. Set of detailed working draw- ings for sale at $200. Sale exclu- sive. Morane-Saulnier holds best records cross-country and speed fly- ing. Owner of drawings can super- intend construction. Address A. F., erare AERONAUTICS, 250 W.
54th St., New York. cG
hooks. These are cycle valve tubing. The hooks on the propeller shaft are similarly protected. Two col- lets are used on each propeller shaft to reduce friction at the bearings.
The landing chassis resembles that of the famous ‘‘Cody” biplane
rubber covered
motor with
JOHN WISE—‘History and Prac- tice of Aeronautics,” by John Wise. We have just secured another copy
of this famous, rare work. Cloth, 8vo, ill., 310 pp, steel engraving frontispiece. For sale at $10.
AERONAUTICS, 250 West 54th st., New York.
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
DENINE GLIDER M. A. Denine, of Spokane, Wash., kindly sends us details of a novel glider, the publi- cation of which he hopes will stimulate gliding sport among the young men.
We find the tail-less type casier to get off the ground and control than the tail types for the amateur glider-aviator. We have used both and find this type the easier to learn to control. The very flexible rear edge on the elevator and main planes take up the shocks of sudden gusts of wind and heip the longitu- dinal balance accordingly. We dc not recom- mend it as a power machine.
The material consists of two clear spruce planks 20 feet x 12 inches x 1 inch, ash ribs for ailerons, spruce ribs for main planes, one pine board '% inch x 12 inches x 12 feet, one bicycle frame, wire, 3/16-inch bolts, shingle nails, galvanized sheet iron, and a few extras will be needed. Cover with unbleached muslin. Use glue for sizing cloth.
Instructions: Rip beams for main planes from spruce planks, crosspieces for planes, outriggers, struts, etc., as per drawing. Make beams streamline except where strut sockets fit. Sockets can be cut from steel tubing as per drawing. Space sockets on beams 4 feet apart; next attach crosspieces, using galvan- ized iron strips to hold same in place. Ribs go on next; give them a cambre of 4% inches; attach each rib with three nails and a strip of galvanized iron, two nails for strip and one through rib. When both planes are made, in- sert struts in sockets and cross-wire each section with No. 16 piano wire, except center section, in which use heavier or double wire. Next, make outrigging, then elevator, and next skids. Use extra heavy wire in outrigging
2
+ \I by bi
Pag é 27
above skids and for skid braces. It is better to have a little extra weight than a collapse when landing. It cost me three weeks’ work to learn to use extra heavy wire on the landing gear.
In attaching outrigging, be sure that when the top beams are level the main planes have an angle of incidence of 4 inches. Attach skids so that the main planes have the same
angle on the ground, namely, 4 inches. The glider flies at its ground angle. Make the extension for the top plane 5 feet
x 6 feet 6 inches chord, leaving beams projec- ting 6 inches on the inside of extensions so that they can be attached to main planes. Where ribs overlap rear beam give them a reverse cambre on a steaming board until they reach the position marked “A” in the side elevation drawing. When aitaching warp wires, which must be only attached to the top of the aileron, tighten them until the aileron reaches a point just above the line marked “horizontal line.” Your warp wires will now have no slack in them and when one aileron is warped up the spring downward of the oppo- site one will still keep the warp wires taut. Attach extension with steel clamps. Balance glider with pilot in the seat so that when the glider balances over the center of pressure of the main planes there is a weight of 22 pounds on the point of c. of p. of the elevator. Gliding: Take glider to a hill, with a gentle slope. Do not use a steep hill, as there is always an air hole at the bottom and the glider will fall to the ground at that point of its flight. I fell through one of these pockets four times before discovering what caused the glider to suddenly sink. Take the glider up hill a couple of hundred feet, attach ropes at the ends of the lower plane and to the cross-
4 Tj V/ Vi]
\ ce > UX
Page 28
bar below elevator; have a boy take each rope and run down hill. The boy with the elevator rope must leave enough slack in his rope to allow the front end of the glider to rise, but as soon as the glider gets into the air must take up all slack, so as not to allow the head end to rise above the horizontal. Instruct the boys towing the glider to increase their speed as soon as it begins to descend. This is abso- lutely necessary, as, during the first trials the tendency of the operator is to raise his elevator too far and thus lower his speed, so that the glider begins to settle and unless the boys in- crease their speed, a heavy landing will result.
Now, as to the operating of the controls. In taking your seat see that all controls work smoothly and be sure to try them and look them over carefully, before each flight. Push the elevator column from you until the elevator is at a negative angle of about two degrees and tell the boys on the ropes to start. If the hill you are experimenting on is sandy or covered with grass the glider will have speed enough to rise with a 30- or 40-foot run. Now pull the control column quickly toward you a couple of inches and return it to its original position again; do this two or three times in as many seconds and then pull the column toward you until the elevator has a_ slight positive angle, and hold it there. The glider will leave the ground now. As soon as it does decrease the angle of the elevator slightly. This will put the machine at a gliding angle and increase the speed. Try to keep as close to the ground as possible. Under no condition must you hold the elevator in the same position as when leaving the ground vr increase its angle during the first jump forward; if you do the glider will “stall” and either dive or drop as through an “air hole.”
Just before landing bring the elevator con- trol further toward you, and the glider will rise slightly and come down without any shock. After the first few flights you will hardly know when you landed, the shock will be so slight. The lateral control is by the wheel. Turning it to the right raises the left side of the glider, and vice versa. Do not move the ailerons over 2 inches as they are very sensitive and an over-control will tip the glider further over on the opposite side than it was on the side you originally intended to raise. Let the boys on the ropes attend to your lateral balance until you have thoroughly mastered the eleva- tor control. You will find that is about all you will be able to attend to during the first few flights.
Do not use the rudder unless absolutely necessary. After you have mastered all the controls and feel sure you can manage the machine,’ remove the rope on the elevator. Next try a flight with the ropes attached 10 the central uprights and last of all with a releasing gear on the ropes so that they can be dropped during flight.
In free flight a glider built with care, and according to the plans illustrated, flights of from two to four hundred yards can easily be made.
We have many of three hundred yards and one of four hundred, although the conditions that we experimented under were nowhere near the best. An aeroplane has never been
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
able to get up over 800 feet in Spokane, Wash., on account of the condition of the air there. We have gone up in the glider over 70 feet, and if that and our record of four hundred yards cannot be beaten in a lower altitude by some builder of the glider illustrated it will be because it is not built according to the plans.
We will be glad to hear from builders of this glider and will answer any question as to construction and operation of same.—Denine Bros. and Hemingway, 1110 East Indiana Ave., Spokane, Wash.
29 West 39th Street, New York OFFICIAL BULLETIN.
Data Sheets.
The second series of data sheets has been sent out to members, con- sisting of nearly a hundred sheets.
All members in good standing are entitled to these.
These data sheets bers with information which could be obtained only at great expense by subscribing to every aeronautical publication issued in the world, by buying every book published, by ob- taining reports of every laboratory and testing plant, with the attend- ant expense of translation and time of abstracting.
previde mem-
The data sheets are issued free to members as fast as they can be prepared.
Membership dues in The Aero- nautical Society are $10 a year, no initiation fee. Members receive data sheets, the magazine, AERO- NAUTICS, engraved certificate of membership, free monthly lectures. For further information address the Secretary.
Directors’ meetings are being held every Thursday evening throughout the summer, as_ usual. Regular weekly members’ meetings are held as usual. The monthly lectures have been suspended for the summer sea- son,
Plans are in progress for the per- petuation of the race around New York as inaugurated last Fall, mak- ing it an annual event on a par with the great classics of the sport- ing world.
Notice to Delinquents.
Delinquents in payment of dues are earnestly requested to place themselves in good standing at the
earliest possible moment in order that they may receive the official bulletin, AERONAUTICS, — semi-
monthly, the membership certificates and data sheets.
AERONAUTICS, July 31
1914.
Published semi-monthly in the best interests of Aero- nautics BY AERONAUTICS PRESS INC. 250 West s4th Street New York Telephone, Columbus 8721 Cable, Aeronautics, New York
mene ST L. JONES M. B. SELLERS,
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CG. A. BEIER,
Editor
Technical Editor Model Editor Advertising
Entered as Second Class Mail Matter, September 22, 1908, under the Act of March 3, 1879. $3.00 a year, 15 cents a Copy.
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Page 30
AN AEROPLANE SPEEDOMETER.
An aeroplane “speedomoter” in wide use in Europe is the Morell “Anemo-Tachometer,” illustrated herewith. This shows, like any automobile speed indicator, the relative speed of the machine through the air in meters per second, or miles per hour, as preferred. This instrument sells for $68 in this country, duty paid, through Schuchardt & Schutte, 90 West street, New York.
This is a safety device which should go far towards preventing the many accidents due to “stalling,” as it will immediately show loss of headway due to reduction in speed. For loop- ing the loop and other “stunts” it will safe- guard the pilot by showing when he has at- tained the desired high speed. With it he will determine the lowest speed at which he can safely fly his machine, which may be necessary in reconnoitering, and thereafter the instru- ment will serve as a warning when the limit is reached. In gliding, the pilot can mark on the dial his safe I'mit and be guided in future by this.
In throwing bombs, the aim depends prin- cipally on keeping a certain uniform speed be- tween sighting the object of the aim and the throwing of the bomb, because this space of time has to be ascertained by means of a stop watch. The Anemo-Tachometer will allow to ascertain the necessary speed of the machine for this purpose.
In climbing, the speed of the aeroplane, al- though the revolutions of the propeller remains the same, is decreased according to the climb- ing angle. If this angle is too great, the speed of the machine will drop below the minimum limit, the aeroplane will not answer the rudder any more and drops back. The Anemo-Tacho- meter shows the falling of the speed exactly.
In descending there is added to the speed obtained by the pull of the propeller, the in- fluence of the acceleration of masses. The Anemo-Tachometer shows the increase of the
AERONAUTICS, July 31, 1914.
speed occasioned thereby exactly and allows the same to be counteracted by necessary steer- ing movements or shutting down of the motor.
The knowledge of this acceleration is ex- tremely important for gliding. The accelera- tion of the masses increases according to the gliding angle and the length of glide. On the other hand, if the gliding angle is too flat, the speed of the machine becomes so small that the steering organs do not act any longer. As it is necessary to reduce the final speed of the machine by the corresponding position of the elevator so that a gentle landing on earth is possible, and inasmuch as the gliding angle and the gliding speeds are different for every machine, the constant control of the speed by means of the Anemo-Tachometer is of prime importance, because it will remove a certain insecurity which is the more dangerous the less the pilot has learned through experience just how to manage the machine in such flights.
Not only for the purposes above described, but also for economy of flight, the Morell Tachometer is of importance. An increase in speed often is attained only by an unpropor- tional consumption of gasoline, depending on the form of the propeller and the resistance of the entire aeroplane construction. The most economical speed can be ascertained and re- tained by means of the Anemo-Tachometer controlling at the same time the revolutions of the propeller by the aeroplane Tachometer “Phylax.” It is recommended to also note this speed on the scale in a desirable manner.
Differences between the speed and capacity of the motor can also arise in agitated air when the direction of the flight is changed as com- pared to the direction of the wind (either with the wind or against it). These differences can become very disagreeable. They are also ascer- tained instantaneously by comparison of the reading of the motor Tachometer “Phylax” and the Aeroplane Anemo-Tachometer, and can be balanced by steering operations or regula- tion of the motor.
The Anemo-Tachometer is mounted on the aeroplane so that neither propeller wind or other wind set in motion by the aeroplane has any influence on the action of the Anemo- Tachomoter. Special conditions can always be met by special construction of the Anemo- Tachometer, always keeping the dial on the same level as the eyesight of the pilot.
As a means of conveyance the aeroplane is gaining on the automobile; there are more than two thousand certified aviators in Europe and America to-day and a hundred types of aeroplanes; stability of the flying machine is practically assured by recent patents on both sides of the Atlantic; and who shall say that in ten years more the world will not be flying and the automobile will not seem archaic?—N. Y. “Sun,”
I cannot see that AERONAUTICS is in need of any improvements while you continue the drawing and technical talks—H. L. W., Charlotte, N. C.
We like your magazine and will surely continue reading same as long as it is as high grade as it is.— F. B., Missouri.
AERONAUTICS, July 31,
1914.
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Page 31
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There are in Germany more than a dozen aeroplane factories with an aggregate capital of about $350,000 (as compared with about 20 factories in France, 6 in England and 5 in Austria), as well as several special factories for aeronautical motors and three or four substantial plants for the manufacture of airships.
Page 32
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AERONAUTICS, August 15, 1914.
Page 35
LEONARDO DA VINCI—By Charles Beecher Bunnell
Up to the present moment, no an- cient record of the problems of Aeronautics has been found, ex- cepting the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most honored men of his time, who died in the arms of the King of France, in 1519. It’s not definitely known just how many manuscripts he produced. Most of these are drawings and specifica- tions on scientific subjects. Among them is “A Treatise Upon the Flight of Birds’ and the drawings attached look like the curious things that happen to our aviators when their machines balk. But to us, the most interesting drawings in the col- lection are the hundred or more pictures specifying his ideas on heavier than air flying machines.
Any one spending one hour with Leonardo’s manuscripts is con- vinced he was the greatest me- chanical genius of that time, and a supernatural master of art and poetry as well. 1 a
In 1502, Cardinal Borgia, the mili- tary leader, made Leonardo his en- gineer. (Cardinal Caesare Borgia was the brother of Lucretia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara, the “‘toxicolo- gist.””)
In artillery he constructed a 64- barrel field gun of the revolving type; he fired perforated _bomb- shells; he suggested vertical-fire; he fired sharp pointed, iron stars that prevented cavalry horses from cross- ing the ground where they were scattered; he invented a turret fire that is ahead of the present method; he fired shrapnel, arrows, etc., etc., from breech loading guns; he also fired shot from a steam gun on the continuous performance principle and he built a catapult with a fifty- foot bow that threw a hundred pound arrow over a mile.
In optics he described the camera obscura; in acoustics, he said: “If a ship at sea heaves to, the putting of a tube into the water enables ships a long distance off to be heard’; in astronomy he had cal- culated the Penumbra; in hydraulics he built the finest kind of self-acting pumps; in canal building he used the most up to date methods of ex- cavation.
The rotary snow plow will have to take a back seat (over a mile back) ; he invented a moving machine with revolving knives attached to two wheels in front of a span of horses,
and also revolving knives on two more wheels back of the horses, the hind wheels turned a shaft that went to the front of the machine (going between the horses and pro- jecting over the front wheels which were armed with knives just like the rotary snow plow. But this ma- chine was a war engine made to plow men.
Leonardo regarded himself a mili- tary engineer, and in the letter he wrote to Sforza (Il Moro) he enumerated 10 points wherein he excelled in war engine construction: in art he had one clause, part of which runs:— ee Sosy bys ; also in painting I can do as much as any other, be he who he may.”
But it’s to the drawings here re- produced, relating to Aeronautics that we will refer.
The idea of the parachute came from Leonardo, (see “‘P’’ in the illustration) which he describes in his own words:
“Tf a Man Carry a Domed Roof of Starched Linen, 18 Feet Wide and 18 Feet Long, He Will be Able to Throw Himself From any Great Height Without Fear of Danger.”
His first wing drawings resem- ble, somewhat, the Bleriot wing. In figure “T” of our illustra-
tion, the drawing is very suggestive of a spring powered toy. ‘‘B” shows the modern method of con- struction Leonardo used 400 years ago. “I” shows the inclination of flight. In “A” we have the flexing of the wing tip that is now a sub- ject of litigation between two pres- ent day claimants. “S’ shows a hand and foot power flying ma- chine. ‘“D’’ illustrates a double wing. “W” shows that a man has by the use of a fan brought his weight to zero—or is it a hint in aerodynamics which is being worked out by a great western genius who will soon print a little book giving out his new discoveries on engines and propellers? ‘A’ and ‘a” shows another method of flexing the tips. In the ‘Condor motion” drawing you will note how the whole machine resembles a bird fly- ing toward the observer. In the “foot power flying machine’ the hands grasped the bar in the wings.
In the automatic flying machine of our illustration, we show the
power spring actuating cranks that flap the wings. The wings are copies of bird wings that Leonardo had dissected. He made his mus- cles, however, to pull through fric- tion loops. He also made the wings have a third motion that was pro- duced in the “shoulder blades’’ by a link, just as a bird or man moves his shoulder blades around his own back.
The action of air upon a pro- peller wheel was well known to Leonardo because he had designed a chimney wheel that turned a spit on which game was roasted.
Leonardo said: ‘‘The Man in the Flying Machine to be Free from the Waist Up, That He may be Able to Keep Himself in Equilibrium, as He does in a Boat, so That the Cen- tre of His Gravity and That of His Instrument may set itself in Equili- brium and Change when Necessity Requires it to the Changing of the Centre of its Resistance.”
It took Lilienthal -and Chanute a great many years to find the above fact out, then they found Leonardo observed it 400 years before their time.
According to Cuperus, ‘Leonardo practiced flying successfully.”
Sidney Colvin says: “He seems certainly the man whose genius has the best right to be called universal, of any that have ever lived.”
Hallam, the historian, said: ‘His knowledge was almost _preternat- ural.”
One most remarkable thing about Leonardo’s writings is, they are written from the right toward the left, they were also written by the left hand, so that to read them one must use a mirror. This was a precaution against theft of his ideas, against which he wished to guard. Of course, there are a few of his writings that are not re- versed.
Leonardo’s treatise on the flight of birds is most interesting. His investigations were exhaustive and treat on eddies, up currents and about everything that brings the modern aviator to sudden grief.
A mechanic who takes up Leon- ardo’s drawings. immediately knows the whole problem without any in- structions whatever. That comes from his method of drawing, which is superior to the very best practice of the present day.
THE HAGUE AND AIRCRAFT IN WAR
(From a paper read at the International
Along with the subjects _sub- mitted for discussion by the First Hague Conference by the circular letter of Count Mouravieff, of Janu- ary 11, 1899, was a proposal to re- strict the use in military warfare of the formidable explosives already existing, and to prohibit the throw- ing of projectiles or explosives of any kind from balloons or by similar means. The proposal so far as it related to aerial craft was_ not called forth by any actual experience in modern warfare. Balloons were used by the French as early as the battle of Fleurus in 1794, by the Russians in 1812, by our Federal troops in Virginia, by the French at the siege of Paris, and by the British in the Boer war. The propo-
By Arthur K. Kuhn, A.M.
Law Session of
sition was apparently an effort to
anticipate the future progress of aerial science. Mouravieff’s proposal was re-
ferred to the committee which in turn submitted it to its military sub-committee. This sub-committee first voted a perpetual prohibition of the use of aircraft for throwing projectiles or explosives which, on motion of the American delegate, Captain Crozier, was limited, in full committee, to cover a period of five years. In this form, it was passed by the Conference and accepted by the Powers.
The action was for humanitarian reasons alone and was founded on the opinion that in the condition of the art as it then existed, persons
the American Political
Science Association.) or property injured by this means might be entirely disconnected from the conflict and of no practical ad- vantage to the belligerent. The period of five years was intended to allow complete liberty of action un- der such changed circumstances as might be produced by the progress of invention.
The prohibition expired by limita- tion on July 28, 1904, and the sub- ject was therefore again brought up for consideration by the Second Hague Conference under a sugges- tion made by the Belgian delega- tion to renew the prohibition in ex- actly the same terms. In sub-com- mittee two amendments were made, to be applicable in the event of a failure of the main proposal, one by
Pagé 36:
Russia the other by Italy. Russia proposed to limit forever attacks by these means upon undefended places. Italy proposed to add to the Rus- sian proposition that no projectiles or explosives should be launched from balloons not dirigible and manned by a military force, and fur- thermore that the same restrictions that rested upon land and naval war- fare should apply to aerial warfare “wherever compatible with this new method of combat.”
The declaration as finally passed was in the same terms as that of the First Conference except that, at the suggestion of Great Britain, the renewal extends to the close of the Third Peace Conference. The declaration has been ratified among others by Great Britain, Austria and the United States, but though the period for ratification expired June 30, 1908, seventeen nations have failed to give assent, among them Germany, France, Japan, Italy, Mexico and Russia. On the princi- ple that since the period of conven- tional regulation of the usages of war, everything may be done which is not expressly forbidden by treaty or customary practice, and as there is no precedent whatever governing the use of aircraft in advancing the cause of a belligerent, it would seem that in the absence of such a prohibition, it would constitute a legitimate operation of war. The launching of projectiles from bal- loons has been placed in the same class of undertakings as the subjec- tion of coast cities to ransom at the demand of a powerful fleet. Neither has been seriously consid- ered by a responsible belligerent, yet both constitute a sufficiently s€rious menace to humanity to war- rant consideration by international conference.
An_ objection which has been raised to the prohibition as framed is the fact that there is no recipro- cal prohibition against firing upon aircraft. This would make them open to attack, yet deprived of their proper defense. The real opposition seems to lie in the technical posi- tion of the respective powers in re- gard to their present land and naval forces and the advancement which each has made in aerial war. A great naval power like Great Britain would naturally be interested in the prohibition by reason both of the menace to her military isolation and because the strongest naval vessel might not be proof against de- structive agents thrown from above. It may yet be that a supposed ad- vantage by reason of superior naval strength may be much reduced if not entirely eliminated by com- pensating advantages in aerial strength. That Germany has thus far abstained from ratifying the declara- tion might seem to be a result of her progress in the -use of dirigible balloons and the great expenditures of money being made for this ac count. Russia’s change of attitude may be accounted for in a similar manner by the-loss of. her navy since the First Hague Conference.
The proposal contained in the amendment advanced by the Russian delegation to render unfortified places immune from attack by air-
craft was given effect in a much broader form than was then ex- pected. The immunity of unde-
fended places was discussed under the general regulation of land war- fare and an absolute prohibition against the bombardment of unde- fended towns, villages and dwellings whatever be the means employed’’
AERONAUTICS, August 15, 1914.
Was agreed upon and is now a part of the convention on the laws and customs of war (Art. 25). This does not refer to bombardment from the sea, but there can be no doubt of its application to aircraft. As an American authority has said, “When exposed to such an attack, no place can be said to be de- fended.’”’ It is strange that though the original declaration has failed of endorsement by many states, the amendment has been given broad conventional effect through the ac- tion of a different committee.
The treatment to be accorded to the crew of captured aircraft in time of war has also constituted a serious problem in international law. During the war of 1870, a strong inclination was shown on the part of Germany to treat them as spies. Sixty-four balloons were_ launched during the siege of Paris, and it will be remembered that Gambetta made his escape to the provinces In this way. Bismarck favored ex- treme measures, and in fact all bal- loonists who passed over the Ger- man lines were severely dealt with when captured. This attitude has been severely criticized by writers upon international law as “neither secrecy, nor disguise, nor pretence is possible for those who man air- craft.
The dispute has now been defi- nitely settled through Art. 29. of the Hague convention which provides that “individuals sent in balloons for the purpose of transmitting dis- patches and the general keeping up of communications between the different parts of an army or terri- tory” shall not be treated as spies, and the French official manual for the use of military officers specifi- cally affirms their right to be treated as prisoners of war.
The obligation of a neutral state no doubt extends to the airspace over its territory as well as to its land surface and territorial waters. But the extent of that obligation has never been defined. An abso- lute duty to exclude the passage of belligerent craft through its air- space would indeed be onerous. Again with the increasing capacity of aircraft to carry articles of greater or less weight a law of con- traband applicable to aircraft may in time be developed. I simply mention these questions in passing, however, as they are not yet of sufficient practical importance for useful discussion at this time.
The present period is manifestly an introductory one in the develop- ment of a new medium of inter- communication and traffic. It is doubtful that the air will ever be as important commercially as the sea, yet science is the cause of many surprises. But even in its present development, the nations are now united by a closer bond, for the air is medium in respect of which each nation, no matter how small in area, or howsoever situated, is equally favored in harbor and ‘coast- line: Indeed, it has been denomi- nated “the universal highway.”
On the other hand, while the ad- vent of efficient aircraft will ex- tend the plane of warfare to a third element, the ultimate result will tend to make for the maintenance of peace. Small parties may be able to pass over protective armies
on expeditions aimed at the seat of*
government itself, where the body of particular individuals most re- sponsible for the war reside. This fact will tend for the first time to