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A COMPENDIOUS

GREEK GRAMMAR

FOR THE

USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

ἢ > ov BY "ay

Sit) wp? GEDDES, M.A., LL.D.,

PRINCIPAL, LATE PROFESSOR OF GREEK, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.

New Edition, Revised and Largely Reconstructed.

First Issvpg.

\

\

ACCIDENCE, ETO. |

EDINBURGH: OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO. 1888.

ΩΣ - : . ee ® ν».“΄. ν “

*

PREFACE.

THE present work is an entirely new edition of the former Greek Grammar which was originally pub- lished in 1855, and is now largely reconstructed and in many respects remodelled. The main lines and methods will be found to be still adhered to, but the details or contents will appear on examination not only much augmented, but also, as far as is possible in such a manual, more fully co-ordinated in the light of the present demands of philological science.

The process of reconstruction now completed was already in hand in 1884, previous to the author’s demission of the duties of the Greek Chair. The present work may be said, therefore, to represent the result of mature and almost life-long experience in Greek tuition.

In accordance with his former method, he has followed the system, which he thinks the best ex- perience confirms as the right one, of exhibiting the Greek verb not in fragments or clusters of tense-sys- tems but in paradigms, representing the full array of each Voice visible at one simultaneous view. Nor has he seen any reason to depart from the choice

Vi PREFACE.

he made formerly of a Pure verb as the typical one to commence with, affording, as it does, more easy dis- crimination of stem and personal endings, in prefer- ence to the complicated Labial verb (τύπτω), which used to be given as the norm in most of the older grammars, but which did not permit so ready dis- section of those constituents as is desirable for teach- ing purposes in the verb first presented to the pupil’s view. The particular verb which has thus been chosen (viz., παύω), has the unique advantage that, besides being at once remarkably regular and com- plete in other respects, it affords at the same time, better than any other pure verb that can be named, good extant models for the important group known as the second or Strong tenses. The only other verb that presents similar facilities is Avw, which is the favourite in French Greek grammars, but, apart from the circumstance that any attempts at second or Strong tenses would involve in this instance creation of forms purely fictitious or imaginary, the awkward change of quantity in its Perfects and Aorist Passive from that prevailing in the other tenses, renders it, as a model, doubly inconvenient, and inferior there- fore for purposes of tuition.

It is mainly the Accidence, that is, the Accidentia pertaining to the Greek tongue, that is here dealt with, and hence the absence, which many no doubt will regret, of any full treatment of the Syntax, which it has been found inadvisable to attempt on the same scale within the compass of the present volume. That department of the subject must be reserved for a subsequent but companion volume, and it is owing to a sense of the high importance of

PREFACE. Vii

the subject and of the valuable educative results, more appropriate to a later stage, flowing from the study of Greek Syntax in its niceties and subtleties, that that section has been reserved for separate treatment, which, however, will not probably be long delayed.

In constructing the present work, the author has to acknowledge obligations, not only to the gram- marians and philologists of a former generation, but also to many now or recently living, including such transatlantic scholars as Goodwin and Hadley, as well as the famous names of Curtius, John W. Donaldson, Kuhner, Kruger, and Veitch, as also the newer names of Rutherford, Brugmann and Gustav Meyer. Special thanks are, however, due to an interesting group of rising young scholars among his own former pupils, who have given him the benefit of their insight and experience. It is a pleasure and a duty to name in this regard, Mr. Robert A. Neil, Fellow of Pembroke College, Cam- bridge; Mr. James Adam, Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge; Mr. John Strachan, Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek in Owens College, Manchester; Mr. John Harrower, late Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford, now Professor of Greek in Aberdeen; and the two Rectors of the Grammar Schools in Aberdeen and Old Aberdeen, Mr. Moir and Dr. Dey; all of whom have severally contributed valuable and important aid.

In a work of so many minute details, it is rather to be wished for than expected that immaculate accuracy should be found attained, but at all events

Viii PREFACE.

no pains have been spared to produce a treatise which should form a convenient manual for tuition, and be at the same time fairly abreast of the present requirements of scientific scholarship.

"

UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN, June, 1888.

*.* Besides the Syntax referred to above, which would form a separate volume complete in itself,,a short Praxis to the present volume of Greek Accidence, may likewise be issued.

INTRODUCTION.

DIALECTS, ETC

Tue Greek Language, the treasure-house of the genius of the old world, and the mother of the mightiest intellectual and moral influences in the new, was anciently spoken, not only in what we now call Greece, but in the South of Italy and in Sicily, in the sea-coasts of Asia Minor, and generally along the shores of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean. It is a conspicuous branch of the great stem of Languages called the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, which stretches from the Bay of Biscay to that of Bengal, and it claims kindred, in nearer or more remote degree, with Sanskrit, old Persian, Latin, Celtic, Teutonic, and Slavonic. While the Greeks were remarkable for the contempt with which they regarded the non-Greeks or Barbarians, as well as for their devotion to their own national name of Hellenes, by which they designated themselves in the historic period, they were notably distin- guished from the Romans and other ancient nations by their spirit of individualism, and their aversion to centralisation, For, whereasthe Roman Empire knew but one form of Litera- ture, and one seat of Power, to which the whole world was to look, and did look long, for literary and political law, it is instructive to observe how strikingly the Greek world was the reverse of all this—how, resisting all centralising tenden- cies, it severed itself, on the one hand, in regard to politics,

x INTRODUCTION.

into a host of little communities, each independent of the other, though glorying in their common Hellenic name; and on the other, in the field of literature, into a number of dialects and styles, each with its own peculiar laws and forms of literary achievement, but each fundamentally Hellenic. The leading Dialects* were accordingly three, corresponding to the three leading divisions of the Hellenes; I. The AXorIo,? the least cultivated but, in area, most widely diffused. Of this dialect very few literary remains have come down to us, the principal being the Lyric fragments of the two Lesbian poets, Alczeus and Sappho (prose almost non-existent). II. The second branch, closely kindred to the A®olic, but still independent in type, was the Doric, which was the broadest,® and most full-toned, spoken by the Dorians, those mountaineers from Doris who seized the Peloponnesus, and whose most powerful people was the Spartans. It was also largely diffused by colonies to East and West, especially in Caria and in Sicily. It supplied the form for Choral Poetry, as in Pindar and the Tragedians, and for Pastoral Poetry, as in Theocritus. (Prose very limited, only in mathematical and philosophical treatises.) ΠῚ. The Ionic, the softest of the dialects, was chiefly spoken in Ionia* in the West of Asia Minor, and was the early prose-language, as in Herodotus and Hippocrates, who, though born in Dorian communities, are the chief representatives of the New Ionic, (Prose largely developed.) The Old Ionic is mainly poetic, and is nearly identical with the Homeric form

1 These were known as (1) ἡ Αἰολίς, (2) Awpis, (8) "Ids, with its daughter ᾿Ατθίς.

2 Under the olic, of which the Lesbian was the most important, were classed certain minor dialects, such as Thessalian, Cretan, Bceotian, etc.

3 Hence the reproach of πλατειασμός.

4 The interest of the name Ionia, as rooted in Asiatic soil and as the out- post of the Greek race eastward in later times, is very great. It can be traced back from the form, in the historic time, Ἴωνες, to the ancient Homeric Ἰάονες, and thence, by digamma, Ἰάξονες, whence came, as the oriental name, applied, not to a part only, but to the whole of the Greek race, the Javan of the Old Testament and Yavana of the Hindoos.

INTRODUCTION. xi

of speech, aud consequently is the vehicle of Epic poetry. As a daughter of the Ionic, we have to rank the ΑΥ̓ΤΊΟ, which was a more manly and nervous form of the soft Ionic, and was spoken by the original Ionians who remained in the country of Attica, and entered later than their Asiatic brethren on the paths of literature and culture, but who, under the name of Athenians, brought literature both in prose and verse to the summit of perfection. The speech of these Athenians in Attica afterwards became the standard for the book and court language of all the Hellenic peoples. Previous to this wider diffusion, there were two periods of the Attic dialect, viz., the Old Attic, represented by the Tragedians and Thucydides the historian; and the New Attic, represented by Xenophon, the Comedians, and the Orators. (Prose, in the Attic dialect, abundant, in full equipoise with the dramatic forms of poetry by which the Attic period was distinguished. After the fall of Greek independence at Cheronea, the Attic faded away into the common Dialect or κοινή, losing its brilliancy but gaining in area of diffusion.)

Besides these dialects, which had a reference originally to Geographical Locality, there was the Epic Styiz, which was the form adopted in the Homeric poems for Epic or Ballad Poetry, and thereafter became consecrated to the narrative species of poetic composition, wheresoever or by whomsoever pursued. In the Epic, we find a blending of elements, drawn from both A£olic and Ionic, the latter, however, having far the preponderance. The Hetienistic style arose in the decline of Greek Literature, when Alexandria, rather than Athens, became the centre of learning, and Greek was imitated by many of the Easterns, who were, therefore, said ἑλληνίζειν, to affect Hellenic. A Greek scholar, while aspiring to an acquaintance with all periods of Greek Literature, not under- valuing the Hellenistic or even the modern Romaic, will make it his chief ambition to become pre-eminently an Atticist,'

1 Dr. John W. Donaldson, Greek Gram, p. 4.

ΧΙ INTRODUCTION.

imbued with the spirit of the culminating period of Hellenic thought.

HISTORY OF GREEK ALPHABET.

Although the Greek language is Aryan in its structure, the symbols or characters by which it is represented are mainly of Semitic origin.

The extent to which the Greeks were indebted to the Pheenician Semites is still visible from a comparison not only of the shapes or figures,’ but especially of the names and the order of the letters, in the Greek and Hebrew alphabets. The latter alphabet consists of twenty-two letters, every one of which can be accounted for as having in some form in- fluenced the existing Greek alphabet. They are as follows:

Aleph = Alpha; Beth = Beta; Gimel = Gamma; Daleth = Delta; He = Epsilon; Vau = Vau (Digamma); Sain = Zeta; Chet = Eta; Tet = Theta; Yod = Iota; Kaph = Kappa; Lamed = Lambda; Mem = Mii; Nun = Nii; Samech = Xi; Ain = O; Phe = Pi; Zade = San (from its place after Pi thence called Sam-Pi, cf. p. 73); Koph = Koppa; Resch = Rho; Shin = Sigma; Tau = Tau.

DIVERGENCES OF GREEK FROM HEBREW ALPHABET.

(1) Of these, the following became entirely vocalic instead of being, as in the Hebrew, consonants or semi-vowels : Aleph, He, Yod, Ain, and, later, Vaw and Chet, became, respectively, the vowels a . t ο υ ἢ Α Ε I oO ti H (2) One of the two Semitic gutturals, Koph and Kaph, was reckoned superfluous, and Kaph, after the two had co-existed for some time, was victor and remained in the shape of K; the sign of Koph (Q, p. 73) being retained only as a numerical symbol = 90.

1 It will be found that the figures in the Greek alphabet are in general the Pheenician ones reversed, to suit the different direction of their mode of writing.

INTRODUCTION. xili

(3) One of the two Semitic sibilants, Schin (San) and Samech (Sigma), was dispensed with, the former supplying name and figure for the now single surviving sibilant as used by the Dorians, while Sigma was the name given by the Ionians (Herodotus I. 139). The Ionians, through their literary ascen- dency, stamped the ἐὐέϊ6 Sigma on the sibilant, although it bore the figure of the Dorian San. The sign anciently representing Samech, thus set free, was appropriated to the complex sound =, being the guttural double consonant.

(4) For the other two double consonants, Sain or Zain of the Hebrew was used for the dental, viz., Z, and a figure for the other or labial double consonant, viz., the labial ps, was found in Ψ, added near the close of the Greek alphabet.

(5) A very important change was that affecting the sixth letter of the Hebrew alphabet, viz., the semi-vowel Vaw.! The history of this letter divides itself into two parts accord- ing to its function as a vowel or as a consonant. As a vowel, it came up transformed as Upsilon (Y), and in this form was added on to the alphabet after T, with which the Pheenician series closes, so that Y marks the first, in order, of the five Hellenic additions appended to the Semitic alphabet. As a

1 It is now regarded as certain, on converging evidence of all kinds, irscrip- tions, coins, ete., that the sixth place of the ancient Greek alphabet was occupied, as in the Phcenician, by a letter called Vau and known by that name to Didymus, the Greek grammarian of Alexandria, and that the ancient shape of Vau is still seen in the letter F of the Roman alphabet, where it maintained its place as the sixth letter. From the resemblance of that figure (f) to the Gamma (I), it came to be styled the double Gamma or Digamma. (The name is not a happy one, as it may suggest false affinity to the guttural, instead of to the kindred labial, series of letters.) Even under this name it had a restricted existence, dropped out of the Ionic-Attic alphabet, and survived longest in the less literary olic dialect, whence it came to be known as the Holic Digamma. On the coins of Elis, an AZolic community, the figure of it can, however, be seen lasting down into the historic time. The history of this letter constitutes a kind of romance in philology, and the investigation is not yet completed as to the conditions of its appearing or vanishing, since it is both present and absent capriciously in seemingly contemporaneous documents, Thus, ἀθέσφατος οἶνος, without the Digamma, whose insertion would here mar the metre, appears in Epic to co-exist with such as μελιηδέα βοῖνον, where its presence is required, but perhaps it may be found that the phenomenon is not more abnormal than that in Milton's line ‘ Over the wilderness and o'er the plain’ (Par. Reg. 4, 343).

XIV INTRODUCTION.

consonant, it early dropped out and disappeared, and its re-dis- covery by Bentley’ is one of the triumphs of modern Philology.

(6) Lastly, besides a symbol for the long O or Omega, which was appended at the close, there were added two specially Greek characters for the labial and guttural aspirates, viz., ph and ch (as in Scotch loch), in the shape of ® and X.

The chief alterations in the alphabet were vaguely attri- buted to Palamedes and Simonides, the latter of whom was a native of Ceos, and contemporary with Miltiades and the actors in the Great Persian War (B.c. 490-79). The tradition as to the former belongs to the pre-historic time, and the statement as to Simonides that he was the first to introduce the two double consonants = and ¥, and the two long vowels H and Q, is not consistent with the evidence of inscriptions, It was not till the Archonship of Euclides, B.C, 403, that the Alphabet, in the complete form in which it has descended to us, was nationally adopted at Athens,

The smaller or cursive style of the Greek Alphabet is of comparatively recent origin, not appearing in manuscripts before the eighth century: hence the ancient Greeks em- ployed solely the capitals or wnceials not only in inscriptions but in common writing.

Originally the Greeks wrote from right to left, like the Hebrews and Pheenicians, from whom they borrowed their alphabet: afterwards they wrote from right to left and left to right alternately, which was called writing βουστροφηδόν, as oxen turn at the plough. Herodotus, however, speaks of the Greeks in his time (B.c. 450) as writing universally from left to right, in contrast with the Orientals (IL 36).

1 It was owing to the frequency of certain hiatuses, persistent and recurrent before certain words in the Homeric poems, that the great critic was led to suspect that some consonant, now lost to the eye in the written form, had been present to the poet’s eax when these poems were composed. He farther ob- served, that many of these words needed only the introduction of v or the like, to make them all but identical with their Latin representatives. The leading examples are ἔαρ or jp, spring, as Fip = ver; ἴδον, saw, vidi; εἴκοσι, twenty, viginti; ἕσπερος, evening, vesper ; ts, force, vis; οἶκος, dwelling, vicus ; οἶνος, wine, vinum.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I. PHONOLOGY. SECTION PAGE 1. The Alphabet, ; : 1

2. The Vowels, 2 83. The Diphthongs, ν ‘ ; ς : 3 4. The Breathings,. ‘ ‘ ; . ; : : 3 5. The Consonants, : ; ; ‘ ‘ ‘ ἢ 4 6. Euphony within Words: I. of Vowels, 5 Contraction of Vowels, 5

7. Euphony within and at end of Wanda’ IL. of on sonants, . ‘ : Ξ ‘ 7 Assimilation, Dissimilation, Metathesia, Ἢ ᾿ : 7 8. Euphony between Words, . 3 : ae Elision, Insertion (ν ἐφελκυστικόν), aula: ᾿ς ἥξω δ 9. Specialties as to the Spirants (Σ, F, and Yod), . ot aA 9a. Tabular View of Consonants in their affinities, =: Ae Labialism and Dentalism, . ᾿ : é ΤΕ 10. The Accents and Punctuation Marks, , P .

PART II. MORPHOLOGY.

Preliminary as to Roots, Stems, Words, . : « ..18

11. The Noun (Substantive); General Rules as to De- clension, . Ξ ν : ; ’

12. The Article, A 13. The First (or A) Declénkien, 14. The Second (or O) Declension, . 15. The Attic Second Declension, ; 16. The Third or Consonantal Hickenitel: Gene,

S&ESSS

ΧΥΪ

CONTENTS.

SECTION

17%. 18.

19.

The Third Declension—Liquid Stems, Mute Stems, . The Third Declension—Spirant Stems (Nominatives in os (eos), evs, ὠ, ete.), ; : , : Sub-classes οὗ Consonantal Stems, 1. Liquid Stems in p—syncopation of e, Liquid Stems in y—dropping out οὗν, . 5 2. Mute Stems modified (Nominatives in as, aros ; ws, wTos; ap and @p),.

. Vocalic Stems (with vowel: or v), . Cases under Third Declensinn ἀπο δον να ΠΣ

on as Genitive, . be i. Accusative, i ἊΣ Vocative, . ᾿ Dative Plural, Vecaliilac: of Examples under Third Declenaiob: -

. On the Case-endings in the Three Declensions,. . Sporadic Case-endings, . : - . Anomalies in Declension—I. By Patent, - . Anomalies in Declension—II. By Redundance, . List of Substantives ae πον μὴ or peculiar De-

clension,

. Gender of Substantives, . Adjectives. J. Of First and Besand Detlonsionie

ἐν II. Of Second Declension solely,

Ἔ ΠῚ. Of Third Declension solely,

ἣν IV. Of First and Third ree: : a V. Of One Termination, . ;

. Irregular Adjectives, πολύς, μέγας, etc., . Comparison of Adjectives—Ordinary,

9 » ° Special or Beontian ; "9 ; Defective or Redundant,.

. Comparison of Adverbs,

. Numerals, . ‘ é . Indefinite Numerals ae Distributive Prncnen τ . Pronouns. Personal Pronouns, . ; : i ἃ

τ Refiexive Pronouns, Ἴ τ ἴ Α, τ Reciprocal Pronouns, . - . . δ: Possessive Pronominals, . : ‘ ἐ

PAGE

28

CONTENTS. XVii

SECTION PAGE 48. Pronouns. Demonstratives, . τι ΜΒ 49. a Interrogative, Indefinite, Relative;: . ἐν 50. a Correlative Pronouns, -. : é ἡ -82

THE VERB. 51. General, . : - -8 52. Inflection of Thematic γαῖ (V eth in 9), ; . +86

Paradigms of Thematic Verbs, Act., Mid., Pass. . 88 53. Supplementary example of Second or Strong Aorist

with syncopated Future, . , - 96 54. The two Conjugations—Characteristics of Aten; - -OF 55. Nexus of Stem Characteristic, . 99

Paradigms of Liquid, Dental, Guttural, and Labial

Verbs, } A . 100 56. Inflection of Perfect Middle or Pihiibe, ᾿ de 3g . 104 57. Contracted Verbs, . : d : (eo ae 57a. Contracted Verbs in Dialects, : é . 5 . 109 58. Non-thematic Verbs.—Verbs in MI, . : . 110

59. I. Non- reduplicating Verbs in μι (εἰμί, εἶμι, nut), . 112 60. II. Verbs in μι Reduplicating, and ΤΙ, ae vu

or va (ἴστημι, etc.), . : ἊΝ : ee Paradigms of Verbs ings, . . «© «© «° . 120 61. Paradigm of imum, . | .' 191 62. Anomalous and Defective γαῖα (οἶδα, Sle, etna), . 128 63. Archaic Aorists, . : Th ald | | . 126 64. Archaic Perfect, . : Ὁ ak! ; oi ey BY ΝΥΝ, τ, a ύιοο ς τς . 129 66. Deponent Verbs, ‘ BTiS he . 129 67. On the Personal Endings of Vorbe, ‘aoe .. 182 68. Notanda on Verb-forms of Active Voice, . .ν 188 69. Notanda on Verb-forms of Middle and Passive Votes, 185 70. Laws of Augment, . : - : : . 136 71. Reduplication in Perfect, . ς ; . 138 72. Special or Attic Reduplication in Perfect, . ; . 140 78. Reduplication in other Tenses than Perfect, . : Δ ἢ 14. Augment and Reduplication in scar. a >.> ten 75. Formation of Tense-Systems, . Ἂν .°". 148) 76. Present Tense-Stems, . Fis ee τὸ ς eee C

b

XVili CONTENTS.

SECTION PAGE 77. Formation of the Future (Active and Middle), . . 144 78. Special Rules as to Vowel-Nexus of Future, . . 147 79. Variations of Future in Dialects, Ξ ἢ ; . 149 80. Perfect (Weak or First) Active, . ; ; ; - 150 81. Perfect (Strong or Second) Active, . : , <> Abt 82. Perfect Middle or Passive, . Ξ 155 83. Variations from Type of Perfect Middle or cDasaiyeen . 156 84. First or Weak Aorist—Active and Middle, : τ 85. Strong or Second Aorist—Active, Middle, Passive, . 159 86. First or Weak Aorist Passive, . - ‘ ; -. 162 87. First and Second Future Passive, . 5 : . 168 88. Future Perfect, Middle, and Passive, . ‘ : . 188 89. Verbals in rés and τέο, . ς ; ‘ . 164

THE INDECLINABLES. 90. The Particles—Adverbs, . : ; Ξ : . 164 91. The Particles—Prepositions, . : ‘ : . 167 92. The Particles—Conjunctions, . . : Ἶ . ΠΕ 98. Interjections, . : ; , : ‘ ; . 1718 Worp-BvlILpine. 94. Formation of Words—General, . Ξ ‘ thie 95. Formation of Substantives, - : - : es 96. Formation of Adjectives, . : ‘4 , Σ . i 97. Formation of Verbs, . 3 : Ξ ; ‘ . 181 98. Composition of Words, . ; : . : . 182

PART III SYNTAX (ABRIDGED). 99. Laws common to Greek and Latin Tongues : —

Section 1. Concord, . : . : . Ist Section 2. Government, ; > Ν ‘ . 188 APPENDICES. Appenpix I, AccENTS. 100. General Laws, . : 7, - . 4 : . 19:

101. Accentuation οὗ Noums, . . - ; . 194

CONTENTS. Xix

SECTION PAGE

102. Accentuation of Nouns (in Oblique Cases, etc. ᾿ . 196

103. * ' of Verbs, . - ἱ ὃ δ |

104. eS in Contractions, . . . ; . 198

= in Prepositions, . Ε : : ε 198

105. Atonics or Proclitics, . : ; ὸ : Ξ . 199

106. Enclitics, . ‘ ; : ; : ~ ; . 199 AppenpDIx IT. Prosopy.

107. General, . ‘ ; é ‘ = See

108. Nouns—First μων." F - - ‘ . 201

109. Nouns—Third ee : - - . 202

110. Verbs, . ; ; : é ‘ é ᾿ . 208

111. Indeclinables,_ . ; > ‘ δ Ἁ ‘ . 208 Appenpix IIT. ΜΈΤΕΕ.

112. Metre. (A.) Dactylic Verse, . . ἰ A . 204

ὼ (B.) Trochaic Verse, . ,. . . « 206

me (C.) Anapestic Verse, . . - : . 206

δ (D.) Iambic Verse, - ‘ ἃ : - 207

AppEeNnpIx IV. 113. Grimm’s Law, . 5 ‘ : » By

APPENDIX V.

τῷ pears Lo

114. InREGULAR VERBS, . ‘ P > j : P

38.

7 "- ae 7“ > pa ee

4 fo

eaoTTO RE ἴι (02

ΟΣ ἄν si ~ i, ς 3

ΓΙ

iy

~

δά τι q ®

a νι a ᾿ Ν 2 ἢ ἅ νει ἀοιδοὶ

CONTRACTIONS IN OLD TYPOGRAPHY.

Ψ a Suv Ov | GF oT vy aX Pee Gw η: TNE je av κ᾽ wala\| Tay rae Wo aN MY (ae (a! lav g> av av ws Mag "Ἢ δῷ - ς (, xy ͵ ἕ:- aU < ς ΟΕ ᾧ wan |\ ς 727)» ς ~ ) \" | yév Mt “el αἱ CUS 4, ¥ a Ὁ — ~ ) OE Aw μῶν | Ἢ τα i Joes Cc ~ OV ; dé ju MeV oo 2S ¢ C7 ᾿ & & Mle ey > δὸν ar Ὁ « -- ‘ Ga J) ftvat Ao METH ὃ: 70V Cn ἐκ iw “εν ΟΝ δε % EA “ἥν ΕΣ do C0 Δ EAA οἷ OLOV 29x ἤρεφ ἐν ἃ ἤν ΓΝ - 9, ον Pye" y C6 ee 0} wey Taga| * δῶν an EV ae TEgu | γψ' v ὀχ τέ : aw 7 ἘΣ ΤΩΣ ὌΝΟΣ" γ 27 δῆ ΓΟ ποι C0 ge uN vv ἐσέ 0 EMEv | (a CW “-ῶρ wre δ Ep a! G6 |\xae tree Al EV af ‘Fa| Xow \Yav M δὺς | ate Ow | Xo yee ive oy ar Ge , ee Gav Cav | Au σόα] @ @

.

Lo tace Pagel of Geddess Greek Grammar

Edinturgh, Oliver & Bayd:

GREEK GRAMMAR.

PART I. PHONOLOGY :—Sounps anp Siens. § 1. The Greek alphabet consists of the following 24 characters :— Character. (By-form.) Name. Sound. Aa ἄλφα alpha & (long or short) BB δ, βῆτα beta b (v in Romaic) Ty γάμμα gainma | g (hard, as in gas) 46 déATa delta d Ες ἔ ψιλόν ὅ psilon? ὅ (met, only short) Ze Gra zeta z (dz or dj) Hn ἦἧτα δῖα 8 (long—a in fate) 006 3.1 θῆτα théta th Ι, ἰῶτα ἰδία I (¢e, long or short) Κα κάππα kappa ς Ax λάμβδα lambda | 1 M pu μῦ mu m Ny vo nu n BE EC xi x Oo ὃ μικρόν 6 micron?) 6 (only short) II + @ πὶ pi Ρ Pp po tho r Σ o(sfinal),c σῦῆγμα sigma 8 acat ταῦ tau t Tv v ψιλόν u psilon ® | tt Fr. (long or short) Φ φ pe phi 1 Xx xe chi ch (as in Se. loch) Vy i psi pas! Qo ὦ μέγα Oméega* | ὃ (only long)

ὅ simple. 2 little 6 ee short. *u simple. 4 big 6, ic. long, These four are main] names: most of the others, as far as τ inclusive, are ὁ en & Phagmcna τὴ crigin, the introduction of the alphabet being ascribe d to the Phen

LETTERS—VOWELS. [§ 2.

to

1. Sigma has two forms, s at the end, σ in all other parts of a word, as σώσας. (The crescent c anywhere.)

o may be final by elision, as ὡς εἰποῦσ᾽ ἀπέβη.

s may be in the middle, where the first part of a compound ends with it, as eis-pépw. But εἰσφέρω is also allowed.

2. y, x, τ, are always sounded hard, even before 1, as Γαλατία, Galat-i-a, not Galasia, θεολογία, Κιλικία.

y standing before another y, or before x, x, ξ, has a ringing sound like that of πὶ in ring, rang, rung; ἄγγελος, angelus (g hard) ; "Ἄγκων, Ancon or Ancona ; ’Ayxions, Anchises ; λάρυγξ, larynx. ἂν (originally like Latin or Italian u, οὗ, μυκ = mug-ire, δύο = duo), was in the best period sounded thin, like the French τὸ in fut, or the German ii in ‘ Miiller,’ or 00 in South Scotch as in shoon. Hence it is transliterated in Latin by y, not by ὦ. (The natural u, ὁ.6. Engl. 00, is properly ov ; bull = βοῦς.

4. The above is τὸς Ἐ y only the Attic Alphabet of Greek. For traces of a fuller Alphabet, including letters no longer exist- ing in Attic, such as Digamma or f, see § 9. 2.

§ 2. Of the twenty-four characters seven are VOWELS,

Two always short, ε, 0, as πόλεμδς, with their cor- responding longs, ἢ, ὦ, as πῶλητῆς ;

And three doubtful, ic. variable, long in some words, short in others, a, 4, v; as Swxparns, but ἄκρᾶτος ; and even in the same word, variable, as xados (Epic), κἄλός (Attic).

1. The number of vowels is, as in Latin, properly five, but the Greek diverges from the Latin in introducing in two of them a double form: thus, ε and ἡ represent really one vowel, and ὁ with ὦ another. There are properly ΜΟΥ three primary vowels, a, t, and v (sounding originally ah, ee, and 00 as in boon), and the e-sound is intermediate between a and t, just as the o-sound stands midway between a and v. <A diagram will show their relation :—

A

E O

I U

2. « and v are called thin or close; the other vowels broad or open.

3. Some Perper make frequent use of what is called the splitting of the a-sound, whereby a primitive a can come up as ε and as o, Thus ¢ and o in γένος, γέγονα, etc., are thought

EE

§ 3, 4.] DIPHTHONGS. 3

to be developed out of a primitive a, retained as ὦ in Sanskrit. But the newer philology rejects this, and claims e and o to be contemporaneous with, not subsequent to the a sound.

ὃ 3. From the vowels the DIPHTHONGS are formed by subjoining either of the thin vowels, ὁ or uv (postpositives ) to any of the other, or broad, vowels (prepositives ).

1. c and v, after a short vowel, form proper or ordinary diphthongs,

with 4}% with ε bs

av ευ,

having full fusion of both sounds. 2. c and νυ, after a long, form improper diphthongs,

with ἃ 2 with 7 {? with w a av, nv, ω having imperfect fusion of sounds.

1. nv and ὧν are chiefly Ionic, but nv occurs in augments, and @v in crasis, even in Attic. Other combinations than the above, such as ew in Genitives, are not really diphthongs.

2. In a, n, ῳ, the iota subscribed is not now sounded. After a eapital it is written on the line or adscribed, as Ἅιδης, Hades, but, without capital, adns.

3. There is a proper diphthong, uw, formed of the two post- positives. It is, in Attic, only before vowels, as μυῖα, or final.

4. at becomes in Latin ae—aiénp, ethér. Rarely ai, as Αἴας, Aiax,

(later Ajax), iv (if from a: fF), as ἐλαία,

with ὁ τ ου

᾽

’

oliva.

ει ms i or €é—Aapeios, Dar-ius or -éus ; before consonants, 7, as Νεῖλος, Nilus.

οι pe 0e—Oirn, Oeta.

ut mt yi—Eivcidua, Tlithyia.

a . ἅ---Θράκη, Thracé (Hor.).

ἢ > é or δ᾽--- Θρῇσσα, Thressa or Thréissa.

® » ° Gand earlier e—@6dy, Gde, but τραγῳδός, tragcedus,

ov δι a, Μοῦσα, Misa (but Μυσία = Mysia).

av and ev ,, au and eu (before a vowel, av and ev)

Γλαῦκος, Glaucus, (‘Ayatn, Agiivé :) εὖγε, euge, (but Evws, Euhius).

ἢ 4. Every initial vowel or diphthong has either the rough breathing (‘) or the smooth (’ ).

1, The rough has the sound of H (or /) in Latin, and was originally of the same form; the smooth has prac-

4 BREATHINGS-—CONSONANTS. [8 5.

tically no distinguishable sound, but merely denotes the absence of the rough.

Thus ὥρα = hora, but ὥρα is sounded ora.

2. v and p at the beginning of a word have regularly the rowgh breathing, as ὕμνος, hymunus ; ῥήτωρ, rietor.

1. pp, in the middle of a word, has usually, for the first p the smooth, and for the second the rough, Πύῤῥος, Pyrrhus.

2. The marks of the breathings (as also of the accents, see § 10) stand over a small vowel, before a capital vowel, and, in the case of a diphthong, over the second vowel, as dyn, Ayn, αὐγη.

3. The original rough breathing was H, as it still is in the Latin alphabet. When this letter was appropriated to represent eta, abbreviations of it when bisected were retained to indicate the two breathings, and ‘ is a reduced edition of F, and * of 4.

§ 5. Of the seventeen CONSONANTS, one is a sibilant,’ ¢; Three are double or composite, Wy, &, ζ; Four are liquid, X, μ, ν, p The remaining nine are mutes, viz. :— 1st Order. 2nd Order. 3rd Order. First grade, tenues3 . er Μὲ A τ Second grade, intermediates’ B Y ὃ Third grade, aspirates, . τς ἦν χΧ é

Thus each ¢enwis has its own intermediate and aspi- rate, and the three together form one order of mutes, pronounced by the same organ of speech. Hence

a, B, φ, ip, ib, iph, lip sounds, are called LABIALs. K, Ὑ, xX, tk, ig, wh, throat sounds, _,, GUTTURALS. τ, 5, 0, it, id, ith, tooth sounds, __,, DENTALS.*

The sibilant added to any mute of these orders produces

li.e., The hissing letter. It is also called a spirant, see § 9.

2 The gliding letters, so called Bid from the readiness with which they fuse and combine with mutes, partly from the ease with which the sound of each can be prolonged bs A po vocal organs, and hence they are the letters oftenest doubled. μι and ν belong to a group of nasals by themselves, » being the labial nasal and v the dental nasal. ἃ and p, which are the liquids proper, make another group of trilling sounds, often interchanging.

3 Tenues are by some called hard, and intermediates are called soft mutes.

4 The physiological order places Labials last and Gutturals first. The throat- sounds are no doubt deeper t teeth or tongue and lip-sounds, and hence, for greater ease, are often transformed into Dentals and Labials. In the above series, however, Labials may have precedence, as the earliest words, on the lips of infants, are characterised by Labial sounds, as πάππος, father, etc.

§ 6.] EUPHONY OF VOWELS—CONTRACTION. 5

a double consonant, which is but an abbreviation in the written form :—

πο, Bs, $s =P; xs, ys, xs = &; ὃς or σδ = G1 § 6. EupHoyy witHix Worps. I. OF VoweELs.

The Greek tongue is not averse to harmonious com- binations of vowels (¢.7., ioevdéa), but avoids unpleasing concurrences of them by CONTRACTION (συναέρεσις).3

1. A short vowel meeting itself contracts into its

corresponding (graphical) diphthong® (ez for e, ov for o).

eee; 00 =o0v; φέίλεε = φίλει ; δηλόομεν = δη- λοῦμεν.

But ee of dual into ἡ, as τριήρεε = τριήρη, to distinguish from Dat. in εἰ; also in some Epic forms as σπῆι for σπέει, φιλή- μεναι, and usually in augments ; also in ἤδη for ἤδεε. In Dorie, ἦχον for εἶχον, and w in Doric Genitives for oo of II. Decl.

2. A short before the other short into ov.

eo and oc = οὐ, as φιλέομεν = φιλοῦμεν ; δηλόετε = δηλοῦτε.

eo in Ionic and in later Doric often into ev, as σέο into σεῦ for Attic σοῦ ; ἐκαλεῦντο, etc. (But o + ein Nom. Du. of 11. Dec. = a.)

1 As in ᾿Αθήναζε for ᾿Αθήνασ-δε. In general, however, ¢ arises out of yy, (ς΄. ἄζομαι), and dy, as in Ζεύς, out of Dyaus.

2 In Attic, contraction is almost universal in terminations and in inflectional forms (yet -vi in Datives in Attic, where Epic has - and -vi), but is lax as regards stems. The Ionic, however, contracted the interior of stems and left terminations

. Contrast Attic ἱερός and ἐβοήθει with Ionic ἱρός, ἐβώθεε. Sometimes in pic and Ionic, euphony is attained by simply dropping one of the concurring vowels, a8 ἑποιέο for ἐποιέεο.

Contraction in its simplest form is simply the removal of sign of Dizresis (διαίρεσις) [Ἴ, as in Dative of III. Decl., τριήρεϊ becomes τριήρει. such words there is only a slight graphical change to indicate the diphthongal pronuncia- tion, but in many instances there is a change of form in the resulting vowel or diphthong, which change also goes by the name of Syneresis. The older Gramma , perhaps more correctly, called this second species crasis, a name now limited to union of vowels in disferent words.

Contrahitur— 1. Brevis ante se, in suam diphthongum, Sed ee dualis in ἡ. 2. Brevis ante alteram brevem, in ov. 8, Brevis ante a, in suam longam. Sed ea purum, et pea prime in a, 4. Semper in nominibus, plerumque in verbis, ejicitur brevis ante vel longam vel diphthongum. δ. a ante o vel w, in w, a non ante o vel w, in 4, 6. Si prior vocalis est ι vel v vel longa, vanescit secunda semper. Moor’s Gr.Gr.

3 Strictly speaking, not a real diphthong but onl hically so, as a mode of representing the close o and ¢ sounds. us φίλει of Attic = φίλη in Doric.

6 CONTRACTION. [ὃ 6.

3. A short before a into its own long.

εα =; 04 = @, AS τριήρεα = τριήρη ; ὄρεα = ὄρη ; αἰδόα = αἰδῶ ; συκέα = συκῆ ; ἑάλων = ἥλων. Excep. But (1) pea, in the singular of the first, (2) ea and oa, in the dual of the first declension, and neuter plural of the second, and (3) generally ea pure (t.e., preceded by a vowel), into a. (1) Nom. sing. ἀργυρέα = ἀργυρᾶ. (2) Nom. dual, συκέα = συκᾶ ; ἁπλόα = ἁπλᾶ ; Nom. plural of neuter, ὀστέα = ὀστᾶ. (3) ὑγιέα = ὑγιᾶ, also ὑγιῆ ; χοέα = χοᾶ ; Πειραιέα = Πειραιᾶ. 1.---εας of Acc. Pl. and εἰς alongside of it are co-existing forms of different origin. So βόας and βοῦς. On such as μείζοας be-

coming μείζους, cf. ὃ 32. ea of neuter plural of adjectives in us remains usually open.

2.---χρυσέας of Gen §. becomes, by above, χρυσῆς, while χρυ- oéas of Acc. Plural becomes χρυσᾶς. Similar differentiation in parts of ἁπλόος.

4, In nouns always, and in verbs generally, a short before a long, or before a diphthong, is rejected. ἁπλοη = ἀπλῆ ; dirente = φιλῆτε ; χρυσέου = χρυ- σοῦ ; χρύσεαι = χρυσαῖ; πλόῳ = TAO. Except in verbs, where eat = ἢ or εἰ, as τύπτεαι ΞΞ τύπτει OF τύπτῃ. on = @ as δηλόητε = δηλῶτε. Also ὀγδοήκοντα == ὀγδώκοντα, ἐβόησε = ἔβωσε, in Ionic. on and oe =o, but oe in infinitive = ov. (See Contracted verbs.) oes in adjectives being for oevs, becomes ovs, but oer becomes w in such as τροχοζειδής = τροχώδης. 5. a before o or ὦ becomes w; a not before o or w becomes a. (e, if displaced, is subscribed.)

ao | ; ᾿ τιμάομεν = τιμῶμεν. aov;@. αοιτεῳ. ΜῊΝ er

/ a τιμάοιμεν = τιμῶμεν. me | μάοιμ μὼμ ΕΞ aeu τίμαε = τίμα ae τα. ᾳ. a ἃ: B α κα a | an } + τιμάει. = = TL.

1 i.e, a prevails over ε or ἡ, but is itself assimilated by o or ὦ.

2 As to ἡ by contraction for ἃ in ζάω, etc., see Contracted verbs. deipw and ἀεικία become αἴρω and aixia, but ἀείδω and ἀοιδή, become déw, ὠδή.

§ 7.] EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 7

6. If the first vowel is ὁ or v ora long, the second disappears, leaving the first vowel, if formerly short, now long.

6 ΞΞΞὶ : ve= VU; ηειξ η: O2=— 0;

, ‘~ = ’ ’ > A /, »Ἥ.Ἤ πόλιες = TONS ; ἰχθύες = ἰχθῦς ; τιμήεν = τιμῆν. vi οὗ Datives becomes ux (if vi, then vz), but in Opta-

tives, etc., ve must become v, when standing before a consonant, § 3, ἢ. 3.

§ 7. EvpHony ΜΊΤΗΙΝ Worps. II. Or Consonants.

The Greek tongue is not averse to accumulation of consonants, as, 6.0. θέλκτρον, but these consonants must be combined according to certain laws o Euphony. (If four consonants concur, the first and last are liquids),

1. No aspirated mute is ever doubled; of the inter- mediates only y;1 mand « are seldom so. The cunso- nants often doubled are τ, the sibilant, and the four liquids,

2. When two mutes of different orders come together, the second must be a dental,? and requires the first to be of the same grade with itself. Thus the root

ypad- before atenuis . (-τω) becomes ypar -τω. 5 » an intermediate (-δη) ,, σράβ -δην. ῥαπ- , 81 αϑρίγαίξ (-θεί) ,, ῥαφ-θείς.

3. A rough breathing following the ¢enwes mutes (π, x, τ), raises them to their corresponding aspirate (φ, x, 9) (Assimilation), but does not affect intermediates (8, γ, δ).

οὐκ ἕξω becomes οὐχ ἕξω ; νύκτ᾽ ὅλην, νύχθ᾽ ὅλην (but οὐδ᾽ ἕξω) ; also in composition, ἀπὸ and inus = ἀφίημι.

N.—This was not a law in the Ionic dialect, hence (by ψίλω- σις, or dropping of aspiration) ἀπ᾽ οὗ, Ionic for ἀφ᾽ οὗ. Such words as Λεύκιππος, ἀντήλιος, etc., occurring in Attic, are inheritances from the Ionic,

1 Such as ἀββᾶ, ξδδεισεν are not Attic. 2 Except in compounds of ἐκ, as ἐκψύχω and foreign words (Ayfdrava),

3 The only attempt at doubling an aspirate is prefixing its own smooth. Fence Xardw, not Σαφφώ ; Πιτθεύς, not Πιθθεύς (MaG@aios is not Hellenic).

8 EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. (§ 7.

4, When two consecutive syllables commence with an aspirate, the first descends to its corresponding tenuis (Dissimilation, common in Reduplications).

θύφω becomes τύφω ; φεφίληκα becomes πεφίληκα.

ἐθέ-θην becomes ἐτέθην ; θίθημι becomes τίθημι.

So an initial rough breathing, with an aspirated mute opening the second syllable, often passes into the smooth breathing :—

ἕχω — ἔχω ; Ec Ons from stem éo- = ἐσθής.

1. In one formation, it is the second aspirate that is modified while the first remains, viz., in Imperative of 1 Aor. P. as σώθητι (for σὠθηθι). Yet σὠθηθ᾽, ὅσον γε, etc.

2. Whenever, by any inflectional change, a second aspirate disappears, aspiration is communicated to a lanes tenuis.

rom stem rped- arise τροφή, τρέφω, but θρεπτός, θρέμμα, θρέψω. “ From stem τριχ- arise gen. τριχός ; dat. τριχί, but nom. θρίξ, dat. plural, θριξί (xs becoming xs, whence &).

From stem éy- compare present ἔχω, with future ἕξω, noun ἕξις. (Cf. Ionic κιθών for χιτών, by alternation.)

Excep. 1. If a consonant intervenes immediately before the second aspirate, there is no change, θέσθαι, ἐθρέφθην (but, without intervening consonant, ἐτράφην).

Excep. 2, An aapirete in the inflectional ending, or in the second part of a compound, does not always affect a fore- going contiguous aspirate :-οφάθι (stem da, ending 61) ; ἐχύθην ; (τεθάφαται doubted) ; compounds, ὀρνιθοθήρας, ἀμφιφορεύς (although ἐκε-χειρία for ἐχε-χειρία). In these, the component elements are treated as independent.

5. A dental before another dental, and usually before μι} becomes ς (Dissimilation) ; before o itself or x, it (lisappears :—

ψευδ- + Onvat, + μα = ψευσθῆναι, ψεῦσμα. ψευδ- + cw = Ψεύσω. So πέπειθ + xa = πέπεικα.3

1 In some poetic words and in the dialects, we find πότμος, ἴδμεν, and in Attic, ἀτμός, oldua, σταθμός. ete. Hence some deny the transition of dental before u into s, and express the phenomenon in other form.

2cCf. Latin ed-t Lecoming es-t (eats); pend-sum becoming pen-sum; ako Godspel becoming Gospel. o between two consonants in medio-passive endings, is dropped :—

ἠγγελ + σθαι = ἠγγέλθαι τετριπ + THe = τέτριφθε.

8 7.] EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 9

6. w changes a Roots. Endings.

: labial before it into uw. Brer+pya = βλέμμα. guttural ἃ. γ. πλεκ -Ἐ μα = πλέγμα. dental . c ad -Ἐμα = dopa.

1. ἐκ remains, as, ἐκμολεῖν. Except, also, ἀκμή, ἄκμων, αἰχμή, ἀτμός, δραχμή, βαθμός, and the Epic ἀκαχμένος, κεκορυθμένος, ete. If yyp or pup thus arises, γμ or py is accepted ; as in πέμπω (πέ-πεμπ-μαι, πε-πεμμ-μαι), πέ-πεμ-μαι.

7. v, before ἃ labial, becomes μι ἐν-Ἐ μένω = ἐμμένω.

So cuv-, παλιν- become συμ-, παλιμ- before ΠΤ. B, φ. ᾿ guttural, ,, y. ἐν-Ἐ καλεω = ἐγκαλέω. So συν-, παλιν- become συγ-, παλιγ- before Ky Y> X: dental, remains,? as ἔνδον, ἐντός, ete.

? liquid, is assimilated. ἐν + λείπω = ἐλλεί- πω, cu+paTtTo = συῤῥάπτω. (This is Assimilation backward or regressive, but ὄλ-νυ-μι becoming ὄλλυμι, is by assimilation forward or progressive.)

Excep. The preposition ἐν remains before Pp; a8 ἐν + ῥάπτω = ἐνράπτω.

» the stbilant,is dropped. δαίμον -Ἐ σι --: δαί- fool. κευ-στὸς == KETTOS.

sp? 1. ν is not dro αὶ before o in 2nd persons singular of the Perfect and Plup. Pass. from some verbs in -va, as from φαίνω, πέφανσαι, and πέφανσο. Cf. the noun ἀπό- φανσις, though also ἀπόφασις ; also the ancient Tipurs. Excep. 2. ἐν remains before o, () p, or ¢; σύν drops ν before σ (5) with a consonant or before ¢, but assimilates ν before σ ts with a vowel. Ὁ) ἐνσταλέντες (8) σύσσϊτοι καὶ (2) σύσκηνοι συζῶσι. N.—When ν and a dental together are both dropped before σ,

then, to preset the preceding syllable of the same prosodial length as before, the preceding vowel, if doubtful (a, «, v', becomes

1 « being the labial liquid. 2 v being the dental liquid.

10 EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. [8 7.

naturally long ; if naturally short (ε, 0), it passes into the corre- sponding (graphical)? diphthong (ει, ov).?

avTs = ds, evrs = ets, wOs = ts, οντς = ous, υντς = Us.

τύψαντς = rods; τυπέντσι = τυπεῖσι ; ἔλμινθσι = ἔλμῖσι ; τὐπτοντσιΞε:τύπτουσι; δεικνύντσι = δεικνῦσι. So omevd + co = σπείσω, €vs=els. In Nom.S8., such as τύπτων, if out of τυπτοντ-ς, is peculiar.

8. Any mute of the labial or guttural series before o is absorbed with it into the corresponding double con- sonant. Aeum+ow = λείψω ; Aey +o = λέξω.

9. Harsh concurrences are softened by inserting auxi- liary consonants to render transitions more easy, or by other modifications.

The following combinations of liquids with liquids were not allowed, up, μὰ, vp, vA, vu. If (1) the con- currence arose from the meeting of liquids in the process of compounding words, it was modified by assimilation, as in vp passing into pp, eg., σύν + ῥάπτω becoming συρράπτω, and similarly with vA and vw becoming AX and wp. But (2) if the concurrence was in the interior of a stem, euphony was produced by the insertion of an auxiliary consonant, whence for wp comes μβρ, ete.

Between yw and p (or w and 2) is inserted 8.2 γαμρος becomes γαμβρός ; μεσημερία, by syncope of e [μεση- μρία], becomes μεσημβρία. Cf. numerus, number. Also [μέμλωκα] becomes μέμβλωκα.

Between ν and ρ is inserted 6. ἀνέρος, by syncope of ε, dvpos = ἀνδρός. Cf. tener, tender.

Between o and X is inserted 6. ἐσλός Doric, is in Attic ἐσθλός. By is not tolerated, as eg., σεβ-νός has to become σεμνός, and Bva-yo-yat (woo a wife) μνάομαι.

10. In the case of the liquids (A, μ, v, p), sometimes a shifting of position takes place (μετάθεσις), as θάρσος and θράσος ; occasionally with lengthening of quantity, as from ἔβἄλον, Bé-BAn-xa.—( Metathesis ).

1 cy. ὃ 6, fn. 3.

3 Compare the similar treatment of the vocalisation of the I. Aorist in Liquid verbs, as ἔκρινα for ἔκριν-σα, ἔστειλα for ἔστελ-σα.

3 Sometimes a 8 thus formed displaces, at the beginning of words, the u which it was introduced to help; as μαλακός becomes (through μλαξ, μβλαξ), βλαξ; ¢f. βλώσκω, βροτός, βλίττω, from stems μολ, pop, μελιτ.

“7

§ 8.] EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 11

11. The vowel « has frequently been raised to form part of an antecedent syllable (ef. Fr. histozre out of L. historia), especially in connection with ν or p, as τείνω from rtev-cw, st. rev-. ἐλαύνω for édAa-vu-w appears to be a similar instance with v.—( Epenthesis ).

12. A Greek word must end either in a vowel ora semi-vowel, and therefore no Greek word (apart from é« and ov«') ends in a mute or with a consonant, except with one of the three semi-vowels ν, p, o (ξ, wv)?

Any consonant, other than ν, p, σ, happening to end a word, is therefore dropped from the end of the stem, as

τ in μέλι (honey), stem perit-, G. μέλετος.

σῶμα (body), stem σωματ-, G. σώματος. ἦσαν (were) for noavt, Cp. L. erant.

κτ in ava (O king), for ἀνακτ- from ἄναξ, ἄνακτος. γάλα (milk), stem γαλακτ-, G. γάλακτος.

N.B.—The tenues and aspirate Mutes, with s (ξ, y), are known

as surd (i.e. sharp or abrupt-ending sounds): the other consonants as also the vowels are sonant ({.6. flat, as allowing after-murmur.)

Table of Chief Euphonic Changes of Consonants.

Ι

τ ὃ θ μ σ

comes comes comes comesicomes

From any labial with πτ βὃ φΦφθ μμ]) ψ From any guttural with κτ γὃὸ χθ γμὶ ἕ From any dental with στ --ὃ σθ σμ᾽ o

§ 8. ΕΥΡΗΟΝΥ BETWEEN Worps. Hiatus is the harsh concurrence of two vowels not

forming a diphthong (such as in English @ ox). Such

1 ἐκ and οὐκ adhere usually so closely to the following words that tl fn them is rather medial than final. Sc with ast ee 2 Such a word as Θεύθ (Egyptian Thoth) is seen at once to be non-Helleni Even μ, though a semivowel, has when ΝΣ place to ν, as in Aocenativen μῦν inst Feorem, Sad in Ist persons of verbs, as ἐδίδων for ἐδίδωμ, cf, Skt, ν ἈΠ am,

3 No instance of this combination in Attic. καῤῦσαι, Epic. 4 Doubtful.

12 EUPHONY BETWEEN WORDS. [§ 8.

a concurrence was in Greek usually avoided, and speci- ally in the Attic dialect.

In Attic there were three ways of avoiding hiatus between words—elision, insertion, and crasis.

1. ELIsIon is the striking off of a short final vowel (in- dicated by the sign (ἢ apostrophe, in Gr. ἀπόστροφος) :—

ταῦτα εἶπε into ταῦτ᾽ εἶπε; ταῦτα εὗρε into ταῦθ᾽ εὗρε

(0 for τ by ὃ 7, 8). (Elision of az, οὐ rare and only poetic.)

But no elision of— 1. v anywhere, or of 2. a, t,o in monosyllables such as μά (except pa in Homer), or of 3. cin περί, ἄχρι, μέχρι, ὅτι, OF -σι in dative plural of third declension. (ὅτ᾽ in Attic is only for ὅτε, not ὅτι.)

Any preposition may have its end-vowel elided in composition, except περί and mpo.! (πρό with either e or o = mpov-, by orsees

Prodelision or Aphieresis is elision of a short initial vowe (chiefly poetic), as ἐγὼ ᾿φάνην for ἐφάνην.

2. INSERTION of a moveable consonant (k, ς, v).

1. (x.) Ov, not, stands before a consonant, but before a vowel becomes οὐκ, before an aspirated vowel, οὐχ; AS οὐ σχήσω, οὐκ ἔχω, οὐχ ἕξω.

So od + ert --ὸα οὐκέτι ; on the same analogy, μὴ + ere = μηκέτι, no longer. οὐκ probably from οὐ-κί, and κι = τι, Whence it is = no-whit = not.

2. (s.) Οὕτω, thus, before a consonant, sometimes also οὕτως in prose, but before any vowel, regularly οὕτως ; as οὕτω σχήσει, but οὕτως ἔχει and ἕξει.

In Ionic, which allowed hiatus, οὕτω even before vowels. —(If οὕτως is older than οὕτω, s may be claimed as no real insertion. )}—s in μέχρις, ἄχρις, also moveable.

1In the poets we find elision of a skort vowel even before a consonant, viz.,in the ἃ of apa, ἀνά, κατά and παρά, becoming ap, av, κάτ and πάρ. is called Apoc It rarely occurs with ἀπὸ and ὑπό.) κάτ in composition or close union undergoes euphonic changes, (1) assimilation, as in κάππεσον for κάτ-πεσον, κάββαλε, κὰδ δύναμιν, (2) ejection before two consonants, as κάκτανε for xaré-xrave, but remains before @ as κάτθανε for κατέθανε. ἄν (for ἀνά) also becomes ἀμ before » and the three labials, as ἀμπεπαλών. Some traces of apocope in Imperatives, as παῦ for παῦε ; and certain Epic forms of nouns are reduced by apocope, as κρῖ for κριθή, δῶ for δῶμα.

§ 8.] EUPHONY BETWEEN WORDS. 13

So ἐκ (= Latin e), owt of, before a consonant, but be- fore a vowel or at the end of its clause, ἐξ; as ἐκ τούτου, ἐξ ὑποψίας or ὑποψίας ἐξ.

Ν.Β.---παὐθύ and εὐθύς, αὖθι and αὖθις differ in sense. ἀντικρύ Epic, avrixpus Attic, differ in dialect. 3. (v.)! Attached to— (a) Third persons singular in ε. ἔτυψεν ἐμέ, but ἔτυψέ σε.

ἣν = ἦεν = erat with e supposed latent, has, (with ἐχρῆν) v attached before consonants as well as before vowels. The 3rd Sing. Pluperf. in εἰ is sometimes ew, as ἤδειν, noverat; also, in μὰ δῶ the Imperf., as ἤσκειν.

ν epedx. is not attached to a long vowel except it has resulted from contraction. nv seems the sole ex- ception.

(8) The termination -ov, whether in dative plural of nouns, or in third persons singular and plural of verbs, or in locative adverbs, or the numeral εἴκοσι, also πέρυσι, παντάπασι. (μι demonstrati- vum may have ν, but only where o precedes.)

τίθησιν ἐμέ, but τίθησί ce, εἴκοσιν, οὑτωσ ίν. 1. νύ, κέ, νόσφι, and the Epic suffix qu, admit ν before ἃ

vowel. Adverbs in -θεν (not ὅθεν, πόθεν, etc.), may drop ν in poetry, and πρόσθε appears even in Attic prose.

2. ν appears in the poets, even before a consonant, so as to make position and obtain a long syllable, as εν yp stg ot in one erson, me with ν.

3. In ἡμῖν and ὑμῖν, the ν, if origi moveable (as in ἄμμι), has become fixed. ΠΥ. (

4, If a final vowel admits of the addition of ν, it does not elide in prose.”

3. CRASIS (κρᾶσις, mixing), is the fusion of an end- yowel (or diphthong) with an initial vowel (or diph- thong) following, so as to form one long syllable. It is indicated by the coronis (’), when the resulting word opens with a consonant, as

1 Commonly called v ἐφελκυστικόν, assumahble (or paragogic) v. The Tonic of Herodotus was not averse to hiatus and discarded this v. The origin of this ν is disputed, and some deny that it was originally a remedy against jiatus.

2 The only exception is ἐστί Game eat), which may admit four forms. 1. ἔστι τις" 2. ἔστιν ὅστις '" 8, εἶπερ dor ἔτι" 4. 68° ἔσθ᾽ ὁ σώσας,

14 THE SPIRANTS. [8 9.

ἮΝ ΩΝ ” \ > ΄ > , e τὸ ὄνομα == τοὔνομα ; τὸ ἀγαθόν = τἀγαθόν ; οἱ ἄνδρες == ἅνδρες."

1. Crasis takes place especially in words between which there exists a close connection, as between the article or the interjec- tion ὦ, and the nouns before which they stand. Besides these two instances, it is especially common with καί and πρό, and 6 and ἅ of the relative.

2. When the second word has the rough breathing, a tenuis in the first word rises to an aspirate after crasis, as τὰ ὅπλα --- θῶπλα ; καὶ ὅστις = χῶστις (chiefly in poetry). But in Ionic, τοὔνεκα, though from τοῦ ἕνεκα (cf. ὃ 6, 3,n.). In ἕτερος under crasis, a emerges, as τὸ ἕτερον, θἄτερον.

3. An end-diphthong drops its second vowel (:, ») before crasis ; hence no « subscribed appears unless the second word supplies an t; as καὶ ἐγώ = κἀγώ ; but καὶ εἶτα = xdra. Frequently the whole of an end-diphthong is dropped, as τοῦ αὐτοῦ = ταὐτοῦ, καὶ εἰ = kel, τοι ἂν = ray, τῷ ἀνδρί = τἀνδρί.

4, Synizésis is crasis in poetic pronunciation merely, and not in scription, as θεοί, ordinarily dissyllabic, but often requiring to be pronounced as one syllable, ete.

δ 9. SPECIALTIES AS TO THE SPIRANTS (3, F, AND Y).

The Spirants, as they are often called, viz., the sibi- lant Σ᾽ and the sounds answering to our V and Y (consonantal as in yonder), have special peculiarities.

1. Σ᾽ or the sibilant disappears or is modified in cer- tain instances.

(a) When initial, it passes frequently into the rough breathing or (‘), as ts (swine), coexisting with the fuller and older σῦς. The form with o is older, as in Latin sus and our sow. In other words, the rough breathing has superseded the initial o, as ἑπτά, seven, against L. septem, ἕπομαι, follow, as compared with L. sequor, etc.?

(8) When between two vowels, it is often dropped out,3 as in declension of neuter nouns in os (stem in es) and in certain verb formations, especially 2nd persons singular.

Stem. Forms of Genitive. 1. Nouns in os: γένος yeves- (yeveo-os) γένεος γένους.

1 Coronis (which means curved sign), is omitted where it would conflict with the sign of the rough breathing, as here.

2 Where o is retained as an initial before a vowel, it is found that the root began with more than s, as ¢.g., σάττω from a root svag, σάλος, from sval, &e.

3 Same transition (as in (a)), viz., by passing into h or ‘, but the interior breathing was not graphically represented and so was lost.

"Oat

§ 9.] THE SPIRANTS. 15

With yeveo-os, compare Latin gener-is. Similarly, by assimi- lation, φαεσ + vos = φαεννός in Molic, φαεινός in Ionic ; σκοτεινός is for σκοτεσνός = oxorevyds, etc. Words like Τειρεσίας, σακέσπαλος, ὀρέσ-βιος, come down from a time when this es was still surviving and clearly discernible.

2. Second Persons: (ἐτύπτεσο) ἐτύπτεο ἐτύπτου. (ἐτύψασο) ἐτύψαο ἐτύψω.

So βέβληαι Epic for βέβλησαι. In verbs in μι the σ in certain circumstances remains more stable; thus, τίθεσαι, ἐτί- θεσο; yet θοῦ, διδοῖο, like τύπτοιο.

3. In futures of the type of [μενέσω], τελέσω, into μενῶ, τελῶ.

4. In fem. of Peps. Perf., as [τετυφυσια] τετυφυΐα.

5. In stems of verbs, as νέομαι (for νέσομαι), and hence gene- rally uncontracted. [Yet o stands in μέσος, τόσος, &c. |

(y) When it meets another co, it sometimes disappears, leaving no trace, as in στήθεσ-σι becoming στήθεσι, while in Nominatives like ἀληθής, stem ἄληθες + ς (s as Nom. sign), there is a compen- satory lengthening of the vowel.

2. The other two spirants are only each an eidolon, surviving in a certain influence, but not present in bodily or consonantal form.

(a) The spirant, corresponding in many respects to our V, is known to have existed as the Digamma, with a form Ff, like the Latin F, and occupying, like it, the sixth place in the oldest form of the Greek alphabet.‘ This Digamma disappeared almost en- tirely in the historic time, surviving longest in the olic Dialect, whence it is sometimes called the Aolic Digamma, and appearing in Inscriptions of an early period. Thus the genitive of Bods, viz., Bods was at one time Bofds, a step nearer the Latin bovis. The influences of the lost Digamma are very marked in the oldest form of Greek (cf. Achivi prehistoric as against the historic Achaei), and are perceptible even in the Attic, as eg. preventing contraction, as in πνέω, ὄγδοος for dydofos, ef. iL octavus.

(8) The spirant, answering to our Y (in yonder) has no graphical sign and has been transformed.

1. Between vowels, it is dropped, as εἰ + ἂν for ἐμ + ἄν,

now ἐάν. 2. When initial, it is either lost or replaced by the rough breathing, as Skt. yushmé, = ye appears in Greek as

types (Molic) and ὑμεῖς. ὥρα (season) = our year, ιχαεαῦβ die” με pa ( ) year,

1 Compare Vau occupying the same place still in the Hebrew alphabet.

16 THE SPIRANTS. [8 Oa.

3. When preceded by a guttural (K-sound), the y blends with it into oo (New Attic rr), and similarly when pre- ceded by a ὃ (occasionally by y) blends therewith into ὦ (Comparatives in των, and Present verb-stems in -σσω,

and ζω.) Stem φυλακ + yo passes into φυλάσσω or -drra. » €Amd + Yo Pe ελπίζω. » BEY + Yor > μέζων (Ionic), less cor- rectly μείζων (Attic). » €Aax + Yor ἃ ἐλάσσων.

4. With a foregoing A, the y assimilates ; with a foregoing ν

or p, it is vocalised, and appears by epenthesis, § 7,11, as « in the previous syllable.

A. Gd-yos (1. alius) ἄλλος (Cretan αἷλος, Gaelic eile). ν. τερεν-α τέρεινα. θ dorep-ya δότειρα

Ο ε in γυναιξ, original of γυνή, has come from hypocoristie stem γυνακι- by epenthesis.?

§ 9a. Tabular View of Consonants in their Affinities.

LABIALS. | GUTTURALS. | DENTALS. π kK τ Tenues. I. Mores. 8 γ ὃ Intermediates. φ χ θ Aspirates. II. Sent- μ γ (ΞΞ η9) ν Nasals (Liquid) VOWELS, Ε3 ( y) σ Spirants. d and p not belonging to a special | Liquids vocal organ, but nearest to dentals. roper.

1. The vertical order exhibits the consonants of the same organ. The horizontal order indicates the series forming the

1 The occasional duplication of p can often be explained by the disap-

rance of a former spirant, as ἔρρεον, ἀπορρέω, from simple péw, having stem SRU, so that pp = ap; after a long vowel, εὐρρ-, also evpoos ; ἐρρᾶγην, ἀπορ- ρήγνυμι, Where pp seems to stands for Fp, if its cognate is L. srango, Also the apparent neglect of contraction in Attic is frequently due to remembrance of a vanished spirant, as πλέω for πλέρω. Thus éppeov (= Skt. asravam) shows loss of two spirants.

2 ὦν has a close affinity with the lost spirant Ff, and « stands in a similar relation to the latent spirant y or yod. ence, 1°, their firmness, generally, against elision (ξ 8,1); 2°, their presence, though vowels, in the Consonan Declension.

§ 10.} ACCENTS. 17

sounds in the same plane of gradation. The Labial column might have been continued so as to include its kindred vowel, viz., v, and the Guttural column might similarly terminate in its cognate vowel, viz., «, the sister of y, which again has an affinity with Gutturals such as g, or Palato-gutturals, 7, etc.

2. The Gutturals require the greatest force for their articula- tion (§ 5, footnote), and hence are sometimes modified for greater ease of enunciation. Thus the stem oc (of oculus) comes up in Greek as ὁπ, ¢.g., in ὄψομαι. and coquo = mem, by a change called Lalialism. Also κ of primitive interrogative (= quis in L., co in Gaelic, xo- in Ionic Greek) comes up as ris in Attic Greek, by a change called Dentalism. Compare τέσσαρες and its cognates.

§ 10. THe AccENTs.

1. There are two accents, the acute or sharp accent (’), and the circumflex or lengthened accent (7).

The acute may stand indifferently upon a long ora short syllable ; the circumflex can stand only on a syllable which contains a vowel long by nature. Thus, tude, but τύπτε, because in this last, v is long only by position, and not, as in τῦφε, by its own nature or quality.

Any syllable without either of these is supposed to have, or to be capable of having, the grave or negative accent (°).

2. The acute may stand on any of the last THREE syllables of a word: on the antepenult, however, only when the end-syllable is short, as σώματος, but, with end-syllable long, it descends a step, as in σωμάτων.

Ons.—Apparent exceptions are οἱ and a in end-syllables of such as ἄνθρω- ποι, and the w of Attic dialect in such as πόλεως, ἀνώγεων.

3. The circumflex may stand on either of the last TWO syllables of a word: on the penult, however, only when the end-syllable is short, as λῦσἄν, but λύσᾶς, mpatis, but πράξεις.

Ons.—Conversely, we can often discern the quantity of vowels from the accent. Thus in φύλακας, θάλασσα, πέλεκυς, πρᾶξις, the end syllable is short,

in χώρα, ὁπώρα, it is long. Also in such as τίνες, ἴθι, the penult must be short, for if were long, they would be rives, ἴθι (wrongly).

4. Tlie acute on an end-syllable, not followed by a point or a pause, is reversed into the grave accent. 9

18 DECLENSION. [8 11.

(This is the only ordinary occurrence of the sign of the grave accent.) Thus, ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός, but ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ. Except in the interrogative τίς, τί, what ? which has always ’, as τίς ἔφη ;

The circumflex is a union of the acute and the grave, as is shown A ancient form (2), as dpddpev = ὁρῶμεν, ἄξθλον = ἄθλον. us ποιέεὶ becomes ποιεῖ, but ποίὲὲ = ποίει.

Punctuation Marks.

Comma (,). Colon AY, Period (.). Interrogation (;). Some critics insert the modern point of exclamation (/).

PART Il. MORPHOLOGY :—Inrtectrion or WorD-FORMS.

Langue, when analysed, resolves itself into τ, τ of words capable of being classified, under different categories, as Parts of Speech. Of these

of s h the most important in an etymological point of view are the Noun, the noun, and the Verb, each having its own series of inflections. Both the Noun and the Verb rest on a common is of ultimate elements called Roo which, like fusible metal in the hands of the moulder, develope on the one han into Noun-stems and on the other into Verb-stems, both capable of inflection, and so made serviceable for articulate s h. Inasmuch as the Verb, by its so called pronominal endings, presupposes the Pronoun, and as the Noun is simpler in its inflections than the noun, it is proper to begin with the Noun and its Article, and first of the

Noun (SUBSTANTIVE).

§ 11. The inflection of the Noun is specially called Declension.

The Declension of the noun (Substantive) consists in the inflection or alteration which a noun undergoes in order to express the various relations of Case and Number (and in the noun Adjective the additional relation of Gender). In the process of Declension, three parts of the noun have to be closely observed.

1, Stem,’ the fundamental part which remains un- changed or only euphonically modified.

1The Stem of verb or noun (also called ‘ Base’ or ‘ Theme’), being the adapted Root, is rarely identical with the Root, which is the Primitive ele- ment distantly discernible, in general, behind the stem. Thus, in δίδωμι δόσις, δῶρον, Savos, the stems are many (διδο-, δοσι-, δῶρο-, etc.), but the roo is one, viz., da (give), which has undergone these adaptations in the form of stems, but éa- does not occur in Greek as itself a stem, In τιμή, τίσις, τιμάω, we find similar modifications of a root τι" or «i, but this happens also to be itself a stem, as in ἄ-τι-το-ς from τίω.

Pe 7 on

811] DECLENSION. 19

2. Termination or case-suffix, which is the variable part appended to the stem.

3. Character, the last letter of the stem, by which the stems are classified.

There are in Greek three Declensions of nouns (in- cluding adjectives and participles).

1. First Declension, a stems. 2. Second Declension, o stems.

3. Third Declension (a) Consonantal stems, (8) Thin vowel stems (in « or v).

GENERAL RULES OF DECLENSION.!

1. The vocative, for the most part in the singular, and always in the dual and plural, is like the nomina- tive.

2. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nominative, accusative and vocative alike in all numbers, and these cases in the plural end always in a.”

3. The dative can never be without 1,2 and, in the singular, always ends with it, either subscribed or ad- scribed.

4. The genitive plural ends in wv‘; the accusative plural, of nouns not neuter, in s.

5. In the dual the nominative, accusative, and voca- tive are alike, and so also are the genitive and dative.

1 Greek declension differs from Latin in two respects. 1. In Greek there is no ablative, the meanings of that case being distri- buted between the genitive and certain uses of the dative, 2. There is a separate number for pairs of things, called the dual number, (absent however in AZolic Dialect, and ulmost vanished in Latin). The oblique cases are the Gen. Dat. Acc. The Nom. and Voc, are not cases strictly s , but are known as casus recti. Casus is a translation of the G πτῶσις, and Accusative and Genitive are bad translations of the much soe Greek terms αἰτιατική (causative case) and γενική (generic or case of a genus - τορι Ahn the Attic Second Declension in wv, and after contraction, as κήτεα = = cété, ἁπλᾶ, etc, 3 Except in Molic and in some foreign words in ovs ; see § 15, n. 8. 4 Except in Doric genitives plural in ἂν.

20 FIRST DECLENSION. [8 12, 18.

8 12. THE ARTICLE.

1. The article, or distinctive pronoun, is declined with forms combining those of the 1st and 2nd Declensions. Being originally a demonstrative pronoun, it has no vo- cative! (The sign of the vocative is the interjection ὦ.)

2. The scheme of its declension unites two stems o- and to-, the former supplying the parts denoting a personal (or pro-personal) subject, the latter the objective or non-subjective parts.

3. In the genitive plural of pronouns, the feminine is ordinarily like the masculine, and is often so in the whole of the dual.

Singular. Plural. M. F, N. M. F. Ν, Nom.o ἡ τό, the Νοιη.οἱἠἡ αἱ Ta

Gen. τοῦβϑ τῆς τοῦ, of the Gen. τῶν τῶν τῶν Dat. τῷ τῇ τῷ, to the Dat. τοῖς ταῖς τοῖς

Acc. τὸν τήν to, the Ace. τούς τάς τά Dual. M. F, N. Nom, Ace, τώ τώ (Ta) τώ Gen. Dat. τοῖν τοῖν (ταῖν) τοῖν

§ 13. Tue First (on A) DECLENSION.

Has four terminations, as in Latin, two feminine, ἡ, a, two masculine, ys, ds. The endings of the dual and plural are alike for all, and have a for their chief vowel,

1 Some uses of oi, etc., seem to be almost vocative. Ar. Ach. 54, 824 etc.

2 There is no indefinite article in Greek, apart from τις = some (generally put after its noun), and εἷς = one, for which see nouns, etc. τός and τή do not occur, but find an analogy in αὐτός and οὗτος. In the plural τοί and ταί sur- vive in Epic and in Doric. Dialectic forms are G. τοῖο for τοῦ, α΄. Pl, Ἐς τάων" and τᾶν. These peculiar forms are really true demonstratives,

3 With the emerging of τ in the inflection, compare the similar introduction of the corresponding th in its English congener, the Anglo-Saxon article, M. se, F. sed, N. thet, G. thes, ete. The older form of ὁ in Greek was sa, transform to 6, according to § 9, 1.

ἃ 19.] FIRST DECLENSION. 91

except in the Genitive plural, which is in ὧν, from der, and therefore circumflexed.

in the singular is a modification of an original This Declension answers to the 1st and 5th of the Latin tongue. (A.) FEMININES—7 AND a.

1. » has ἡ throughout the singular; a pure (we. pre- ceded by a vowel) and pa have a throughout. 2. a, whether pure or impure, has always ἂν in the

accusative ; but, in the genitive and dative, a impure (i.¢., preceded by a consonant) takes 7.)

Noun in ἡ. τιμή, honour. Singular. Dual. Plural. Nom. ἡ τίν ἡ Nom. tip @. Nom. tip ai.

Gen. τιμ ἧς. Gen. τιμ αἷν. Gen. tip ὧν. Dat. τιμ ἢ. Dat. typaw. Dat. τιμ ais. Ace. τίμ ἦν. ACC. τιμ a. Acc. Tip as.

Voe. Typ. VOC. τιμ a. Voc. Tip αἱ. Nouns in a. a pure. ρα. a impure

Sing. (always short). N.V. ἡ σκὶά, shadow. ἡ θήρα, hunt. ἡ δόξα, glory. σ. σκιᾶς. θήρας. δόξης.

D. σκιᾷ. θήρᾳ. δόξῃ.

Α σκιάν. θήραν. δύξᾶν. Dual. |

N. A.V. σκιά. θήρα. δόξα.

G.D. σσκιαῖν. θήραιν. δόξαιν. Plur

N. σκιαί. θῆραι. δόξαι.

G. σκιῶν. θηρῶν. δοξῶν.

D. σκιαῖς. θήραις. δόξαις.

A. σκιᾶς. θήρᾶς. δόξᾶς.

1 In accusativo a semper habet av; sed in genitivo et dativo, a impurum adsciscit n.

22 FIRST DECLENSION. [8 18.

N. 1. Doric words taken into Attic, retain a in Gen. and Dat., even though in a impure, as ἀλαλά, slogan or war-cry, Gen. as, and proper names having a long, as Anda, Φιλομήλᾶ.

2. Impure contracts from pure originals likewise retain a in Gen. and Dat., as μνᾶ (from pyda), a mina ; G. μνᾶς ; Ὁ. pra (but συκέα, fig-tree, συκῆ, G. συκῆς, συκῇ, etc.) ; ᾿Αθηνᾶ (from ᾿Αθηνάα), Minerva; G. ᾿Αθηνᾶς ; 1). ᾿Αθηνᾷ, etc. Doric ᾿Αθάνα, G. -νας, in the Tragic poets.

EXAMPLES.

1, ἡ. 2. a pure and ρα. 3. a vmpure. κόμη, hair. olkia, house. γλῶσσᾶ, tongue. φωνή, voice. θύρα, door. δίψα, thirst. δή, ode. edpa, seat. πεῖνᾶ, hunger. yi, earth. orod, porch. μέλισσἄ, bee. νεφέλῃ, cloud. ἀγορᾶ, market. θάλασσᾶἄ, sea.

βροντή, thunder. ayxipa, anchor. pia, root.

(B.) MASCULINES—ns and as.

1, Masculines in ἧς and ἄς, follow, respectively, the feminines in ἡ and ἃ in the three oblique cases except the Genitive Sing., which they form in ov.

The Genitive in -ov is based by some upon the Homeric -ao, thence by Ionic influence -eo or -ew, and from -εο, by ordinary contraction, του. Examples exist of -ao and -ew, but of -eo only inferentially. Some consider του a transference direct from Second Declension.

2. The Vocative from ds, is normally in a long; the vocative from ἧς is rarely in 7, usually in a short.

Rvui_E.—Nouns in τῆς ἦ ; compounds in πῆς ; na- tional names in ys, and compounds in ns affixed to the stem of a verb, have a@ in the Vocative.

κριτής, judge; Voc. κριτᾶ. κυνώπης, dog-faced; Voe. κυνῶπὰ. . :

Σκὕθης, a Scythian; Voc. Σ᾽ κύθα.

From stem μετρε----γεωμέτρης, geometer; Voce. a.

From stem τριβ----παιδοτρίβης, schoolmaster; Voce. a.

But individual names, not being in τῆς, and patrony- niics in ns, retain 7 in Vocative.

1 τῆς habet ἃ vocativi, sic ys, nomina gentium, sic ys juncta radici verbi, sed neque proprium nec patronymicum.

§ 13.) FIRST DECLENSION. | 23

Patron. ’Arpeidns, son of Atreus; Voc. ᾿Ατρείδη. Individ. Πέρσης, Perses; Voc. Πέρση (Πέρσης, a Persian, has of course Voc. Πέρσᾶ, and Πέρσᾶ is its

dual.). But Θερσῖτᾶ, Φιλοκτῆταᾶ, ᾿Ορέστᾶ, from Nom. in της. Sing. Son of Atreus. N. 6 rta&pas, tiara. ὁ pits, judge. ὁ ᾽Ατρείδης, G. τιάρου. κριτοῦ. ᾿Ατρείδου. D. τιάρᾳ, κριτῇ. ᾿Ατρείδῃ. Α. τιάραν. κριτήν. ᾿Ατρείδην. V. τιάρα. κριτᾶ. ᾿Ατρείδη. Dual. N. A. V. τιάρᾶ. KptTa. ᾿Ατρείδᾶ. G.D. πτιάραιν. κριταῖν. ᾿Ατρείδαιν. Plur. ΝΟ. τιᾶραι. κριταί. ᾿Ατρεῖδαι. G. τιαρῶν. κριτῶν. ᾿Ατρειδῶν. D. τιάραις. κριταῖς. ᾿Ατρείδαις. Α. τιάρᾶς. κριτᾶς. ᾿᾿Ατρείδᾶς. EXAMPLES. as. ης. nS. νεανίας, a youth. ποιητής, a poet. ναύτης, & sailor. μονίας, ἃ solitary. πολίτης, a citizen. προφήτης, a prophet. ταμίας, a steward. dpdrns,aploughman. μαθητής, a scholar. *AvSpéas, Andrew. rexvirns, an artist. ὑποκρϊτης, an actor.

N. 1. The £Zolic Nom. in -τᾶ resembles that of the Latin poeté, so that ναῦτἄ is Aolic for ναύτης = L. nauta.

2. The Ionic Genitive in -ew appears in Attic only in proper names as Τήρεω (pronounced Teryo, diss.), from Typns. -ew of Gen. in Homer and Hesiod, is always pronounced in one syllable (synizesis), § 8, 3, 4, hence not under § 10, 2 for accent, and, after a vowel, is written aso. Cf. G. ΠηληιάδεωΩ with G. Alveio.

3. The Doric genitive in a appears in Attic chiefly in — and especially Doric, proper names, ᾿Αβροκόμας ; G. a or ov, In βοῤῥᾶς, πατραλοίας, μητραλοίας, and ὀρνιθοθήρας, the genitive is always Doric. N. βοῤῥᾶς (from βορέας) ; G. βοῤῥᾶ; D. βοῤῥᾷ; A. rig ; V. βοῤῥᾶ.

4. The Attic poets admit av as well as as in the dative plural. Some consider ag abbreviated from aw: ; others consider aw as properly a locative, and as as an instrumental case, formed on analogy of os in Second Declension.

24 SECOND DECLENSION. [§ 14.

DIALECTS.

Sing. Eolic, Dorie. Tonic.

in Mase. | Fem. Mase. Fem. Mase. Nom. a a as ἢ ης Gen. ao as a ns €@, ὦ Ace. αν αν αν nv ea, late. Plur. £olic. Doric. Tonic. Gen. dey ay εων Dat. aot, ns, not Acc. as as

δ 14, THe Seconp (oR O) DECLENSION

Has two terminations, os and ον (Latin ws and wm), of which os is usually masculine, sometimes feminine, and ov always neuter. N.B.—The Nominative in os makes the Vocative in ε, as ἄνεμος, ventus ; ἄνεμε, vente. (Chief instance where o of i subsides into ες.) But ©Geds,.Deus, has ὦ Θεός, 5 eus.

N. The Attic had a tendency to assimilate the Vocative to the Nomina- tive; hence often ὦ φίλος, for ὦ φίλε.

os, Masculine. os, Feminine. ov, Neuter.

Singular.

N. ὁ Ady os, word. ἡ adds, way. τὸ δῶρον, gift. G. λόγ ov. . ὁδοῦ. δώρου. D. oy ῳ. ὁδῷ. δώρῳ. Α. doy ον. ὁδόν. δῶρον. Υ. λόγ ε. ὁδέ. δῶρον. Dual.

N. A.V. λόγω. 000. - δώρω. G. D. Roy ou. ὁδοῖν. δώροιν. Plural,

ΝΥ: λόγ οι. ooo, ἐξῇ δῶρᾶ. α. oy ων. ὁδῶν. δώρων. Ώ. λόγ οις. ὁδοῖς. δώροις. Α. Aor ους. ὁδούς. δῶρα.

1 In Matt. xxvii. 46, θεέ. ᾿Αμφίθεε, in Ar, Ach. 173, is a proper name.

§ 15.] ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. 25 EXAMPLES.

os, Masculine. os, Feminine. ov, Neuter. δῆμος, the people. ἄμπελος, ἃ Vine. δένδρον, a tree. κύριος, ἃ master. νῆσος, 8γι island. ἔξύλον, stick. ἄνθρωπος, aman (homo). νόσος, disease. ὅπλον, a Weapon. ἀδελφός, a brother. σποδός, ashes. Οἤὄργᾶνον, instrument. vids, ἃ son. παρθένος, a Virgin. ἔργον, work. ἄγγελος, a messenger. _ βίβλος, a book. μῆλον, apple. νόμος, law. mpoBaror, a sheep.

ConTRACTED Nouns.

Singular. : N. πλόος, πλοῦς, Voyage. ὀστέον ὀστοῦν, bone. σ. πλόου, πλοῦ. ὀστέου, ὀστοῦ. D. πλόῳ, πλῷ. ὀστέῳ, ὀστῷ. A. πλόον, πλοῦν. ὀστέον. ὀστοῦν. γ. πλόε, [πλοῦ]. ὀστέον, ὀστοῦν. Dual.

N. A. V. πλόω, πλώ. 60Téw, ὀστώ. G. D. πλόοιν, πλοῖν. ὀστέοιν, ὀστοῖν. Plural.

N. V. mAdot, πλοῖ. ὀστέα, ὀστᾶ. σ. πλόων, πλῶν. ὀστέων, ὀστῶν. D. mAdots, πλοῖς. ὀστέοις, ὀστοῖς. A. πλόους, πλοῦς. ὀστέα, ὀστᾶ.

So decline νόος = νοῦς, mind; ῥόος = ῥοῦς, 6, stream. Also adjectives in oos and eos.

Ops.—In compounds like ἔκπλους, the accent is kept on the same syllable asin the beatenct 1 Nom. —an > thus G. ἔκπλου direct from Nom. ἔκπλους (not h ἐκπλόον, which would give ἐκπλοῦ).

Dialects,

poetry os) in Doric. § 15. Tue Attic SEconD DECLENSION? Puts w* in a few nouns for o throughout; in the cases

1 The contracted vocative in ov is not found. "AAxivoe in Odyss. So ὦ Κέλεε,

Ar, Ach, 565. 2 This is a variety of the Second Declension, applicable chiefly to a few nouns with treatment in Attic and sometimes in neo-Ionic. It is not to

be inferred that nouns in os are not Attic also, thus λαός occurs alongside of λεώς, but the former is not tere μὰ to Attic, while the latter is so pre-emi- nently.—Observe that an ἃ short is not modified, but a long ἃ or » usually passes into « before ws. (ἵλεως is therefore properly from an original ἵλᾶος, by méetathesia of quantity.)

3 This w being for o, is treated as for accentuation purposes short, and does not come under § 10, 2.

26 ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. [§ 15.

where « follows o, the « is subscribed ; in those where v follows, the v is ejected. Vocative is always like nomi- native. Even the nominative plural neuter is in for a.

Singular, ΝΥ. ὁ λαγ ώς, hare. τὸ ἀνώγεων, dining-room. G. Aay ώ. ἀνώγεω. D. hay ᾧ. ἀνώγεῳ. Α. λαγ ὦν. ἀνώγεων. Dual. N. A. V. λαγ ὦ. ἀνώγεω. G. D. hay ᾧν. ἀνώγεῳν. Plural. Ni Vi ray ᾧ. avaryew. σα. λαγ Ov. ἀνώγεων. D. ay Os. ἀνώγεῳς. Α. λαγ ws. ἀνώγεω. EXAMPLES. ταῶς, peacock. Mase. λεώς (for Adds), people. Mase. κάλως, ἃ rope. a MevéAews, Menelaus. Ψ

νεώς (for νᾶός) temple. ,, ἅλως, threshing floor. Fem.

1. The ν of the Acc. Sing. (in nouns not neuter) is sometimes dropped: λαγώς, Acc. λαγὼ and λαγών ; rad in oo names, Kas, ‘Cos, accusative Κῶ. (Cf. Livy’s ad montem At

2. ἕως, ἡ, the morning, is thus declined.

N. V. ἕως ; G. ἕω ; D. ἕῳ ; A. ἔω. The Ionic and Epic form ἠώς is of the third leclodaion (ef. ὃ 18, 7, 1).

3. Allied to the Attic form of declension is the half-developed inflection for foreign words and names, in which the vowel or diphthong of the Nom. is retained throughout.

MOG DMA

Attic decl. ὡς, @, @, wv, as,

Foreign decl. as, a, a, av, a, aS Θωμᾶς, Thomas. NS, 1 ἢ, ἥν, 7, a8 Μανασσῆς, Μωυσῆς,ἷ ete. ουὅς, οὐ, οὐ, OU, OV, aS Ἰησοῦς, Jesus, but Χριστός,

being a Greek word, is regular.

N.B.—At this point may be introduced, at the pleasure of the teacher, Adjectives in os, ἡ, (a), ov, and others of the types according to § 32, for exercise either singly or along with nouns of the foregoing two Declensions.

1 Sometimes as of third declension, Μωυσῆς, -éws, -εἶ, -éa.

§ 16.) THIRD DECLENSION. 27

§ 16. Tue THIRD oR CONSONANTAL* DECLENSION.

This Declension includes all nouns not belonging to either the First or the Second. It

1. Has seven terminations, a, ὁ, v, neuter. w, feminine.

v, p, ς (ξ, w), of all genders.

2. The genitive ends in os? (or ws), and the STEM is generally® found by dropping the os (or ws) of the genitive.

3. There are two great classes of stems, those which end in a consonant before os, and are called consonant stems ; those which end in a vowel before os, and are called pure or vocalic.

4. Consonantal stems are subdivided into liguid, mute, and spirant stems, according as the consonant before os is a liquid, a mute, or a spirant.

5. Vocalic or pure stems consist chiefly of thin vowel stems, whose character is ὁ or v.

Liquid, as μήν; G. μην os, a month. Mute, as φλόξ; G. φλογ as, flame. Spirant, as βοῦς ; G. BoFos, ox or cow.

VocaLic Thin vowel stems, as σῦς ; G. ov os, boar ; STEMS. κόνις, G. Kove os, Aust.

CONSONANTAL STEMS.

1 The great majority of its stems will be found to end upona consonant, and in many cases where the stem now seems vocalic, it had n originally conso- nantal, as μῦς, μυός (for μυσός, cf. Lat. mus, muris), It is convenient, therefore, as even. and v have a certain near relation to consonants, (see § 94 fn. 2), to desig- nate this Declension as the Consonantal.

2 The genitive has a syllable more than the nominative. Hence the third declension is sometimes called the Imparisyllabic, whereas the other two are called P llabic, or a-syllabled. This third declension of the Greek answers to third and fourth of the Latin tongue.

3 Not always, because the existing genitive now in use is sometimes not in its primary form, as ¢.g. in vocalic stems in v, where the existing genitive is now in ε, a8 ἡδέος (for HdeFos) from the stem ἡδευ-.

28 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 17.

δ 17. ConsonanTAL STEMS,

1. Lieuip STEMs.

N.B.—The liquid before os is chiefly v or p: once it is X; ὁ GAs, ἁλός, salt (ἡ, sea); no example of μ.

μήν, a month, Mase.

Singular. Dual. Plural.

N. V. ὁ μήν. μὴν ε. μῆν ες. G. μὴν os. μην οἷν. μὴν ov. D. μην t. μην oiv. μη ois A. μὴν a. μῆν ε. μὴν as.

, air, Sing thief. deity speaker comb. climate N ὁ φώρ. ὃ, ἡ δαίμω. ὁ ῥήτωρ, éxreis. ὁ ἀήρ. G φωρός. δαίμονος. ῥήτορος. κτενός. ἀέρος. D φωρί. δαίμονι. ῥήτορι. κτενί. ἀέρι. A. papa. δαίμονα ῥήτορα. κτένα. ἀέρα. V peop. δαῖμον. ῥῆτορ. κτείς. ἀήρ. Dual N. A. V. pape. δαίμονε ῥήτορε κτένε. ἀέρε. α. Ὁ. φωροῖν. δαιμόνοιν. ῥητόροι. κτενοῖν. ἀέροιν. Plural. N. V. capes δαίμονες. ῥήτορες. κτένες. . ἀέρες. G. φωρῶν. δαιμόνων. ῥητόρων. κτενῶν. ἀέρων. D. φωρσί. δαίμοσι. ῥήτορσι. κτεσί. ἀέρσι. A. papas. δαίμονας. ῥήτορας. κτένας. ἀέρας.

0bs.—Epic neuters in wp are only in Nom. and Acc. See § 36 β.

2. Mute STEMS.

vy, & in three cases, Nom., Voce. sing., Dat. plur.

(8) DENTALS, Gen. τος, δος, Gos. Dental dropped in three cases, Nom., Voce. sing., Dat. plur.

(a) LABIALS, Gen. πος, Bos, dos, GUTTURALS, Gen. Kos, γος, vos,

1 For v dropped before a, see ὃ 7, 7.

§17.]

THIRD DECLENSION.

(a) Labial and Guttural Stems.

Singular. ΝΎ. oyvw, vulture. 6 κόλαξ, flatterer. ὁ dvvE,nail(wagwis.) G. γυπός. KONAKOS. ὄνῦχος. D γυπί. κόλακι. ὄνυχι. A. γῦπα. κόλακα. ὄνυχα. Dual. N.A.V. γῦπε κόλακε. ὄνυχε. α.}). γυποῖν κολάκοιν. ὀνύχοιν. Plural. ΝΥ. γῦπες κόλακες. ὄνυχες. G. γυπῶν. κολάκων. ὀνύχων. D. γυψί. κόλαξι. ὄνυξι. Α. γῦπᾶς. κολακᾶς, ὄνυχᾶς. (8) Dental Stems, a 2. 3. Non-neuters in With Gen. in Neuters with ros, dos, Gos. ν-τος. ros in Gen.

Singular.

N. ὁ ἔρως, love. ὁ λέων, lion. τὸ σῶμα, body. G. ἔρωτος. λέοντος. σώματος. 1. ἔρωτι. λέοντι. σώματι. Α. ἔρωτα. λέοντα. σῶμα.

Ψι ἔρως. λέον. σῶμα. Dual.

N.A.V. ἔρωτε. λέοντε. σώματε. G. D. ἐρώτοιν. λεόντοιν. σωμάτοιν. Plural

N. V. ἔρωτες. λέοντες. σώματα. σ. ἐρώτων. λεόντων. σωμάτων. D. ἔρωσι. λέουσι. σώμασι. Α. ἔρωτας. λέοντας. σωματα.

1 + is dropped before ς, according to § 7, 5, 2 For the ratianale of this formation, consult § 7, 7 n.

30 THIRD DECLENSION. [ὃ 18.

§ 18. Sprrant STEMs.

(a) Stems in Sibilant or o.

Nouns of this type have their o greatly obscured except in such forms as caxeo-dopos, etc. (Cf. on the spirants in ὃ 9,1.) Their Nominatives end in ys and os; viz. ns masc. or fem.; os neuter. When ns ends an adjective, its neuter is es. The Genitive is in -eos (for εσ-ος).

Singular.

N. τὸ γένος, race. ἡ Tpinp ns, trireme.

G. [γένεσος}" γένεος, γένους. τριήρ εος, τριήρ ous.

D. [γένεσι] γένεϊ, γένει. τριήρ εἴ, τριήρ ει.

Α. γένος. τριήρ εα, τριήρ η.

V, γένος. τρίηρες.

Dual.

N. A. V. [γένεσε] γένεε, γένη. Tpinp €€, τριήρ 7.

G.D. [γενέσοιν] γενέοιν, γενοῖν. Tpinp έοιν, Tpinp οἷν.

Plural.

N.V. Γγένεσα] γένεα, γένη. τριήρ εες, τριήρ εἰς.

G. [γενέσων γενέων, γενῶν. Tpinp έων, τριήρ wv. ᾿ γένεσι. τριήρεσι.

Α. [γένεσα] γένεα, γένη. τριήρ εας, τριήρ εἰς.

Similarly τὸ ὄρος (hill, N. Pl. ὄρη), τὸ τεῖχος (wall), ὁ εὐγενής (the noble one).

τριήρης is properly an adjective, with ναῦς understood. The stem is pro- perly τριηρεσ-, containing éper, the crude form of ἐρέσσω, to row, and ¢, L. ratis.

1. ea pure, whether singular or plural, is usually contracted into a, as ὑγιής, healthy ; Acc. singular masc. and Nom. plural neuter, ὑγιέα = ὑγιᾶ ; κλέος, glory; Nom. plural κλέεα = κλέᾷ, but sometimes less regularly κλέᾶ.

2. The Gen. plural is sometimes left uncontracted, as τειχέων. ἀνθέων is better than ἀνθῶν from ἄνθος, flower. (avOav = pep. florens).

3. The compounds of κλέος in Attic contract twice in the da- tive, once in the other cases, as

1 The forms within brackets are not extant.

$ 18.) THIRD DECLENSION. 31

Attic. Epic, N. Ἡρακλέης, -κλῆς. -ῆς. G. Ἡρακλέεος, -κλέους, τῆος. D. Ἡρακλέεϊ, -κλέει, -κλεῖς τῆι. A. Ἡρακλέεα, -κλέᾶ. -a. V. Ἡράκλεες, -κλεις. -εἰς (Iliad, 1. 337).

Voe. interjectionally, Ὦ Ἥρακλες, mehercule. Acc. sometimes, though rarely, contracts doubly, ‘HpaxAj.—In plural, of Ἡρακλέες, τοὺς ρακλέας.

(8) Stems, originally in F or Digamma, now with Diphthongs (ev av ov) in Nom.

In these a Digamma has been more or less perceptibly at work, as in vais, βοῦς, compare Latin navis, bos, bovis, Sometimes the Digamma has vanished so that even the Nom. shows no v, as λᾶς (a stone) for Aafs (cf. Aev-w), declined like γραῦς, but without the v of the latter. Stems in ev form the Acc. sing. in a, and this ἃ in Attic usually long, and contract in the Dat. sing. and Nom. and Acc. pl, Stems in av and ov form the Acc. sing. in v and contract only in Acc. pl.

Stem in ev, Stem in av. Stem in ov. Singular.

horseman. old woman. OX, COW. N. ἱππεύς. ἡ γραῦς. ὁ ἡ βοῦς. G. ἱππέως. γρᾶός. βοός. D. ἱππέϊ = εἴ. rypai. Boi. A. ἱππέα. γραῦν. βοῦν. Υ ἱππεῦ. γραῦ. βοῦ. Dual. N.A.V. ἱππέε. γρᾶε. βόε. α. Ὁ. ἑππέοιν. γραοῖν. βοοῖν. Plural ΝΙΝ. ἱἑππέες ΞΞεῖς and -ῆς. ypaes. βόες. G. ἱππέων. γραῶν. βοῶν. 1. ἱππεῦσι. γραυσί. βουσί. A. imméas( = εἷς, late). (ypaas), γραῦς. (Boas), Bods.

1. In these words the v of the diphthong represents the Di- gamma, and holds its ground as v before case-endings opening with a consonant (o or vy). Where, however, the case-ending opens with a vowel, there the Digamma, finding itself between two vowels, dropped out.

2. Stems in av and ov are very rare. vais (ship) is the other most important example in av, while, besides βοῦς, there are only

32 THIRD DECLENSION. [8 18.

χοῦς ὁ (pitcher) and ῥοῦς ἡ (sumach) with same inflections. οὖς (ear), ὀδούς (tooth), and πούς (foot), belong to dental stems.

3. Nouns in evs are very numerous, expressing personal agency and official gah 6.6.γ γραμματεύς (scribe), etc. Note regarding them, 1°, That they alone in the third declension have for the most part a long ἃ in Acc. sing. and pl, in compensation probably for loss of Digamma. 2°, When evs is: pure ({.6., ceed by a vowel), they may contract in Gen. sing. and Acc. sing., as EiBoevs, G. Εὐβοῶς for -οέως (an Euboean), Πειραιεύς (Pirzeus), G. -ads, A. -aa. 3°, The Epic! form is notable, giving -jos in Gen., and being otherwise complete, -7:, -ja, Dual -ῆε, -jyow, Plural, “HES, -N@V, -NETOL, -Has.

(y) Stems with obsewre Spirant, chiefly in o and ὦ (resting on οἱ). Singular. ἡ πειθώ (persuasion).

(πειθό-ος) πειθοῦς.

(πειθό-1) πειθοῖ.

(πειθό-α) πειθώ.

πειθοῖ.

N.B.—The uncontracted forms within brackets are not now in use. Dual and Plural, where they exist in such nouns, are supplied from the second Declension.

Thus ἡ Aeyo (woman in child-birth) has pl. λεχοί. Cf. also ἡ ἠχώ (echo).

SP OPA

Singular. Dual. Plural. N. ὁ ἥρω -s (hero). ἥρω -e. ἥρω -ες. G. ἥρω -ος. ἡρώ -οιν. ἡρώ -ων. D ἥρω -ι, ἥρῳ. ἥρω -σι. Α. ἥρω -α, ἥρω. ἥρω -ας, ἥρως. V. ἥρω -s.

1. After the form of πειθώ, decline also ἡ αἰδώς (shame), G, dos = ods. Acc. is αἰδῶ (more regular in accentuation than Ace. πειθώ). Also the Ionic ἠώς," ἡ (morning, Aurora). (As to Attic

1 The Epic seems to compensate for vanished Digamma by le ening the ε into η. Acc., therefore, in yeni has a short, as otherwise double com- nsation would be given. The A tic, on the other hand, in conformity to he tendency shown in Attic metre, appears to give the compensation in such a way as to suit Iambic rather than Dactylic verse. Cy. the similar ‘ Meta- thesis of quantity’ as between Epic λᾶός and Attic λεώς. 2 The spirant latent here is probably s, from same stem as uso (whence uro, Aurora), and still retained in ἑωςφόρος. }

a

§ 19.] THIRD DECLENSION. 33

ἕως, cf. § 15,2.) Like ἥρως, decline 6 θώς (jackal), but without contracted forms ; also 7 ἅλως (threshing-floor, halo), with varia- tions as if from second declension, G. dos, also ἅλω, A. ἅλωα and ἅλων.

2. Many proper names of females follow the declension of πειθώ, a8 Σαπφώ (Sappho), Ἰώ (10). A remarkable form in this last is the Ionic Ἰοῦν, etc., as Accus. in Herodotus. Voc. in οἵ is based upon a Nom. in 9, of which traces occur.—Topye, which forms a plural, has Acc. pl. Topyovs, and, from ν stem, Γοργόνας.

§ 19. SUB-CLASSES OF CONSONANTAL STEMS.

1. Liguip Stems MopIFIeD. (a) Liquid Stems in p.

np ~€pos. In certain stems with p, syncopation of ε takes place, inducing certain variations. A few in np, Gen. epos, drop ¢ in three cases, Gen., Dat. sing., and Dat. plur., making the ¢ in the Dat. plur. appear by meta- thesis as an accented a after ρ.1

Singular. Dual. Plural. N. πατήρ. N. A. V. πατέρε. N. V. πατέρες. G. (πατέρος) πατρός. G.D. πατέροιν. G. πατέρων. D. (marépt) πατρί. D. πατράσι. A. πατέρα. A. πατέρας. V. πάτερ.

So μήτηρ, mother ; θυγάτηρ, daughter ; γαστήρ, stomach ; Δη- μήτηρ, Ceres; but ἀνήρ, man (vir), except in Voc. sing., drops ε throughout in Attic. (The forms within brackets chiefly Epic.)

Singular. Plural. N. ἀνήρ. N. V; tien ἄνδρες. G. (ἀνέρος) ἀνδρός. G. ἀνέρων) ἀνδρῶν. D. (ἀνέρι) ἀνδρί. D. ἀνδράσι. 8. ἀνέρα) ἄνδρα. A. (ἀνέρας) ἄνδρας. . ἄνερ.

Dual. N. A. V. (dvépe) ἄνδρε. G. D. (ἀνέροιν) ἀνδροῖν.

ἀυλμον μος Ὁ Λάρῖοα ἀνψὶ ent ἌΡΑ χη σ syncopate anywhere or nowhere according e me υ- γατέρες οἵ ree warép or πατρί, ἀνέρες or ἄνδρες. The Acc, sing., how-

1 So Bopp. The newer philology explains the " as the Greek form of a primitive vocalic r (akin to r in Fr. notre, and { kt. ἀάγφατι = Gk, ἔδρακον), appearing in corresponding case-forms 3 Skt. and producing the ejection of «.

34 THIRD DECLENSION. [8 19.

be is not syncopated in rarip, μήτηρ, γαστήρ, eg there is apie of First

regent a πάτρα = father » μήτρα = attics » γάστρα = of a jar; but in wer Hoe ΔΑ ρας γα and Δημήτηρ may 5. ΟἿ kes even in rh: τ ere be’ no wo they might be in 11 ag of being confounded. -ἀστήρ (star

syncopates only in Dat plural, ἀστρᾶσι. (8) Liquid Stems in ν.1 Some Comparatives in wy drop ν in certain cases, and then

contract : see Adjectives of Third Declension (§ 34).

A few substantives in ὧν drop v chiefly in Gen. and rae = . and Acc, slurs] and then contract. ἀηδών, nightin er G. -dvos (-όος), - . Ove (-ὁῦ, “ot. So χελιδών, swallow ; ; εἰκών, image; G. -όνος Gosh, ays . éva -όα), - ; Α. ποτὶ yee. (-das), -ovs (on this contraction, see

2. ᾿Απόλλων, Apollo, and Ποσειδῶν, Neptune, μια ν᾽ cae the Acc. sing. in Attic without -va; Acc. sing., ᾿Απόλλω, Ποσειδῶ.

2. Mute STEMS MOopIFIED.

(a) Neuter Dental Stems in + Variable.

A few of these have double forms coexisting, either dispensing with +r between vowels and then contracting the concurring vowels, or retaining r in the structure.

N.B.—These stems are by some regarded as properly o stems in ac-.

Singular. Plural. N. A. V. (rd) κρέας, flesh. Kpéara (-aa), xpéa. G. xpéaros (-aos), kpéws. κρεάτων (-άων), κρεῶν. D. κρέἄτι (-ai), kpéat. κρέᾶσι.

So xépiis, horn, -aros or a -ws (with ἃ in Attic, ἅ in Epic). τέρας, prodigy, a dros (has not τ΄ in lural). But ovas, ear, -Gros (poetic for οὖς, ards, τό), retains 7, except in Dat. plural. (Dual in κρέας not found.)

a for Dat. rather than xpéq, but κέρᾳ where its a is long (cf. § 8, 1).

2. ‘the rest of the neuters in ds rarely occur beyond Nom. an Acc., and, if with Gen., have it in aos, as yépas, reward ; γῆρ as, old e (Gen. aos and ws); δέπας, cup; ar gloom; σέλας, gleam ; δὰ ene covert; σφέλας, footstool. Except γῆρας ese seldom —_ unless where a or on can result, as sing. δέπαι ; N. plural σέλᾶ. e poets sometimes shorten Nom. and Ace. i. as xpéd, with elision ὍΣ , σφέλα, etc. Epic Dat. plural δεπάεσσι and

oo "3. The Ionics declined some of these by ε awe of a; xépeos for κέραος or κέρως. Three always follow the Ionic ension, even in Attic :— ς, «εος ; acs plur. Bpérea = βρέτη; κι eer fleece ; Gen. νῶν ἩῸΝ κώεα; D. plur. κώεσι ; οὖδας, the ground ; Gen. eos.

4. Allin as, a cigs bay or eos in Genitive, are neuter, except Adas or

λᾶς, stone, ; Ὄ. Aa; Acc. λᾶαν ; du. Ade; plur. λάων, λάεσσι.

(8) Masculine Stems in wr dispensing with τ. Some masculines in ws, wros dispense with r in a few cases,

1 These stems of yar καὰματ μὲς Ἄρα Meo in ν, ἊΣ have been originally in s, cf. meliosem, for later melt of the heey sana ex- plains the mutual divergence of the Greek and tb statin forms and ior).

§ 20.] THIRD DECLENSION. 35

chiefly in Epic. ἔρως (love), γέλως (laughter), ἱδρώς (sweat); have Gen. ros, but admit ῳ for wre in Dat., ὦ and wy in Acc.? (y) Stems in apr.

Certain dental stems in apr are noteworthy: as δάμαρ. Also, a few neuters, which drop p in all cases but N. A. V. sing., in which last cases ὦ sometimes takes the place of a of the stem.

δάμαρ, ἡ (spouse). ὕδωρ,2 τό (water). ἧπαρ, ro (liver). Si r. Stem δάμαρτ. Stem vdapr. Stem ἧπαρτ. ee: sie

¥. ddpap. ὕδωρ. rap. G. δάμαρτος. ὕδᾶτος. ἥπᾶτος D. δάμαρτι. ὕδᾶτι. Ware. A. δάμαρτα. ὕδωρ. ἧπαρ. Dual. N. A. V. δάμαρτε voare. Hare. G. D. δαμάρτοιν. ὑδᾶτοιν. ἡπᾶτοιν. Plural. i ae δάμαρτες. vdtra. ἥπᾶτα. G. δαμάρτων. ὑδάτων. ἡπᾶτων. D. δάμαρσι. ὕδἄσι. ἥπᾶσὶ. A. Sdpuapras

§ 20. VocaLic STEms. STEMS WITH VOWEL, ¢ OR v. (a) Masculines and Feminines.

Of these, some are in {, ὕ, others in 7, i. Those with ¢, ὕ short, modify « and v into e(c) and ε(υ) and thence into e, before vocalic case-endings ; those with 7 and v long, retain « and v, but shorten

them before vocalic case-endings.

With vowel retained. With vowel modified to e. Sing. (weevil) (swine) (city, civitas) (forearm) Ν, oxis. ὁ,ἡ σῦς. ἡ πόλϊς. ὁ πῆχῦς.

6. Kids. σύός. πόλεως (-εος). πήχεως. D. κί. obit. πόλει (-ei). πήχει (€-i). A. κίν. σῦν. πόλϊν. ἢχῦν.

Υ. κί. (ἢ od. Tol. THXV.

1 Some deduce these forms from byforms in os, as ἔρος, or from analogy

9 Like ὅδωρ is σκώρ τό (dung), stem oxapr, Gen. σκᾶτός. 5 Like ἧπαρ is 6 τό (fountain), stem ¢peFapt, Gen. dpédros, but with me, pic dpeidros, A φρέᾶτος. yap, τό (day), ἄλειφαρ, τό (ointment), on the model of ἧπαρ.

36 THIRD DECLENSION. [8 20.

Dual.

N. A.V. wie. ove. πόλεε. πήχεε.

G.D. κἵἴοῖν. συοῖν. πολέοιν. πηχέοιν. Plural.

N.V. κἵἕες. aves. πόλεις (ε-ες). πήχεις (€-es). G. Ki@v. σῦῶν. πόλεων. πήχεων.

D. κῖσίί aval. πόλεσι. πήχεσι.

Α. κίας. σΐας, σῦς. πόλεις (ε-ας). πήχεις (ε-ας).

1. Like xis, decline ὁ, ἡ, dis (sheep = ovis), G. dios, N. pl. ὄδὺ ies, A. cus contracted 6 ὄϊς. ence Attic N. sing., οἷς, G. οἷός, D. oii,

A. οἷν, N. pl. oles, οἰῶν, οἰσί, ἂν contracted οἷς. Like σῦς, decline ἡ δρῦς (oa " 3 ἰχθύς (fish), G - with ὕ, as vos, dual, ἐχθῦ, as well as -ve. Epic D. Pl. of σῦς is σύεσσι. vi of Dat. sing. 1s contracted

only in pic, as mn Ovi for πληθύϊ. Monosyllables retain open form even in Epic, as avi. Traces of G. pl. in ὃν (Epwiv, Aisch.) for dev.

2. The above is the declension of πόλις in Attic. In Ionic it is declined like xis and then retains « throughout. Nouns in ες, such as πόλις, are, therefore, regular in Ionic: Sing. G. πόλιος ; D. πόλι, contracted πόλϊ ; dual πόλιε, πολίοιν ; plural πόλιες, contracted πόλις, πολίων, πόλισι, πόλιας, contracted πόλις. There is also an Ionic Genitive πόλεος adopted by the scenic poets, and, in Attic, πόλεως ; and an Epic πόληος, ni, na.

3. On the peculiar relation of eas to εἰς in Acc. plural, see § 6, 3 n.

(8) Neuters. With vowel retained. With vowel modified to e(c) e(v).

“Aas (tear) (mustard) (city, wrbs). N. A. V. τὸ δάκρῦ. τὸ σίνᾶπι. τὸ ἄστυ.

6. δάκρῦος. σινάπεος. ἄστεος.

D. δάκρυϊ. σινάπει. ἄστει.

Dual.

N.A.V. ddxpve. [σινάπεε. ἄστεε.

G. D. δακρύοιν. [σιναπέοιν. ἀστέοιν.

Plural.

N, A. V. δάκρυα. σινάπη (εα). ἄστη (ea).

G. δακρύων. σιναπέων. ἀστέων.

1. δάκρυσι. σινάπεσι. ἄστεσι.

Traces οὗ G. ἄστεως in Attic, but questioned in a neuter noun.

§ 21, 22.] cASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 87

§ 21. THe NoMINATIVE SINGULAR.

The Nom. sing. of 3rd Declension stands closely related to the stem, and in Neuters is generally identical with it, as in δάκρυ, μέλᾶν, ἀληθές. But Neuter stems in r either drop τ, as σῶμα (for copar), or modify it to sin Nom., as xpéas.!

In masculines and feminines, the sign of agency or personality, viz. s,is appended to the stem with the needful euphonic changes, but in dental stems, if without », there is no compensatory lengthening for loss of r, 8, 6, in Nom.? Even where the ς is not now present, its influence is perceived in a compensatory length- ening of the stem vowel ; as χείρ for yéps (found in Doric), and aAnOns for ἄληθες (stem) + ς (Personal sign). But nouns in TPs poy are by many regarded as lengthening vowel of stem-suffix in Nom. without the influence of s.

§ 22. THe GENITIVE.

I. If the Nominative ends in a vowel, add ros to form the Genitive. σῶμα, body, σῶμᾶ-τος ; μέλι, honey, μέλϊζοτος.3 But γάλα, γάλακτος, milk; γυνή,4 γυναικός, Woman. w has (όος =) ods; ᾿ς faa eon, asin adjectives in τῷ and in ἄστυ, TOU. ᾿ μεσ But γόνυ, knee, δόρυ, spear, have dros; δάκρυ, tear, μέθυ, wine, νᾶπυ, mustard, have vos. Foreign words in « (πέπερι, σίνᾶπι), have cos modified into eos. Il. If the Nominative ends in a consonant, drop s> where it occurs, and add os to form Genitive. GAs ἁλός, salt ; ἥρως -wos, hero; Τιτάν -Gvos, a Titan. So ¢ and Ψ drop s, and form Genitives by adding os to the stem, xos, γος, Koss πος, Bos, hos. θρίξ, hair, has τριχός, and two in £ have -κτος, νύξ, night, and ἄναξ, king. __ 1. Before vos and pos, ἡ and » of Nominative generally appear in the Gen. as their corresponding short vowels (ε, 0); as ποιμήν, Gen. ποιμένος, shepherd ; ye en. ῥήτορος, speaker.

Examples of Exceptions, Excep. 1. Monosyllables (but φρήν, dpe- vos, mind; χθών, ay δα ). μήν, μηνός, month.

Excep. 2. Verbal derivatives in rnp. ἐροτήρ, ἤρος, ploughman. Excep. 8. All in ὧν, ὥντος. wobar, ὄντος, * aac Excep. 4. Local derivatives (=étum, ile 4 ikea ἜΣ Ἃ ς, olivetum, in Latin) and nicknames in wv. γάστρων, wvos, big-belly.

lie, if κρέας is taken as resting on a τ stem, but ¢f. § 19, 2.

3 πούς seems the exception. In Perf. participles in ws with or in Geni- tive, a suffix is at work accounting for the lengthening of « in Nom. Mase.

3 Suffix of Gen. really os, for r belongs to stem, μελιτ-, γαλακτ-, of. lact-is,

4 Only noun in ἡ of third declension, t Gent tives tite ens.on, except the Ionic τό κάρη (for «dpa),

ὃς is the of Nominative in and so pRewathesmnts ος Geni tive, ve in most masculine and feminine stems,

38

CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 22.

Excep, 5. Various, as Ἕλλην, ΘΎΡΕΣ MiXSe, lichen ; κηφήν, drone, etc.;

ἅλων, barn-floor ; Δάκων, Lacedeemonian ; μήκων, poppy, etc.

2. All participles of the third declension have -vros in Geni- tive, except those in ὡς, which have -dros.

τὐψᾶς, -avros. τυπείς, -évros ; but rerudas, -dros.

3. These masculines in ὧν have -ovros, on analogy of parti- ciples, ἄκων, javelin ; γέρων, old man ; δράκων, snake ; θεράπων, attendant ; λέων, lion ; τένων, sinew.

4, Nominatives in s, where σ is preceded by a vowel, are very various in the formation of their Genitives.

Terminations of Terminations of Nominatives. Genitives. EXAMPLES, ἄς, Neuter, aros aos, κνέφᾶς, aos, gloom; xpéas, Gros, flesh. as, Fem., ados, λαμπάς, ddos, torch. as, = αντος, γίγας, avros, giant. (Ὁ Except two

ats,

aus,

εἰς,

ts, +

OSs,

adjectives, μέλᾶς, avos, black ; ra- λᾶς, Gvos, wretched.

atdos, mais, παιδός, child. (> Except dais, feast ; orais, dough, -αιτός.

aos, γραῦς, ypacs, old woman. The only other in avs is ναῦς, G. νεώς (Doric ναός) ship.

eros. All adjectives and participles in ets, as χαρίεις, -evros, graceful. (Stem -evr, whence Nom. evr-s = εἰς, by rule.) But «is, one (with its compounds οὐ- Seis, μηδείς), and xreis, comb, have -ενός ean stem -ev-; κλείς, key, κλειδός. (eFos), Attic ἕως. βασιλεύς, éws, king. Γ Substantives, if proper names, as Σωκράτης (eo-os, wh. (eos =) ovs, Socrates. eos =) ovs, |} Adjectives, if with neuter in es, as ἀσθενής, neuter es, Gen. (έος =) οὖς, weak. Substantives not proper names, as λέβης, nros, caldron, βαρύ-της, -nros, weight. shi Adjectives not with neuter in es, as those in BAns, duns, Ovns, κμης (from verb-stems).

tos, Ionic ; eos, poetic ; ews, Attic ( πόλις (wos), (eos) ews, city. ‘Tos, 1} xadpis, tros, grace ; ios, ἐλπίς, dos, hope; ιθος, ὄρνϊς, tos, bi \ wos, \ ἀκτίς, wos, sunbeam.

(εσ-ος, Wh. cos =) ovs, τεῖχος (eos =) ovs, wall. (> Ex- cept neuter participles in os, Gen. oros.

§ 23.] CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 39

(00s, Three. βοῦς, Ox or cow; χοῦς, pitcher ; ῥοῦς, Sumach. ous, ~ ovros, Participles in ovs, and one substantive,

ὀδούς, tooth, old pep. =eater. (G Ad- jectives in οὖς (= des), have odvros.

_odos, One. πούς, ποδός, foot, and its compounds. rvos; in some ( μῦς, μυός, Mouse ; πῆχυς, forearm, Attic ews, Attic. Genitive, -ews. vdos, χλαμύς, dos, cloak ; κόρυς, ὕθος, helmet. υθος, (> Adjectives in ts, with fem. in ea, vs, 4 < have eos; some in ts, with fem. in vs,

have vos, as ἄδακρυς, tearless. Parti- ciples in ts have ὕντος.

vos, Φόρκυς, dvos. One has vpos, μάρτῦς, vpos, \ \ witness. Γ wos, Γ Ads, Owds, jackal. Two have (dos =)

οὖς, αἰδώς, shame, and the Ionic ἠώς, the morning. γέλως, wros, laughter; also φώς 6, man,

@TOS, Ae | das τό, light, both with φωτός. So Pe geben ae in ὡς, from as, like ἑστώς. οτος, participles in ὡς, not from αὡς, as \ . λελύκώς, -ότος.

§ 23. THe ACCUSATIVE

Ends in ἅ usually. But these four, ἐς, vs, avs, and ous, if the Genitive is in os or ws pure, form Accusative by changing s of the Nominative into ν ; 7.¢., by adding ν to the stem.”

From πόλις, city, ἰχθύς, fish, γραῦς, crone, βοῦς, ox, (Genitive t-os (ews), υτος, τος, of -os), the Accus. is πόλιν, ἰχθύν, γραῦν, βοῦν. N. 1. So λᾶας 4, stone, G. λᾶος, has Acc. λᾶαν (Aaa is late). 2. The same analogy as to ν in Acc, is followed in Attic by cs and vs, even with the Genitive in ros, δος, 60s, impure, but in this case the last syllable must

not have the acute accent (i.e. us, vs must be Baryton, i.e. with grave (βαρύς) tone or accent), as épis.

Attic. Less common. ἔρις, os, strife; ἔριν. ἔριδα. δρνῖς, ἴθος, bird ; prev. ὄρνῖθα.

So χάρις, tros, favour; χάριν. χάριτα.

But Χάρις, & proper name, one of the Graces, has always Χάριτα.

1 φώς, man = Skt, bhavat = a being, from stem dv = be, But φῶς, light = φαξοος, a neuter like γένος, G. daf-eo-os, whence G. is rightly φάεος, thence φάους. Its Genitive φωτός is abnormal and late.

2 Therefore the vowel-declensions (A and Ὁ, including « and v stems of Lape resemble each other in having v in Accusative singular, (Both forms (ν a) are really the same, § 26, I. 4.)

40 CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. [8 24.

If the last syllable has the acute (is, vs, Oxyton), the Accusative must be in a. But whenever, by any process, the accent happens to be the

same stem will be treated as m, and so become capable of v in Acc. Oxyton. Baryton. Attic. Less common. ἐλπίς, -ἶδος, ἐλπίδα; hope. But εὔελπις, εὔελπιν, εὐέλπιδα. πούς, ,) πόδα; foot. But δίπους, δίπουν, δίποδα.

Except κλείς, key, having κλεῖν as well as κλεῖδα.

ὃ 24. THE VOCATIVE.

A. The Vocative is like the Nominative—

1. In all Liquid stems, having acute accent on last of Nom. sing. (oxyton) ; ὦ ἡγεμών, Μακεδών, ποιμήν, ded- gis, Σαλαμίς, αἰθήρ, anp. (But πατήρ and ἀνήρ are excepted and raise the accent, Voc. πάτερ, ἄνερ.)

2. In all Guttural and Labial stems ; ὦ κόραξ, yiw.

3. In most Dental stems (with 7, ὃ, 6, but not in vr); ὦ ἔρως, λαμπάς, πούς, and the solitary ὁδούς. παῖς, how- ever, has ὦ παῖ, and a few in is ίδος, as ὦ τυραννί, ἀκρί, πατρί (also ὦ πατρίς) ; 80”Apreput, νεᾶνι.

4, In nouns in ὡς having qos, as ὦ ἥρως.

5. In all participles of Third Declension.

B. In almost all other instances, the Vocative (being rather an interjection than a noun-case, and so taking the stem in its simplest form), is the same as the stem of the word, subject to such changes of the final as the Jaws of euphony require.

δαίμων, -ov-os, deity, V. δαῖμον.

Liquid ste ¢ 4 riot being ἡ ῥήτωρ, πόροι, speaker, ῥῆτορ. μειίῶὼν, -OV-OS, Tr. μει(ον. Oxyton. μέλᾶς, -αντ-ος, black, : μέλαν. yiyas, σ-αντ-ος, giant, a ag (for γίγαντ, and thence γίγανν). ne 4 Αἴας, -avt-os, Ajax, - Alay (by-form anh

| χαρίεις, -evr-os, graceful, χαρίεν.

ἰ γέρων, -ovr-os, oldman, γέρον.

Stems with { σαφής, τ-έ-ος for εσ-ος, clear, σαφές. elided ς. Σωκράτης, -ε-ος for ex-os, Socrates, Σώκρατες.

Stems in Ff (βασιλεύς, -εβ-ος, king, βασιλεῦ. forming γραῦς, -a--os, old woman, γραῦ. Diphthongs. ( βοῦς, -oF-os, OX, cow, od (prob.). πειθώ, τ-ό-ος, rsuasion, πειθοῖ. Stems in Λητώ, -ό-ος, tona, Λητοῖ. o (or os). αἰδώς, -ότος, modesty, αἰδοῖ. ἠώς, -ότος, Aurora, Πἠοῖ.

1 κύων, dog, has for stem in this regard κύον (instead of its ordinary κυν), whence Vocative κύον.

§ 25.] CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 41

St rm πόλις, -t-os, city, πόλι (also ὦ πόλις). Samide πίτυς, -v-os, pine, πίτυ. . γλυκύς, -ετος, sweet, γλυκύ.

1. The occurrence of ν in Accusative from a vocalic stem, or of ἃ long in Accusative, generally indicates a Vocative formed by simply dropping ς of Nom Except in γρηῦ of Odyssey, evidence as to separate Vocatives from ναῦς and βοῦς is rare, (Sov being rather a heteroclite Genitive), and in Skt., as well as in Latin, the ee words have Voc. like Nom.

2. When the Vocative is of a form distinct from the Nominative, there is a tendency to raise the accent high, 1°, in comparatives in wy, in baryton com- pounds, and in words in κλῆς, 2°, in oxytons in yp, as in πατήρ, ἀνήρ.

Cp. Vocative βέλτιον, εὔδαιμον, Δημόσθενες, εὔηθες, MepixAccs, in which the accent stands a syllable higher than in the Nominative. Also, Vocative ἄνερ, πάτερ, in which the accent is similarly high.

8. Three nouns are remarkable as shortening the vowel in the end syllable, and so allow this raising of the accent in Vocative.

᾿Απόλλων, Ποσειδῶν, σωτήρ (saviour), though with long stem elsewhere, take a short 5 in Voc., whence Voc, Ἄπολλον, Πόσειδον, σῶτερ.

§ 25. Tae Dative PLURAL.

1. The Dative plural is formed by adding σι to the stem, with the ordinary euphonic changes. It is obtainable from the Dative i by inserting o before «, and dropping before it any of

the dentals r, ὃ, 8 ν (ν as being the dental liquid). (€ and y will appear in Dative plural from guttural and

labial stems. Liquid, Labial and uttural stems. D. 5, D. Pl. ῥήτωρ, speaker. ῥήτορι. ρήτορσι. ἐν, herald. Sigh λει (kot). » vulture. yuri. γυψί (πσι). νύξ, night. νυκτί. νυξί (= νυκ(τ)σι). _ (7 dropped σῶμα, body. σώματι. σώμασι. ΞΞ]|δ ,, ἐλπίς, hope. ἐλπίδι. ἐλπίσι. Ἐξ 6 ., κορύς, helmet. κόρὔθι. κόὀρὕσι. y 55. λιμήν, harbour. λιμένι. λιμέσι.

2. evs, avs, and ovs, make ever, avert, ουσι. βασιλεύς, βασιλεῦσι ; γραῦς, ypavai ; d8ovs, ὀδοῦσι ; βοῦς, βουσί. N.—But πούς, foot; Dative ποδί, has ποσί; and οὗς, ear; Dative wri, has ci; both, as being dental stems, under Rule 1, above, 3. ἀντι makes Gow, evrt from PARTICIPLES εἰσι, οντι, ουσι, and vytt, vot. See § 7, 7, n. Ὁ. 8. D. Pil. γίγας, giant, γίγαντι. γίγᾶσι. τυπείς, struck, τυπέντι. τυπεῖσι. λέων, __ lion, λέοντι. λέουσι. δεικνύς, showing, δεικνύντι. δεικνῦσι. Ν.--ντι, from ADJECTIVES, has ἐσι, χαρίεις, graceful, χαρίεντι, χαρίεσι.

42

CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION.

[§

5. Syncopated nouns in np have aon.

πατήρ (πατέρος =) marp

és. Dative plural πατράσι.

25.

N. 1. γαστήρ, belly (γαστέρος =) γαστρός, has both γαστράσι and γαστῆρσι. 2. The normal ending of the Dative plural is thus -σι, but dialectic varieties

are found in Evic, 1’, found adde

ile o is normal in consonant stems, oo ap and « stems, as πίτυσσι, ἴρισσι. 2°, εσσι, rarely εἐσι (as in iv -εσι, sinews), is d to consonant stems, asin πούς, stem ποδ, πόδεσσι, along with the

ποσί and its older form ποσσί = [rodci]. This -εσσι is sup

an extension of the anal ὄρεσ-σι, where it is pets

EXAMPLES OF Nouns oF THIRD DECLENSION. 1. Liquid Stems.

ὁ Ἕκτωρ, -opos, Hector.

ὁ θήρ, θηρός, wild beast.

ὁ σωτήρ, -ἣρος, saviour; Voc. ep. ὁ Ἕλλην, -nvos, Greek.

ὁ ἅλς, ἁλός, salt.

τὸ πῦρ, πυρός, fire; D. plur. οἷς.

ὁ ποιμήν, -évos, shepherd.

ἡ χελιδών, -dvos, swallow. ἡ ἀηδών, -ὄνος, nightingale. ὁ ἡγεμών, -dvos, leader.

ἡ ἀκτίς, -ἴνος, sunbeam.

6 αἰθήρ, -έρος, ether.

2. Mute Stems. ἡ φλόξ, -γός, flame. ὁ δράκων, -ovros, serpent. i θρίξ, τριχός, hair. (Ὁ 7,4, Ὁ) ὁ πούς, ποδός, foot. ἡ ἀλώπηξ, εκος, ἴοχ. ἡ ἐλπίς, -ἴδος, hope. ὁ ἄναξ, king. ἡ πατρίς, -ἴδος, country. ἡ νύξ, §*7°%) night. ἐσθής, -ῆτος, poe κακότης, -nros, Wickedness. Neuters. ἡ νεότης, -nros, youth. ἅρμα, chariot. ᾿ 4, ἡ ὄρνις, -i8os, bird. » πρᾶγμα, » Tos, < affair ἡ ἔρις, -ἴδος, strife. ὄνομα, name. ἡ κόρυς, -ὕθος, helmet. δάκρυ, vos, tear. ἡ χάρις, -ἴτος, grace. ἧπαρ, Gros, liver. ἡ κλείς, -ειδός, key. > φρέαρ, aros, well. ὁ ἡ ἔπηλυς, -vdos, stranger. dévu, ατος, knee. ὁ ἡ δίπους, οδος, two-footed. δζῥυ aros, spear. ὁ ἡ πολύπους, odos, Many- footed. Ἢ

3. Spirant Stems. (a) Elided Stems in o.

Genitive (eos) ous.

Δημοσθένης, Demosthenes. ᾿Αριστοφάνης, Aristophanes. ὁ εὐήθης, fool.

ἡ πεντήρης, quinquereme.

τὸ γένος, race, birth. τὸ πέλαγος, Sea.

in v

to be

of Datives plural from stems in es, as fn the Epic

In Attie admit Ac- cusative in ν.

τὸ ἄνθος, flower. (G. pl. ἀνθέων.)

τὸ ὄρος, mountain.

§ 26.) CASE-ENDINGS OF NOUNS. 43

(8) Stems in F (avs, evs, ovs). Besides γραῦς, only vais, fem. ship. Besides βοῦς, chiefly ῥοῦς and χοῦς (see ὃ 22, 4).

evs. Genitive ews. All masculine.

βασιλεύς, king. δρομεύς, courier.

iepevs, priest. συγγραφεύς, historian. (y) Stems ino and. Genitive wos.

ὁ ἥρως, wos, hero. Mivas, wos, Minos.

6 duds, wos, slave. Τρώς, ods, Trojan.

Certain have Genitive in (oos) ovs. All feminine. ἠώς (lonic), morning. Λητώ, Latona. πειθώ, persuasion. Σαπφώ, Sappho.

4. Vocalic Stems in « and v.

(a) With vos preserved (cos is chiefly Ionic).

6 βότρυς, grape-cluster. ἡ xéAvs, tortoise, lyre. 6 νέκυς, corpse. ἡ δρῦς, oak. 6 μῦς, mouse, ἡ πίτυς, pine-tree.

6 μάντις, soothsayer (vos Ionic). ὁ πόσις, lord, husband (G. tos).

(8) With Modified Vowel. Genitive ews.

ὁ πέλεκυς, hatchet. ὁ ὄφις, serpent.

ὁ μάντις, soothsayer. ἡ ὄψις, sight.

ἡ φύσις, nature. ἡ ὕβρις, insult, insolence.

ἡ τάξις, order, rank. ἡ πόσις, beverage.

ἡ πρᾶξις, action. τὸ πῶῦ, -εος (like ἄστυ), flock.

N.B.—As examples illustrating all Three Declensions and capable of bei declined side by side : ~~

Army, στρατιά, στρατός, στράτευμο . H οἰκία, οἶκος, οἴκημα.

§ 26. ON THE CASE-ENDINGS OR SUFFIXES IN THE THREE DECLENSIONS.

The case-endings are clearer and more easily separable from the stem in the Third Declension than in the A and O Declensions. In these last the vowel of the stem often blends with and thence obscures the case-ending, but, spent from this, there is a large measure of similarity between all these Declensions.

The following are the most notable points, philologically :—

44 CASE-ENDINGS OF NOUNS. [8 26.

I. Singular.

1. Maseculines have s! for sign of Nominative (thence called sigmatic Nom.), or else a lengthening of the vowel of stem-suffix (non-sigmatic Nom.). In feminines, the presence of such a ¢ is less uniform. The Nom. of neuters is the simple stem, but in the O Declension ν appears in Nom. as the sign of dependence, indicating that such words express no proper personality. ον of Nom. neuter seems therefore an assimilation to the passive or object state indicated by ον of the Accus. of non-neuters in os.

2. The Genitive singular is formed in the Third Declension by os, ε΄, Latin -ὦ, In the A Declension a s appears in Genitive of feminines, but has been obscured in masculines both of A and O Declensions, as well as in neuters of the O Declension. The Genitive of O-stems is specially notable. Originally o-cyo, an- swering to Skt. Gen. a-sya, it became ovo, thence oo, whence by contraction ov. ovo and oo co-exist in Homer, and it is thought by some that the adjective δημόσιος is based upon this ancient o-oyo Genitive. The Genitives in ov of the A Declension are supposed to be an extension of the analogy of O nouns, and the Epic Πετέωο seems to be the o-cyo Genitive adapted to nouns in ὡς.

3. The Dative answers in form to a locative of the Sanskrit, and is distinguished by . Μαραθῶνι is an example of a true locative and in a locative sense ; γέροντι of a locative which has passed into a Dative. In the First and Second Declensions, the case-form bears a greater resemblance to a true Dative, such as exists in Sanskrit, and we have in these declensions also loca- tives surviving separately from the Datives. Cf. οἴκοι (older οἴκει, Cf. ἐκεῖ), locative as against the proper Dative οἴκῳ, and in First Declension χαμαί alongside of such as χώρᾳ: Only in O and A stems, therefore, have we traces of Locative and Dative being discriminated.

4, The Accusative was originally in μ (of which a trace sur- vives even in Greek in the initial μ of the pronoun py, originally ἰμ-ιμ, Whence both pw and νιν). Since p, as an ending, whether in nouns or in verbs, displeased the Greek ear, it was either changed into ν, as in Ace. of all vowel stems, or modified, as in consonantal stems, such as ποδ-μ, whence πόδα, by transforming p» into a vocalic nasal and thence into a, or, according to the older phi- lology, bysupposing ποδ-αμ to have been the original like p whence μ came to peel off as by ecthlipsis, leaving πόδα.

5. The Vocative is as nearly as possible the simple stem. Feminines generally have Vocative same as Nominative, except γυνή having Voce. γύναι, and proper names in o. νύμφδ, however,

1 The origin of this s, the sign of personality, is probably the same as that of the o which is at the base of the Article (¢f. ὃ 12). Various of the pronouns dispense with this personal s, as ἐγώ, σύ, ὅδε (cf. Latin iste for istus); also, in its first syllable, the duplicated οὗτος.

§ 26.] CASE-ENDINGS OF NOUNS. 45

is remarkable in A Declension, as having in Homer a separate Vocative from its Nominative νύμφη.

Il. Dual.

I. The Nominative (Accusative and Vocative) dual has been reduced in Greek to ε, which is retained in Third Declension. In the O and A Declensions, this ε has been fused with the stem vowel, whence 0+ ¢=o (by an archaic contraction), as in λόγω, a+ e=4, as in xpira.

2. The Dative dual is supposed to have originally ended in gw, thence ἐν, whence 6.0. ἵπποιν = trro-pw. The Third De- clension followed, in this respect, the analogy of the O Declen- sion, whence -ow and Homeric -ow. This form in ἐν from gu, originally Dative, seems to have been transferred to serve for the Genitive dual also.

11, Plural.

1. The Nominative plural in nouns not-neuter of the Third Declension has the sign es. Some take it for ces, since sus is found in Vedic Sanskrit, and oes expresses plurality by repeating s of the Nominative singular = sa + sa. The plurals in o and a (originally pronominal as in oi, ai, etc.), are by many thought to have had a similar origin, but the traces of proof, though some- what clearer in Latin, are, in Greek, obscure.

2. The Genitive plural is normally in wy, as in consonantal Declension (Doric ἂν of First Declension is for dwyv). The ulti- mate form in A stems is believed to have been -asam, whence -sam and -am, Hellenic -wy, from which the older Greek forms -awy, -ewy, are adaptations embodying a and ε of stem. In these, the σ᾿ has been dropped which appears as r in the Latin equarwm, etc. In O stems, the o of the stem has become absorbed without leaving any trace in form or accent, whence ἵππων (not ἱππῶν, as we might expect from Latin equorum).

3. The Dative is in -σι, retained more clearly in Third De- clension, abbreviated in First and Second. Originally a locative, akin to the Sanskrit locative plural in -su, cf. such as ᾿Αθήνησι, which some claim as the true locative, while ᾿Αθήνῃσι is founded on a disturbing analogy from -αἰσι and -αις.

4. The Accusative has for original type -vs, formed by adding s to the Accusative singular in ν (μ). In most instances ν was dropped in the Ace. pl. of Third Declension without compensa- tion, but in O and A Declensions with compensation by lengthened

uantity. In Cretan, immovs was in actual use. In Doric, the

usative in A and O Declensions was without compensation

ΒΕ ὧμ of », whence such as χῶρἄς and ἵππος in Accusative plural.

46 CASE-ENDINGS OF NOUNS. [ὃ 28.

§ 27. SpoRADIC CASE-ENDINGS.

1. Relics of case-endings are the adverbial suffixes -6:, -θεν, -d¢,! of local relations ; also the Epic -φι or -φιν, etc.

(a) -Θθι, oe where, ἄλλοθι, elsewhere, οἴκοθι, also οἴκοι, at home.

-Oev, denoting whence, ἄλλοθεν, from elsewhere, οἴκοθεν, from home

-de (-σε, -Ce), denoting whither, as Μέγαράδε, to Megara ; οἶκόνδε, and, as if from Third Declension, οἴκαδε, home- ward ; ἐκεῖσε, AOnvate for ᾿Αθήνας-δε.

(8) -φι or -pw, as a living form, only in Epic as an old case-ending, allied to the Sanskrit instrwmental of the plural -bhis, having the sense sometimes of an Abla- tive Genitive, once of a true Dative as 1]. B. 363, and often of a Dative in its instrumental and locative senses. It has these functions in both singular and plural. It is attached to the simple stem, as, First De- clension, βίηφι from βίη, (Epic for Bia) = with violence; Second Declension, θεόφι, a with Gods; Third De- clension, ναῦφι, in mapa ναῦφι = from beside the ships ; ὄρεσφι, on the hills, fon stem dpes of ὄρος, hill, ete., ἶφι, with might, from i-s.

(y) -ws? surviving only in adverbs, usually regarded as a relic of an Ablative, akin to early Latin form of that case in -d, apres in A and O stems, as -ad, -od, whence cito(d) = θοῶς (as to termination).

(5) -a or τη, in such as κρυφῆ, ἅμα (Doric dpa), πανταχῆ, πάντη, }, πῆ, etc., a relic of a lost instrumental, and so not needing to be written with « subscript.

2. In a few instances, even the case-terminations have been obliterated : as in the locatives δόμεν for δόμεναι, αἰέν (akin to αἰών).

§ 28. ANOMALIES IN DECLENSION

Are of two kinds; either defects arising from partial develop- ment of the form, or varieties arising from over-development of

the form.

1-@ allied to Locatives, -θεν to Ablative Genitives (cf. σέθεν in pronouns), -de suffixed to Accusative forms.

2 The newer school of philology takes a different view and regards this ς as a suffix of the same kind as the ς in ἐξ, af = ἀπ-ς, or ἐγγύ-ς, and so not allied to Latin -d.

§ 29.] ANOMALIES IN DECLENSION. 47

ANOMALIES BY DEFECT.

(a) DEFECTIVES IN NUMBER.

Chiefly limited to Sing. | Only Dual and Plural. Only Plural.

Abstract qualities and | ὄσσε, pair of eyes; Gen. | Festivals, as τὰ Παναθή- essences, aS ὄσσων, Dat. ὄσσοις. ναια.

ἡδύτης, sweetness, etc. ἀλλήλοιν, each other; G. | Town names in οι, a, a,

"Oni existences, aS plural, -ων. as Δελφοί, Θῆβαι, Acd- γῆ, ; also πέδον, etc., κτρα.

and usually αἰθήρ, ether. So ot ᾿᾽Ετησίαι, monsoons ;

τὰ ἔγκατα, entrails,

(8) Drerecrives IN Case. With One Case (Monoptotes, πτῶσις = casus). Acc. vida, snow ; λίπα, oil; ἦρα, tte Voc. ἠλέ, fool ; ὦ μέλε and ὦ τᾶν, good sure. (Some take ἦρα as Acc. Ρ].). sir; ἄττα, arma, papa. With Two Cases (Diptotes). Nominative and Accusative. Epic neuters in wp and many in ap, as, So δέμας, build of the iced ὦ ἦδος, plea-

ἄλκαρ, aid, ὄναρ, a dream; vr sure; θέμις (= fas), what is right; waking Pests vai ὄφελος, advantage. :

With Three (Triptotes); without Nom. With Four (7etraptotes) ; without and Voc. ocative. οὗ = sui. The reflexives ἐμαυτοῦ, etc., | All demonstrative pronouns, the reciprocal ἀλλήλοιν. So in| All relative pronouns. sing., without Nom. and Voc. G. | All interrogative pronouns. apvos, lamb, Ὁ. -.; G. στιχός, rank.

(Aptotes) with no special form of case, but one moveable form for all cases.

1. Cardinal numbers, from) 2. Foreign names not | 8. Infinitives used as 5 to 100 inclusive. Hellenised. nouns.

πέντε to ἑκατόν. Baad, Ιωσήφ, τὸ ἄλφα, G, | τὸ λέγειν, speaking ; Gen. (Yet traces of declension τοῦ ἄλφα. (But σίγμα on λέγειν, of speaking, in as πέμπων, may have decl., -aros.) etc. do τὸ χρεών, ne- G. plural.) cessity; Genitive τοῦ

᾿ χρεών, etc.

§ 29. ANoMALIES IN DECLENSION BY REDUNDANCE.

(a) VARIANTS, with more than one form in use.

(Redundants.)

as masculine, Genitive σκότου,

Dative -ῳ, etc., of Second Dec.

as neuter, Genitive σκότους,

. Dative -e, etc., of Third Dec.

Proper names in ns, eos, admit an Accusative of First Declen- sion, a8 Σωκράτης ; Gen. -ovs ; Dat. -εἰ ; Acc. -nyv, of First Declen- sion, or -η of Third Declension; Voc. Σώκρατες. Reversely, Στρεψίαδης of First can have as Voc. Στρεψίαδες of Third. Τισσα- φέρνης, Gen. -ovs, has Acc. -nv and -n, Voc. -n. Of. of ᾿Αριστοφάναι.

Some nouns belong to two de- clensions ; as σκότος, dark- ness ;

48 ANOMALIES IN DECLENSION. [§ 30.

A few neuter plurals come from Nominatives in os.

δεσμοί and -d, chains. κέλευθοι and -a, ways. δίφροι and τα, seats for two, gigs.| κύκλοι and -a, circles. δρυμοί and -ά, oak thickets. λύχνοι and -α, lamps. ioi and -d, arrows. ὕποι and -a, filth. σταθμοί and -d, cen » quarters.

Reversely, στάδιον, a stadium, may have στάδιοι as well as στάδιαις The following Datives are by-forms from stems other- wise perished, but sometimes metrically convenient: ἀλκί = ἀλκῇ, ἀνδραπόδεσσι = -όδοις, δένδρεσι = -pots, κλαδί and κλάδεσι = -da, -dors, πρόχουσιν = = pox dots, ὑσμῖνι = - Also κρίνεσι, προσώ- πασι for κρίνοις, προσώποις, but these have also Nom. plural kpivea, προσώπατα.

(8) VaRrIants, with only one of two possible forms in use.

ὃ σῖτος, COIN ; in plural only τὰ σῖτα. ὁ Τάρταρος, Tartarus ; plural Τάρταρα.

πῦρ, TO, fire, in plural passes into the Second Declension, and likewise nouns in ὦ and ὡς, with genitive dos, when they happen to have a dual and plural.

§ 30. IRREGULAR OR PECULIAR SUBSTANTIVES.

“Acéns, Hades, Gen, -ov, in mp _has me erase richness of form in Epic. Bice <> "Ay ς, Gen. -ao Or = also (as if from a Nom. Ais), Gen. "Αἴδος, ; also Now ᾿Αἰδωνεύς. In E Ep io, its a appears to be a negative (= un-seen) ;

in nto, aspiration has superven

ἄναξ, 6, ἡ, king, lord, Gen. ἄνακτος, etc. Voc. ἄναξ, sometimes ἄνα, but the latter only to a deity. (“Avaxes -wv = Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux.)

ἀνήρ, ὃ, mun (= in meaning to VIR), syncopates ε throughout. See § 19, 1.

᾿Απόλλων, Αροϊϊο; Gen. -ωνος, etc.; Acc. ᾿Απόλλω (rarely ᾿Απόλλωνα) ; Voc. ΑΝΝΑ ΧΩ.

ag ars ; Gen. -ews, -eos (not contracted) ; εἴ and εἰ ; ἣν or η; “Apes (also *Apes in poetry); Epic,” Apnos, -n, -na.

ἀστήρ, € ἥρδεινο, star (STE lad νὰ προ ραν ΕΝ in Dative plural, ἀστράσι.

(ἄστρον, 60 ve for Pogp vee on, is ἈΡΝ --ὁ, ; Dat. ἀρνί; ai ie Pl. ἄρ pvav (Ep. Fey tive ἄρνας. Noe ‘ing supplied by aoe "Gen. ov. ail, Hy

πολύρρηνες, is a possible N

βοῦς, ὁ, ἡ, Bos, ox or cow. See § 18, β.

γάλα, τό, milk (Epic yAdyos, Lac, LACTIS) ; Gen. -axros, etc. ; Dat. pl. ὥς Ἐν

γαστήρ, "| bell ie ἐβῦνι See § 19, 1.

γέλως, ὁ, ἴα τωτος ; -wtt, Epic τῳ ; Acc. -wra, Epic γέλω, Attic and noes γέλων.

“=

§ 30.) IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 49

γόνυ, τό, knee (GENU), yévaros, etc. ; Dat. pl. γόνασι. (ἸΤοπὶς γούνατος, etc. ; Epic G. sing. youvos, pl. γοῦνα, γούνων, γούνεσσι.) Stem yovv + ar = yorFar, whence by dropping F, the Attic preter: also, Ε and then vocalising it, the lonic γούνατος : and by assi

by transposing ες tion, the lic γόννατος. (Some account for v not by epentbesis, but by compen- satory lengthening ufter assimilation through [yovvos etc.].)

_-ytrn, ἡ, woman, wife.

(From root γεν, as if yFava (Curt.), whence Boot. βανά, ¢f. Gaelic bean, and Saxon cwen.)

Singular γυνή, γυναικός, γυναικί, γυναῖκα, ὦ γύναι." D yuvaike, γυναικοῖν. Plural γυναῖκες, γυναικῶν, γυναιξί, γυναῖκας.

δένδρον, τό, tree, lonic δένδρεον, regular. Also by-form δένδρος, with frequent Dat. plural δένδρεσι.

Δημήτηρ, ἡ, Demeter, Ceres. See ὃ 19, 1. By-form -rpay, in accusative. Vocative Δήμητερ.

δόρυ, τό, spar, spear; δόρατος, etc. (Ionic Sovparos, etc. ; Epic δουρός, -pi, dual δοῦρε, plural δοῦρα, -ων, -εσσι.) Also sometimes in Attic δορός, δορί, and, on analogy of ἄστυ, δόρει, with Nom. pl. δόρη. (Stem δορυ + ar, treated as in γόνυ.)

,

ἔαρ, τό, spring (Lat. veR, Aryan vesar), ἔαρος, etc. ; or, con- tracting, ἦρ, ἦρος, ἦρι, Acc. ἦρ. ; ;

ἔγχελυς, ἡ, eel (ANGUILLA). In the singular, like ἰχθύς, Gen. vos, etc., peg. In the pl., like πῆχυς, Nom. ἐγχέλεις, -εων, -εσιν.

Ζεύς, 6, Zeus, Jupiter, Διός, Ati, Δία. Vocative Ζεῦ. Poetic Ζηνός, Znvi, Ζῆνα, and Ζῆν. Beoeotic Δεύς. Ai for Aci in Pindar,

Two forms of one stem in the Greek Ζεύς, a shorter one = AcF, whence Διός for AcFés, F falling out between two vowels ; the longer one = Acev = Ajev = Zev, Θαλῆς, ὁ, Thales, Θάλεω, Θαλῇ, Θαλῆν. Later also Θαλοῦ and Θάλητος, “τι, -ητα. θέμις, ἡ, Tight; Acc. θέμιν, but, with substantive verb, it is indeclinable θέμις ἐστι, θέμις εἶναι. AS ἃ proper name, ἡ Θέμις, Θέμιδος, etc., -ἰν, Voc, -t, Epic Θέμ- or θέμ- ιστος, Doric -ἰτος, Ionic -τος ; pl. θέμιστες, -ας (ordinances),

θρίξ, ἡ, hair ; τριχός, etc. ; Dat. pl. θριξί. See § 7, 4. θυγάτηρ, ἡ, daughter. See § 19, 1. .

napa, τὸ, head, the only neuter in a, Epic form κάρη. In Attic it forms, 1°, N. A. V. κἄρα, Dat. κάρᾳ ; 2°, from a stem κρατ (Nom. «pds only Grammarians), Gen. κρᾶτός, Dat. xpari, Acc. κρᾶτα ; pl , Gen, κράτων, Acc. κρᾶτας, This stem (No. 2) mostly fem., sometimes masc, 8°, τὸ κρᾶτα in N, A, sing, and ra κρᾶτα ἴῃ Acc. pl. ‘Ihe last is natural, being descended from a possible κράατα, but the anomaly remains, 1", as to κρᾶτα in Acc. sing. if from a neuter, and 2’, as to τὸ κρᾶτα having started up as a Nom, and neuter.

In Epic the prevai form is sing., Nom. Acc. κἄρη, Gen. κἄρητος and καρήατος, xpadros, Dat. κ + and ΜΕ att, κρᾶατι, Nom. pl. καρήατα and Kapa (from rer The πον cases of the plural are drawn from the stem κρᾶτ, which besi ring fn Θ sing, κρᾶτός, xpari, as in Attic, supplies plural Gen xparwv, Dat. κρᾶσί (also, from an extended stem, κράτεσφι), Acc. κρᾶτα. Add

_ 2 Vocative is the only part in which accent falls on the v. (Accent of Voc. in Aryan primitive nouns is high.) “ot (sr) een its stem, see § 9, 2, 4.

50 IRREGULAR DECLENSION. [§ 30.

κάρηνα, -vwv, generally plural, from kindred stem, also the epic κρῆθεν and perhaps ead. In later time, traces of κάρη as in First ἐντὶ γα Gen. κάρης, etc, : κλείς, ἡ, key (CLAVIS), κλειδός, etc. Accus. κλεῖδα and κλεῖν ; plural κλεῖδες, Acc. κλεῖδας and κλεῖς. Lonic κληΐς, old Attic κλής, -ndds, κλῇδα (never κλῇν).

κύων, ὃ, ἡ, dog (CANIS), (v always short).

Singular κύων, κὔνός, κυνί, κύνα, κύον. Dual κύνε, κυνοῖν. Plural κύνες, κυνῶν, κυσί (Epic κύνεσσι), κύνας.

μάρτυς, ὃ, ἡ, witness Bb μάρτυρ), Gen. -vpos, Dat. plural in Attic, μάρτυσι. (Acc., also, μάρτυν.

μήτηρ, ἡ, mother (MATER). δι § 19, 1.

vais, 1), ship (NAVIS).

Attic. Singular vais, νεώς, νηΐ, ναῦν. Dual (vie), νεοῖν. Plural νῆες, νεῶν, ναυσί, vais. Epic and Ionic (new Ionic chiefly in ve). 5 ὥς and νηΐς, and νεός, νηΐ, νῆα and νέα. oe (he), eo spate ΓΝ ΡΥ

Plural νῆες and νέες, νηῶν and νεῶν, νηυσί, νήεσσι and νέεσσι ; also ναῦφιν, νῆας and νέας.

Doric. Singular ναῦς, ναός, vat, οἴο., with ἃ throughout.

Thus the Attic inflection may be said to combine Ionic and Doric forms.

Nom. plural vais, only late. νόος, contracted νοῦς, ὁ, mind; Gen. νόου Ξε νοῦ. Regular. Late writers

. declined it of the Third (like βοῦς), Gen. νοός, Dat. vot, Acc. νόα.

νύξ, ἡ, night (Nox). Gen. νυκτός, etc. Dat. plural νυξί.

Οἰδίπους, ὁ, CEdipus ; -οδος, -οδι, -oda and -ουὅν ; Voc. -ovs and -ov. Gen. also Οἰδίπου ; Epic -d8a0 ; Doric -όδᾶ ; Acc. -όδαν.

ols, sheep. Se2 ὃ 20, a, 1.

ge ἄγε τῆι, only Nom. and Acc. sing., makes up complete form with a

stem which has all cases except these two; sing. ὀνείρατος, -ατι, plural -ara, -dTwv, -ἅσι. ὄνειρος, -ov, 6, Regular,

ὄρνις, 6, ἡ, bird, tos ; Acc. ἴθα and w; Voc. ὄρνι. In plural Regular. y-forms ὄρνεις, ὄρνεων, ὄρνεις ; also dpvis (besides the regular ὄρνιθας). Gen. ὄρνιχος, etc., is Doric.

ὄσσε, eyes (for dxye). See ὃ 28.

οὖς, τό, ear (AURIS), regular (but, as if from Doric Nom. és), viz., Gen. drds, etc. ; Epic οὗας, Gen. -aros, etc.

πατήρ, ὃ, father (PATER). See § 19, 1.

Πνύξ, ἡ, Pnyx, assembly ; Gen. Πυκνός, -i, -a. Late forms Πνυκός, ete.

πόλις. See § 20, a. Ποσειδῶν, 6, Poseidon (= Neptune), -ῶνος, -@, -dva, better -ὦ ; Voc. Πύσειδον, ὃ 24.

ὃ 51.] IRREGULAR DECLENSION—GENDER OF NouNS. δ]

πρέσβυς, ὃ, “he ype has in this sense only Acc, πρέσβὺῦν, and Voc. πρέσβῦ, and is compared, σβύτερος, elder ; πρεσβύτατος, eldest. Remaining parts supplied from mpe , ov, ὃ, old man, The peculiarly Attic forms, Gen. πρέσβεως ; πρέσβεις, -ewv, -εσι, are borrowed by πρεσβευτής, -ov, 6, and have the sense of ambassador, Sing. N. πρεσβευτής, ambassador. Sing. N. πρέσβυς and -βύτης, old man.

α΄. πρεσβευτοῦ and mpécBews. G. πρεσβύτου. D. πρεσβευτῇ. D. πρεσβύτῃ A. cine a i A. πρέσβυν. V. πρεσβευτ. V. πρέσβυ. Plur. N. πρέσβεις. Plur. N. πρεσβῦται. ᾿: πρέσβεων. G. πρεσβυτῶν. D. πρέσβεσι. D. πρεσβύταις. A. πρέσβεις. A. πρεσβύτας.

πῦρ, τό, en oe πῦρός, etc. Plural πῦρά, ripayv, ripois. σῖτος. ee ὃ 99, β. στάδιον and σταθμός, see ὃ 29, a. τᾶν in ὦ τᾶν, good sir, cf. § 28 (8) and § 44 obs. ὕδωρ, τό, water, ὕδατος, etc., Regular ; Dat. pl. ὕδασι. vids, οὔ, 0, 807, Regular, of Second Declension.

so, from stem vie- come, of Third Declension,

Sin: ng. υἱέος, υἱεῖ, (υἱέα only Epic), \ More oy lowe especially viée, υἱέοιν. in the plural, t ret the Plur. υἱεῖς, υἱέων, υἱέσι, υἱεῖς. forms of υἱός in Thue, (Nom. vievs only in Grammarians.) Plato, and the orators. These are only Epic, Gen. sing. υἷος, υἷι, υἷα ; υἷε ; υἷες, υἱάσι, υἷας.

φώς, ὃ, man, wight ; Gen. φωτός, οἴο., Regular, as a masculine. ag] τό, light ; Gen. φωτός, etc., Regular, as a neuter. Two poetic b y-forms, φόως and φάος, τά Gen. φάεος, plur. φάεα, ete. Pes, ἡ, arf Gen. φῳδός, chiefly plur., podes, etc. χείρ, Pia nd, χειρός, etc. ; but Dat. plur. χερσί (Epic χείρεσσι and yeipeor). The poets and Ionic writers drop ε elsewhere at pleasure, except in Nom. sing., as Gen. χερός, etc. ; they also admit χειροῖν for more usual χεροῖν. (On Nom. xéps in Doric, see § 21.) + Oo, her, liquid lik By-f eli ates ea ree, te a, ee mies, "heap o ea ear 6 βοῦς. ras debt, only Mon as rey Acc. eg My χρέος ; Gen. χρέους ; ; Gen. χρεῶν. Datives and dual are wanti aera} χρᾷ akin, -wrés, etc. Regular, except in phrase ἐ ἐν χρῷ, near. Tonic and E » xpot, χρόα.

§ 31. GenpeR or SUBSTANTIVEs.

(a) By SIGNIFICATION.

1, Names of LIVING BEINGS are, according to sex, either mas- culine or feminine.

52 | GENDER OF NOUNS, [§ 31.

Except diminutives, as ἀνδρίον, τό, manikin, and three words = child, βρέφος, τέκος, τέκνον, neuter by their termination. ;

A few have common gender, and are o, 7, as βοῦς, ox or cow, Geos, ete.

Many names of animals have a standing form of gender common to animals of both sexes. (EHpicenes.) Thus, a fox in Greek and Latin was reckoned feminine; vulpes, feminine, ἀλώπηξ ἡ ; Whereas ὦ hare was reckoned masculine ; lepus, mas- culine, λαγώς o. °

2. Names of Months, Mountains, Winds, Rivers, are generally masculine ; names of Towns or Cities, Countries, lianas Trees, are generally feminine.

Στύξ and Λήθη, Styx and Lethe, though Rivers, are feminine; also Αἴτνη, Κυλλήνη, Οἴτη, Ὅσσα, though Mountains, are by their termination feminine ; 80 ἢ Πάρνης, - Ἄ

But, Names of Towns in ἄς ayros, οὖς odvros, and οὐ plural, are

masculine, as in Latin. u < ov and a plural, are neuter, as in Latin. Thus. J Mase. Taras, ὁ Τάρας, avros (= Tarentum) ; Opus, Opuntis, ὁ ᾽᾿Οποῦς, οὔντος ; Delphi, of Δελφοί. Neut. Rhegium, τὸ Ῥήγιον ; Leuctra, τὰ Λεῦκτρα. So neuter, Argos, τὸ ΓΑργος.

8. All indeclinable nouns (§ 28 8) are neuter; e.g., the names of letters, τὸ ἄλφα.

(8) By TERMINATION.

In the Frrst Declension a, ἡ, always feminine ; ἄς and ys, always masculine. (But Epic Noms. in ra for rns are masc.) In the Seconp Declension os, ws, usually masculine, some- times feminine ; oy and wy, always neuter. Except diminutives from proper names of women, as 7 TAvxépiov, Glycerium, 2.¢., “little Glycera ”.

The following are most of the feminines in os. ‘ Nouns implying the notion of 1. Earth (γῆ) or Stone. ἡ Ai@os, feminine, precious stone ; (masculine, ordinary stone).

So dpytios, white clay. κρύσταλλος, crystal (ὃ, ice). ἄσφαλτος, bitumen. οςς μίλτος, red earth. βῶλος, clod. νεός, new-trenched land. βάσανος, touchstone. πλίνθος, brick, tile. ὕψος, chalk. χέρσος, terra ; Joquos, desert, ψάμμος and ἄμμος, sand, ἤπειρος, mainland, ψῆφος, pebble, vote.

1 Feminines in O stems are common to Greek and Latin, but belong to no other Aryan tongue. Originally O stems seem to have been all masc., but a

8 31.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 53

So κόπρος, dung. σποδός, ashes, 2. Thoroughfare : —_— ἡ Ὁδός, way, always feminine, and often ΜΌΝΗ also, * 80 its compounds, etc., as ἡ περίοδος, etc. ἀτραπός, path. κέλευθος, road. ἁμαξιτός, carriage way. τρίβος, pathway. 8. Vessel or receptacle :— ἡ Κιβωτός, chest. pas μὸνος winepeen. κάμινος, furnace. κάρδοπος, kneading trough. rs pe “ditch. 4. Vegetable products, as ἡ βύσσος. cotton, etc. 5. Three in gos, δρόσος, dew; νῆσος, island; νόσος, disease.

6. Various, as—

βίβλος, book. δέλτος, tablet. δοκός, beam. γνάθος, jaw. permite dialect. θόλος, vaulted roof. κέρκος, tail. ῥάβδος, Ww In the Turrp Declension masculines are—. ay, VY; υῃν». €US, NP, @P. Ψ, ὡς wos, wy ὠνος, and Genitives i in -ντος. those'in Foninines. τ: Neuters.

a prt oe hn -έρος, belly. κήρ, κηρός, fate. jp, spring, and κῆρ, heart, are

np θυγάτης μήτηρ, etc., fem. by meaning.) from éap and κέαρ ” Gove ᾿ . ὕδωρ, water, and σκῶρ, filth,

both Gen. in Gros. Epic words in wp, as naps itil vo κατῆλιψ (dos), sore . φλέψ, (βός), vein ; ᾿ χέρνιψ (Bos), lustral w ; ere Fo λαΐλαψ, storm

Φ ὦ... ὦ

rm; ow, voices Sy, face ; all

ως. φῶς, φωτός, light (p. 89, n. 1). Feminines are a, ὧν ovos. -: ot ξ, ἄς ἄδος. τῆς τητος, ts, vs, and avs. , age ἢ Masculines mii “ὧν ovos. ax anvil; βραχίων. : κανών, ητος. ΑἹ in n ns not. sre pe τσ τινε Wee τ (ἐσθής, dress alone is feminine). z All with a LONG Αλγαντεῆς before κος, ἄβαξ, an abacus; ἄνθραξ, ὃ , reed; πίναξ, tablet ὦ (although all with ἄκος); om

coal; δόν nail (= u uis) ; ; στόνυξ emp e (both with Genitive χοὸς vs. βότρυς, uster ; ἰχθύς, fish ; κάνδυς, doublet ; μῦς, relay ea corse ; στάχυς, corn-ear (all Wi th vos). πέλεκυς, aXe ; πῆχυς, forearm (both with ews). Neuters are a, ἄς, ἄρ.

_ t, v, os (for ee) op. But λᾶς or Adas, Gen. λᾶος ὁ stone.

tendency to treat ve my te fem. arose, 1° from anal as ἢ δρόσος, to resemble the rece Ap fem. τι ὅση, 2° from «pecies following ΣΝ a Ke ww0os, to con- teen Ὁ πόλις, * from direct adaptation, as ἡ ἵππος, ἡ 9 ongside of ὁ ππος,

54 ADJECTIVES. . [§ 32.

No Guttural or Labial stem is ever Neuter, nor is any Liquid stem so, except some few in p.

N.B.—Single words not included in the above lists.

Masculine. Feminine, ὁ GAs, ἁλός, salt. ἡ GAs ἁλός, sea, ὁ κτείς, κτενός, comb, ἡ Sais, δαιτός, feast. ὁ πούς, ποδός, foot. ἡ αἰδώς, (όος =) -οῦς, shame. 7 ἠώς (όος =) -ovs, morning. ἢ χείρ, -ρός, Neuter.

τὸ ods, ὠτός, ear. τὸ πῦρ, πῦρός, fire. τὸ σταίς, σταιτός, dough.

§ 32. ADJECTIVES.

Of the four divisions of adjectives, the

First belongs to the First and Second Declensions ; Second r Second Declension solely ; Third A Third Declension solely ; Fourth δε First and Third Declensions.

N.B:—The feminine of the adjective, whenever it has a form to itself independent of the masculine, belongs always to the First (or A) Declension.

ADJECTIVES OF THE FirsT AND SECOND (i.e. VOWEL)

DECLENSIONS. (Answering to Latin us, or ev, a, um.) M F N

The feminine is in ἡ, as φίλος, φίλη, φίλον, dear. But os pure and pos have in feminine ἃ and pa; girsos, friendly, feminine φιλία; ἐχθρός, hostile, femi- nine ἐχθρᾶ.

N.—oos, however, has ἡ, as ὄγδοος, dn, oor, eighth ; but poos has a,.as ἀθρώος, oa, dov, dense.

os Impure. os Pure. pos. Singular. M. oF ON, Mo) oF. -N. M. ΞΕ

N. φίλ-ος, τη, τὸν. φίλι-ος, -a, τον. ἐχθρ-ίς, -ἅ, -ν. G. φίλ-ου, -ns, -ov. @uXi-ov, τας του. ἐχθρ-οῦ, -ἂς, -οὔ. 1). φίλ-ῳ, -ῃ, τῳ. φιλίτῳ, -ᾳ, τῳ. ἐχθρ-ῷ, -ᾷ, τῷ. A. φίλ-ον, -nv, τον. φίλι-ον, -ἄν, -ον. ἐχθρών, -ἄν, -ὦν. V. φίλ-ε, τη, τον. φίλι-ε, -d, τον. ἐχθρ-έ, -ά, -ὦν..

νι

ow

§ 82.}

M.

Dual. N. A.V. a,

Plural. N.V. οι, G.

ων;

ἀγαθός, σοοά. καλός, *pautifal σοφός, wise. φαῦλος, vile.

Fem. 7.

κακός, ba

ἐν Ὁ ΡΟ &

N. A.V. G. Ὁ.

ADJECTIVES.

Fo Aaa

“ad, τω.

“at, =a. πο} Ὁ “ΩΨ.

Examples.

ee G.D. ow, -αιν, D. os, «αις, A. ovs, -ἂς, Fem. ἃ.

ἅγιος, holy. δίκαιος, just.

ἐλεύθερος, free. μικρός, small. μακρός, long. N.B.—Participles in os, , ov, follow declension of φίλος.

CONTRACTING IN os.

Adjectives in eos expressing material of which anything is composed, and adjectives in oos answering to the Latin mudltzpli- catives in -plex, contract everywhere. The majority, however, of adjectives in oos are compounds from a substantive such as νόος, πλόος (voyage), and therefore (by ὃ 33) have no feminine differing from the masculine. Otherwise they contract like ἁπλόος, except in Neuter plural, where edvod (not etva).

N.B.—Contract ea in the singular into ἡ, unless p precede, but in the dual and plural into a.

χρύσεος, golden ; ἁπλόος, simple.

M.

. χρύσ -εος

dm -όος

. χρυσ -ἔου

ἁπὰλ

᾿ -00U

» χρυσ -έῳ

dm -όῳ χρύσ -εον dm -dov

- (χρύσ-εε)

(ἀπλ -de)

χρυσ -ἔω ari -ὀω

χρυσ -ἔοιν dr -dow

Singular.

- -έα \ ous, -όη

ου, -ons - -€a φ, -6n Ἂ -€av ουν, 7 -onv -έα ’ "ΟὍΟἡ Dual.

N. -€ov - Ε ἐκ» ουν. -έου } - ὦ 60 υ ου. Ὁ he. ow -€0v εἶ «ον [ον. ~€oy n τῶν Κοῦν -€w ; «ὅόω ῳ -έοιν

56 ADJECTIVES. [8 38.

Plural. ἽΝ, Ὗ. “χρύσ -εοι ‘ coat ἢ .° * -4a° 7 2 _ ard -dot rae εἄᾳς ὦ" ὠς ἘΠ G. χρυσ των ἢ. . -έων } -έων ha dmv -dov £°” -d@v ὧν, -dov °°” D. χρυσ -éots - -éats ἢ - -έοις ἢ,

A. χρυσ -έους. \ » -έας | - rea) - dmv -dovs £°%? -das [Ὁ -oa = But pea, singular feminine, into a; as, from ἀργύρεος, silver, Nom. fem. dpyupéa, -pa, Gen. ἀργυρέας, -pas, apyupéa, -pa, apyv- péav, -pav ; elsewhere like ypvaeos. On accent of χρυσοῦς, out of χρύσεος, see injra on Accents.

§ 33. ADJECTIVES OF SECOND SOLELY.

As in the Second Declension of substantives, os was sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine, so, in certain adjectives, os serves for both of these genders, These are known as adjectives in os of two terminations,

- It is especially in COMPOUND adjectives in os that the feminine is the same as the masculine (the burthen of composition seeming to impede the free movement of the entire word), as φέλος, ἡ, ov, but θεόφιλος, os, ov; δυνατός, 4, ov, but ἀδύνατος, os, ον."

N. 1. Some few non-compounded adjectives, especially in Attic, have feminine in os. ese end mostly in -tos, -ἰμος, and ~pos, a8 φρόνιμος, sensible.; βάρβαρος, barbarian ; ἥμερος, tame.

2. All comparatives and superlatives in os have 4 Rie termina- tions. In various words, however, poets consulted convenience of

metre, ahd hence ὀλοώτατος ὀδμή and ἀθανάτη μήτηρ in Homer. Oxss.—Some adjectives in os have both forms, with or without separate fem.

Thus, φίλιος, φιλία, φίλιον, as well as φίλιος, φίλιος, φίλιον, friendly, and so with γεν Be fem. γαῦρος or yavpa. Such belong, therefore, to ὃ 82 as well as :

ἔνδοξος, glorious, ᾿ - Singular. N. ἔνδοξος -ος -ον or ὁ, ἡ, ἔνδοξος, τό, ἔνδοξον. G. ἐνδόξου -ov -ου or τοῦ, τῆς, τοῦ, ἐνδόξου. D. ἐνδόξῳ. -ῳ -ῳ οἵ τῷ, τῇ, τῷ, ἐνδόξῳ. A. ἔνδοξον -ον -ὃν ΟΥ̓ τόν, τήν, τό, ἔνδοξον. Υ: ἔνδοξε- -ε -ov or ὦ ἔνδοξε, ὦ ἔνδοξον.

§ 34. ] ADJECTIVES. 57

| Dual. « NAV. ἐνδόξω -w -o or τώ, τᾶ, τώ, ἐνδόξω (Voce. ὦ). 6. 1). ἐνδόξοιν -ow -οιν ot τοῖν, ταῖν, τοῖν, ἐνδόξοιν. Plural. | N.V. ἔνδοξοι -οἱ -ἄ οὐ οἱ, ai, ἔνδοξοι, τά, ἔνδοξα,

| (Voce. @). ) α. ἐνδόξων -ων -wv or τῶν, τῶν, τῶν, ἐνδόξων. D. ἐνδόξοις -ots -οἷς or τοῖς, ταῖς, τοῖς, ἐνδόξοις. A. ἐνδόξους -ους -ἅ οΥ τούς, Tas, ἐνδόξους, τά, ἔνδοξα.

Examples. ἀθάνατος, immortal. βασίλειος, royal. εὔκοσμος, elegant. Adjectives in ws. av. (Like Attic Declension in a, ef. ὃ 15.)

Singular. Plural. M&F. ΟΣ σε "ΟΜ, &-F. Nd ΝΥ. εὔγεως. εὔγεων, fertile. εὔγεῳ. εὔγεω. σ. εὔγεω. Wale ᾿ς εὔγεων. D. εὔγεῳ. : yews. A. evyear, εὔγεως. ᾿ὀοεὔγεω. Dual. N. A.V. εὕὔγεω. G. Ὁ. ᾿ εὔγεῳν. Examples. | ἵλεώς, gracious. ἔμπλεως, full.

N.—rAéws, full, has a separate fem. (though its compounds, in general, have not), and is declined, πλέως, πλέᾷ, πλέων, Gen. πλέω, πλέας, 5 we etc. Nom. Pl. neuter πλέα, but ἔκπλεω,

§ 34. Apsectives SoLELy or TuIrD DECLENSION..

N.B.—In adjs. of. Third Declension, the Voe. sing, masc. and Nom. sing. neut. are alike, being each the simple stem.

Singular. Plural. N. εὔφρων εὗφρον, cheerful. εὔφρονες εὔφρονα. σ. εὔφρονος (M. F. N, ) εὐφρόνων. D. τ΄ ‘edpow. ( 6, : 01 εὔφροσι. A. εὔφρονα, εὗφρον.. εὔφρονας, εὔφρονα. εἰ εὗφρον. | εὔφρονες, εὔφρονα.

Dual. N. A. V. εὔφρονε. | 6. 1). εὐφρόνοιν.

58 ADJECTIVES. [8 84.

Examples.

σώφρων, ον, prudent, φιλόπολις, t, patriotic. G.idos.) sj x ἄφρων, ov,imprudent. εὔελπις, ι, hopeful. G.idos. { 4.8 εὐδαίμων, ov, happy. ' εὔχαρις, «,charming. G.cros. ( dpi ἄρρην, εν, male. G. evos. ἴδρις, t, intelligent. G.tos. ) aa

ἄδακρυς, v, tearless.. G. vos. Acc. υν.

τρίπηχυς,υ,Ἠ three cubits long. G. eos. Acc. υν.

τρίπους, ovy, three footed. G. οδος. Acc. ovy or oda.

N. 1. Compounds of πόλις in their natural sense, as names of cities, have ews, AS Νεάπολις, new city (= Naples); Gen. ews ; when they change their sense and become epithets of men, then usually Gen. cdos, id, ἐν and céa, etc., as φιλόπολις, patriotic man.

2. Compounds of —— in us αὐ Bees beyond the Nom. and Acc. sing. Supply the other cases by the forms dros, ὁ, ἡ, thus Gen. of πολύδακρυς = πολυδακρύτου.

3. Compounds οὗ πῆχυς, cubit, may contract where it contracts.

4. Traces (in Odyssey) of γέρων taken adjectively, with neut. γέρον (σάκος).

11. CoMPARATIVES IN op.

Comparatives in wy decline like εὔφρων or positives in wy, but they admit of a syncope and contraction foreign to these, in four cases, viz., in the Acc. sing. and Nom. Acc. and Voce. plural—i.e., they dispense with ν, and then contract, in those cases where the neuter has a form unlike the masculine.

μείζων greater, like εὔφρων, but M. and F. N. Ace. S. μείζονα (oa =) μείζω, μεῖζον. Ny pL μείζονες (oes =) μείζους, μείζονα (oa =) μείζω. A. Pl. μείζονας (oas =) μείζους, μείζονα (oa =) μείζω.

N. 1. Contraction of oas into ovs is probably through assimilation to the Nom. plural.—These contracted forms are believed to come not epee from the v formation, but from the older form of comparative with ς suffix, as eg one τὸ ΤᾺ λέν, cf. majorem = ey cr in πρέσ-βυς " still a trace _ this

reek, for mpés-Bus = mpets-yu-s i.¢., prius genitus, or pris-cus

2. πλέων OF πλείων, more, Resides the contractions as above, has also some forms in ev with interior contraction even in Gen. sing., as πλεῦνος, etc., and, in Epic, Nom. plural πλέες and Acc. plural πλέας. .

IIL. ConTRACTS IN 7s, ες, OR ELIDED STEMS IN o.

A very numerous class of adjectives, solely of Third Declension, is that in ἧς, es, contracting with every con- currence, and following type of γένος, § 18 (a).

§ 35.] ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. δ9 Singular,

N. ἀληθής ἀληθές, true.

G. arnbéos = ἀληθοῦς (M. F. N.)

D. ἀληθέξ - ἀληθε ( , Ὁ.

A. ἀληθέα = ἀληθῆ, ἀληθές.

Υ. ἀληθές.

᾿ Plural. ΝΥ. ἀληθέες = ἀληθεῖς, ἀληθέα = ἀληθῆ. G. ἀληθέων = ἀληθῶν. Ὁ. ἀληθέσι. Α. ἀληθέας --- ἀληθεῖς, ἀληθέα --- ἀληθῆ.

: Dual. — N. A. V. ἀληθέε = ἀληθῆ. | G.D. ἀληθέοιν = ἀληθοῖν.

ns pure has a preferably to ἡ in Acc. sing. and N. A. V. plural,

as ἐνδεής, ἐνδεᾶ; ὑγιής, ὑγιᾶ, also ὑγιῆ.

Cf. ὃ 18, (a) 1.

So εὐγενής, és, noble ; ἀσθενής, és, weak ; εὐσεβής, és, pious.

§ 35. ADJECTIVES OF First AND THIRD DECLENSION.

Terminations, Adjectives. Participles. 1. ἃς awa ἄν. as aoa wm. avos aivns avos, etc. avTos acns avtos, etc. (Only two. μέλᾶς, black, | (So, though adjs., πᾶς 1 (all) τάλᾶς, wretched.) and its compounds.) 2. εἰς εσσᾶ εν. εἰς εἶσα ἐν. evtos ἔσσης evtos,etc.| έντος εἰσης évTos.

(6 Dat. plural, ἐστ.)

(ΟΣ Dat. plural, εἶσι.)

3. ous οὔσσα οὗν. ovs οὖσα ὀὀν. οὖὔντος οὐσσῆης οὔντος. ὄντος οὔσης ὀντος.

(Contd. from όεις of 2d form.)

4. iis εἴᾶ ὕ. ὕς toa ὕν. εος εἴας εος. tvtos ὕσης ὕντος.

1 In declining πᾶς, take ἄμφω ($ 42) for Dual.

60

<

ewa εν. εἰνης ενος. τέρην, tender.)

_ Fem. ending. εν + ta. a + τα. ε +4. (ε for τ τ i.¢., εὖ from us). evT + a= evoa= eooa Assi But εἰσα = or + a=evoa = . εἰισα Compens. 6. ἧς ἤσσα ἢν. ῆντος σσης ἤντος.

(Contd. from ήεις of 2d form.)

5. nv ενος

εσσα

Adjective ἔπι ας.

ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES.

[9 85. ων ουσᾶ ον. ovTos -οὖὐσης οντος.

(So, two adjs. ἑκών, willing, ἄκων, unwilling.

{> ὧν (contd. from day) has aoa, ὧν, G. ὥντος.

ὧν (contd. from ἔων and der) has οὖσα, οὖν, G. odvros. So

every future participle Act. in ὧν of liquid verbs.

os vial os.

OTOS vias OTOS. | ΚΡ ws (in archaic Peps.),

waa, ws, 0r os, ἃ. wTos, ete.

Participle in as.

Singular.

black.

E

μέλαινᾶ, μέλᾶν. | ards,

v σταν.

Pya4Z ἢ Pye

1 va, usually e of Fo, υσια, and ‘tag τα

μέλανες, μελάνων, μέλᾶσι,

μέλανᾶς,

μελαίνης, μελαίνῃ, μέλαιναν, μέλαινα,

μελαίνᾷ,

μέλανος. μέλανι. μέλᾶν. ᾿

μέλᾶν. Dual. μέλανε.

μέλαΐναιν, μελάνοιν.

μέλαιναι,

Plural. μέλανα.

μελαινῶν, μελάνων. μελαίναις, μέλᾶσι.

μελαίνᾶς,

Adjective in εἰς.

graceful.

χαρίεις, χαρίεντος, χαρίεντι, χαρίεντα, χαρίεν,"

lai

-εσσᾶ, -έσσης, -έσση, -εσσαν, -eooa,

μέλανα.

Singular.

-εν. -€VTOS. -EvTL. -εν.

-εν.

στάντε, στάντοιν,

στάντες, στάντων, στᾶσι,

στάντᾶς,

, - στάσᾶ, στάσαιν,

στᾶσαι, στασῶν, στάσαις, στάσᾶς,

oravros. στάντι. oray.

ΕΖ στἄν.

στάντε. στάντοιν.

στάντα. στάντων. στᾶσι. στάντα.

Participle in es.

| τιθείς,

τιθέντος, τιθέντι, τιθέντα, τιθείς,

placing,

-€ioa, -elons, clon, -€icay, -€ioa,

-ἔν.

-έντος.

-έντι. eo

~év.

ned as for For-.a, whence foo-:a, then by v, arising out pping intervocalic ¢, va. But the question is obscure.

§ 36.] ADJECTIVES. 61 N.A.V. xapievre, -ἐσσᾶ, -evre. [{τιθέντε, -είσᾶ, - -έντε. G.D. χαριέντοιν, -έσσαιν, -έντοιν. | τιθέντοιν, -είσαιν, -έντοιν. ; Plural. N.V. “χαρίεντες, -εσσαι, -evra. τιθέντες, -εῖσαι, -έντα. σ.- χαριέντων, -εσσῶν, ἔντων. | τιθέντων, -εισῶν, -έντων. D. χαρίεσι, -τέσσαις, -εσι. τιθεῖσι, -εἰσαις, -εῖσι. A. xapievrds, -éoods, -evra. ἱτιθέντἄᾶς, -εἰσᾶς, -érd. ts, εἴα, v, Partially Contracted. Singular. Plural. N. ἡδύς, -εἴα, οὐ. ἡδέες = eis, -εἴαι, -éa. G. ἡδέος, -εἰας, τέος. ἡδέων, -εἰῶν, τέων. D. ἡδέϊ τε ei, -eia, -€i = εἴ. ἡδέσι, -elals, τέσι. A. ἡδύν, -εῖαν, τύ. ἡδέᾶς τε εἴς, -εἰᾶς,Ἠ τέα. ς ἡδύ, -εἴα, οὐ. ἡδέες = εἴς, -εἴαι, -éa. Dual. χω A. V. ἡδέε, -eid, -έε. G. D. ἡδέοιν, -είαιν, -έοιν. Examples. γλυκύς, sweet. evpus, broad. ἥμισυς, half. βαθύς, deep. ὀξύς, sharp. θῆλυς, effeminate.

N. 1. » for ea in neuter plural of adjectives in vs is rare ; ἡμίση occurs, how- ever, and even ἡμίσους in Genitive singular,

2, εἴα is in Ionic éa and έη ; Gen. ems ; Dat. ἔῃ ; Acc. éav and énv.

8. The poets take two licenses with adjectives in vs, (1) giving ea for vv in Acc. sing., and (2) making masculine forms serve for feminine. adéa χαίταν, luxurious , for adetay ; ταρφὺς θρίξ, bushy hair, for ταρφεῖα.

§ 36. ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION.

Some adjectives, applicable chiefly to persons, have only one termination for masculine and feminine, which is occasionally joined, especially in the Gen, and Dat., to a neuter noun.! These are,

1. Compound adjs. ending upon unchanged substs.

From παῖς ; 6, 7, ἄπαις, -dos, childless, ¢G Except compds. of , δ meee ΔῈ ΤᾺ πούς, ὀδούς; πό- rom χείρ; 6, ἧ, μακρόχειρ, -ρος, Ἰοῃσ απο, Ἂλις, χάρις, εἴς. ; From 3 » 6, Σ ἄοψ, “πος, eyeless, which have ἃ 86. te Nom, neut.

if. § 84.

1 As ἐν πένητι σώματι, Eur. Elect. 375, ἐπήλυδα ἔθνεα, Herod. viii. 73.

62. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.

[8 97.

2. Personal adjs. in ἄς ἄδος, ts ἴδος, us vdos, ξ, Ψ, and those with Gen. in nvos, nros, wros. 6, ἡ, φυγάς, fugitive. 6, ἡ, νέηλυς, new comer. ὃ, ἡ, ἄναλκις, pithless. ὃ, ἡ, φοῖνιξ, purple. 6, ἡ, πένης, poor, labourer. 6, ἡ, ἀγνώς, unknown. 3. Various, as μάκαρ, dpos, happy ; ἀκάμᾶς, avros, unwearied ; also Ἕλλην and Ἕλλάς, when taken bicetively. ;

N.—Some of these have occasionally a separate fem., as μάκαρ, μάκαιρα ; φοῖνιξ, φοίνισσα, etc. Such feminines formed according to § 9, 2, (8).4.—Some in ts, «dos, are only in feminine, as συμμα- xis (πόλις), and πατρίς, -idos, ἡ, is originally a fem. adj. like patria.

§ 37. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.

Two adjectives are irregular, πολύς and μέγας, each forming on the basis of more than one stem, but with- out duplication of parts, and these parts chiefly from monros! and [μεγάλος].

Πολύς, much or many. Stems zoAv and πολλο, 1.6., πτοᾺλ ἔο.

Sing. N. πολύς, πολλή, πολύ. α. πολλοῦ, πολλῆς, πολλοῦ. 1), πολλῴ, πολλῇ, πολλῷ. Α πολύν, πολλήν, πολύ. Υ πολύ, πολλή, πολύ.

Dual. Ν. A. V. [πολλώ, πολλά, πολλω].3 G.D. [πολλοῖν, πολλαῖν, πολλοῖν].

Plur. N.V. πολλοί, πολλαΐί, πολλά. σ. πολλῶν, πολλῶν, πολλῶν. 1). πολλοῖς, πολλαῖς, πολλοῖς. A. πολλούς, πολλάς, πολλά.

1 In the Ionic, πολλός actually appears; μεγάλος as Nom, appears nowhere,

though we find ὦ μεγάλε Zed, Asch. Sept. 824. In Homer, πολύς

a few forms

on the ἡδύς type, πολέος, πολέες, etc., not to be mistaken (observe accent) for parts of onus City); also a Nom. and Acc. πουλύς and πουλύν.

2 Dual of πολύς seems not to occur.

§ 98.}

ζῃ § ΞΟ

Up

A “

> OD

-

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 63 Μέγας, great. Stems peya and peyano. © μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα. μεγάλου, μεγάλης, μεγάλου. μεγάλῳ, μεγάλῃ, μεγάλῳ. μέγαν, μεγάλην, μέγα. μέγα," μεγάλη, μέγα. μεγάλω, μεγάλᾶ, μεγάλω. μεγάλοιν, μεγάλαιν, μεγάλοιν. μεγάλου, μεγάλαι, μεγάλὰ. μεγάλων, μεγάλων, μεγάλων μεγάλοις, μεγάλαις, μεγάλοις. μεγάλους, μεγάλας, μεγάλα. N. 1. A similar mixture of forms is seen in πρᾶος, meek, and σῶς, safe. πρᾶος os) borrows the feminine throughout from πραύς, eta, ¥, also the neuter

(often

v plural and masculine Genitive plural. cas is supplemented by σῶος, Which is

complete. The Homeric is σόος or σῶς, σόη, Acc.

SP SS24

“ Pe

PSSA 84

x

mpaos, meek. Singular. πρᾶος πραεῖα πράου πραείας πράῳ πραείᾳ πρᾶον πραεῖαν πρᾶε πραεῖα Dual. πράω mpacia. πράοιν ᾿ πραείαιν Plural. πρᾶοι and πραεῖς πραεῖαι πραέων πραειῶν

πράοις and πραέσι πραείαις πράους and πραεῖς πραείᾶς

σῶος and σῶς

σῶς, safe. Singular.

σώον σώας σώῳ σώᾳ

σῶον ἃηἃ σῶν σώαν

Dual. σώω σώᾶ σώοιν σώαιν

Plural.

σῶοι δηᾶ σῶς σῶαι

σώων σώων σώοις σώαις

σώους Δ ῃἃ σῶς σώᾶς

. σόον, Nom. plur. σόοι, σόα.

σώα, σῶς σῶον, σῶν.

σώου. σώῳ. σῶον, σῶν.

΄

σώω. σώοιν.

σῶα, σᾶ. σώων. σώοις. σῶα, σᾶ.

2. The epic ἠύς or ἐύς (good) is found chiefly in Nom. and Acc. singular mas-

culine and neuter, as ἡύν, 7. A Gen.

tity for ἠέος. Traces also of a Gen. plural feminine ἐάων.

ey eine? oc. and οἵ, Soph. O. C. 1471; others

§ 38. ComPARISON oF ADJECTIVES.

There are two modes of forming the Comparative and Superlative. (a) The first or prevailing mode gives a formation resulting in tepos, τερᾶ, τερον as ending of comparative,

éjos, is probably by metathesis of quan-

Voc. μέγας, as in Eur. Rhes. 383, but syntax is disputed,

take μεγάλε (see p. 62).

64 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. [8 38.

in τατος, τατη, TaTov,as ending for superlative. These are affixed to the simple stem of the masculine with some euphonic changes, — )

1. In o-stems with penult syllable long, simply add tepos and τατος to the stem, but if penult is short, raise the o of the stem to w.”

κοῦφος, light (stem xoudo), κουφότερος, κουφότατος. ὀρθός, just (stem dp80), ὀρθότερος, ὀρθότατος. ὄρθιος, steep (stem ὀρθῖο), ὀρθιώτερος, ὀρθιώτατος. σοφός, wise (stem σὄφο), σοφώτερος, σοφώτατος.

N. 1. κενός and στενός generally retain ότερος, etc., from the influence of the Ionic στεινός and κεινός. Epic poets lengthen or shorten the vowel as suits the metre, hence in Homer λάρος, sweet, λᾶρώτερος οἶνος ; ὀϊζῦρός, ὠτέρος.

3 When a mute and a liquid allow the quantity of the penult to be common, simple adjectives take o, compound adjectives usually ὦ.

πῦκνός, thick. drepos, etc. δύσποτμος, illfated, δυσποτμώτερος. πικρός, Sharp. Ἕτερος, etc. evrexvos, happy in children, εὐτεκνώτερος.

8. Contracts in eos first compare and then contract. πορφύρεος, (ewrepos =) repos, etc., purple. Contracts in oos first contract and then compare. (amAdos =) ἁπλοῦς, ἁπλούστερος, etc. (probably for ἅπλο + ἐστερος), simple. Yet such forms occur as ev mvowrepos, evxpowrTepos.

2. Similarly in adjectives, not in o-stems, evs drops ἐ; ap, as, ns, vs add repos and τατος to the simple mase. stem, and those in yy, wy insert a strengthening syllable es betwixt stem and these endings.

εἰς χαρίεις, graceful (stem χαριεντ), χαριέστερος.8

ap μάκαρ, happy (stempaxap), paxdprtepos.

as μέλας, black (stempedav), μελάντερος.

ns (eos) ἀσφαλής, safe (stem ἀσφαλες), ἀσφαλέστερος. υς εὐρύς, broad (stemedpv), εὐρύτερος.

ην τέρην, tender (stemtepev), τερενέστερος. ων σώφρων, prudent (stem cwdpov), σωφρονέστερος

1 The vowel ‘may be short in itself, yet made long by position, as ¢ in ἐσθλός ; therefore -orepos ἵ : ' 2 The ens into ὦ is by a rhythmical law (favoured by Epic metre so δ to avoid an accumulation of short syllables, Cy. infra in Attic Reduplk cation. 1.2 , ΣΕ 3 Properly χαριέντ-τερος, Whence by ὃ 7, 5, χαριέστερος. (Some explain it αὐ : analogy to such as ἀσφαλής.) τολμήεις, bold, contracts into τολμήστατος. 400 95 :

-

§ 39.) COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 65

Ν.--πίων, fat, forms only in orepos, as mérepos, etc., and so occasionally ἐπιλήσμων, oblivious ; εἰκός, likely, has εἰκότερον ; compounds of χάρις in -ἰτώ- Tepos, aS ἐπίχαρις, agreewble, ἐπιχαριτώτερος. πένης, poor, though with sten mevnt, forms πενέστερος.

(8) In the second and rarer but older form of com- parison, the Comparative is in toy, ἔων, iov; the Super- lative is in ἐστος, ἡ, ov

These terminations are added to the root-form as it appears in its oldest Grecian shape.

In prose, this form is chiefly confined to two (other- wise regular adjectives) in ug (all the rest in us having UTepos, etc., under ὃ 38 (a) 2, above).

ἡδύς, sweet, Comp. ἡδέων, Super. ἥδιστος. Taxus, swift (τἄχίων =) θάσσων, new Attic θάττων, τἄχιστος.

In some Comparatives in wy, the « (originally y) with a pre- ie. guttural (x, y, x), or dental (τ, 6), is changed into oo or (2 Cf.

§ 9, 2, ὃ (ἐλαχίων =) ἐλάσσων. (κρετίων =) κρείσσων. τἄχίων =) θάσσων." (ἡκίων =) ἥσσων. γίων =) μείζων.

Similarly ἄσσον (for ἄγχιον ὃ 41, n. 1), nearer, and μᾶλλον = μάλιον, of which traces occur, more, 1.6., melius, om μάλα, much).

In some of these comparatives there occurs a lengthening of the stem syllable, as in μᾶλλον, though from μᾶλα. The: in μείζων and κρείσσων, is unexpected, perhaps produced by analogy to χείρων ; but the lonic μέζων, κρέσσων are regular.

§ 39. SPECIAL OR PECULIAR COMPARISONS.

These arise chiefly from alterations in the stem of the positive, or the assumption of new stems, as from double comparison.

1, Some adjectives in os form in iwy, woros, attached direct to their root, and so assume a form as if from cognate substantives.

1 wow has « long in Attic; this « is short in Epic and Doric, like the ior of the Latin comparative.

2 Hence stems need to be divested of their end-vowels and other accretions, before we reach the basis of the root-form for forming the comparative in ‘wy.

ὃ arises, when > is in root, as in μέγας, whence μείζων : ὀλίγος, wh. ολίζων. (No ἰδο του of a dental root ending in ὃ, although κρείσσων and ( Dor.) βάσσων are from roots containing τ, θ, βράσσων is a comp. οὗ βραχύς (short) rather than of βραδύς (slow).

4 For the change of τ into @, see 4 4, note.

66 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. [§ 39.

N.B.—The apparent resemblance to the cognate substantive results from the aa: ing of the ν, p, A, which form the charac- teristic part of the aijeca ve suffix. καλός is the only one in which this explanation does not hold.—The antepenult in the

superlative of each is long, but a special lengthening takes place in two, κάλλιστος and μήκιστος.

aa R. affixed implies that the adjective may also be regularly compared.

ἀλγεινός, distressing, ἀλγίων, ἄλγιστος ; ἄλγος, eos, τό, sorrow. αἰσχρός, , αἰσχίων, αἴσχιστος ; αἶσχος, eos, τό, shame. ἐχθρός, hostile (inimi- cus), ἐχθίων, ἔχθιστος ; ἔχθος, eos, τό, hatred.

καλός, beautiful, καλλίων, κάλλιστος ; κάλλος, εος, τό, beauty. κερδαλέος, gainful, R., κερδίων, κέρδιστος ; κέρδος, eos, τό, gain. κῦδρός, κυδάλιμος, glo-

rious, (Epic, chiefly), κυδίων, κύδιστος ; κῦδος, eos, τό, glory. μακρός, long, tall, R., μάσσων, μήκιστος ; μῆκος, eos, τό, length. οἰκτρός, peas R., οἴκτιστος ; οἶκτος, ov, ὃ, pity. ὑψηλός, lofty, R., ὑψίων, ὕψιστος ; ὕψος, eos, τό, height.

2. These drop o of stem and have + αἰτερος + αἰτατος."

Four in αἰος.ὃ εὔδι-ος, sunny. yepa-ds, old. jovx-os, quiet, R. mada-ds, ancient, R. ἴδι-ος, private, R. mepai-os, beyond. ἴσ-ος, equal, σχολαῖ-ος, idle, R. péo-os, middle. .

ὄρθρι-ος, early. πλησί-ος, nigh. ὄψι-ος, late. πρώϊ-ος, early. φίλ-ος, dear.

So one in wy, πέπ-ων, ripe, wemai-repos, πεπαίτατος.

3. These have + eorepos + eoraros.

aidoi-os, modest, R. ἄφθον-ος, ungrudging, R. ἄκρᾶτ-ος, unmixed. ἐρρωμέν-ος, stout. ἄμορφ-ος, misshapen, R. ὄψι-ος, late.

ἀνιᾶρ-ός, ς σπουδαῖ-ος, busy, R. ἄπον-ος, _toilless, R. tyinp-ds, sound, R,

1 But the compound φιλόκαλος has, on the later mode, φιλοκαλώτερος.

2 Based not on stem but on locative or dative fem. case. Cf. uvxotraros from locative masc,

3 But ἀρχαῖος, βέβαιος, δίκαιος follow the ordinary rule, -érepos, ete. For σπουδαῖος, See 3 infra.

§ 39.) COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 67

4, These have + wrepos! + ἱστατος. ἀλαζών, ὄν-ος, impudent, R. Adyv-os, _— lustful.

ἅρπαξ, ay-os, rapacious. AaA-os. talkative. βλάξ, ἄκ-όρ, dull. ὀψοφδγοος, epicure. κλέπτ-ης, thief. mt@x-os, poor, R.

5. With various or peculiar stems.

( dpeivor. (ἀρείων, Ep.). ἄριστος. βελτίων. βέλτιστος. (βέλτερος, Ep. βέλτατος, Ep.) ἀγαθός, good. « ἢ Babe, κρείττων. κρἅτιστος. (lon. κρέσσων, Dor. κάῤῥων) (κάρτιστος, Ep.). λῴων (λωΐτερος, Ep.). ᾧστος. (φέρτερος, Poet.). φέρτατος, φέριστος. id (φέρτιστος, Ep.). κακίων (κακώτερος, Ep.). κάκιστος. κἄκός, bad. -ς χείρων. χείριστος. (χερείων, χερειότερος, χειρότερος, Ep.). μέγας, t. μείζων (onic μέζων). μέγιστος. τ Tidy 28057) ἐλάσσων, ἐλάττων. ἐ pope) (Old Att σμικρά) ἥσσων, ἥττων (Lon. ἔἕσσων). (ἥκιστος) AAV. ἥκιστα. ίγος, few, little. ( μείων, ὑπ-ολίζων (ὀλείζ-). ὀλίγιστος. νέος, new, R. véaros (latest). πολύς, much, many. πλείων,3 πλέων. πλεῖστος.

(as if from a stem me-). Neut. πλέον, also πλεῖν (1.6. abbrev. of πλεῖον, adv.).

jadwos,® easy. ὑάων. ὑᾷστος.

pad paw pa

φίλος, dear. 1, φίλτερος. φίλτατος (common). 2. φιλαίτερος. φιλαίτατος (frequent).

3. φιλίων (rare). φίλιστος (doubtful).

N. 1.--ἀγαθός and φίλος are very rarely found with the πον, and superl, in -wrepos and -wraros, ἀγαθός (apparently with euphonic prefix as in ἀστήρ, star) seems to contain the same root as the Germ. gut, and our good. ἀμείνων, akin ly to Latin melior. ἄριστος = most suitable, from stem ap = suit ; in older derivation, most martial, from*Apns, Mars. BeAriwv,4 etc., are doubtful, probably from βούλομαι or βόλομαι, (ef. dBeAds and ὀβολός), more desirable. κρείσσων, etc., from xper- byform of κρατύς, Ep. strong, or κράτος, eos, τό, oe : on rae from Aw, for Adw, Doric, wish, more desirable ; λῴῷστος, most desir- able (= op-timus, from same root as op-to.); φέριστος, most serviceable or produc- tive, from φέρω in its sense of bear, produce,

1 Double compar. = skt. -jans + tara, ¢f. L. minister, sinister. 2 πλειότερος = fuller, is from πλέος, Epic πλεῖος, full.

8 8 in ῥάδιος, Epic wos belongs to suffix, the original stem bei : Hence Epis aia, without δ, as hia, ῥέα = easily. εἰ ΟΡ

4 + in βελτίων, ete., has crept into stem, from βέλτερος. 5 Curtius takes from Aaf (gain), whence Laverna, etc.

68 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. [§ 40, 41.

2. χείρων based on Ep. xépys, nos, inferior, perhaps from χείρ, hand, ς΄, hand- maid (ς΄. xetpdw).

8. ἐλάσσων, from the rare éAaxvs (only ΞΡ ante lévis, i.e., leg-vis), small. ἥσσων (from same stem as ἧκα, gently ; some identify with Lat. sequior), usually weaker, hence it is assigned by some to κακός,

4. Substantives and even pronouns sometimes develop comparatives and superlatives. Cf. κλέπτης above ἴῃ ὃ 4; βασιλεύς, king, -evrepos, a greater king, -evTatos ; κύων, dog; κύντερος, κύντατος, more and most impudent. αὐτός, τη ipse, has αὐτότατος (comic), as in ipsissima verba. So μονώτατος, from μόνος : λοῖσθος = last, is by some taken as Superl. from λοιπός.

§ 40. DEFECTIVE AND REDUNDANT COMPARISON.

In these the positive is wanting, though the root is traceable in a kindred adverb or preposition, etc.

(ἀγχοῦ, near.) ayxérepos, nearer, ἄγχιστος and ἀγχότατος. (ἄνω, up. ἀνώτερος, Upper, ἀνώτατος.

(ἔξω, on the outside.) ἐξώτερος, outer, ἐξώτατος.

(ἐξ, prep. out.) ἔσχατος, utmost.

(ἠρέμα, quietly.) ἠρεμέστερος, More quiet, ἠρεμέστατος. (κάτω, down. κατώτερος, lower, κατώτατος.

(ὄπισθε, ὀπίσω, behind.) ὀπίστερος, later (rare), ὀπίστατος (Epic). (πρό, before.) πρότερος, former, πρῶτος,

(προὔργου, serviceably.) προυργιαίτερος, more useful, προυργιαίτατος,

(ὑπέρ, prep. above.) ὑπέρτερος, higher, ὑπέρτατος, ὕπατος.

(ut-, old prefix, up.) ὕστερος," later, ὕστατος, last (o for τ, as in ?

N. 1. There is also a mode of comparison by means of μῶλλον, more, μάλιστα, most, as δῆλος, plain, δῆλος μᾶλλον, etc.

2. Double comparatives and superlatives are, such as χειρότερος = worser, from χείρων, worse, 80 μειότερος ; ς΄. ἀσσοτέρω, adv.; πρώτιστος, first of all, from πρῶτος ; ἐσχατώτερος, extreme of all, from ἔσχατος. So μᾶλλον is ad to what is already comparative, as αἱρετώτερον μᾶλλον.

ὃ 41. CompaRISON OF ADVERBS.

1. The positive of a regular adverb may be reached by changing wy of the Gen. plur. of the corresponding adjective into ws.”

N.B.—The neuter Ace. sing. or plur. sometimes serves as adverb, whence εὖ, πολύ and πολλά, μέγα, ete. Cf algo Homeric adverbs like cdda.?

1 Kiihner retains the old derivation from ὑπό. 2 As to the genesis of this ws, see § 27.

3 ἃ or ἃ in some ancient adverbial forms is by some taken as relic of an In- strumental case, as in τάχα, aud, πάντη, etc.

§ 41.] COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 69

2. The comparative of an adverb is the Acc. sing. neut. of comparative of adjective.

3. The superlative of an adverb is the Acc. plural neut. of superlative of adjective.

Comp. Sup. σοφῶς (-φός), wisely. σοφώτερον -τατα. σαφῶς (-φής), clearly. σαφέστερον -τατα. σωφρόνως (- τρων), prudently. σωφρονέστερον -τατα.

χαριέντως (-ἔεις), gracefully, Smale -τατα. ταχέως (-ύς), quickly. ἄσσον or θᾶττον, τἄχιστα.

ἄμεινον ἄριστα. εὖ (adverb to ἀγα- βέλτιον βέλτιστα. θός, good), well. | κρεῖσσον κρἅτιστα. A@ov Agora. κἄκιον κἄκιστα. χεῖρον χείριστα. κἄλῶς, beautifully. κάλλιον κάλλιστα.

κἄκῶς, badly,

μᾶλα, much. μᾶλλον μᾶλιστα. μέγα and μεγάλως, greatly. μεῖζον, -dvws, μέγιστα. ὀψέ, late (Lat. sero.). ὀψι-αίτερον -αίτατα. πρωΐ, early. πρωι-αίτερον -αἰτατα. πολύ, much. πλέον, Att. πλεῖν πλεῖστα. πολλάκις, often. πλεονάκις πλειστάκις. ῥᾳδίως, easily. ῥᾷον ῥᾷστα.

ἀσμένως, gladly, has Superl. ἀσμεναίτατα and ἀσμενέστατα.

N. 1. Prepositional and primitive adverbs compare in τέρω and rdrw.

ἄνω, up. ἀνωτέρω, ἀνωτάτω. Of. ἀπωτέρω, -τάτω. ἑκάς, far. ἑκαστέρω, ἑκαστάτω. So ἔξω, without, ἔσω, within, κάτω down.

ἔνδον, Within. ἐνδοτέρω, sae So τηλοῦ (St. rmAo) far

ἀγχοῦ, near, has ἄσσον ᾿ἀραιδίρα,: a Dauble Comp., Epic). ἀγχοτάτω and ἄγχιστα. ἐγγύς, near, has three forms :—

ἐγγυτέρω, ἐγγυτάτω ; ἐγγύτερον, ἐγγύτατα ; tyyiov, ἔγγιστα.

1 Traces also of compar. in ws, a8 χαλεπωτέρως, Thuc. IT. 50, ἐλασσόνως, ete,

70 NUMERALS. [§ 42.

2. Adverbs are also formed occasionally from Participles, δια- φερόντως, λεληθότως, τεταγμένως, but without comparison except by μᾶλλον, ete.

§ 42. NUMERALS

Have an affinity partly to the adjective, partly to the pronoun. They are either definite or indefinite. The definite numerals are either cardinal or ordinal. The leading cardinals, from πέντε five, to ἑκατόν hundred, are indeclinable.t All the other cardinals are declinable, and all the-ordinals are adjectives, declinable mainly in the singular number. The first four are thus declined :—

One. Two. Attic. Ionic.

Ν. ες pia ἕν. δύο (of all genders) δύω. G. ἑνός μιᾶς ἑνός. | δυοῖν (δυεῖν, fem.) δυῶν. D. évi μιᾷ ἑνί. δυοῖν δυοῖσι. A.&a pia ἕν. dvo δύω.

Three. Four. N. τρεῖς τρεῖς tpia. | τέσσἄρες τέσσἄρες τέσσᾶρα. G. τριῶν τριῶν τριῶν. τεσσάρων τεσσάρων τεσσάρων. D, τρισί τρισί τρισί. τέσσαρσι τέσσαρσι τέσσαρσι. A. τρεῖς τρεῖς τρίᾶ. | τέσσαρας τέσσαρας τέσσαρα.

Like εἷς decline οὐδείς and μηδείς, no one, as οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν, G. οὐδεμιᾶς, οὐδενός, etc. These are not confined to the singular. Plur. N. οὐδένες, etc.

Like δύο, decline N. A. (τώ, τά, τώ) ἄμφω, G. D. ἀμφοῖν, both, ambo.

By-form ἀμφότεροι, a, a, chiefly in the plural, except that ἀμφότερον is in use as an adverb. (> δύω (less clearly δύο), ἄμφω and ὀκτώ are properly dual forms.

N. 1. The first numeral used to be explained as eis, μία, μέν, whence might come μήν, month or unit of the year, μέν, the par- ticle = on the one hand, in the first place, and so μέν and pes (stem μεν) would stand to μόνος as our one to only. But it is

1 Yet, traces of inflection in AZolic, ef. § 28, β. 2 Epic τέτρασι.

§ 42. . NUMERALS. 71

best explained as from a root s(a)m, whence the Greek form = ἐμ and ἐν (ef. sem of semel), so that & +s = εἷς, and μ of pia is from ἕμια for samia or smia, so that ν of ἑνός and p of pia are really

e same. Traces of sam occur in ἁπλόος, ἅπαξ, and ἅμα, com- pare simplex, semel, and simul ; so that ἅμα is from same stem as simul, cf. ἕξ = sex, ἕπτά = septem. (Cf. 89, 1.) From a different stem comes the Epic ia, ἰῆς, in, tav, one, always fem. except id.

2. There are non-Attic plural forms to δύο, viz., G. δυῶν, Ὁ. δυσί. Sometimes δύο and ἄμφω are treated asindeclinable. δυοῖν may be a monosylJable. δυεῖν is now doubted in good Attic.

3. The ordinals, as expressing severally the highest of a given series, are, generally, abridged superlatives in form (¢f. -imus, -tus in Latin ordinals), except δεύτερος comparat. They are accented on the last syllable, from εἰκοστός, twentieth, onward.

4. A cardinal number may appear in the singular, if joined to a collective noun, as ἀσπὶς μυρία καὶ rerpaxocia (Xen. An. I. 7, 10), a body of 10,400 men-at-arms. Compare in English, a hundred horse.

5. In the intermediate numerals, if καὶ (and) is put in, the smaller number usually peers, as, ἕξ καὶ εἴκοσι, but εἴκοσιν ἕξ.

6. The twenty-four letters, distinguished by a stroke above, represent, with the help of three obsolete letters (as to which, see Introduction), the nine units, the nine tens and the nine hundreds. To express numbers above 999, they commenced the series again, writing a stroke below for thousands, as ᾳφώνά = 1851, ᾳὠήέ = 1885 [chiefly in MSS]. |

7. Another notation was by initials of the leading numbers, 1 = I (perhaps initial of ἴα, one), 2= II, etc., 5 = Π (Πέντε), 10= A (Δέκα), 100 = H (Hexarov, old way of writing ἑκατόν), 1000 = X (Χίἕλιοι), 10,000 = M (Μύριοι). Π, 1.6.. πεντάκις, placed over these numerals, signified five times as many, as [Δ] = 50, [H] = 500, [Χ] = 5000, etc. [chiefly in inscriptions

8. In the higher grades of a series, it was sometimes found easier to express the sum by subtraction, rather than addition. Hence for ‘eighteen,’ ‘nineteen,’ it is common to find ‘ twenty wanting two’ or ‘one,’ as νῆες δυεῖν or μιᾶς δέουσαι εἴκοσι, 1.6. 18 or 19 ships. Similarly for 28, 29, etc., counting down from next decimal. Compare the Latin duodeviginti, etc. 19th (year) = ἑνὸς δέον εἰκοστὸν (ἔτος), Thuc.

9. Half is ἥμισυς, ea, v. To express a half after a whole number, substantives compounded with ἡμι- were used, as τρίτον ἡμι-τάλαντον = 2% talents, (lit.) the third item being a half- talent (cf. sestertius), τέταρτον ἡμι-τάλαντον = 34 talents, etc.

10. εἴκοσι may be originally a feminine abstract (like ἔνοσις) petrified in its singular stem, or a relic of a dual neuter, of which traces in Skt. The other words for the tens are petrified neuter

lurals (-xovra). At the end of the tens comes an abstract neuter In ον, viz., ἑκατόν (cf. -wm of Latin cen-tum).

NUMERALS. " 42.

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74

PRONOUNS. [8 48, 44.

§ 43. INDEFINITE NUMERALS AND DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.

ἄμφω, N. A. (G. and D., ἀμφοῖν), both,

ἀμφότερος, a, ov, each of two taken together, fam

ἑκάτερος, G, ov, each of two (taken separately) (a compar.), uterque.

ἕκαστος, ἡ, ov, each (of more than two) (a superl.), quisque or singult.

ἕτερος, ἃ, ov, the other of two, alter. 6 ἕτερος becomes ἅτερος (cf. § 8, 3, n. 2).

ἄλλος, 7, 0, other (of three or more), = alius, οἱ ἄλλοι = ceteri.

πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν, all, the whole, every.

πολύς, πολλή, πολύ, much, many a. Pl. many.

ὀλίγος, ἡ, ov, παῦρος, ἃ, ov, little. Pl. few.

πότερος, a, ov, Which of the two? Uter (i.e, cuter, of. Ionic Kérepos).

ris, ris, ri, Which (of more than two)? Quis.

(ris, τις, TL, any, some, after εἰ, etc., like quis after si, ne, num.)

οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν, NO One, nemo.

ovdérepos, a, ov, neither, neuter.

pndérepos, ἃ, ov, let neither, (if) neither, ne uter.

μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν, let no one, (if) neither, ne quis.

ἔνιοι, at, a, ἔστιν οἵ, ai, d, some, nonnulli.

Nore.—Of the poetic οὔτις, μήτις, no one, only the neut. οὔτι,

μήτι is used in prose = not at all. οὐθείς, μηθείς late forms.

§ 44. Pronouns

Are either substantive or adjective. The former are chiefly the ἘΟΟΝ and reflexive pronouns, the latter the possessives and em

onstratives.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The personal pronouns proper, of which there are

three, are remarkable as being without sign of gender.

§ 44, } PRONOUNS. 75

Singula Pronoun of Self ree or Sameness. Ist Person. (2nd Pers. 3rd Person. Ist, 2nd, or 3rd (Reflexive.) Person. Eco. τυ. Sur. IpsE and Is, Ν. ἐγώ σύϊ αὐτός -ἡ -ό3 ΘΟ. ἐμοῦ, ἐμοῦ σοῦ | *(08),2 οὗ himorher} αὐτοῦ -ἣς -οὔ. . ἐμοί, Ἐμοί | Ἔσοί Ἄρΐ αὐτῷ -ἢ τῷ. A. ἐμέ, μέ | Ἔσέ *(é) αὐτόν -ν -0. Dual.

N.A. vo ώ | Ss onlyin Ace.)| αὐτώ -ἀ τώ. G. D. νῷν σφῷν | (σφωΐν αὐτοῖν -aw -οῖν. Plural.

N. ἡμεῖς ὑμεῖς | σφεῖς (neut. σφέα) | αὐτοί -ai -a. G ἡμῶν ὑμῶν | σφῶν αὐτῶν -ῶὥν -ῶν. D. ἡμῖν ὑμῖν | σφίσι αὐτοῖς -αῖς -ois. Α. ἡμᾶς ὑμᾶς | σφᾶς (neut. σφέα) | αὐτούς -ἄς -ἅ.

N.B.—The forms within parenthesis hardly occur (ex- cept ov, € in Plato) within Attic prose. Those with an asterisk are, in accent, Enclitic.

N. 1. αὐτός (unaccompanied by the article) when it stands in the Nominative or when it has a noun in apposition, answers in meaning to the Latin 1086; when it stands in any other case than the Nom., has no noun in apposition, and does not open a clause or sentence, it answers in meaning to the Latin Js. Thus αὐτὸς eo Ipse dixit, αὐτοὶ ἔφἄμεν = Ipsi diximus; αὐτὸν βασιλέα € = Ipsum regem vidi; but εἶδον αὐτὸν = Eum vidi, βασιλέα αὐτῶν εἶδον = Regem eorwm vidi.—Hence the English pronoun He is thus represented in the singular: Nom. οὗτος or ὅδε or ἐκεῖνος ; G. αὐτοῦ ; D. αὐτῷ ; A. αὐτόν, or in Attic poetry νιν.

2. On airéraros, cf. ὃ 39, n. 4. Traces of a duplication, αὔταυ- ros = Lat. ipsipsus.

3. ὁ αὐτός = Idem, the same. Where the article ends with a

vowel, crasis (§ 8, 3) may occur. ‘ey

1 Aiso Vocative. 2 Generally reflexive, ‘of himself, herself’.

3 Five δ seg in os take neuter in ο, ἄλλος, αὐτός, ὅς, οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, The absence of the ordinary v connects itself with the presence, in the same pro- nouns in other μετ ope of a dental, ε.0., ἃ in Latin istud, aliud = ἄλλο (ὃ sur- viving in ἀλλοδ-απός, ποδ-απός), but a dental could not close a Greek word, But αὐτός and οὗτος admit ν in composition, as in ὁ αὐτός, neut, ταὐτόν and ταὐτό ; τοσοῦτος, neut. τοσοῦτον and τοσοῦτο.

_—

76 PRONOUNS. [8 44. Singular. N. ὁ αὐτός ἡ αὐτή ογῦ τὸ αὐτό οτ ΣΆ, ei } er αὑτός αὑτή ταὐτό(ν) [seldom -67. G. ταὐτοῦ τῆς αὐτῆς ταὐτοῦ. D. ταὐτῷ ταὐτῇ ταὐτῷ. A. τὸν αὐτόν τὴν αὐτὴν ταὐτό(νλ). ‘ Plural. N. αὑτοί or οἱ αὐτοί, etc., αὗταί ταὐτά. G. τῶν αὐτῶν, ete. D. τοῖς αὐτοῖς ταῖς αὐταῖς τοῖς αὐτοῖς, , A. τοὺς αὐτούς τὰς αὐτάς ταὐτά. Dual.

N. A. ταὐτώ ταὐτά ταὐτώ. ] G. D. τοῖν αὐτοῖν, ταῖν αὐταῖν,

τοῖν αὐτοῖν. ᾿

Oss. 1. The Ionic dialect presents varieties in the inflection of these pro-

The following suave exiles the forms common to both forms of the

nouns. Ionic, those within thesis being peculiar to the older or Homeric (which - admits some lic forms), and not appearing in the new Ionic of Hero- otus. Sing, N. ὁ (ἐγώ σύ (τύνη GA re ὃ, from ἐμέο, μεῦ σεῖο, a ἕο) ev. (ἐμεῖο, (σεῖο, σέθεν) εἶο, ἔθεν). Dd. ἐμοί, μο σοΐ, τοί (τεΐν) of (ἑοῦ. A. ἐμέ, μέ σέ ἕ (ἐέ Dual. N. A. (vai, νώ) σφῶϊ, σφώ) Oe σφωῷ (not in Nom.) G. D. (νῶϊν) σφῶϊν, σφῷν) (σφωΐν). Plur. N. ἡμεῖς Cones) ὑμεῖς (ὕμμες α. ἡμέων (ἡμείων) ὑμέων (ὑμείων) σφέων (σφείων). D. ἡμῖν (ἄμμι ὑμῖν ὕμμι σφίσι, σφί(ν), Α. ἡμέας (ἄμμε) ὑμέας (ὕμμε) σφέας, σφάς, σφέ.

2. In Doric, the most important variations are ἐμίν (= ἐμοῦ, Pl apés, ἁμέων, auiv, Que. τύ for σύ, G. τέο, τεῦς, τεῦ, τεοῦ, D. τίν, A. τέ, τύ ; PLN. ὑμές, A. ὑμέ. In οὗ, traces of ἵν as Dative, viv as Acc, sing. and plural, also Acc. plural ψέ for o¢é. Cobet gives tas Nom. to οὗ.

8, Two Accusative forms in the 3rd personal pronoun are remarkable: σφέ, only plural and personal δε masc. and fem,) in Homer, is used by the Trage- dians as both sing. and P ur.; and similarly the Tragedians use the Doric uy as Acc. both sing. and plur., and neuter as well as masc. and fem., while the Ionic is μιν, him, her, it (neut. Hdt. 7, 143), but μὲν is not clearly plural until the Alexandrine age. On probable o of μιν, vev,-cf. § 26, 1, 4.

4. Some poets and especially Sophocles adopt jucv or ἡμίν, ὕμιν or ὑμίν, as well as ἡμῖν and ὑμῖν.

5. In od, the Greek has developed dual and plural forms apart from the singular, whereas in Latin and German, the singular and plural are in this pronoun denoted by the same form.

6. With dual vé and σφώ, compare Latin plurals nos and vos.

7. (a) Regarding 1st personal pronoun, note 1°, its Nom. stem stands iso- lated, the Ego per Col - sie: — — = ee — ee u » passin με. 8°, Thereis no sign of the Acc, so in ond: and a Pan. Pronouns also). 4°, The Acc. plural contracts 1 Order of

ti ae mh in these forms of Genitive was probably ἐ (cf. § ἐμ 18), a . , whence the double form ἐμεῦ and quod. | Similar in Gen. of ov an οὗ.

§ 45.] PRONOUNS. 77

(unlike πόλεις), out of eas into as. 5°, The Molic plural supe comes nearest to Skt. plural stem asma-, being formed by assimilation, while the Attic ἡμεῖς received hysterogenous aspiration. 6°, The forms of singular with « are probably from influence of ἐ of ἐγώ, affecting a stem originally different.

Regarding 2nd personal pronoun, note 1°, σύ, although the prevailing Θ ον πελουν form Sar apoed: g in Epic, Ionic, and Attic, is not primitive, confronted by Skt. tvam, Latin tu, and the Doric τύ. (This transition from τ tog the effect of breaking down the partition between 2nd and 8rd pronoun forms, obscuring to a extent the latter.) 2°, σφ, in σφώ of dual, is probably the descendant of tv in such as Skt. tvam. 3°, The plural stem is in Skt. yushma-, whence (by § 9, 2 8) ὑμεῖς aspira' and with v. (The origin of this form is obscure, as Θ wecs Seems to belong rather to the 1st person.)

(y) The —_ of the 3rd person seems to have for its stem ofe, whence are believed to have come on the one hand the forms with f, retained as ¢, in dual and plural, and on the other the forms in the singular,

where both spirants have passed away, one (F) disappearing, the other (c) passing into (‘) the rough breathing.

§ 45. RerLexivE Pronouns.

1. The three Reflexives are composed of the stems of the personal pronouns, viz., ἐμε- σε- é-, prefixed to the oblique cases of the definitive αὐτός.

2. The third Reflexive differs from the others in two respects : Ist, In admitting a neuter form ; 2nd, In having an independent and distinct plural form.

Singular. Myself. Thyself. Himself, ete. N. (ἐγὼ αὐτός -ἡ) (σὺ αὐτός -ἡ (αὐτός -ἡ -d). 6. ἐμαυτοῦ -ῇς σεαυτοῦ -ῖῇς ἑαυτοῦ -ἣς -οὔ. D. ἐμαυτῷ -ῇ σεαυτῷ -ῇ ἑαυτῷ -ἢ τῷ. Α. ἐμαυτὸν -ἥν σεαυτόν -ήν ἑαυτόν -ἤν -ό. Plural.

N. ἡμεῖς αὐτοί -ai ὑμεῖς αὐτοί -ai (αὐτοί -ai -d). G. ἡμῶν αὐτῶν -ῶν ὑμῶν αὐτῶν -ῶν ἑαυτῶν -ὧν -ὥν. Ὁ. ἡμῖν αὐτοῖς -αἷς ὑμῖν αὐτοῖς -ais ἑαυτοῖς -αἷς -οἷς. a > ’ an " A. ἡμᾶς αὐτούς -ἄς ὑμᾶς αὐτούς -ἄς ἑαυτούς -ἄς -ἅ, N. 1. The two last often throw out ε, σεαυτοῦ = σαυτοῦ, ἑαυτοῦ = αὑτοῦ, οἷο.

ἑαυτοῦ, especially in its plural parts, is sometimes used as a general Reflexi = self generally, where we should expect ἐμαυτοῦ or σεαυτοῦ. : vee

2. In Homer, the components of the Reflexives have not yet coalesced, but stand separate, a8 σοὶ αὐτῷ = later σαυτῷ, So in Attic, σφῶν jt at etc., occurs for ἑαυτῶν in the plural cases,

8. In the new Ionic, ὧν appears in these reflexives, as ἐμεωυτοῦ, etc.

78 PRONOUNS. [ὃ 46-8.

δ 46. REcIPROCAL.

The Reciprocal pronoun (wanting in Latin) is used in the case of MUTUAL action, and answers to the English expression one another. From the nature of the relation it can have no nominative and no singular.

Dual, Plural, G. D. ἀλλήλοιν -οιν (aww) -ow. G. ἀλλήλων -ων των. A. ἀλλήλω- -w (ἃ) -o 7). ἀλλήλοις -ais -οις. A. ἀλλήλους -ἂς -ἄ. Fem. in dual often merged in masc., οὐ, § 12, 3.

§ 47. ῬΟΒΒΈΒΒΙΥΕ PRONOMINALS.

There are six Possessives formed from the personal pronouns, and regularly declined like adjectives in os. (ἡμέτερος has Voe. Mase. in ¢, but ἐμός has ἐμός ; οὗ. meus in Voc.)

From ἐμε- ἐμός ἐμή ἐμόν, my, mine.

From σε σός σή σόν, thy, thine. (From é- ἑός or ὅς ἥ ὅν (Epic) his own, her own, its own.) From ἡμεῖς, ἡμέτερος -ἃ τον, our, ours.

From ὑμεῖς, ὑμέτερος -ἃ -ov, your, yours.

From σφεῖς, opérepos -a -ον, their, theirs.

OBS, 1. ἐός or ὅς (= swus in origin and meaning) is not found in Attic prose, where it has to be supplied chiefly by airod-s-ov, if answering to Latin eius, or by ἑαυτοῦ, if answering to Latin suus. Both éds and σφέτερος occur as = own, applicable to any person, Ist or 2nd, as well as 8rd.

2. Short poetic forms for the three last are auds (prop. noster, but used also for meus), buds, σφός. Homer has possessives answering to the dual, vwirepos, and σφωΐτερος. reds is Doric for σός.

8. Remark the comparative suffix repos appearing in those possessives which indicate possession by two or more.

§ 48. DEMONSTRATIVES.

N.B.—For Definite Article (§ 12) which is originally a demonstrative pronoun, see § 12.

The chief Demonstratives are three, one = THAT, or THAT OTHER, ἐκεῖνος, of what is more distant, and two — THIS, of what is more near in space or time, viz., ὅδε, ‘this which is going to be mentioned, the following (PROSPECTIVE demonstrative) ; and οὗτος, ‘ this which we have mentioned,’ the foresaid (RETROSPECTIVE demon- strative).

§ 48.) PRONOUNS. 79 ἐκεῖνος, -n, -o (in poetry and Ionic κεῖνος),} is regular,

except that its neuter in N. and A. is ἐκεῖνο.

N.B.—Of these three Demonstratives, ὅδε answers usually to hic, viros to iste, ἐκεῖνος to tlle. On the stage, ὅδε frequently == ἐγώ, οὗτος to ov. At the bar, ὅδε often stands for my client, pS at for my opponent.

ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε is declined like the article with -de appended. See § 12.

οὗτος follows the article in its variations, opening with τ or a rough breathing, where the article does so, and, like it, having only one form in the Gen. plur. in all genders, and one form through each case of the dual in common use in Attic.

&2 Observe, ov prevails in the first syllable through- out the neuter with o or w predominating in end-syllable, but, in Nom. and Acc. pl., where a is in end-syllable, av appears, as ταῦτα.

Singular. αὕτη ταύτης ταύτῃ ταύτην

N. A. τούτω

. τούτοιν

N. 1. So decline τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη,

οὗτοι

τούτων τούτοις τούτους

Dual.

τούτω (ταύτα)

τούτοιν (ταύταιν)

τοιοῦτο(ν)3 Such τοσοῦτο(ν), Such

Plural.

αὗται τούτων ταύταις ταὐτᾶς

ταῦτα. τούτων. τούτοις. ταῦτα.

τούτω.

τούτοιν.

Talis), (of quality).

Tantus), (of

ntity). τηλικοῦτος, THAtkavTn,® τηλικοῦτο(»), Such = So ΑΝ (οὗ age), or, 80 young,

1 Doric κῆνος, also rijvos. 3 Besides τοιοῦτος, etc., there are also τοῖος, τόσος, and

Sooke. τηλικόςδε

3 Nominative singular feminine also τηλικοῦτος --- βορλοοῖεϑ,

λίκος (Regular), on these we have both in prose an try τοιόςδε, SS ee τοιοῦτος, etc., ἜΡΝΟΣ as ὅδε differs from ely, in being ( y) prospective. hus, τοιάδε ἔλεξεν precedes a

spoke as follows, but τοιαῦτα ἔλεξεν appears at its close = the above

80 PRONOUNS. [§ 49.

Excert 1. Where οὗτος opens with τὶ the r is, by these pronouns, rejected. » 2 They prefer ν in the neuter.

2. So decline οὑτοσί and ὁδί. Remark, 1st, that this « demon- strative (probably same as ε locative) is always long; 2nd, has always the acute on itself; 3rd, rejects a short end vowel ; 4th, shortens a long vowel or diphthong before it, if no consonant intervenes.

1. and 2, οὑτοσί. 3. τουτί ταυτί ὁδί. 4. αὑτῆί οὑτοϊί.

OBS, 1, τουτέων of Herodotus in feminine of Gen. plural (not in masculine and neuter) is an abnormal attempt to differentiate the feminine. αὐτέων from αὐτός is normal, as αὐτῶν in fem. may arise from αὐτέων.---τοΐσδεσι or -εσσι, with double indication of case before and after affix δε, is Homeric for τοῖσδε.

2. τυννοῦτος -o or -ov = tantillus (so small), has no separate form for fem.

8. οὗτος is formed by duplication of demonstrative stems ὁ and ro, much as German die-ser (this). Like σύ, it has traces of a Vocative usage, without a

ial form, as ὦ οὗτος, Alay, Soph.

§ 49. INTERROGATIVE, INDEFINITE, RELATIVE.

I. The INTERROGATIVE is τίς (= Latin quis), with stem tiv-, and has always the acute accent upon its Jirst syllable.

The INDEFINITE pronoun is tis τίς τί = Latin aliquis, or quis after si, ne, etc., any one. The accent of the Indefinite is variable, being subject to the laws of enclitics.

INTERROGATIVE. INDEFINITE. Sing N. th τίς. τί tis tis th 7, G. Tivos τίνος τίνος τινός τινός τινός. D. tie τίνε τίν τινί τινί τινί. / / 4 / ‘ A. τα τίνα τί. τινά τινά τὶ. Dual. Ν. A. tive rive tive τινέ τινέ τινέ. G. Ὁ. τίνοιν τίνοιν τίνον τινοῖν τινοῖν τινοῖν. Ρίων. N. τίνες τίνες τίνα τινές τινές τινά. α τίνων τίνων τίνων τινῶν τινῶν τινῶν. D. τίσι τίσι τίσι τισί τισί τισί. A, τίνας τίνας τίνα τινάς τινάς τινά.

N.1. The Attics often take τοῦ and τῷ for the Gen. and Dat. sing. of both indefinite and interrogative, adapting the accent

ἃ 49.) PRONOUNS. 81

accordingly ; also ἄττα, some things, for