THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXV SHUVALOV to SUBLIMINAL SELF Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street 1911 R Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. G. REV. ALEXANDER BALLOCH GROSART, LL.D., D.D. /Stirling, William Alexander, See the biographical article: GROSART, ALEXANDER BALI.OCH. \ Earl ol (in part). A. C. McG. ARTHUR CUSHMAN McGnrjERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. f Socrates (Church Historian) Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of I / . . ,\ . History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historic. Ecclesia] ^ *jT,f \ of Eusebius. I Sozomen (in part). A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D., D.C.L. / steele> Slr Richard (in part); See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN. \Sterne, Laurence (in part). A. De. ARTHUR DENDV, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S. f Professor of Zoology in King's College, London. Zoological Secretary of the J Snonees Linnean Society of London. Author of memoirs on systematic zoology, com- 1 parative anatomy, embryology, &c. A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the! Spain: History (in part). Bourbons in Spain. A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J Sipunculoidea; Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, "j Smith, William Robertson. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. A. F. E. ALLEN F. EVERETT. J Signal: Marine Signalling Commander, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of the Signal School, H. M.S. "Victory, " 1 un parf\ Portsmouth. A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the Uni- I Somerset, Edward Seymour, versity of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, -| Dlllw of 1893-1901. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. L A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / _ . Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. \ *' mus- A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D.PH. J So°rat«s See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. (tn [ Sozomen (in part). A. H. S. Rev. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D. f See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. "[ Sippara. A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J Smyth John Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore 1 Educational Service. I A. Ma. ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's J College. Formerly Professor of Zoology in the University of Dublin. Author of 1 Text-Book of Human Anatomy; &c. I A. Mel. ARTHUR MELLOR. f Silk: Spinning of "Silk Of Messrs J. & T. Brocklehurst & Sons, Silk Manufacturers, Macclesfield. \ Waste." A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Smyth, Charles Piazzi; See the biographical article: CLERKE, AGNES M. \ Stone, Edward James. A. M. F.* ARTHUR MOSTYN FIELD, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.S. f Vice-Admiral, R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority. -I Bounding. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904-1909. I 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1994 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. M.-Fa. ALFRED MOREL-FATIO. f .. , Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the I Spam: Language (tn part), Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the Ecole 1 and Literature (in part). des Charles, 1885-1906; &c. Author of L'Espagne au XVI' et au XVII' sticks. I r Siskin; Skimmer; Skua; A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Snake-bird; Snipe; Sparrow: See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. I Spoonbill; Stilt; Stork. A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, cnllti, Afripa- 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa \ oo"111 " !~ till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at \ln port). Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. L A. S.* ARTHUR SCHUSTER, F.R.S. , PH.D., D.Sc. f Professor of Physics at the University of Manchester, 1888-1907. President of ^he I International Association of Seismology. Author of Theory of Optics and papers in | Spectroscopy. the Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society. L A. So. ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). [ .... T, D.-/./.-../ Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tubingen. i Author of Arabische Grammatik ; &c. L SttUt. A. S. E. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTQN, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S. Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, j Star. Cambridge. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f oMmmith Viscount Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ ol A. W. P. ALFRED WALLIS PAUL, C.I.E. Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1870-1895. Political Officer, Sikkim Expedition. J Sikkim. British Commissioner under Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1890. Deputy Com- I missioner of Darjeeling. f Signal: Army Signalling (in B. B, A. BRAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS. 4 part), and Railway Signal- Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. L /jw» Un parf) B. K.* BENJAMIN KIDD, D.C.L. f Sociology. Author of Social Evolution ; Principles of Western Civilization ; &c. L B. W. G. BENEDICT WILLIAM GINSBURG, M.A., LL.D. [ St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. I Steamship Lines. Formerly Editor of the Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. | Author of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters ; &c. L C. A. G. B. SIR CYPRIAN ARTHUR GEORGE BRIDGE, G.C.B. f c._ .. •., . ,-,. „. Admiral R.N. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of J Sl8nal- Marine Signalling Naval Intelligence, 1889-1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power (in part), and other Studies ; &c. C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, LITT.D. (Oxon.). / Sorel, Albert. See the biographical article: BEMONT, CHARLES. \ C. D. W. HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. f Strikes and Lock-outs: See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. I United, States. C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Spanish Succession, War of Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (RoyaH /:„ j.nrl) Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. C. H.* SIR CHARLES HOLROYD, LITT. D. f strang, William. See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES. I C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. f Sixtus IV.; Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Member of •} Stilichot Flavius. the American Historical Association. \. C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST. Soc., F.S. A. f Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor -! jjuke of of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. [ C. P.* CARL PULFRICH, PH.D. f On the staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena. Formerly Privatdozent at the -i Stereoscope. University of Bonn. Member of the Astronomical Societies of Brussels and Paris. L C. Pa. CESARE PAOLI. / „,._« See the biographical article: PAOLI, CESARE. \ Sl ina C. ft. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. f Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Sigebert, King. Eludes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duche merovingien d' Alsace et la legende | de Sainte-Odile. \. C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LiTT., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hisi.S. f Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I Simon of St Quentin; of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, i sindbad the Sailor Voyages of. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll c. s. s. c. w. w. D. F. T. D. G. H. CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S., LL.D. f Professor of Physiology in the University of Liverpool. Author of The Integrative \ Spinal Cord' Phvsioloev Action of the Nervous System. |_ "" SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R S. (1836-1907). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J „. , . mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General] "lvas \in of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive; &c. [ DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. [ Side; Sis; Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. J Sivas (in part)- Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and ] qmvrna !•!„ 4,n'rf\- 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. [SOU (Asia Minor). I Sonata Forms; 1 Spohr, Ludwig. D. H. D. M. W. E. A. E. A. F. E. C. B. E. G. E. H. M. Ed. M. E. Ma. E. M. S. E. M. T. E.O.* E. Pr. E. W. H. F. A. B. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. Author of Short History of the Royal . SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of the New Volumes (loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c. EDWARD ARBER, D.Lrrr., F.S.A. f See the biographical article: ARBER, EDWARD. EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. Rx. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius ' in Cambridge Texts and Studies. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. Sluys, Battle of; Spain: History (in part); Spanish Succession, War of: Naval and Military Opera- tions; Spinola, Ambrose. Shuvalov, Count. Smith, John (1579-1631). | Sicily: History (in part). , J Silvestrines; [ Simeon Stylites, St. Song (Literary); I Stanley, Thomas; j Stevenson, Robert Louis; [ Style. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f Slavs; University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistants Slovaks; Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. I Slovenes; Sorbs EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des •! Smerdis. Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. [_ EDWARD MANSON. Barrister-at-Law. Joint-editor of the Journal of Comparative Legislation. Author of Law of Trading Companies; Practical Guide to Company Law; &c. ELEANOR MILDRED SIDGWICK (MRS HENRY SIDGWICK), D.LITT., LL.D. Principal of Newnham College, Cambridge, 1892-1910. Hon. Secretary to the Society for Psychical Research. Author of Papers in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research. Stocks and Shares. •| Spiritualism. SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor erf the Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles! EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c. ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge. Stokes Lecturer in Mathematics in the University. FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892. , Author of " Echinoderma ' in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of Bakony; &c. j Stichometry. (Skull: Cranial Surgery Spinal Cord (Surgery) ; Stomach. (Silva, Antonio J. da; Sousa, Luiz de. -j Spherical Harmonics. f Starfish. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. C. S. S. FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc. f Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Riddles of the -| Spencer, Herbert. Sphinx; Studies in Humanism; &c- F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Sigurd; Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ Strathelyde. F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Skeleton; Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer onj Skin and Exoskeleton; Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, 1 Skull; London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. [ Spinal Cord (in part). F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of silures* Brasenose College. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ -\ ' Church. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Spain: History, Ancient. Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. F. J. S. FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. f „„„ „ M_. . , . ., Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. I Spenser, Edmund (in part). F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. r Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and . Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial -i Sphinx (in part). German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; &c. F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. F. N. M. COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and ihe\ Strategy. World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. F. Po. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. f c*«i,h«n ci, t w See the biographical article : POLLOCK : Family. \ stePnen» 5Ir J- F-« Siwa; Sobat (in part); F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Somali land; South Africa: Geography and Statistics; History (in part), and Bibliography; Stanley, Sir Henry. F. W.* FRANK WARNER. r President of the Silk Association of Great Britain and Ireland ; Hon. Secretary J _... / . •> of the Ladies' National Silk Association. Chairman of the Silk Section, London 1 &IIK <•"* P^t). Chamber of Commerce, and of the Council of the Textile Institute. [ F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Sinter; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902.-^ Spinel; President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Spodumene. G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, D.D. r Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions ; &c. G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lrrr. Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of the Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- ^ Sindhi and Lahnda. President of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages of India ; &c. G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, - 1887. Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Phila- delphia and Melbourne. Stawell, Sir William. G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. C Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J qmar* inhn Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition 1 a of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I G. E. H. GEORGE ELLERY HALE, LL.D., Sc.D. [ Director of the Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton at Pasadena, California. Director of the Yerkes Observatory, Chicago, 1895- I SpectrohelioTaph. 1905. Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. Inventor of the Spectro- j heliograph. Author of Papers on solar and stellar physics in the Astrophysical Journal; &c. [ G. G. B. VERY REV. GEORGE GRANVILLE BRADLEY, D.D. /Stanley, Dean (in part). See the biographical article: BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE. \ G. G. C. GEORGE GOUDIE CHISHOLM, M.A. f oj-nv r *i, A Lecturer on Geography in the University of Edinburgh. Secretary of the Royal J £' '.... l,?n Scottish Geographical Society. Author of Handbook of Commercial Geography.] Statistics (in part). Editor of Longman's Gazetteer of the World. I G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. [ Stirling, William Alexander, Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The -j Earl of (in part) Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c. L INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden -j SOK6. Society. G. Mo. GAETANO MOSCA. / Sicily: Geography and Statistics Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Turin. I (in part). G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D. J stagl maaame fle See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. J _.,,,„... Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old ] Slbawaihi. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. f Fellow of the British Academy. Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary •( (Oxford). Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. H. Cl. SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly) Singapore; Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author 1 o,raif, of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India, &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary of the Malay Language. H. E. S.* HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER (d. 1902). Formerly Editor of the Atlantic Monthly. Author of Life of James Russell Lowell; ~\ otowe, Mrs Beecner. History of the United States ; &c. I _ _ H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. f . ;. 'n, „• , Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.-^ Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. I Spnenodon. H. H. F. H. HAMILTON FYFE. f Special Correspondent of the Daily Mail; Dramatic critic of The World. Author of J Slepniak, Sergius. A Modern Aspasia; The New Spirit in Egypt; &c. |_ H. Ja. HENRY JACKSON, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D., O.M. f Socrates; Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity I Sophists' College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to illustrate the History * of Greek Philosophy from Tholes to Aristotle. - SpeusippUS. H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. f Signal: Army Signalling (in Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering -( part) and Railway Signalling Supplement. Author of British Railways. (jn parl). H. M. Wo. HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.Sc. Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- J gporozoa versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Sir E. Ray Lankester's Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers. H. 0. F. HENRY OGG FORBES, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Director of Museums to the Corporation of Liverpool. Reader in Ethnography in the University of Liverpool. Explorer of Mount Owen Stanley, New Guinea, J Sokotra (in part). Chatham Islands and Sokotra. Author of A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago; Editor and part-author of Natural History of Sokotra and Abd-el- Kuri; &c. H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. J~ Societies, Learned. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. I. H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. J Space and Time. Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \_ H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British I gtrabo. School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. | Author of The Roman Empire; &c. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f simpon of Durham- Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, ,™ ° °K|1_ f p' ,and 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. I ^P11611' KmS OI *nc*»ii«ti«n. College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior 1 Engineers. I Stone. J. C. Br. JOHN CASPER BRANNER, PH.D., LL.D., F.G.S. r Vice- President and Professor of Geology in Leland Stanford University, California. Director of the Branner-Agassiz Expedition to Brazil, 1899. State Geologist of-< South America. Arkansas, 1887-1893. Author of numerous works on the geology of Brazil, Arkansas and California. J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. fSilistria' King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J c0na. ' Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 * Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. 1. Stambolov, Stefan. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. f Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Spaln: Language (in part), and Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. -{ , .. . f- . Z Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of ^terature (in part). Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSQN, M.A. f Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College. ^ Sinope. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. [ J. G. M. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S. (Edin.). f Sleep; Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Physi- -j gmell ology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. I J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. f cihviiinB orapips Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. \ B1Dyl11 J. H. P. JOHN HENRY POYNTING, D.Sc., F.R.S. r Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the University of | Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Joint-author of *i Sound. Text-Book of Physics. 3. H. R. JOHN ^RACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. r Stafford: Family Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and J c*anio.,. p •; /•- Family History; Peerage and Pedigree; &c. \ Stanley- P«**9 (*» 3. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. r Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Sieyes, Emmanuel Joseph; University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic "] Stein, Baron. Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. 3. H. van't H. JACOBUS HENDRICUS VAN'T HOFF, LL.D., D.Sc., f _. See the biographical article VAN'T HOFF, JACOBUS HENDRICUS. nensm. J. K. I. JOHN KEIXS INGRAM, LL.D. i Slavery (in part); See the biographical article: INGRAM, JOHN ,KELLS. -} Smith, Adam (in part). J. L. M. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of f Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient J Soli (Cyprus). Geography in the University of Liverpool, and Lecturer on Classical Archaeology in the University of Oxford. J. L. H. J. LANE-NOTTER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.MED. f Colonel (retired), Royal Army Medical Corps. Formerly Professor of Military J cn;i- c,,7i „„.> r>;,*, Hygiene, Army Medical School at Netley. Author of The Theory and Practice of] Hygiene; &c. [_ 3. M. SIR JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., M.A., LL.D. ,- Master of the Supreme Court, London. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade and the London Chamber of Commerce. Quain Professor of Comparative Law, J Sovereignty; and Dean of the Faculty of Law, University College, London. Editor of State ] Spheres of Influence. Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political JLconomy; The Land Question ; &c. I J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Solon; Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Sphinx (in part) ; College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. StrategUS. J. 0. N. REV. JAMES OKEY NASH, M.A. r Hertford College, Oxford. Headmaster of St John's College, Johannesburg. J Sisterhoods. Formerly Missionary of the S.P.G. in Johannesburg. J. Pe. JOHN PERCIVAL, M.A. r St. John's College, Cambridge. Professor of Agricultural Botany at University -| Soil. College, Reading. Author of Text-Book of Agricultural Botany; &c. J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J ctatoc rpnoral- Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit 1 fran$ais; &c. L J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. r «,,,. Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 1 5late: Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Spherulites. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.M., LITT.D., LL.D. f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow and Tutor J » of Gonville and Caius College. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of | Statius. Christ's College. Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amtcitia; &c. {Siberia (in part); Simbirsk (in part); Qmnlanclr (S* *>nrt\- omoienss \y* pan), Stavropol (in part). J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. [ Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic^ Stephen, St. Age; &c. L J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -! Statute. College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities ; &c. [ J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J c ,. . .-a--..,.. /-. , Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart] Soutl1 Australia. Geology, of Australia; &c. L J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly 1 Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History at H Stephan, Heinrieh von. Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire; &c. L K. G. J. KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. f g { Qeoerat^ and Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903.-! p ' * * y Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. L Statistics. K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. j" Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J onHon TTormonn »«n ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- 1 ooaen> M mann von- ment ; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ ; &c. L K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. foi**, ,. Cn«i;n«. c-:-« Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the < &lslrum» • Q°> bpmet, Orchestra. [ Stringed Instruments. L. C. REV. LEWIS CAMPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D. f c . , See the biographical article : CAMPBELL, LEWIS. \ &°Pn( Iles' L. D.* Louis DUCHESNE. f Siricius; See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, Louis M. O. LSixtus I -III L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. Sillimanite; Smaltite; Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of J Sodalite; Sphene' Stannite; Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralo- | ««ifcJLi*. gical Maeazine. Staurolite; Stephamte; Istibnite; Stilbite; Strontianite. L. W. Ch. LAURENCE WENSLEY CHUBB. f Secretary of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society, and of the Commons and Foot- J Smoke (in part). paths Preservation Society. M. Ca. MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D. r Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Hofrat of the -{ stevinus Simon. German Empire. Author of Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathematik ; &c. M. G. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. f Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President of the -j gturdza (family) Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature ; &c. H. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -I Sin (Moon-god), of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. M. M. MAX ARTHUR MACAULIFFE. r Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of The Sikh Religion: its Gurus, J Sikh; Sacred Writings and Authors; &c. Editor of Life of Guru Nanak, in the Punjabi] Sikhism. language. L M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. r Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy, -j Sparta. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. f Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- J Sicyon. ham University, 1905-1908. H. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. c Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's J Stephen Bar Sudhaile. College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. 0. A. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. r H.M. Divisional Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J Sidney, Algernon; Education, London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles | Somers, Lord. //. ; &c. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. 0. H. DAVID ORME MASSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on chemistry in -I Smoke (in part). the transactions of various learned societies. xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 0. T. OLDFIELD THOMAS, F.R.S., F.Z.S. I" Senior Assistant, Natural History Department of the British Museum. Author of -j Skunk (in part). Catalogue of Marsupialia in the British Museum. I P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., D. JURIS. f New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History \ Simson, Martin E. von. of the English Constitution. \_ { Siberia (in part); P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. ] Simbirsk (in •bart) • See the biographical article : KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. 1 Smolensk V' * /)'• [Stavropol (in part). P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. 1 Species. Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. I P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. f „ Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England \ atranor(»- P. S. PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, PH.D., F.C.S. f Member of the Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of the Committee of Society J Spirits of Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry anal Technology of Brewing, Distilling, &c. P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. isocaee See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. \ R. LORD RAYLEIGH. f See the biographical article: RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON. \ "*?• R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. [ St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- -| Sodom and Gomorrah. ploration Fund. [ R. D. H. ROBERT DREW HICKS, M.A. f „. . Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. "j_ R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. r Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, -< Solomon, The Psalms of. Trinity College, Dublin. Author of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Book of Jubilees; &c. I R. H. L. ROBIN HUMPHREY LEGGE. f Principal Musical Critic for the Daily Telegraph. Author of Annals of the Norwich •< Strauss, Richard. Festivals; &c. R. H. V. ROBERT HAMILTON VETCH, C.B. r Colonel R.E. Employed on the defences of Bermuda, Bristol Channel, Plymouth Harbour and Malta, 1861-1876. Secretary of R.E. Institute, Chatham, 1877-1883. I ,. . Deputy Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1889-1894. Author of Gordon 's 1 ottatnnairn, Lord. Campaign in China; Life of Lieutenant-General Sir Gerald Graham. Editor of the R.E. Journal, 1877-1884. R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. / c -H Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ aP1Qers- R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Sidney, Sir Henry; Simnel, Lambert; Smith, Sir Henry; Somerset, Earls and Dukes of; Stone, Archbishop. R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Sifaka; Sirenia; Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Skunk (in part); Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer 1 Souslik; Squirrel; of all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. [ Squirrel Monkey. R. Mu. ROBERT MUNRO, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.). Dalrymple Lecturer on Archaeology in the University of Glasgow for 1910. Rhind Lecturer on Archaeology, 1888. Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, J Stonenenge; 1888-1899. Founder of the Munro Lectureship on Anthropology and Prehistoric 1 Stone Monuments. Archaeology in the University of Edinburgh. Author of The Lake-dwellings of Europe ; Prehistoric Scotland, and its place in European Civilization ; &c. R. M. B. F. K. RICHARD MAKDOUGALL BRISBANE FRANCIS KELLY, D.S.O. f Colonel R.A. Commanding R.G.A., Southern Defences, Portsmouth. Served J Sights through the South African War, 1899-1902. Chief Instructor at the School of 1 Gunnery, 1904-1908. L Sigismund L, II. and III. of Poland; Skarga, Piotr; Skram, Peder; Skrzynecki, Jan Zygmunt; R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1706 ; &c. Sophia Aleksyeevna; Sprengtporten, Count Goran; Sprengtporten, Jakob; Stanislaus I. and II. of Poland; Stephen I. and V. of Hungary; Stephen Bathory; Struensee, Johan F.; Sture (family). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES x R. P. S. R. Sn. R. S. C. S. A. C. S. Bl. S. F. M. St G. S. S.N. T.As. T. A. A. T. A. C. T. Ba. T. F. C. T.Se. T. W.-D. T. W. F. T. W. R. D. V. W. W. A. B. C. W. A. G. W. A. J. F. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past! Stair; President of the Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, | Staircase: Architecture; London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Spire. e. { History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. CHEx?mine°7n Silk Throwing and Spinning for the City and Guilds of London Institute ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lixx. f Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. I QIBI.I« Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville | BICUU and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. I STANLEY ARTHUR COOK. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, J Simeon; Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of~) Solomon Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. SIGFUS BLONDAL. Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. SIR SHIRLEY FORSTER MURPHY, F.R.C.S. Medical Officer of Health for the County of London. ST GEORGE STOCK, M.A. Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. Silk: Trade and Commerce. , ~) l I / oiffurf>sson jAn I blgur °n' J0n> f \ Slaughter-house f simon MO,,,,, \ OI f -. . Stubbs, William. English Church, 597-1666; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; &c. [ WILLIAM LEE CORBIN, A.M. f Sparks, Jared. Associate Professor of English, Wells College, Aurora, New York State. I WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. f Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly I Strathcona and Mount Royal, Beit Lecturer in Cojonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 Lord. Council (Canadian Series). WILLIAM MINTO, M.A. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. SIR WILLIAM MACCORMAC, BART. See the biographical article: MACCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM, BART. WILLIAM McDouGALL, M.A. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford, of St John's College, Cambridge. WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LITT.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L., D.LITT. See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. MITCHELL. WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Director of the Meteorological Office, London. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint author of Text Book of Practical Physics; &c. WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. f Spenser, Edmund (in part); •< Steele, Sir Richard (in part) ; [ Sterne, Laurence (in part). -! Simon, Sir John. Formerly Fellow 4 Subliminal Self. | Sinai: The Peninsula. I Signorelli, Luca; I Sodoma, II. •[ Smyrna (in part). Squall. ' Silvanus. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Sibyls. Sierra Leone. Sign-board. Sikh Wars. Silesia. Silicon. Silver. Simony. Sind. Skating. Ski. Skin Diseases. Skye. Sligo. Smallpox. Smithsonian Institution. Snail. Soap. Sodium. Soissons. Solanaceae. Solicitor. Solomon Islands. Somersetshire. Somme. Somnambulism. Sorbonne. Southampton. South Carolina. South Dakota. South Sea Bubble. Southwark. Sowing. Spalato. Spanish-American War. Spanish Reformed Church. Speaker. Spectacles. Speranski, Count. Sphere. Spitsbergen. Springfield. Staff. Stafford. Staffordshire. Stalactites. Stamford. Stammering. Stamp. Starch. Star- Chamber. Staten Island. State Rights. Steenkirk, Stem. Stettin. Stickleback. Stirling. Stirlingshire. Stockholm. Stoichiometry. Stolen Goods. Strassburg. Stratford-on-Avon. Straw and Straw Manufactures. Strawberry. Strontium. Strophanthus. Strychnine. Sturgeon. Stuttgart. Styria. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXV SHUVALOV (sometimes written SCHOUVALOFF), PETER ANDREIVICH, COUNT (1827-1889), Russian diplomatist, was born in 1827 of an old Russian family which rose to distinction and imperial favour about the middle of the i8th century. Several of its members attained high rank in the army and the civil administration, and one of them may be regarded as the founder of the Moscow University and the St Petersburg Academy of the Fine Arts. As a youth Count Peter Andreivich showed no desire to emulate his distinguished ancestors. He studied just enough to qualify for the army, and for nearly twenty years he led the agreeable, commonplace life of a fashionable officer of the Guards. In 1864 Court influence secured for him the appointment of Governor-General of the Baltic Provinces, and in that position he gave evidence of so much natural ability and tact that in 1866, when the revolutionary fermentation in the younger section of the educated classes made it advisable to place at the head of the political police a man of exceptional intelligence and energy, he was selected by the emperor for the post. In addition to his regular functions, he was entrusted by his Majesty with much work of a confidential, delicate nature, including a mission to London in 1873. The ostensible object of this mission was to arrange amicably certain diplomatic difficultiesXcreated by the advance of Russia in Central Asia, but he was instructed at the same time to prepare the way for the marriage of the grand duchess Marie Alexandrovna with the duke of Edinburgh, which took place in January of the following year. At that time the emperor Alexander II. was anxious to establish cordial relations with Great Britain, and he thought this object might best be attained by appointing as his diplo- matic representative at the British Court the man who had con- ducted successfully the recent matrimonial negotiations. Count Shuvalov was accordingly appointed ambassador to London; and he justified his selection by the extraordinary diplomatic ability he displayed during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and the subsequent negotiations, when the relations between Russia and Great Britain were strained almost to the point of rupture. After the publication of the treaty of San Stefano, which astonished Europe and seemed to render a conflict inevit- able, he concluded with Lord Salisbury a secret convention which enabled the two powers to meet in congress and find a pacific solution for all the questions at issue. In the delibera- tions and discussions of the congress he played a leading part, and defended the interests of his country with a dexterity which excited the admiration of his colleagues; but when it became known that the San Stefano arrangements were profoundly modified by the treaty of Berlin, public opinion in Russia con- xxv. i demned him as too conciliatory, and reproached him with having needlessly given up many of the advantages secured by the war. For a time Alexander II. resisted the popular clamour, but in the autumn of 1879, when Prince Bismarck assumed an attitude of hostility towards Russia, Count Shuvalov, who had been long regarded as too amenable to Bismarckian influence, was recalled from his post as ambassador in London; and after living for nearly ten years in retirement, he died at St Petersburg in 1889. (D. M. W.) SHUYA, a town in the government of Vladimir, 68 m. by rail N.E. of the town of Vladimir. It is one of the chief centres of the cotton and linen industries in middle Russia. It is built on the high left bank of the navigable Teza, a tributary of the Klyazma, with two suburbs on the right bank. Annalists men- tion princes of Shuya in 1403. Its first linen manufactures were established in 1755; but in 1800 its population did not exceed 1300. In 1882 it had 19,560 inhabitants, and 18,968 in 1897. Tanneries, especially for the preparation of sheepskins — widely renowned throughout Russia — still maintain their importance, although this industry has migrated to a great extent to the country 'districts. The cathedral (1799) is a large building, with five gilt cupolas. Nearly every village in the vicinity has a specialty of its own — bricks, pottery, wheels, toys, packing- boxes, looms and other weaving implements, house furniture, sieves, combs, boots, gloves, felt goods, candles, and so on. The manufacture of linen and cotton in the villages, as well as the preparation and manufacture of sheepskins and rough gloves, occupies about 40,000 peasants. The Shuya merchants carry on an active trade in these products all over Russia, and in corn, spirits, salt and other food stuffs, imported. SH WEBO, a town and district in the Sagaing division of Upper Burma. The town is situated in the midst of a rice plain, 53 m. by rail N.E. from Mandalay: pop. (1901) 9626. It is of historic interest as the birthplace and [capital of Alompra, the founder of the last Burmese dynasty. After British annexation it became an important military cantonment; but only the wing of a European regiment is now stationed here. The area of the district is 5634 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 286,891, showing an increase of 24% in the decade. It lies between the Katha, Upper and Lower Chindwin and Mandalay districts. The Irrawaddy forms the dividing line on the east. The physical features of the district vary considerably. The Minwun range runs down the whole eastern side, skirting the Irrawaddy. In the north it is a defined range, but at Sheinmaga, in the south, it sinks to an undulation. West of the Mu river, in the centre of the district, there is a gradual ascent to the hills which divide 5 SIALKOT— SIAM Sagaing from the Upper Chindwin. Between these ranges and on both sides of the Mu is a plain, unbroken except for some isolated hills in the north and north-east and the low Sadaung-gyi range in the south-east. The greater part of this plain is a rice- growing tract, but on the sloping ground maize, millets, sesamum, cotton and peas are raised. A good deal of sugar is also produced from groves of the tari palm. The Mu river is navigable for three months in the year, from June to August, but in the dry season it can be forded almost anywhere. A good deal of salt is produced in a line which closely follows the railway. Coal has been worked at Letkokpin, near the Irrawaddy. The Ye-u reserved forests are much more valuable than those to the east on the Minwun and the Mudein. Extensive irrigation works existed in Shwebo district, but they fell into disrepair in King Thibaw's time. Chief of these was the Mahananda Lake. The old works have recently been in process of restoration, and in 1906 the main canal was formally opened. The rainfall follows the valleys of the Mu and the Irrawaddy, and leaves the rest of the district comparatively dry. It varies from an average of 29 to 49 in. The average temperature is 90° in the hot season, and falls to 60° or 61° in the cold season, the maximum and minimum readings being 104° and 56°. SIALKOT, or SEALKOTE, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division of the Punjab. The town, which has a station on the North-Western railway, is 7 2 m. N.E. of Lahore. Pop. (1901) S7,9S6- It is a military cantonment, being the headquarters of a brigade in the 2nd division of the northern army. There are remains of a fort dating from about the loth century; but the mound on which they stand is traditionally supposed to mark the site of a much earlier stronghold, and some authorities identify it with the ancient Sakala or Sagal. Other ancient buildings are the shrine of Baba Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, that of the Mahommedan Imam Ali-ul-hakk and Raja Tej Singh's temple. The town has an extensive trade, and manufactures of sporting implements, boots, paper, cotton, cloth and shawl-edging. There are Scottish and American missions, a Scottish mission training institution and an arts college. The DISTRICT of SIALKOT has an area of 1991 sq. m. It is an oblong tract of country occupying the submontane portion of the Rechna (Ravi-Chenab) Doab, fringed on either side by a line of fresh alluvial soil, above which rise the high banks that form the limits of the river-beds. The Degh, which rises in the Jammu hills, traverses the district parallel to the Ravi, and is likewise fringed by low alluvial soil. The north-eastern boundary is 20 m. distant from the outer line of the Himalayas; bjit about midway between the Ravi and the Chenab is a high dorsal tract, extending from beyond the border and stretching far into the district. Sialkot is above the average of the Punjab in fertility. The upper portion is very productive; but the southern portion, farther removed from the influence of the rains, shows a marked decrease of fertility. The district is also watered by numerous small torrents; and several swamps or jhils, scattered over the face of the country, are of considerable value as reservoirs of surplus water for purposes of irrigation. Sialkot is reputed to be healthy; it is free from excessive heat, judged by the common standard of the Punjab; and its average annual rainfall varies from 35 in. near the hills to 22 in. in the parts farthest from them. The population in 1901 was 1,083,909, showing a decrease of 3 % as against an increase of 1 1 % in the previous decade. This is explained by the fact that Sialkot contributed over 100,000 persons to the Chenab colony (.). The principal crops are wheat, barley, maize, millets and sugar-cane. The district is crossed by a branch of the North-Western railway from Wazirabad to Jammu. The early history of Sialkot is closely interwoven with that of the rest of the Punjab. It was annexed by the British after the second Sikh war in 1849; since then its area has been consider- ably reduced, assuming its present proportions in 1867. During the Mutiny of 1857 the native troops plundered the treasury and destroyed all the records, when most of the European residents took refuge in the fort. SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai), an inde- pendent kingdom of the Indo-Chinese peninsula or Further India. It lies between 4° 20' and 20° 15' N. and between 96° 30' and 106° E., and is bounded N. by the British Shan States and by the French Laos country, E. by the French Laos country and by Cambodia, S. by Cambodia and by the Gulf of Siam, and W. by the Tenasserim and Pegu divisions of Burma. A part of Siam which extends down the Malay Peninsula is bounded E. by the Gulf of Siam and by the South China Sea, S. by British Malaya and W. by the lower part of the Bay of Bengal. The total area is about 220,000 sq. m. (For map, see INDO-CHINA.) The country may be best considered geographically in four parts: the northern, including the drainage area of the four rivers which unite near Pak-Nam Po to form the Menam Chao Phaya; the eastern, including the drainage area of the Nam Mun river and its tributaries; t,he central, including the drainage area of the Meklong, the Menam Chao Phaya and the Bang Pakong rivers; and the southern, including that part of the country which is situated in the Malay Peninsula. Northern Siam is about 60,000 sq. m. in area. In general appearance it is a series of parallel ranges of hills, lying N. and S., merely gently sloping acclivities in the S., but rising into precipitous mountain masses in the N. Between these ranges flow the rivers Meping, Mewang, Meyom and Menam, turbulent shallow streams in their upper reaches, but slow-moving and deep where they near the points of junction. The longest of them is over 250 m. from its source to its mouth. The Meping and Mewang on the W., rising among the loftiest ranges, are rapid and navigable only for small boats, while the Meyom and Menam, the eastern pair, afford passage for large boats at all seasons and for deep draught river-steamers during the flood-time. The Menam is the largest, deepest and most sluggish of the four, and in many ways resembles its continuation, the Menam Chao- Phaya lower down. On the W. the river Salween and its tributary the Thoung Yin form the frontier between the Siam and Burma for some distance, draining a part of northern Siam, while in the far north-east, for a few miles below Chieng Sen, the Mekong does the same. The districts watered by the lower reaches of the four rivers are fertile and are inhabited by a considerable population of Siamese. Farther north the country is peopled by Laos, scattered in villages along all the river banks, and by numerous communities of Shan, Karen, Kamoo and other tribes living in the uplands and on the hilltops. Eastern Siam, some 70,000 sq. m. in area, is encircled by well-defined boundaries, the great river Mekong dividing it clearly from French Laos on the N. and E., the Pnom Dang Rek hill range from Cambodia on the S. and the Dom Pia Fai range from central Siam on the W. The right bank of the Mekong being closely flanked by an almost continuous hill range, the whole of this part of Siam is practically a huge basin, the bottom of which is a plain lying from 200 to 300 ft. above sea-level, and the sides hill ranges of between 1000 and 2000 ft. elevation. The plain is for the most part sandy and almost barren, subject to heavy floods in the rainy season, and to severe drought in the dry weather. The hills are clothed with a thin shadeless growth of stunted forest, which only here and there assumes the character- istics of ordinary jungle. The river Nam Mun, which is perhaps 200 m. long, has a large number of tributaries, chief of which is the Nam Si. The river flows eastward and falls into the Mekong at 15° 20' N. and 105° 40' E. A good way farther north two small rivers, the Nam Kum and the Nam Song Kram, also tributaries of the Mekong, drain a small part of eastern Siam. Nearly two million people, mixed Siamese, Lao and Cambodian, probably among the poorest peasantry in the world, support existence in this inhospitable region. Central Siam, estimated at 50,000 sq. m. in area, is the heart of the kingdom, the home of the greater part of its population, and the source of nine-tenths of its wealth. In general appear- ance it is a great plain flanked by high mountains on its western border, inclining gently to the sea in the S. and round the inner Gulf of Siam, and with a long strip of mountainous sea-board stretching out to the S.E. The mountain range on the W. is a SIAM continuation of one of the ranges of northern Siam, which, extending still farther southward, ultimately forms the backbone of the Malay Peninsula. Its ridge is the boundary between central Siam and Burma. The highest peak hereabouts is Mogadok, 5000 ft., close to the border. On the E. the Dom Pia Fai throws up a point over 4000 ft., and the south-eastern range which divides the narrow, littoral, Chantabun and Krat districts from Cambodia, has the Chemao, Saidao and Kmoch heights, between 3000 and 5000 ft. The Meklong river, which drains the western parts of central Siam, rises in the western border range, follows a course a little E. of S., and runs into the sea at the western corner of the inner gulf, some 200 m. distant from its source. It is a rapid, shallow stream, subject to sudden rises, and navigable for small boats only. The Bang Pakong river rises among the Wattana hills on the eastern border, between the Battambong province of Cambodia and Siam. It flows N., then W., then S., describing a semicircle through the fertile district of Pachim, and falls into the sea at the north-east corner of the inner gulf. The whole course of this river is about 100 m. long; its current is sluggish, but that of its chief tributary, the Nakhon Nayok river, is rapid. The Bang Pakong is navi- gable for steamers of small draught for about 30 m. The Menam Chao Phaya, the principal river of Siam, flows from the point where it is formed by the junction of the rivers of northern Siam almost due S. for 154 m., when it empties itself into the inner gulf about midway between the Meklong and Bang Pakong mouths. In the neighbourhood of Chainat, 40 m. below Paknam Poh, it throws off three branches, the Suphan river and the Menam Noi on the right, and the Lopburi river on the left bank. The latter two rejoin the parent stream at points considerably lower down, but the Suphan river remains distinct, and has an outlet of its own to the sea. At a point a little more than half- way down its course, the Menam Chao Phaya receives the waters of its only tributary, the Nam Sak, a good-sized stream which rises in the east of northern Siam and waters the most easterly part (the Pechabun valley) of that section of the country. The whole course of the Menam Chao Phaya lies through a perfectly flat country. It is deep, fairly rapid, subject to a regular rise and flood every autumn, but not to sudden freshets, and is affected by the tide 50 m. inland. For 20 m. it is navigable for vessels of over 1000 tons, and were it not for the enormous sand bar which lies across the mouth, ships of almost any size could lie at the port of Bangkok about that distance from the sea (see BANGKOK). Vessels up to 300 tons and 12 ft. draught can ascend the river 50 m. and more, and beyond that point large river-boats and deep-draught launches can navigate for many miles. The river is always charged with a great quantity of silt which during flood season is deposited over the surrounding plain to the great enhancement of its fertility. There is prac- tically no forest growth in central Siam, except on the slopes of the hills which bound this section. The rest is open rice-land, alternating with great stretches of grass, reed jungle and bamboo scrub, much of which is under water for quite three months of the year. Southern Siam, which has an area of about 20,000 sq. m., consists of that part of the Malay Peninsula which belongs to the Siamese kingdom. It extends from 10° N. southwards to 6° 35' N. on the west coast of the peninsula, and to 6° 25' N. on the east coast, between which points stretches the frontier of British Malaya. It is a strip of land narrow at the north end and widening out towards the south, consisting roughly of the continuation of the mountain range which bounds central Siam on the W., though the range appears in certain parts as no more than a chain of hillocks. The inhabitable part of the land consists of the lower slopes of the range with the valleys and small alluvial plains which lie between its spurs. The remainder is covered for the most part with dense forest containing several kinds of valuable timber. The coast both east and west is. much indented, and is studded with islands. The rivers are small and shallow. The highest mountain is Kao Luang, an almost isolated projection over 5000 ft. high, round the base of which lie the most fertile lands of this section, and near which are situated the towns of Bandon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Lakhon) and Patalung, as well as many villages. Geology.1 — Very little is known of the geology of Siam. It appears to be composed chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks, concealed, in the plains, by Quaternary, and possibly Tertiary, deposits. Near Luang Prabang, just beyond the border, in French territory, limestones with Productus and Schwagerina, like the Productus limestone of the Indian Salt Range, have been found; also red clays and grau- wacke with plants similar to those of the Raniganj beds; and violet clays with Dicynodon, supposed to be the equivalents of the Panche series of India. , All these beds strike from north-east to south-west and must enter the northern part of Siam. Farther south, at Vien- Tiane, the Mekong passes through a gorge cut in sandstone, arkose and schists with a similar strike; while at Lakhon there are steeply inclined limestones which strike north-west. Climate. — Although enervating, the climate of Siam, as is natural from the position of the country, is not one of extremes. The wet season — May to October — corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west monsoon in the Bay of Bengal. The full force of the monsoon is, however, broken by the western frontier hills; and while the rainfall at Mergui is over 180, and at Moulmein 240 in., that of Bangkok seldom exceeds 54, and Chiengmai records an average of about 42 in. Puket and Chantabun, being both on a iee shore, in this season experience rough weather and a heavy rainfall ; the latter, being farther from the equator, is the worse off in this respect. At this period the temperature is generally moderate, 65 to 75° F. at night and 75° to 85° by day ; but breaks in the rains occur which are hot and steamy. The cool season begins with the commencement of the north-east monsoon in the China Sea in November. While Siam enjoys a dry climate with cool nights (the thermometer at night often falling to 40° — 50° F., and seldom being over 90° in the shade by day), the eastern coast of the Malay Penin- sula receives the full force of the north-easterly gales from the sea. This lasts into February, when the northerly current begins to lose strength, and the gradual heating of the land produces local sea breezes from the gulf along the coast-line. Inland, the thermometer rises during the day to over 100° F., but the extreme continental heats of India are not known. The comparative humidity of the atmosphere, however, makes the climate trying for Europeans. Flora. — In its flora and fauna Siam combines the forms of Burma and the Shan States with those of Malaya, farther south, and of Cambodia to the south-east. The coast region is characterized by mangroves, Pandanus, rattans, and similar palms with long flexible stems, and the middle region by the great rice-fields, the coco-nut and areca palms, and the usual tropical plants of culture. In the temperate uplands of the interior, as about Luang Prabang, Hima- layan and Japanese species occur — oaks, pines, chestnuts, peach and great apple trees, raspberries, honeysuckle, vines, saxifrages, Cichoraceae, anemones and Violaceae; there are many valuable timber trees — teak, sappan, eagle- wood, wood-oil (Hopea), and other Dipterocarpaceae, Cedrelaceae, Pterocarpaceae, Xylia, iron- wood and other dye-woods and resinous trees, these last forming in many districts a large proportion of the more open forests, with an undergrowth of bamboo. The teak tree grows all over the hill districts north of latitude 15°, but seems to attain its best develop- ment on the west, and on the east does not appear to be found south of 17°. Most of the so-called Burma teak exported from Moulmein is floated down from Siamese territory. Among other valuable forest products are thingan wood (Hopea odorata), largely used for boat-building; damar oil, taken throughout Indo-China from the Dipterccarpus levis; agilla wood, sapan, rosewood, iron- wood, ebony, rattan. Among the chief productions of the plains are rice (the staple export of the country); pepper (chiefly from Chantabun); sirih, sago, sugar-cane, coco-nut and betel, Palmyra or sugar and attap palms; many forms cf banana and other fruit, such as durian, orange-pommelo, guava, bread-fruit, mango, jack fruit, pine-apple, custard-apple and mangosteen. Fauna. — Few countries are so well stocked with big game as is Siam. Chief of animals is the elephant, which roams wild in large numbers, and is extensively caught and tamed by the people for transport. The tiger, leopard, fishing-cat, leopard-cat, and other species of wild-cat, as well as the honey-bear, large sloth-bear, and one- and two-horned rhinoceros, occur. Among the great wild cattle are the formidable gaur, or seladang, the banting, and the water-buffalo. The goat antelope is found, and several varieties of deer. Wild pig, several species of rats, and many bats — one of the commonest being the flying-fox, and many species of monkey — especially the gibbon — are also met with. Of snakes, 56 species are known, but only 12 are poisonous, and of these 4 are sea-snakes. The waters of Siam are particularly rich in fish. The crocodile is common in many of the rivers and estuaries of Siam, and there are many lizards. The country is rich in birds, a large number of which appear to be common to Burma and Cambodia. 1 See E. Joubert in F. Gamier, Voyage d' exploration en Indo- Chine (Paris, 1873), vol. ii. ; Counillon, Documents pour seruir A I' etude geologique des environs de Luang Prabang ( Coch inching) , Comptes rendus (1896), cxxiii. 1330-1333. SIAM Inhabitants. — A census of the rural population was taken for the first time in 1905. The first census of Bangkok and its suburbs was taken in 1909. Results show the total population of the country to be about 6,230,000. Of this total about 3,000,000 are Siamese, about 2,000,000 Laos, about 400,000 Chinese, 115,000 Malay, 80,000 Cambodian and the rest Burmese, Indian, Mohn, Karen, Annamite, Kache, Lawa and others. Of Europeans and Americans there are between 1300 and 1500, mostly resident in Bangkok. Englishmen number about 500; Germans, 190; Danes, 160; Americans, 150, and other nation- alities are represented in smaller numbers. The Siamese inhabit central Siam principally, but extend into the nearer districts of all the other sections. The Laos predominate in northern and eastern Siam, Malays mingle with the Siamese in southern Siam, and the Chinese are found scattered all over, but keeping mostly to the towns. Bangkok, the capital, with some 650,000 inhabitants, is about one-third Chinese, while in the suburbs are to be found settlements of Mohns, Burmese, Annamites and Cambodians, the descendants of captives taken in ancient wars. The Eurasian population of Siam is very small compared with that of other large cities of the East. Of the tribes which occupy the mountains of Siam some are the remnants of the very ancient inhabitants of the country, probably of the Mohn-Khmer family, who were supplanted by a later influx of more civilized Khmers from the south-east, the forerunners and part-ancestors of the Siamese, and were still farther thrust into the remoter hills when the Lao-Tai descended from the north. Of these the principal are the Lawa, Lamet, Ka Hok, Ka Yuen and Kamoo, the last four collectively known to the Siamese as Ka. Other tribes, whose presence is probably owing to immigration at remote or recent periods, are the Karens of the western frontier range, the Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur of northern Siam. The Karens of Siam number about 20,000, and are found as far south as 13° N. They are mere offshoots from the main tribes which inhabit the Burma side of the boundary range, and are supposed by some to be of Burmo-Tibetan origin. The Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur have Yunnanese charac- teristics, are met with in the Shan States north of Siam and in Yun-nan, and are supposed to have found their way into northern Siam since the beginning of the igth century. In the mountains behind Chantabun a small tribe called Chong is found, and in southern Siam the Sakei and Semang inhabit the higher ranges. These last three have Negrito characteristics, and probably represent a race far older even than the ancient Ka. The typical Siamese is of medium height, well formed, with olive complexion, darker than the Chinese, but fairer than the Malays, eyes well shaped though slightly inclined to the oblique, nose broad and flat, lips prominent, the face wide across the cheek-bones and the chin short. A thin moustache is common, the beard, if present, is plucked out, and the hair of the head is black, coarse and cut short. The lips are usually deep red and the teeth stained black from the habit of betel-chewing. The children are pretty but soon lose their charm, and the race, generally speaking, is ugly from the European standpoint. The position of women is good. Polygamy is permitted, but is common only among the upper classes, and when it occurs the first wife is acknowledged head of the household. In disposition the Siamese are mild-mannered, patient, submissive to authority, kindly and hospitable to strangers. They are a light-hearted, apathetic people, little given to quarrelling or to the commission of violent crime. Though able and intelligent cultivators they do not take kindly to any form of labour other than agricultural, with the result that most of the industries and trades of the country are in the hands of Chinese. The national costume of the Siamese is the panune, a piece of cloth about I yd. wide and 3 yds. long. The middle of it is passed round the body, which it covers from the waist to the knees, and is hitched in front so that the two ends hang down in equal length before; these being twisted together are passed back between the legs, drawn up and tucked into the waist at the middle of the back. The panung is common to both sexes, the women supplementing it with a scarf worn round the body under the arms. Among the better classes both sexes wear also a jacket buttoned to the throat, stockings and shoes, and all the men, except servants, wear hats. The staple food of the Siamese is rice and fish. Meat is eaten, but, as the slaughter of animals is against Buddhist tenets, is not often obtainable, with the exception of pork, killed by Chinese. The men smoke, but the women do not. Everybody chews betel. The principal pastimes are gambling, boat-racing, cock- and fish- fighting and kite-flying, and a kind 01 football. Slavery, once common, has been gradually abolished by a series of laws, the last of which came into force in 1905. No such thing as caste exists, and low birth is no insuperable bar to the attainment of the highest dignities. There are no hereditary titles, those in use being conferred foi' life only and being attached to some particular office. Towns. — There are very few towns with a population of over 10,000 inhabitants in Siam, the majority being merely scattered townships or clusters of villages, the capitals of the provinces (muang) being often no more than a few houses gathered round the market-place, the offices and the governor's residence. The more important places of northern Siam include Chieng Mai (q.v.), the capital of the north, Chieng Rai, (near the northern frontier; Lampun, also known as Labong (originally Haribunchai), the first Lao settlement in Siam; Lampangr, Tern, Nan and Pre, each the seat of a Lao chief and of |a Siamese commissioner; Utaradit, Pichai, Pichit, Pechabun and Raheng, the last of importance as a timber station, with Phitsnulok, Sukhotai, Swankalok, Kampeng Pet and Nakhon Sawan, former capitals of Khmer- Siamese king- doms, and at present the headquarters of provincial governments. In eastern Siam the only towns of importance are Korat and Ubon, capitals of divisions, and Nong Kai, an ancient place on the Mekong river. In central Siam, after Bangkok and Ayuthia, places of im- portance on the Menam Chao Phaya are Pak-Nam at the river mouth, the seat of a governor, terminus of a railway and site of modern fortifications; Paklat, the seat of a governor, a town of Mohns, descendants of refugees from Pegu ; Nontaburi, a few miles above Bangkok, the seat of a governor and possessing a large market ; Pratoomtani, Angtong, Prom, Inburi, Cnainat and Saraburi, all administrative centres; and Lopburi, the last capital before Ayuthia and the residence of kings during the Ayuthia period, a city of ruins now gradually reawakening as a centre of railway traffic. To the west of the Menam Chao Phaya lie Suphanburi and Ratburi, ancient cities, now government headquarters; Pechaburi (the Piply of early travellers), the terminus of the western railway; and Phrapa- toom, with its huge pagoda on the site of the capital of Sri Wichaiya, a kingdom of 2000 years ago, and now a place of military, agricultural and other schools. To the east, in the Bang Pakong river-basin and down the eastern shore of the gulf, are Pachim, a divisional headquarters; Petriou (q.v.); Bang Plasoi, a fishing centre, with Rayong, Chantabun (q.v.) and Krat, producing gems and pepper. In southern Siam the chief towns are Chumpon; Bandon, with a growing timber industry; Nakhon Sri Tammarat (q.v.); Singora (q.v.) ; Puket (q.v.) ; Patani. Communications. — Central Siam is supplied with an exceptionally complete system of water communications; for not only has it the three rivers with their tributaries and much-divided courses, but all three are linked together by a series of canals which, running in parallel lines across the plain from E. to W., make the farthest corners of this section of the kingdom easily accessible from the capital. The level of the land is so low, the soil so soft, and stone suitable for metal so entirely absent, that the making and upkeep of roads would here be ruinously expensive. Former rulers have realized this and have therefore confined themselves to canal making. Some of the canals are very old, others are of comparatively recent construction. In the past they were often allowed to fall into dis- repair, but in 1903 a department of government was formed to control their upkeep, with the result that most of them were soon furnished with new locks, deepened, and made thoroughly service- able. The boat traffic on them is so great that the collection of a small toll more than suffices to pay for all maintenance expenses. In northern and southern Siam, where the conditions are different, roads are being slowly made, but natural difficulties are great, and travelling in those distant parts is still a matter of much discomfort. In 1909 there were 640 miles of railway open. All but 65 miles was under state management. The main line from Bangkok to the north had reached Pang Tone Phung, some distance north of Utaradit and 10 m. south of Meh Puak, which was selected as the terminus for the time being, the continuation to Chieng Mai, the original objective, being postponed pending the construction of another and more important line. This latter was the continuation through southern Siam of the line already constructed from Bangkok south-west to Petchaburi (no m.), with funds borrowed, under a recent agreement, from the Federated (British) Malay States government, wh'ich work, following upon surveys made in 1907, was begun in 1909 under the direction of a newly constituted southern branch of the Royal Railways department. From Ban Paji on the main line a branch extends north-eastwards no m. to Korat. To the east of Bangkok the Bangkok- Petriew line (40 m.) was completed and open for traffic. The postal service extends to all parts of the country and is fairly efficient. Siam joined the Postal Union in 1885. The inland tele- graph is also widely distributed, and foreign lines communicate with Saigon, the Straits Settlements and Moulmein. Agriculture. — The cultivation of paddi (unhusked rice) forms the SIAM occupation of practically the whole population of Siam outside the capital. Primitive methods obtain, but the Siamese are efficient cultivators and secure good harvests nevertheless. The sowing and planting season is from June to August, and the reaping season from December to February. Forty or fifty varieties of paddi are grown, and Siam rice is of the best in the world. Irrigation is rudimentary, for no system exists for raising the water of the in- numerable canals on to the fields. Water-supply depends chiefly, therefore, on local rainfall. In 1905 the government started pre- liminary surveys for a system of irrigation. Tobacco, pepper, coco-nuts and maize are other agricultural products. Tobacco of good quality supplies local requirements but is not exported ; pepper, grown chiefly in Chantabun and southern Siam, annually yields about 900 tons for export. From coco-nuts about 10,000 tons of copra are made for export each year, and maize is used for local consumption only. Of horned cattle statistical returns show over two million head in the whole country. Mining. — The minerals of Siam include gold, silver, rubies, sapphires, tin, copper, iron, zinc and coal. Tin-mining is a flourish- ing industry near Puket on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, and since 1905 much prospecting and some mining has been done on the east coast. The export of tin in 1908 exceeded 5000 tons, valued at over £600,000. Rubies and sapphires are mined in the Chantabun district in the south-east. The Mining Department of Siam is a well-organized branch of the government, employing several highly-qualified English experts. Timber. — The extraction of teak from the forests of northern Siam employs a large number of people. The industry is almost entirely in the hands of Europeans, British largely predominating. The number of teak logs brought out via the Salween and Menam Chao Phaya rivers average 160,000 annually, Siam being thus the largest teak-producing country of the world. A Forest Department, in which experienced officers recruited from the Indian Forest Service are employed, has for many years controlled the forests of Siam. Technology. — The government has since 1903 given attention to sericulture, and steps have been taken to improve Siamese silk with the aid of scientists borrowed from the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture. Surveying and the administration of the land have for a long time occupied the attention of the government. A Survey Department, inaugurated about 1887, has completed the general survey of the whole country, and has made a cadastral survey of a large part of the thickly inhabited and highly cultivated districts of central Siam. A Settlement Commission, organized in 1901, decided the ownership of lands, and, on completion, handed over its work to a Land Registration Department. Thus a very complete settlement of much of the richest agricultural land in the country has been effected. The education of the youth of Siam in the technology of the industries practised has not been neglected. Pupils are sent to the best foreign agricultural, forestry and mining schools, and, after going through the prescribed course, often with distinction, return to Siam to apply their knowledge with more or less success. Moreover, a college under the control of the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, which was founded in 1909, provides locally courses of instruction in these subjectsand also in irrigation engineer- ing, sericulture and surveying. Commerce. — Rice-mills, saw-mills and a few distilleries of locally consumed liquor, one or two brick and tile factories, and here and there a shed in which coarse pottery is made, are all Siam has in the way of factories. All manufactured articles of daily use are imported, as is all ironware and machinery. The foreign commerce of Siam is very ancient. Her commerce with India, China and probably Japan dates from the beginning of the Christian era or earlier, while that with Europe began in the i6th century. Trade with her immediate neighbours is now insignificant, the total value of annual imports and exports being about £400,000; but sea- borne commerce is in a very flourishing condition. Bangkok, with an annual trade valued at £13,000,000, easily overtops all the rest of the country, the other ports together accounting for a total of imports and exports not exceeding £3,000,000. On both the east and west coasts of southern Siam trade is increasing rapidly, and is almost entirely wjth the Straits Settlements. The trade of the west coast is carried in British ships exclusively, that on the east coast by British and Siamese. Art. — The Siamese are an artistic nation. Their architecture, drawing, goldsmith's work, carving, music and dancing are all highly developed in strict accordance with the traditions of Indo-Chinese art. Architecture, chiefly exercised in connexion with religious buildings, is clearly a decadent form of that practised by the ancient Khmers, whose architectural remains are among the finest in the world. The system of music is elaborate but is not written, vocalists and instrumentalists performing entirely by ear. The interval corre- sponding to the octave being divided into seven equal parts, each about 1 1 semitone, it follows that Siamese music sounds strange in Western ears. Harmony is unknown, and orchestras, which include fiddles, flutes, drums and harmonicons, perform in unison. The goldsmith's work of Siam is justly celebrated. Repouss6 work in silver, which is still practised, dates from the most ancient times. Almost every province has its special patterns and processes, the most elaborate being those of Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore), Chantabun and the Laos country. In the Ligore ware the hammered ground-work is inlaid with a black composition of sulphides of baser metals which throws up the pattern with distinctness. Government. — The government of Siam is an absolute monarchy. The heir to the throne is appointed by the king, and was formerly chosen from among all the members of his family, collateral as well as descendants. The choice was sometimes made early in the reign when the heir held the title of " Chao Uparach " or " Wang Na," miscalled " Second King " in English, and sometimes was left until the death of the king was imminent. The arrangement was fraught with danger to the public tran- quillity, and one of the reforms of the last sovereign was the abolition of the office of " Chao Uparach " and a decree that the throne should in future descend from the king to one of his sons born of a queen, which decree was immediately followed by the appointment of a crown prince. There is a council consisting of the ten ministers of state — for foreign affairs, war, interior, finance, household, justice, metropolitan government, public works, public instruction and for agriculture — together with the general adviser. There is also a legislative council, of which the above are ex officio members, consisting of forty-five persons appointed by the king. The council meets once a week for the transaction of the business of government. The king is an autocrat in practice as well as in theory, he has an absolute power of veto, and the initiative of measures rests largely with him. Most departments have the benefit of European advisers. The government offices are conducted much on European lines. The Christian Sunday is observed as a holiday and regular hours are prescribed for attendance. The numerous palace and other functions make some demand upon ministers' time, and, as the king transacts most of his affairs at night, high officials usually keep late office hours. The Ministry of Interior and certain technical departments are recruited from the civil service schools, but many appointments in government service go by patronage. For administrative purposes the country is divided into seventeen montons (or divisions) each in charge of a high commissioner, and an eighteenth, including Bangkok and the surrounding suburban provinces, under the direct control of the minister for metropolitan government (see BANGKOK). The high commissioners are responsible to the minister of interior, and the montons are furnished with a very complete staff for the various branches of the administration. The montons consist of groups of the old rural provinces (muang), the hereditary chiefs of which, except in the Lao country in the north ajid in the Malay States, kave been replaced by governors trained in administrative work and subordinate to the high commissioner. Each muang is subdivided into ampurs under assistant commissioners, and these again are divided into village circles under headmen (kamnans), which circles comprise villages under the control of elders. The suburban provinces of the metropolitan monton are also divided as above. The policing of the seventeen montons is provided for by a gendarmerie of over 7000 men and officers (many of the latter Danes), a well-equipped and well-disciplined force. That of the sub- urban provinces is effected by branches of the Bangkok civil police. Finance. — The revenue administration is controlled by the ministers of the interior, of metropolitan government and of finance, by means of well-organized departments and with expert European assistance. The total revenue of the country for 1908-1909 amounted to 58,000,000 ticals, or, at the prevailing rate of exchange, about £4,300,000, made up as follows : — Farms and monopolies (spirits, gambling, &c.) £783,000 Opium revenue .... 823,000 Lands, forests, mines, capitation. 1,330,000 Customs and octroi . . . ' 653,000 Posts, telegraphs and railways . 331,000 Judicial and other fees . . . 270,000 Sundries 110,000 Total £4,300,000 The unit of Siamese currency is the tical, a silver coin about equal in weight and fineness to the Indian rupee. In 1902, owing to the serious depreciation of the value of silver, the Siamese mint was closed to free coinage, and an arrangement was made providing for the gradual enhancement of the value of the tical until a suitable value should be attained at which it might be fixed. This measure was 6 SIAM successful, the value of the tical having thereby been increased from i lid. in 1902 to is. 5{|d. in 1909, to the improvement of the national credit and of the value of the revenues. A paper currency was established in 1902, and proved a financial success. In 1905 Siam contracted her first public loan, £1,000,000 being raised in London and Paris at 95 J and bearing 4! % interest. This sum was employed chiefly in railway construction, and in 1907 a second loan of £3,000,000 was issued in London, Paris and Berlin at 931 for the same purpose and for extension of irrigation works. A further sum of £4,000,000 was borrowed in 1909 from the government of the Federated (British) Malay States at par and bearing interest at 4 %, also for railway construction. Weights and Measures. — In accordance with the custom formerly prevalent in all the kingdoms of Further India, the coinage of Siam furnishes the standard of weight. The tical (baht) is the unit of currency and also the unit of weight. Eighty ticals equal one chang and fifty chang equal one haph, equivalent to the Chinese picul, or I33jlb avoirdupois. For the weighing of gold, gems, opium, &c., the/Mang, equal to i tical, and the salung, equal to J tical, are used. The unit of linear measure is the wah, which is subdivided into i wah or sauk, \ wah or kup, and into fa wah or mew. Twenty wah equal one sen and 400 sen equal one yote. The length of the wah has been fixed at two metres. The unit of land measure is the rai, which is equal to 400 square wah, and is subdivided into four equal ngan. Measures of capacity are the tang or bucket, and the sat or basket. Twenty tanan, originally a half coco-nut shell, equal one tang, and twenty-five of the same measure equal one sat. The tang is used for measuring rice and the sat for paddi and other grain. One sat of paddi weighs 42 J ft avoirdupois. Army and Navy. — By a law passed in 1903, the ancient system of recruiting the army and navy from the descendants of former prisoners of war was abolished in favour of compulsory service by all able-bodied men. The new arrangement, which is strictly terri- torial, was enforced in eight montons by the year 1909, resulting in a standing peace army of 20,000 of all ranks, in a marine service of about 10,000, and in the beginnings of first and second reserves. The navy, many of the officers of which are Danes and Norwegians, comprises a steel twin-screw cruiser of 2500 tons which serves as the royal yacht, four steel gunboats of between 500 and 700 tons all armed with modern quick-firing guns, two torpedo-boat destroyers and three torpedo boats, with other craft for river and coast work. Justice.— Since the institution of the Ministry of Justice in 1892 very great improvements have been effected in this branch of the administration. The old tribunals where customary law was administered by ignorant satellites of the great, amid unspeakable corruption, have all been replaced by organized courts with qualified judges appointed from the Bangkok law school, and under the direct control of the ministry in all except the most outlying parts. The ministry is well organized, and with the assistance of European and Japanese officers of experience has drafted a large number of laws and regulations, most of which have been brought into force. Extra-territorial jurisdiction was for long secured by treaty for the subjects of all foreign powers, who could therefore only be sued in the courts maintained in Siam by their own governments, while European assessors were employed in cases where foreigners sued Siamese. An indication, however, foreshadowing the disappearance of extra-territorial rights, appeared in the treaty of 1907 between France and Siam, the former power therein surrendering all such rights where Asiatics are concerned so soon as the Siamese penal and Erocedure codes should have become law, and this was followed y a much greater innovation in 1909 when Great Britain closed her courts in Siam and surrendered her subjects under certain temporary conditions to the jurisdiction of the Siamese courts. When it is understood that there _are over 30,000 Chinese, Annamese, Burmese and other Asiatic foreign subjects living in Siam, the importance to the country of this change will be to some extent realized. Religion. — While the pure-blooded Malays of the Peninsula are Mahommedans, the Siamese and Lao profess a form of Buddhism which is tinged by Cingalese and Burmese influences, and, especially in the more remote country districts, by the spirit-worship which is characteristic of the imaginative and timid Ka and other hill peoples of Indo-China. In the capital a curious admixture of early Brah- minical influence is still noticeable, and no act of public importance takes place without the assistance of the divinations of the Brahmin priests. The Siamese, as southern Buddhists, pride themselves on their orthodoxy; and since Burma, like Ceylon, has lost its inde- pendence, the king is regarded in the light of the sole surviving defender of the faith. There is a close connexion between the laity and priesthood, as the Buddhist rule, which prescribes that every man should enter the priesthood for at least a few months, is almost universally observed, even young princes and noblemen who have been educated in Europe donning the yellow robe on their return to Siam. A certain amount of scepticism prevails among the educated classes, and political motives may contribute to their apparent orthodoxy, but there is no open dissent from Buddhism, and those who discard its dogmas still, as a rule, venerate it as an ethical system. The accounts given by some writers as to the profligacy and immorality in the monasteries are grossly exaggerated. Many of the temples in the cap-tal are under the direct supervision of the king, and in these a stricter rule of life is observed. Some of the priests are learned in the Buddhist scriptures, and most of the Pali scholarship in Siam is to be found in monasteries, but there is no learning of a secular nature. There is little public worship in the Christian sense of the word. On the day set apart for worship (Wan Phra, or " Day of the Lord ") the attendance at the temples is small and consists mostly of women. Religious or semi-religious cere- monies, however, play a great part in the life of the Siamese, and few weeks pass without some great function or procession. Among these the cremation ceremonies are especially conspicuous. The more exalted the personage the longer, as a rule, is the body kept before cremation. The cremations of great people, which often last several days, are the occasion of public festivities and are celebrated with processions, theatrical shows, illuminations and fireworks. The missionaries in Siam are entirely French Roman Catholics and American Protestants. They have done much to help on the general work of civilization, and the progress of education has been largely due to their efforts. Education. — As in Burma, the Buddhist monasteries scattered throughout the country carry on almost the whole of the elementary education in the rural districts. A provincial training college was established in 1903 for the purpose of instructing priests and laymen in the work of teaching, and has turned out many qualified teachers whose subsequent work has proved satisfactory. By these means, and with regular government supervision and control, the monastic schools are being brought into line with the government educational organization. They now contain not far short of 100,000 pupils. In the metropolitan monton there are primary, secondary and special schools for boys and girls, affording instruction to some 10,000 pupils. There are also the medical school, the law school, the civil service school, the military schools and the agricultural college, which are entered by students who have passed through the secondary grade for the purpose of receiving professional instruction. Many of the special schools use the English language for conveying instruction, and there are three special schools where the whole curriculum is conducted in English by English masters. Two scholarships of £300 a year each for four years are annually com- peted for by the scholars of these schools, the winners of which proceed to Europe to study a subject of their own selection which shall fit them for the future service of their country. Most of the special schools also give scholarships to enable the best of their pupils to complete their studies abroad. The result of the wide- spread monastic school system is that almost all men can read and write a little, though the women are altogether illiterate. History. Concerning the origin of the name " Siam " many theories have been advanced. The early European visitors to the country noticed that it was not officially referred to by any such name, and therefore apparently conceived that the term must have been applied from outside. Hence the first written accounts give Portuguese, Malay and other derivations, some of which have continued to find credence among quite recent writers. It is now known, however, that " Siam " or " Sayam " is one of the most ancient names of the country, and that at least a thousand years ago it was in common use, such titles as Swankalok-Sukhotai, Shahr-i-nao, Dwarapuri, Ayuthia, the last sometimes corrupted to " Judea," by which the kingdom has been known at various periods of its history, being no more than the names of the different capital cities whose rulers in turn brought the land under their sway. The Siamese (Thai) call their country Muang Thai, or " the country of the Thai race," but the ancient name Muang Sayam has lately been revived. The gradual evolution of the Siamese (Thai) from the fusion of Lao-Tai and Khmer races has been mentioned above. Their language, the most distinctively Lao-Tai attribute which they have, plainly shows their very close relationship with the latter race and its present branches, the Shans (Tai L6ng) and the Ahom of Assam, while their appearance, customs, written character and religion bear strong evidence of their affinity with the Khmers. The southward movement of the Lao-Tai family from their original seats in south-west China is of very ancient date, the Lao states of Luang Prabang and Wieng Chan on the Mekong having been founded at least two thousand years ago. The first incursions of Lao-Tai among the Khmers of northern Siam were probably later, for the town of Lampun (Labong or Haribunchai) , the first Lao capital in Siam, was founded about A.D. 575. The fusion of races may be said to have begun then, for it was during the succeeding centuries that the kings of Swankalok-Sukhotai gradually assumed Lao characteristics, and that the Siamese language, written character and other racial peculiarities were in course of formation. But the finishing SIAM touches to the new race were supplied by the great expulsion of Lao-Tai from south-west China by Kublai Khan in A.D. 125°) which profoundly affected the whole of Further India. There- after the north, the west and the south-west of Siam, comprising the kingdom of Swankalok-Sukhotai, and the states of Suphan and Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore), with their sub-feudatories, were reduced by the Siamese (Thai), who, during their southern progress, moved their capital from Sukhotai to Nakhon Sawan, thence to Kampeng Pet, and thence again to Suvarnabhumi near the present Kanburi. A Sukhotai inscription of about 1284 states that the dominions of King Rama Kamheng ex- tended across the country from the Mekong to Pechaburi, and thence down the Gulf of Siam to Ligore; and the Malay annals say that the Siamese had penetrated to the extremity of the peninsula before the first Malay colony from Menangkabu founded Singapore, i.e. about 1160. Meanwhile the ancient state of Lavo (Lopburi), with its capital at Sano (Sornau or Shahr-i-nao), at one time feudatory to Swankalok-Sukhotai, remained the last stronghold of the Khmer, although even here the race was much modified by Lao-Tai blood; but presently Sano also was attacked, and its fall completed the ascendancy of the Siamese (Thai) throughout the country. The city of Ayuthia which rose in A.D. 1350 upon the ruins of Sano was the capital of the first true Siamese king of all Siam. This king's sway extended to Moulmein, Tavoy, Tenasserim and the whole Malacca peninsula (where among the traders from the west Siam was known as Sornau, i.e. Shahr-i-nau, long after Sano had disappeared — Yule's Marco Polo, ii. 260), and was felt even in Java. This is corroborated by Javan records, which describe a " Cambodian " invasion about 1340; but Cambodia was itself invaded about this time by the Siamese, who took Angkor and held it for a time, carrying off 90,000 captives. The great southward expansion here recorded is confirmed by the Chinese annals of the period. The wars with Cambodia continued with varying success for some 400 years, but Cambodia gradually lost ground and was finally shorn of several provinces, her sovereign falling entirely under Siamese influence. This, how- ever, latterly became displeasing to the French, now in Cochin China, and Siam was ultimately obliged to recognize the pro- tectorate forced on Cambodia by that power. Vigorous attacks were also made during this period on the Lao states to the north- west and north-east, followed by vast deportation of the people, and Siamese supremacy was pretty firmly established in Chieng- mai and its dependencies by the end of the i8th century, and over the great eastern capitals, Luang Prabang and Vien-chang, about 1828. During the I5th and i6th centuries Siam was frequently invaded by the Burmese and Peguans, who, attracted probably by the great wealth of Ayuthia, besieged it more than once without success, the defenders being aided by Portuguese mercenaries, till about 1555, when the city was taken and Siam reduced to dependence. From this condition, however, it was raised a few years later by the great conqueror and national hero Phra Naret, who after subduing Laos and Cambodia invaded Pegu, which was utterly overthrown in the next century by his successors. But after the civil wars of the i8th century the Burmese, having previously taken Chieng-mai, which appealed to Siam for help, entered Tenasserim and took Mergui and Tavoy in 1764, and then advancing simultaneously from the north and the west captured and destroyed Ayuthia after a two years' siege (1767). The intercourse between France and Siam began about 1680 under Phra Narain, who, by the advice of his minister, the Cephalonian adventurer Constantine Phaulcon, sent an embassy to Louis XIV. When the return mission arrived, the eagerness of the ambassador for the king's conversion to Christianity, added to the intrigues of Phaulcon with the Jesuits with the supposed intention of establishing a French supremacy, led to the death of Phaulcon, the persecution of the Christians, and the cessation of all intercourse with France. An interesting episode was the active intercourse, chiefly commercial, between the Siamese and Japanese governments from 1592 to 1632. Many Japanese settled in Siam, where they were much employed. They were dreaded as soldiers, and as individuals commanded a position resembling that of Europeans in most eastern countries. The jealousy of their increasing influence at last led to a massacre, and to the expulsion or absorption of the survivors. Japan was soon after this, in 1636, closed to foreigners; but trade was carried on at all events down to 1745 through Dutch and Chinese and occasional English traders. In 1752 an embassy came from Ceylon, desiring to renew the ancient friendship and to discuss religious matters. After the fall of Ayuthia a great general, Phaya Takh Sin, collected the remains of the army and restored the fortunes of the kingdom, establishing his capital at Bangkok; but, becoming insane, he was put to death, and was succeeded by another successful general, Phaya Chakkri, who founded the present dynasty. Under him Tenas- serim was invaded and Tavoy held for the last time by the Siamese in 1792, though in 1825, taking advantage of the Bur- mese difficulty with England, they bombarded some of the towns on that coast. The supremacy of China is indicated by occasional missions sent, as on the founding of a new dynasty, to Peking, to bring back a seal and a calendar. But the Siamese now repudiate this supremacy, and have sent neither mission nor tribute for sixty years, while no steps have been taken by the Chinese to enforce its recognition. The sovereign, Phra Para- mendr Maha Mongkut, was a very accomplished man, an en- lightened reformer and devoted to science; his death, indeed, was caused by fatigue and exposure while observing an eclipse. Many of his predecessors, too, were men of different fibre from the ordinary Oriental sovereign, while his son Chulalong Korn, who succeeded him in 1868, showed himself an administrator of the highest capacity. He died on the 23rd of October 1910. Of European nations the Portuguese first established inter- course with Siam. This was in 1511, after the conquest of Malacca by D'Albuquerque, and the intimacy lasted over a century, the tradition of their greatness having hardly yet died out. They were supplanted gradually in the i7th century by the Dutch, whose intercourse also lasted for a similar period; but they have left no traces of their presence, as the Portuguese always did in these countries to a greater extent than any other people. English traders were in Siam very early in the i7th century; there was a friendly interchange of letters between James I. and the king of Siam, who had some Englishmen in his service, and, when the ships visited " Sia " (which was " as great a city as London ") or the queen of Patani, they were hospitably received and accorded privileges — the important items of export being, as now, tin, varnish, deer-skins and " precious drugs." Later on, the East India Company's servants, jealous at the employment of Englishmen not in their service, attacked the Siamese, which led to a massacre of the English at Mergui in 1687, and the factory at Ayuthia was abandoned in 1688. A similar attack is said to have been made in 1719 by the governor of Madras. After this the trade was neglected. Pulo Penang, an island belonging to the Siamese dependency of Kedah, was granted on a permanent lease to the East India Company in 1786, and treaties were entered into by the sultan of Kedah with the company. In 1822 John Crawfurd was sent to Bangkok to negotiate a treaty with the suzerain power, but the mission was unsuccessful. In 1824, by treaty with the Dutch, British interests became paramount in the Malay Peninsula and in Siam, and, two years later, Captain Burney signed the first treaty of friendship and commerce between England and Siam. A similar treaty was effected with America in 1833. Subsequently trade with British possessions revived, and in time a more elaborate treaty with England became desirable. Sir J. Brooke opened negotiations in 1850 which came to nothing, but in 1855 Sir J. Bowring signed a new treaty whereby Siam agreed to the appointment of a British consul in Bangkok, and to the exercise by that official of full extra- territorial powers. Englishmen were permitted to own land in certain defined districts, customs and port dues and land revenues were fixed, and many new trade facilities were granted. This important arrangement was followed at intervals by similar treaties with the other powers, the last two being those with 8 SIAM Japan in 1898 and Russia in 1899. A further convention afterwards provided for a second British consular district in northern Siam, while England and France have both appointed vice-consuls in different parts of the country. Thus foreigners in Siam, except Chinese who have no consul, could only be tried for criminal offences, or sued in civil cases, in their own consular courts. A large portion of the work of the foreign consuls, especially the British, was consequently judicial, and in 1901 the office of judge was created by the British government, a special judge with an assistant judge being appointed to this post. Meanwhile, trade steadily increased, especially with Great Britain and the British colonies of Hong Kong and Singapore. The peaceful internal development of Siam seemed also likely to be favoured by the events that were taking place outside her frontiers. For centuries she had been distracted by wars with Cambodians, Peguans and Burmans, but the incorporation of Lower Cochin China, Annam and Tongking by the French, and the annexation of Lower and Upper Burma successively by the British, freed her from all further danger on the part of her old rivals. Unfortunately, she was not destined to escape trouble. The frontiers of Siam, both to the east and the west, had always been vague and ill-defined, as was natural in wild and unexplored regions inhabited by more or less barbarous tribes. The frontier between Siam and the new British possessions in Burma was settled amicably and without difficulty, but the boundary question on the east was a much more intricate one and was still outstanding. Disputes with frontier tribes led to complica- tions with France, who asserted that the Siamese were occupying territory that rightfully belonged to Annam, which was now under French protection. France, while assuring the British Government that she laid no claim to the province of Luang Prabang, which was situated on both banks of the upper Mekong, roughly between the i8th and zoth parallels, claimed that farther south the Mekong formed the true boundary between Siam and Annam, and demanded the evacuation of certain Siamese posts east of the river. The Siamese refused to yield, and early in 1893 encounters took place in the disputed area, in which a French officer was captured and French soldiers were killed. The French then despatched gunboats from Saigon to enforce their demands at Bangkok, and these made their way up to the capital in spite of an attempt on the part of the Siamese naval forces to bar their way. In consequence of the resistance with which they had met, the French now greatly increased their demands, insisting on the Siamese giving up all territory east of the Mekong, including about half of Luang Prabang, on the payment of an indemnity and on the permanent with- drawal of all troops and police to a distance of 25 kilometres from the right bank of the Mekong. Ten days' blockade of the port caused the Siamese government to accede to these demands, and a treaty was made, the French sending troops to occupy Chantabun until its provisions should have been carried out. In 1895 lengthy negotiations took place between France and England concerning their respective eastern and western frontiers in Farther India. These negotiations bore important fruit in the Anglo-French convention of 1896, the chief provision of which was the neutralization by the contracting parties of the central portion of Siam, consisting of the basin of the river Menam, with its rich and fertile land, which contains most of the population and the wealth of the country. Neither eastern nor southern Siam was included in this agreement, but nothing was said to impair or lessen in any way the full sovereign rights of the king of Siam over those parts of the country. Siam thus has its independence guaranteed by the two European powers who alone- have interests in Indo-China, England on the west and France on the east, and has therefore a considerable political interest similar to that of Afghanistan, which forms a buffer state between the Russian and British possessions on the north of India. Encouraged by the assurance of the Anglo-French convention, Siam now turned her whole attention to internal reform, and to such good purpose that, in a few years, improved government and expansion of trade aroused a general interest in her welfare, and gave her a stability which had before been lacking. With the growth of confidence negotiations with France were reopened, and, after long discussion, the treaty of 1893 was set aside and Chantabun evacuated in return for the cession of the provinces of Bassac, Melupre, and the remainder of Luang Prabang, all on the right bank of the Mekong, and of the maritime district of Krat. These results were embodied in a new treaty signed and ratified in 1904. Meanwhile, in 1899, negotiations with the British government led to agreements denning the status of British subjects in Siam, and fixing the frontier between southern Siam and the British Malay States, while in 1900 the provisions of Sir J. Bowring's treaty of 1855, fixing the rates of land revenue, were abrogated in order to facilitate Siamese financial reform. In 1907 a further convention was made with France, Siam returning to the French protectorate of Cambodia the province of Battambang conquered in 1811, and in compensation receiving back from France the maritime province of Krat and the district of Dansai, which had been ceded in 1904. This convention also modified the extra-territorial rights enjoyed by France in Siam, and disclosed an inclination to recognize the material improve- ments of the preceding years. In 1907 also negotiations were opened with Great Britain, the objects of which were to modify the extra-territorial rights conceded to that power by the treaty of 1855, and to remove various restrictions regarding taxation and general administration, which, though diminished from time to time by agreement, still continued to hamper the government very much. These negotiations continued all through 1908 and resulted in a treaty, signed and ratified in 1909, by which Siam ceded to Great Britain her suzerain rights over the dependencies of Kedah, Kelantan, Trengganu and Perlis, Malay states situated in southern Siam just north of British Malaya, containing in all about a million inhabitants and for the most part flourishing and wealthy, and obtained the practical abolition of British jurisdiction in Siam proper as well as relief from any obligations which, though probably very necessary when they were incurred, had long since become mere useless and vexatious obstacles to progress towards efficient government. This treaty, a costly one to Siam, is important as opening up a prospect of ultimate abandonment of extra- territorial rights by all the powers. Administrative reform and an advanced railway policy have made of Siam a market for the trade of Europe, which has become an object of keen competition. In 1908 the British empire retained the lead, but other nations, notably Germany, Denmark, Italy and Belgium, had recently acquired large interests in the commerce of the country. Japan also, after an interruption of more than two hundred years, had resumed active commercial relations with Siam. AUTHORITIES.— H. Alabaster, Wheel of the Law (London, 1871); Dr Anderson, English Intercourse with Siam in the l?th Century (London, 1890) ; W. J. Archer, Journey in the Mekong Valley (1892) ; C. Bock, Temples and Elephants; Sir John Bowring, The Kingdom and People of Siam (London, 1857) ; J. G. D. Campbell, Siam in the Twentieth Century (London, 1902) ; A. C. Carter, The Kingdom of Siam (New York, 1904) ; A. R. Colquhoun, Amongst the Shans (London, 1885); J. Crawfurd, Journal of an Embassy to Siam (London, 1829); Lord Curzon, Nineteenth Century (July, 1893); H.R.H. Prince Damrong, " The Foundation of Ayuthia," Siam Society Journal (1905) ; Diplomatic and Consular Reports for Bangkok and Chien Mai (1888-1907); Directory for Bangkok and Siam (Bangkok Times Office Annual); Francis Garnier, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine (Paris, 1873); Geographical Journal, papers by J. S. Black, Lord Curzon, Lord Lamington, Professor H. Louis, T. M'Carthy, W. H. Smythe; Colonel G. E. Gerini," The Tonsure Ceremony," " The Art of War in Indo-China "; " Siam's Intercourse with China," Asiatic Quarterly Review (1906) ; " Historical Retrospect of Junkceylon Island," Siam Society's Journal (1905); W. A. Graham, " Brief History of the R.C. Mission in Siam," Asiatic Quarterly Review (1901); Mrs Grindrod, Siam: a Geographical Summary; H. Hallet, A Thousand Miles on an Elephant (London, 1890) ; Captain Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies (1688- I723); Prince Henri d'Orleans, Around Tonquin and Siam (London, 1894); Professor A. H. Keane, Eastern Geography: Asia; Dr Keith, Journal Royal Asiatic Society (1892); C. S. Leckie, Journal Society of Arts (1894), vol. xlii.; M. de la Loubere, Description du royaume de Siam (Amsterdam, 1714); Captain Low, Journal Asiatic Society, SIAM vol. vii.; J. M'Carthy, Surveying and Exploring in Siam (London, 1900); Henri Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China (London, 1844); F. A. Neale, Narrative of a Residence in Siam (London, 1852); Sir H. Norman, The Far East (London, 1904); Bishop Pallegoix, Description du royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854); H. W. Smythe, Five Years in Siam (London, 1898); J. Thomson, Antiquities of Cambodia, Malacca, Indo-China and China (London, 1875); P. A. Thompson, Lotus Land (London, 1906); Turpin, Histoire de Siam (Paris, 1719); F. Vincent, Land of the White Elephant; E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (London, 1898). Language and Literature. Siamese belongs to the well-defined Tai group of the Siamese- Chinese family of languages. Its connexion with Chinese is clear though evidently distant, but its relationship with the other languages of the Tai group is very close. It is spoken throughout central Siam, in all parts of southern Siam except Patani Monton, in northern Siam along the river-banks as far up as Utaradit and Raheng, and in eastern Siam as far as the confines of the Korat Monton. In Patani the common language is still Malay, while in the upper parts of northern, and the outlying parts of eastern, Siam the prevailing language is'Lao, though the many hill tribes which occupy the ranges of these parts have distinct languages of their own. Originally Siamese was purely monosyllabic, that is, each true word consisted of a single vowel sound preceded by, or followed by, a consonant. Of such monosyllables there are less than two thousand, and therefore many syllables have to do duty for the expression of more than one idea, confusion being avoided by the tone in which they are spoken, whence the term tonal," which is applied to all the languages of this family. The language now consists of about 15,000 words, of which compounds of two monosyllabic words and appropriations from foreign sources form a very large part. Bali, the ancient language of the kingdom of Magadha, in which the sacred writings of Buddhism were made, was largely instrumental in forming all the languages of Further India, including Siamese — a fact which accounts for the numerous connecting links between the M&n, Burmese and Siamese languages of the present time, though these are of quite separate origin. When intercourse with the West began, and more especially when Western methods of government and education were first adopted in Siam, the tendency to utilize European words was very marked, but recently there has been an effort to avoid this by the coining of Siamese or Bali compound words. The current Siamese characters are derived from the more monu- mental Cambodian alphabet, which again owes its origin to the alphabet of the inscriptions, an offshoot of the character found on the stone monuments of southern India in the 6th and 8th centuries. The sacred books of Siam are still written in the Cambodian character. The Siamese alphabet consists of 44 consonants, in each of which the vowel sound " aw " is inherent, and of 32 vowels all marked not by individual letters, but by signs written above, below, before or after the consonant in connexion with which they are to be pro- nounced. It may seem at first that so many as 44 consonants can scarcely be necessary, but the explanation is that several of them express each a slightly different intonation of what is practically the same consonant, the sound of " kh," for instance, being repre- sented by six different letters and the sound of " t " by eight. More- over, other letters are present only for use in certain words imported from Bali or Sanskrit. The vowel signs have no sound by them- selves, but act upon the vowel sound " aw " inherent in the con- sonants, converting it into " a," " i," " o," " ee," " ow," &c. Each of the signs has a name, and some of them produce modulations so closely resembling those made by another that at the present day they are scarcely to be distinguished apart. A hard-and-fast rule the at anything else is simply suppressed or is pronounced as though it were a letter naturally producing one or other of those sounds. Thus many of the words procured from foreign sources, not ex- cluding Bali and Sanskrit, are more or less mutilated in pronuncia- tion, though the entirely suppressed or altered letter is still retained in writing. Siamese is written from left to right. In manuscript there is usually no space between words, but punctuation is expressed by intervals isolating phrases and sentences. The greatest difficulty with the Siamese language lies in the tonal system. Of the simple tones there are five — the even, the circumflex, the descending, the grave and the high — any one of which when applied to a word may give it a quite distinct meaning. Four of the simple tones are marked in the written character by signs placed over the consonant affected, and the absence of a mark implies that the one remaining tone is to be used. A complication is caused by the fact that the consonants are grouped into three classes, to each of which a special tone applies, and consequently the application of a tonal sign to a letter has a different effect, accord- ing to the class to which such letter belongs. Though many syllables have to do duty for the expression of more than one idea, the majority have only one or at most two meanings, but there are some which are used with quite a number of different inflections, each of which gives the word a new meaning. Thus, for example, the syllable khao may mean " they," " badly," " rice," " white," " old," or " news," simply according to the tone in which the word is spoken. Words are unchangeabje and incapable of inflection. There is no article, and no distinction of gender, number or case. These, when it is necessary to denote them, are expressed by ex- planatory words after the respective nouns; only the dative and ablative are denoted by subsidiary words, which precede the nouns, the nominative being marked by its position before, the objective by its position after, the verb, and the genitive (and also the ad- jective) by its place after the noun it qualifies. Occasionally, how- ever, auxiliary nouns serve that purpose. Words like " mother," " son," " water " are often employed in forming compounds to express ideas for which the Siamese have no single words, e.g. luk can, " the son of hire," a labourer; me mu, " the mother of the hand," the thumb. The use of class words with numerals obtains in Siamese as it does in Chinese, Burmese, Anamese, Malay and many other Eastern languages. As in these, so in Siamese the personal pronouns are mostly represented by nouns expressive of the various shades of superior or lower rank according to Eastern etiquette. The verb is, like the noun, perfectly colourless — person, number, tense and mood being indicated by auxiliary words only when they cannot be inferred from the context. Such auxiliary words are y&, " to be," " to dwell " (present) ; dai, " to have," leas, " end " (past) ; ca, " also " (future) ; the first and third follow, the second and fourth precede, the verb. Hai, " to give " (prefixed), often indicates the subjunctive. As there are compound nouns, so there are compound verbs; thus, e.g. pai, " to go," is joined to a transitive verb to convert it into an intransitive or neuter; and thuk, " to touch," and long, " to be compelled," serve to form a sort of passive voice. The number of adverbs, single and compound, is very large. The prepositions mostly consist of nouns. The construction of the sentence in Siamese is straightforward and simple. The subject of the sentence precedes the verb and the object follows it. The possessive pronoun follows the object. The adverb usually follows the verb. In compound sentences the verbs are placed together as in English, not separated by the object as in German. When an action is expressed in the past the word which forms with the verb the past tense is divided from the verb itself by the object. Examples are : — Rao (We) dekchai (boy) sam (three) kon (persons) cha (will) pai (go) chap (catch) pla (fish) samrap (for) hai (give) paw (father) kin (eat). Me (Mother) tan (you) yu (live) ti (place) nai (where), or "Where is your mother?" Me (Mother) pai (go) talat (bazaar) leao (finish), or " (My) mother has gone to the bazaar." The difficulties of the Siamese language are increased by the fact that in addition to the ordinary language of the people there is a completely different set of words ordained for the use of royalty. This " Palace language " appears to have come into existence from a desire to avoid the employment in the presence of royalty of downright expressions of vulgarity or of words which might be capable of conveying an unpleasant or indelicate idea other than the meaning intended. In the effort to escape from the vulgar, words of Sanskrit origin have been freely adopted and many Cam- bodian words are also used. The language is so complete that the dog, pig, crow and other common or unclean animals are all ex- pressed by special words, while the actions of royalty, such as eating, sleeping, walking, speaking, bathing, dying, are spoken of in words quite distinct from those used to describe similar actions of ordinary people. The prose literature of Siam consists largely of mythological and historical fables, almost all of which are of Indian origin, though many of them have come to Siam through Cambodia. Their number is larger than is usually supposed, many of them being known to few beyond the writers who laboriously copy them and the professional " raconteurs " who draw upon them to replenish their stock-in-trade. The best known have all been made into stage-plays, and it is in this form that they usually come before the notice of the general public. Amongst them are Ramakien, taken from the great Hindu epic Ramayana; Wetyasunyin, the tale of a king who became an ascetic after contemplation of a withered tree; Worawongs, the story of a prince who loved a princess and was kiUed by the thrust of a magic spear which guarded her; Chalawan, the tale of a princess beloved by a crocodile; Unarud, the life story of Anuruddha, a demigod, the grandson of Krishna; Phumhon, the tale of a princess beloved by an elephant; Prang tong, a story of a princess who before birth was promised to a " yak " or giant in 10 SIBAWAIHI— SIBERIA return for a certain fruit which her mother desired to eat. Mahasot is an account of the wars of King Mahasot. Nok Khum is one of the theories of the genesis of mankind, the Nok Khum being the sacred goose or " Hansa " from whose eggs the first human beings were supposed to have been hatched. A consider- able proportion of the romances are founded upon episodes in the final life, or in one of the innumerable former existences, of the Buddha. The Patlama Sompothiyan is the standard Siamese life of the Buddha. Many of the stories have their scene laid in Himaphan, the Siamese fairyland, probably origin- ally the Himalaya. A great many works on astrology and the casting of horoscopes, on the ways to secure victory in war, success in love, in business or in gambling, are known, as also works on other branches of magic, to which subject the Siamese have always been partial. On the practice of medicine, which is in close alliance with magic, there are several well-known works. The Niti literature forms a class apart. The word Niti is from the Bali, and means " old saying," " tradition," " good counsel." The best known of such works are Rules for the Conduct of Kings, translated from the Bali, and The Maxims of Phra Ruang, the national hero-king, on whose wonderful sayings and doings the imagination of Siamese youth is fed. In works on history the literature of Siam is unfortunately rather poor. There can be little doubt that, as in the case of a!l the other kingdoms of Further India, complete and detailed chronicles were compiled from reign to reign by order of her kings, but of the more ancient of these, the wars and disturbances which continued with such frequency down to quite recent times have left no trace. The Annals of the North, the Annals ofKrung Kao (Ayuthia) and the Book of the Lives of the Four Kings (of the present dynasty) together form the only more or less connected history of the country from remote times down to the beginning of the present reign, and these, at least so far as the earlier parts are concerned, contain much that is inaccurate and a good deal which is altogether untrue. Foreign histories include a work on Pegu, a few tales of Cambodian kings and recently published class-books on European history compiled by the educational department. The number of works on law is considerable. The Laksana Phra Thamasat, the Phra Tamra, Phra Tamnon, Phra Racha Kamnot and Intkapat are ancient works setting forth the laws of the country in their oldest form, adapted from the Dharmacastra and the Classifi- cation of the Law of Manu. These, and also many of the edicts passed by kings of the Ayuthia period which have been preserved, are now of value more as curiosities of literature and history than anything else, since, for all practical purposes, they have long been superseded by laws more in accordance with modern ideas. The laws of the sovereigns who have reigned at Bangkok form the most notable part of this branch of Siamese literature. They include a great number of revenue regulations, laws on civil matters such as mortgage, bankruptcy, rights of way, companies, &c., and laws governing- the procedure of courts, all of which adhere to Western principles in the main. The latest addition is the P^nal Code, a large and comprehensive work based upon the Indian, Japanese and French codes and issued in 1908. Poetry is a very ancient art in Siam and has always been held in high honour, some of the best-known poets being, indeed, members of the royal family. There are several quite distinct forms of metre, of which those most commonly used are the Klong, the Kap and the Klon. The Klong is rhythmic, the play being on the inflection of the voice in speaking the words, which inflection is arranged according to fixed schemes; the rhyme, if it can so be called, being sought not in the similarity of syllables but of intonation. The Kap is rhythmical and also has rhyming syllables. The lines contain an equal number of syllables, and are arranged in stanzas of four lines each. The last syllable of the first line rhymes with the third syllable of the second line, the last of the second with the last of the third and also with the first of the fourth line, and the last syllable of the fourth line rhymes with the last of the second line of the next succeeding stanza. The number of poems in one or other of these two metres is very great, and includes verses on almost every theme. In the Nirat poetry, a favourite form of verse, both are often used, a stanza in Klong serving as a sort of argument at the head of a set of verses in Kap. This Nirat poetry takes the form of narrative addressed by a traveller to his lady-love, of a journey in which every object and circumstance serves but to remind the wanderer of some virtue or beauty of his correspondent. In most of such works the journey is of course imaginary, but in some cases it is a true record of travelling or campaigning, and has been found to contain in- formation of value concerning the condition at certain times of out- lying parts of the kingdom. Of the little love songs in Klon metre, called Klon pet ton, there are many hundreds. These follow a prescribed form, and consist of eight lines divided into two stanzas of four lines each, every line containing eight syllables. The last syllable of the first line rhymes with the third syllable of the second, and the final of the second line with the final of the third. The songs treat of all the aspects of love. A fourth poetical metre is Chan, which, however, is not so much used as the others. The introduction of printing in the Siamese character has re- volutionized the literature of the country. Reading has become a general accomplishment, a demand for reading matter has arisen, and bookshops stocked with books have appeared to satisfy it. The historical works above referred to have been issued in many editions, and selections from the ancient fables and romances are continually- being edited and reissued in narrative form or as plays. The educational department has done good work in compiling volumes of prose and verse which have found much favour with the public. All the laws, edicts and regulations at present in force are to be had in print at popular prices. Printing, in fact, has supplied a great incentive to the development of literature, the output has increased enormously, and will doubtless, continue to do so for a long time to come. (W. A. G.) SlBAWAIHI [Abu Bishr, or Abu-1 Hasan' Amr ibn'Uthman ibn Qanbar, known as SIBAWAIHI or SIBUYA] (c. 753-793), Arabian grammarian, was by origin a Persian and a freedman. Of his early years nothing is known. At the age of thirty-two he went to Basra, where he was a pupil of the celebrated grammarian Khalll. Later he went to Bagdad, but soon left, owing to a dispute with the Kufan grammarian Kisa'i, and returned to Persia, where he died at the age of about forty. His great grammar of Arabic, known simply as The Book, is not only the earliest systematic presentation of Arabic grammar, but is recognized among Arabs as the most perfect. It is not always clear, but is very full and valuable for its many illustrations from the Koran and the poets. The Book was published by H. Derenbourg (2 vols., Paris, 1881- 1889), and a German translation, with extracts from the commentary of Sira.fi (d. 978) and others, was published by G. Jahn (Berlin, 189";- 1900). (G. W. T.) SIBBALD, SIR ROBERT (1641-1722), Scottish physician and antiquary, was born in Edinburgh on the isth of April 1641. Educated at Edinburgh, Leiden and Paris, he took his doctor's degree at Angers in 1662, and soon afterwards settled as a physician in Edinburgh. In 1667 with Sir Andrew Balfour he started the botanical garden in Edinburgh, and he took a leading part in establishing the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, of which he was elected president in 1684. In 1685 he was appointed the first professor of medicine in the university. He was also appointed geographer-royal in 1682, and his numerous and miscellaneous writings deal effectively with historical and antiquarian as well as botanical and medical subjects. He died in August 1722. Amongst Sibbald's historical and antiquarian works may be mentioned A History Ancient and Modern of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and Kinross (Edinburgh, 1710, and Cupar, 1803), An Account of the Scottish Atlas (folio, Edinburgh, 1683), Scotia tllustrata (Edinburgh, 1684) and Description of the Isles of Orkney and Shetland (folio, Edinburgh, 1711 and 1845). The Remains of Sir Robert Sibbald, containing his autobiography, memoirs of the Royal College of Physicians, portion of his literary correspondence and account of his manuscripts, was published at Edinburgh in 1833. SIBERIA. This name (Russ. Sibir) in the i6th century indicated the chief settlement of the Tatar khanKuchum — Isker on the Irtysh. Subsequently the name was extended to include the whole of the Russian dominions in Asia. Geographically, Siberia is now limited by the Ural Mountains on the VV., by the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans on the N. and E. respectively, and on the S. by a line running from the sources of the river Ural to the Tarbagatai range (thus separating the steppes of the Irtysh basin from those of the Aral and Balkash basins), thence along the Chinese frontier as far as the S.E. corner of Transbaikalia, and then along the rivers Argun, Amur and Usuri to the frontier of Korea. This wide area is naturally subdivided into West Siberia (basins of the Ob and the Irtysh) and East Siberia (the remainder of the region). The inhabited districts are well laid down on the best maps; but the immense areas between and beyond them are mapped only along a few routes hundreds of miles apart. The inter- nnrraphy mediate spaces are filled in according to information derived from various hunters. With regard to a great many rivers we know only the position of their mouths and their approximate lengths estimated by natives in terms of a day's march. Even the Name and extent. SIBERIA 1 1 hydrographical network is very imperfectly known, especially in the uninhabited hilly tracts.1 Like other plateaus, the great plateau of the centre of Asia, stretching from the Himalayas to Bering Strait,2 has on its surface a number of gentle eminences (angehaufte Gebirge of K. Ritter), which, although reaching great absolute altitudes, are relatively low.3 These heights for the most part follow a north-easterly direc- tion in Siberia. On the margins of the plateau there are several gaps or indentations, which can best be likened to gigantic trenches, like railway cuttings, as with an insensible gradient they climb to a higher level. These trenches have for successive geological periods been the drainage valleys of immense lakes (probably also of glaciers) which formerly extended over the plateau or fiords of the seas which surrounded it. And it is along these trenches that the principal commercial routes have been made for reaching the higher levels of the plateau itself. In the plateau there are in reality two terraces — a higher and a lower, both very well defined in Transbaikalia and in Mongolia. The Yablonoi range and its south-western continuation the Kentei are border-ridges of the upper terrace. Both rise very gently above it, but have steep slopes towards the lower terrace, which is occupied by the Nerchinsk steppes in Transbaikalia and by the great desert of Gobi in Mongolia (2000 to 2500 ft. above the sea). They rise 5000 to 7000 ft. above the sea; the peak of Sokhondo in Transbaikalia (m° E.) reaches nearly 8050 ft. Several low chains of mountains have their base on the lower terrace and run from south-west to north-east; they are known as the Nerchinsk Moun- tains in Transbaikalia, and their continuations reach the northern parts of the Gobi.4 The great plateau is fringed on the north-west by a series of lofty border-ranges, which have their southern base on the plateau and their northern at a much lower level. They may be traced from the Tian-shan to the Arctic Circle, and have an east-north-easterly direction in lower latitudes and a north-easterly direction farther north. The Alai range of the Pamir, continued by the Kokshaltau range and the Khan-tengri group of the Tian-shan, and the Sailughem range of the Altai, which is continued in the unnamed border-range of West Sayan (between the Bei-kem and the Us), belong to this category. There are, however, among these border-ranges several breaches of continuity — broad depressions or trenches leading from Lake Balkash and Lake Zaisan to the upper parts of the plateau. On the other hand, there are on the western outskirts of the plateau a few mountain chains which take a direction at right angles to the above (that is, from north-west to south-east), and parallel to the great line of upheavals in south-west Asia. The Tarbagatai Moun- tains, on the borders of Siberia, as well as several chains in Turkestan, are instances. The border-ridges of the Alai Mountains, the Khan- tengri group, the Sailughem range and the West Sayan contain the highest peaks of their respective regions. Beyond 102° E. the configuration is complicated by the great lateral indentation of Lake Baikal. But around and north-east of this lake the same well- marked ranges fringe the plateau and turn their steep north-western slope towards the valleys of the Irkut, the Barguzin, the Muya and the Chara, while their southern base lies on the plateaus of the Selenga (nearly 4000 ft. high) and the Vitim. The peaks of the Sailughem range reach 9000 to 11,000 ft. above the sea, those of West Sayan about 10,000. In East Sayan is Munku-Sardyk, a peak 11,450 ft. high, together with many others from 8000 to 9000 ft. Farther east, on the southern shore of Lake Baikal, Khamar-daban rises to 6900 ft., and the bald dome-shaped summits of the Barguzin and southern Muya Mountains attain elevations of 6000 to 7000 ft. above sea-level. The orography of the Aldan region is little known ; but travellers who journey from the Aldan (tributary of the Lena) to the Amur or to the Sea of Okhotsk have to cross the same plateau and its border-range. The former becomes narrower and barely attains an average altitude of 3200 ft. A typical feature of the north-eastern border of the high plateau is a succession of broad longitudinal 5 valleys along its outer base, 'The wide area between the middle Lena and the Amur, as well as the hilly tracts west of Lake Baikal, and the Yeniseisk mining region are in this condition. 2 The great plateau of North America, also turning its narrower point towards Bering Strait, naturally suggests the idea that there was a period in the history of our planet when the continents turned their narrow extremities towards the northern pole, as now they turn them towards the southern. 'See " General Sketch of the Orography of Siberia," with map and " Sketch of the Orography of Minusinsk, &c.," by Prince P. A. Kropotkin, in Mem. Russ. Geogr. Soc., General Geography (vol. v., I875)- 'The lower terrace is obviously continued in the Tarim basin of East Turkestan ; but in the present state of our knowledge we cannot determine whether the further continuations of the border- ridge of the higher terrace (Yablonoi, Kentei) must be looked for in the Great Altai or in some other range situated farther south. There may be also a breach of continuity in some depression towards Barkul. 'The word "longitudinal" is here used in an orographical , not a geological sense. These valleys are not synclinal foldings of rocks; they seem to be erosion-valleys. shut in on the outer side by rugged> mountains having a very steep slope towards them. Formerly filled with alpine lakes, these valleys are now sheeted with flat alluvial soil and occupied by human settlements, and are drained by rivers which flow along them before they make their way to the north through narrow gorges pierced in the mountain-walls. This conformation is seen in the valley of the Us in West Sayan, in that of the upper Oka and Irkut in East Sayan, in the valley of the Barguzin, the upper Tsipa, the Muya and the Chara, at the foot of the Vitim plateau, as also, probably, in the Aldan.6 The chains of mountains which border these valleys on the north-west contain the wildest parts of Siberia. They are named the Usinsk Mountains in West Sayan and the Tunka Alps in East Sayan; the latter, pierced by the Angara at Irkutsk, are in all probability continued north-east in the Baikal Mountains, which stretch from Irkutsk to Olkhon Island and the Svyatoi Nos peninsula of Lake Baikal, thus dividing the lake into two parts.7 An alpine region, too to 150 m. in breadth, fringes the plateau on the N. W., outside of the ranges just mentioned. This constitutes what is called in East Siberia the taiga: it consists of separate chains of mountains whose peaks rise 4800 to 6500 ft. above the sea, beyond the upper limits of forest vegetation; while the narrow valleys afford difficult means of communication, their floors being thickly strewn with boulders, or else swampy. The whole is clothed with impenetrable forest. The orography of this alpine region is very imperfectly known ; but the chains have a predominant direction from south-west to north-east. They are described under different names in Siberia — the Altai Mountains in West Siberia, the Kuznetskiy Ala-tau and the Us and Oya Mountains in West Sayan, the Nizhne-Udinsk taiga or gold-mine district, several chains pierced by the Oka river, the Kitoi Alps in East Sayan, the mountains of the upper Lena and Kirenga, the Olekminsk gold-mine district, and the unnamed mountains which project* north-east between the Lena and the Aldan. Outside of these alpine regions comes a broad belt of elevated plains, ranging between 1200 and 1700 ft. above the sea. These plains, which are entered by the great Siberian highway Elevated about Tomsk and extend south-west to the Altai Moun- oMna tains, are for the most part fertile, though sometimes dry, and are rapidly being covered with the villages of the Russian immigrants. About Kansk in East Siberia they penetrate in the form of a broad gulf south-eastwards as far as Irkutsk. Those on the upper Lena, having a somewhat greater altitude and being situated in higher latitudes, are almost wholly unfitted for agriculture. The north-western border of these elevated plains cannot be deter- mined with exactitude. In the region between Viluisk (on the Vilui) and Yenise_isk a broad belt of alpine tracts, reaching their greatest elevation in the northern Yeniseisk taiga (between the Upper Tunguzka and the Podkamennaya Tunguzka) and continued to the south-west in lower upheavals, separates the elevated plains from the lowlands which extend towards the Arctic Ocean. In West Siberia these high plains seem to form a narrower belt towards Barnaul and Semipalatinsk, and are bordered by the Aral-Caspian depression. Farther to the north-west, beyond these high plains, comes a broad belt of lowlands. This vast tract, which is only a few dozen feet above the sea, and most probably was covered by the p{orti,era sea during the Post-Pliocene period, stretches from the lowlaads Aral-Caspian depression to the lowlands of the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob, and thence towards the lower parts of the Yenisei and the Lena. Only a few detached mountain ranges, like the Byrranga on the Taymyr peninsula, the Syverma Mountains, the Verkhoyansk and the Kharaulakh (E. of the Lena) ranges, diversify these monotonous lowlands, which are covered with a thick sheet of black earth in the south and assume the character of barren tundras in the north. The south-eastern slope of the great plateau of Asia cannot properly be reckoned to Siberia, although parts of the province of Amur and the Maritime Province are situated on it; south- they have quite a different character, climate and vege- tation, and ought properly to be reckoned to the Man- churian region. To the east of the Yablonoi border-range lies the lower terrace of the high plateau, reaching 2000 to 2500 ft. in Transbaikalia and extending farther south-west through the Gobi to East Turkestan. The south-eastern edge of this lower terrace is fringed by a massive border-range — the Khingan — which runs in a north-easterly direction from the Great Wall of China to the sources of the Nonni-ula. A narrow alpine region (40 to 50 m.), consisting of a series of short secondary chains parallel to the border-range, fringes this latter on its eastern face. Two such folds maybe distinguished, correspond- ing on a smaller scale to 'the belt of alpine tracts which fringe the plateau on the north-west. The resemblance is further sustained by a broad belt of elevated plains, ranging from 1200 to 1700 ft., which "The upper Bukhtarma valley in the Sailughem range of the Altai system appears to belong to the same type. 'The deep fissure occupied by Lake Baikal, would thus appear to consist of two longitudinal valleys connected together by the passage between Olkhon and Svyatoi Nos. eastern slope of plateau. 12 SIBERIA accompany the eastern edge of the plateau. The eastern Gobi, the occasionally fertile and occasionally sandy plains between the Nonni and the Sungari, and the rich plains of the Bureya and Silinji in the Amur province belong to this belt, 400 m. in breadth, the surface of which is diversified by the low hills of Ilkhuri-alin, Khulun and Turana. These high plains are bordered on the south-east by a picturesque chain — the Bureya Mountains, which are to be identified with the Little Khingan. It extends, with unaltered character, from Mukden and Kirin to Ulban Bay in the Sea of Okhotsk (close by the Shantar Islands), its peaks clothed from top to bottom with luxuriant forest vegetation, ascending 4500 to 6000 ft. A lowland belt about 200 m. broad runs in the same direction along the outer margin of the above chain. The lower Amur occupies the northern part of this broad valley. These lowlands, dotted over with numberless marshes and lakes, seem to have emerged from the sea at a quite recent geological period; the rivers that meander across them are still excavating their valleys. Volcanic formations, so far as is known, occur chiefly along the north-western border-range of the great plateau. Ejections of y . basaltic lava have been observed on the southern slope ***' of this range, extending over wide areas on the plateau itself, over a stretch of more than 600 m. — namely, in East Sayan about Lake Kosso-gol and in the valley of the Tunka (river Irkut), in the vicinity of Selenginsk, and widely distributed on the Vitim plateau (rivers Vitim and Tsipa). Deposits of trap stretch for more than 1 200 m. along the Tunguzka; they appear also in the Noril Mountains on the Yenisei, whence they extend towards the Arctic Ocean. Basaltic lavas are reported to have been found in the Aldan region. On the Pacific slope extinct volcanoes (mentioned in Chinese annals) have been reported in the Ilkhuri-alin mountains in northern Manchuria. The mineral wealth of Siberia is considerable. Gold-dust is found in almost all the alpine regions fringing the great plateau. The ... . principal gold-mining regions in these tracts are the ' Altai, the upper (or Nizhne-Udinsk) and the lower (or Yeniseisk) taigas, and the Olekma region. Gold is found on the high plateau in the basin of the upper Vitim, on the lower plateau in the Nerchinsk district, and on the upper tributaries of the Amur (especially the Oldoi) and the Zeya, in the north-east continuation of the Nerchinsk Mountains. It has been discovered also in the Bureya range, and in its north-east continuation in the Amgun region. Auriferous sands, but not very rich, have been discovered in the feeders of Lake Hanka and the Suifong river, as also on the smaller islands of the Gulf of Peter the Great. Mining is the next most important industry after agriculture. In East Siberia gold is obtained almost exclusively from gravel-washings, quartz mining being confined to three localities, one near Vladivostok and two in Transbaikalia. In West Siberia, however, quartz-mining is steadily increasing in importance: whereas in 1900 the output of gold from this source was less than 10,000 oz., in 1904 it amounted to close upon 50,000 oz. On the other hand gravel-washing gives a declining yield in West Siberia, for while in 1900 the output from this source was approximately 172,000 oz., in 1904 it was only 81,000 oz. The districts of Maninsk and Achinsk are the most successful quartz-mining localities. Altogether West Siberia yields annually 130,000 oz. of gold. The gold-bearing gravels of East Siberia, especially those of the Lena and the Amur, are relatively more prolific than those of West Siberia. The total yield annually amounts to some 700,000 oz., the largest quantity coming from the Olekminsk district in the province of Yakutsk, and this district is followed by the Amur region, the Maritime province, and Nerchinsk and Trans- baikalia. Silver and lead ores exist in the Altai and the Nerchinsk Mountains, as well as copper, cinnabar and tin. Iron-ores are known at several places on the outskirts of the alpine tracts (as about Irkutsk), as well as in the Selenginsk region and in the Altai. The more important iron-works of the Urals are situated on the Siberian slope of the range. Coal occurs in many Jurassic fresh-water basins, namely, on the outskirts of the Altai, in south Yeniseisk, about Irkutsk, in the Nerchinsk district, at many places in the Maritime province, and on the island of Sakhalin. Beds of excellent graphite have been found in the Kitoi Alps (Mount Alibert) and in the Turukhansk district in Yenisei. Rock-salt occurs at several places on the Lena and in Transbaikalia, and salt-springs are numerous — those of Ust-kutsk on the Lena and of Usolie near Irkutsk being the most noteworthy. A large number of lakes, especially in Transbaikalia and in Tomsk, yield salt. Lastly, from the Altai region, as well as from the Nerchinsk Mountains, precious stones, such as jasper, malachite, beryl, dark quartz, and the like, are exported. The Ekaterinburg stone-polishing works in the Urals and those of Kolyvan in the Altai are well known. The orography sketched above explains the great development of the river-systems of Siberia and the uniformity of their course. Rivera ^e three principal rivers — the Ob, the Yenisei, and the _Lena — take their rise on the high plateau or in the alpine regions fringing it, and, after descending from the plateau and piercing the alpine regions, flow for many hundreds of miles across the high plains and lowlands before they reach the Arctic Ocean. The three rivers of north-eastern Siberia — the Yana, Indigirka and Kolyma — have the same general character, their courses being, however, much shorter, as in these latitudes the plateau approaches nearer to the Arctic Ocean. The Amur, the upper tributaries of which rise on the eastern border-range of the high plateau, is similar. The Shilka and the Argun, which form it, flow first towards the north-east along the windings of the lower terrace of the great plateau; from this the Amur descends, cutting through the Great Khingan and flowing down the terraces of the eastern versant towards the Pacific. A noteworthy feature of the principal Siberian rivers is that each is formed by the confluence of a pair of rivers. Examples are the Ob and the Irtysh, the Yenisei and the Angara (itself a double river formed by the Angara and the Lower Tunguzka), the Lena and the Vitim, the Argun and the Shilka, while the Amur in its turn receives a tributary as large as itself — the Sungari. Owing to this twinning and the general direction of their courses, the rivers of Siberia offer immense advantages for inland navigation, not only from north to south but also from west to east. It is this circumstance that facilitated the rapid invasion of Siberia Waier by the Russian Cossacks and hunters; they followed the co""aual- courses of the twin rivers in their advance towards the catioa' east, and discovered short portages which permitted them to transfer their boats from the system of the Ob to that of the Yenisei, and from the latter to that of the Lena, a tributary of which — the Aldan — brought them close to the Sea of Okhotsk. At the present day steamers ply from Tyumen, at the foot of the Urals, to Semipalatinsk on the border of the Kirghiz steppe and to Tomsk in the very heart of West Siberia. Uninterrupted water communication could readily be established from Tyumen to Yakutsk, Aldansk, and the gold- mines of the Vitim. Owing to the fact that the great plateau separates the Lena from the Amur, no easy water communication can be established between the latter and the other Siberian rivers. The tributaries of the Amur (the Shilka with its affluent the Ingoda) become navigable only on the lower terrace of the plateau. But the trench of the Uda, to the east of Lake Baikal, offers easy access for the Great Siberian railway up to and across the high plateau. Unfortunately all the rivers are frozen for many months every year. Even in lower latitudes (52° to 55° N.) they are ice-bound from the beginning of November to the beginning of May;1 while in 65° N. they are open only for 90 to 120 days, and only for 100 days (the Yenisei) or even 70 days (the Lena) in 70° N. During the winter the smaller tributaries freeze to the bottom, and about 1st January Lake Baikal becomes covered with a solid crust of ice capable of bearing files of loaded sledges. Numberless lakes occur in both East and West Siberia. There are wide areas on the plains of West Siberia and on the high plateau of East Siberia, which, virtually, are still passing through the Lacustrine period; but the total area now under water bears but a trifling proportion to the vast surface which the Jakes covered even at a very recent period, when Neolithic man inhabited Siberia. All the valleys and depressions bear traces of immense post-Pliocene lakes. Even within historical times and during the igth century the desiccation of the lakes has gone on at a very rapid rate.2 The principal lake is Lake Baikal, more than 400 m. long, and 20 to 50 broad. Another great lake, Lake Kosso- gol, on the Mongolian frontier, is 120 m. long and 50 broad. Vast numbers of small lakes stud the Vitim and upper Selenga plateaus ; the lower valley of the latter river contains the Goose Lake(Gusinoye). In the basin of the Amur are Lake Hanka (1700 sq. m.), connected with the Usuri; Lakes Kada and Kidzi, by which the lower Amur once flowed to the Pacific ; and very many smaller ones on the left side of the lower Amur. Numerous lakes and extensive marshes diversify the low plains of West Siberia ; the Baraba steppe is dotted with lakes and ponds — Lake Chany (1400 sq. m.) and the innumer- able smaller lakes which surround it being but relatively insignificant remains of the former lacustrine basins; while at the confluence of the Irtysh and the Ob impassable marshes stretch over many thousands of square miles. Several alpine lakes, of which the picturesque Teletskoye may be specially mentioned, occupy the deeper parts of the valleys of the Altai. The coast-line of Siberia is very extensive both on the Arctic Ocean and on the Pacific. The former ocean is ice-bound for at least ten months out of twelve; and, though Nordensk- jold and Captain Wiggins demonstrated (1874-1900) the possibility of navigation along its shores, it is exceedingly f ". . doubtful whether it can ever become a commercial route of any importance. The coast-line has few indentations, the chief being the double gulf of the Ob and the Taz, separated from the Sea of Kara by an elongated peninsula (Samoyede), and from the bay of the Yenisei by another. The immense peninsula of Taymyr — a barren tundra intersected by the wild Byrranga Hills-projects in Cape Chelyuskin as far north as 77° 46' N. The bay of the Yana, east of the delta of the Lena, is a wide indentation sheltered on the north by the islands of New Siberia. The bays of the Kolyma, the Chaun and Kolyuchin are of little importance. The New Siberia islands are occasionally visited by hunters, as is also the small group of the Bear Islands opposite the mouth of the Kolyma. Wrangel or Kellett Island is still quite unknown. Bering Strait, at 1 The Lena at Verkholensk is navigable for 170 days, at Yakutsk for 153 days: the Yenisei at Krasnoyarsk for 196 days. 2 See Yadrintsev, in Izvestia of the Russian Geogr. Soc. (1886, No. i, with maps). SIBERIA the north-east extremity of Siberia, and Bering Sea between the land of the Chukchis and Alaska, with the Gulf of Anadyr, are often visited by seal-hunters, and the Commander Islands off Kamchatka are valuable stations for this pursuit. The Sea of Okhotsk, separated from the Pacific by the Kurile Archipelago and from the Sea of Japan by the islands of Sakhalin and Yezo, is notorious as one of the worst seas of the world, owing to its dense fogs and its masses of floating ice. The Shantar Islands in the bay of the Uda possess geological interest. The double bay of Gizhiga and Penzhina, as well as that of Taui, would be useful as harbours were they not frozen seven or eight months in the year and persistently shrouded in dense fogs in summer. The northern part of the Sea of Japan, which washes the Usuri region, has, besides the smaller bays of Olga and Vladimir, the beautiful Gulf of Peter the Great, on which stands Vladivostok, the Russian naval station on the Pacific. Okhotsk and Ayan on the Sea of Okhotsk, Petropav- lovsk on the east shore of Kamchatka, Nikolayevsk, and Vladivo- stok on the Sea of Japan, and Dui on Sakhalin are the only ports of Siberia. Climate. — The climate is extremely severe, even in the southern parts. This arises chiefly from the orographical structure; the vast plateau of Central Asia prevents the moderating influence of the sea from being felt. The extensive lowlands which stretch over more than one half of the area, as well as the elevated plains, lie open to the Arctic Ocean. Although attaining altitudes of 6000 to 10,000 ft., the mountain peaks of East Siberia do not reach the snow-line, which is found only on the Munku-Sardyk in East Sayan, above 10,000 ft. Patches of perpetual snow occur in East Siberia only on the mountains of the far north. On the Altai Mountains the snow-line runs at about 7000 ft. The air, after being chilled on the plateaus during the winter, drifts, owing to its greater density, down upon the lowlands; hence in the region of the lower Lena there obtains an exceedingly low temperature throughout the winter, and Verkhoyansk, in 67°N., is the pole of cold of the eastern hemi- sphere. The average temperature of winter (December to February) at Yakutsk is -40-2° F., at Verkhoyansk -53-1°. At the polar meteorological station of Sagastyr, in the delta of the Lena (73° 23' N.), the following average temperatures have been observed: January -34-3° F. (February -43-6 ), July 40-8°, year 2-1°. The lowest average temperature of a day is —61-6° F. Nevertheless owing to the dryness of the climate, the unclouded sun fully warms the earth during the long summer days in those high latitudes, and gives a short period of warm and even hot weather in the immediate neighbourhood of the pole of cold. Frosts of -13° to -18° F. are not uncommon at Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk and Nerchinsk; even in the warmer southern regions of West Siberia and of the Amur the average winter temperature is 2-4° F. and -10-2° respectively; while at Yakutsk and Verkhoyansk the thermometer occasionally falls as low as -75° and -85° F. The minimum temperatures recorded at these two stations are -84° F. and -90° respectively; the minimum at Krasnoyarsk is -67° F., at Irkutsk -51", at Omsk -56°, and at Tobolsk -58" F. The soil freezes many feet deep over immense areas even in southern Siberia. More dreaded than the frosts are the terrible burans or snowstorms, which occur in early spring and destroy thousands of horses and cattle that have been grazing on the steppes throughout the winter. Although very heavy falls of snow take place in the alpine tracts— ^especially about Lake Baikal-^-on the other side, in the steppe regions of the Altai and Transbaikalia and in the neighbourhood of Krasnoyarsk, the amount of snow is so small that travellers use wheeled vehicles, and cattle are able to find food in the steppe. Spring sets in with remarkable rapidity and charm at the end of April; but in the second half of May come the " icy saints' days," so blighting that it is impossible to cultivate the apple or pear. After this short period of frost and snow summer comes in its full beauty; the days are very hot, and, although they are always followed by cold nights, vegetation advances at an astonishing rate. Corn sown about Yakutsk in the end of May is ripe in the end of August. Still, at many places night frosts set in as early as the second half of July. They become quite common in August and September. Nevertheless September is much warmer than May, and October than April, even in the most continental parts of Siberia. The isotherms are exceedingly interesting. That of 32" F. crosses the middle parts of West Siberia and the southern parts of East Siberia. The summer isotherm of 68° F., which in Europe passes through Cracow and Kaluga, traverses Omsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, whence it turns north to Yakutsk, and then south again to Vladivo- stok. Even the mouths of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena and Kolyma in 70° N. have in July an average temperature of 40° to 50°. Quite contrary is the course of the January isotherms. That of 14 F., which passes in Europe through Uleaborg in Finland only touches the southern part of West Siberia in the Altai Mountains. That of -4" F., which crosses Novaya Zemlya in Europe, passes through Tobolsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, and touches 45° N. at Urga in Mongolia, turning north in the Amur region and reaching the Pacific at Nikolayevsk. The isotherm of -22° F., which touches the north point of Novaya Zemlya, passes in Siberia through Turuk- hansk (at the confluence of the Lena and the Lower Tunguzka) and descends as low as 55" N. in Transbaikalia, whence it turns north to the Arctic Ocean. Most rain falls in summer, especially in July and August. During the summer an average of 8 in. falls on a zone that stretches from Moscow and St Petersburg through Perm to Tobolsk and, after a dry belt as far as Tomsk, continues in a narrower strip as far as the S. end of Lake Baikal, then it broadens out so as to include the whole of the Amur basin, the total summer precipitation there being about 12 in. North of this zone the rainfall decreases towards the Arctic. Flora. — The flora of Siberia presents very great local varieties, not only on account of the diversity of physical characteristics, but also in consequence of the intrusion of new species from the neighbouring regions, as widely different as the arctic littoral, the arid steppes of Central Asia, and the wet monsoon regions of the Pacific littoral. Siberia is situated for the most part in what Grisebach describes as the " forest region of the Eastern continent."1 The northern limit of this region, must, however, be drawn nearer to the Arctic Ocean. A strip 60 to 200 m. wide is totally devoid of tree vegetation. The last trees which struggle for existence on the verge of the tundras are crippled dwarfs and almost without branches, and trees a hundred years old are only a few feet high and a few inches through and thickly encrusted with lichens.2 The following species, none of which are found in European Russia, are characteristic of the tundras — arbutus (Arctostaphilus alpina), heaths or andomedas (Cassiope tetragona and C. hypnoides), Phyllodoce taxifolia, Loiseleuria pro- cumbens, a species of Latifolium, a Polar azalea (Osmothamnus fragrans) and a Polar willow (Salix arctica). In Yakutsk the tundra vegetation consists principally of mosses of the genera Polytrichum, Bryum and Hypnum. Some two hundred species of flowering plants struggle for a precarious existence in the tundra region, the frozen ground and the want of humus militating against them more than the want of warmth.3 From this northern limit to the Aral-Caspian and Mongolian steppes stretches all over Siberia the forest region; the forests are, however, very unequally distributed, covering from 50 to 99 % of the area in different districts. In the hill tracts and the marshy depression of the Ob they are unbroken, except by the bald summits of the loftier mountains (goltsy) ; they have the aspect of agreeable bosquets in the Baraba steppe, and they are thinly scattered through south-eastern Transbaikalia, where the dryness of the Gobi steppe makes its influence appreciably felt. Immense marshy plains covered with the dwarf birch take their place in the north as the tundras are approached. Over this immense area the trees are for the most part the same as we are familiar with in Europe. The larch becomes predominant chiefly in two new species (Larix sibirica and L. dahurica). The fir appears in the Siberian varieties Picea obovata and P. ayanensis. The silver fir (Abies sibirica, Pinus pectinata) and the stone-pine (P. Cembra) are quite common; they reach the higher summits, where the last-named is represented by a recumbent species (Cembra pumila). The birch in the loftier alpine tracts and plateaus becomes a shrub (Betula nana, B. fruticosa), and in Transbaikalia assumes a new and very elegant aspect with a dark bark (B. daurica). In the deeper valleys and on the lowlands of West Siberia the larches, pines and silver firs, inter- mingled with birches and aspens, attain a great size, and the streams are fringed with thickets of poplar and willow. The alpine rose (Rhododendron dauricum) clusters in masses on the higher mountains ; juniper, spiraea, sorbus, the pseudo-acacia (Caragana sibirica and C. arborescens, C. jubata in some of the higher tracts), various Rosaceae — Potentilla fruticosa and Cotoneaster wniflora — the wild cherry (Prunus Padus), and many other shrubs occupy the spaces between the trees. Berry-yielding plants are found everywhere, even on the goltsy, at the upper limit of tree vegetation ; on the lower grounds they are an article of diet. The red whortleberry or cow- berry (Vaccinium Vitis idaea), the bog whortleberry (V. uliginosum, the bilberry (V. myrtillus) and the arctic bramble (Rubus arcticus) extend very far northward ; raspberries and red and black currants form a luxuriant undergrowth in the forests, together with Ribes dikusha in East Siberia. The oak, elm, hazel, ash, apple, lime and maple disappear to the east of the Urals, but reappear in new varieties on the eastern slope of the border-ridge of the great plateau.4 There we encounter the oak (Q. mongolica), maple (Acerginala, Max.), ash (Fraxinus manchurica), elm (Ulmus montana), hazel (Corylus hetero- phylla) and several other European acquaintances. Farther east, in the Amur region, a great number of new species of European 1 According to A. Engler's Versuch einer Entwickelungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt (Leipzig, 1879—1882), we should have in Siberia (a) the arctic region; (b) the sub-arctic or coniferous region — north Siberian province ; (c) the Central-Asian domain — Altai and Daurian mountainous regions; and (d) the east Chinese, intruding into the basin of the Amur. 2 See Middendorff's observations on vegetable and animal life in the tundras, attractively told in vol. iv. of his Sibirische Reise. 3 Kjellmann, Vega Expeditionens Vetenskapliga lakttagelser (Stock- holm, 1872-1887) reckons their number at 182; 124 species were found by Middendorff on the Taymyr peninsula, 219 along the borders of the forest region of Olenek, and 344 species within the forest region of the same; 470 species were collected by Maack in the Vilui region. 4 Nowhere, perhaps, is the change better seen than on crossing the Great Khingan. SIBERIA trees, and even new genera, such as the cork-tree (Phellodendron amurense, walnut (Jugtans manchurica), acacia (Maackia amurensis), the graceful climber Maximowiczia amurensis, the Japanese Trocho- stigma and many others — all unknown to Siberia proper — are met with. On the high plateau the larch predominates over all other species of conifers or deciduous trees; the wide, open valleys are thickly planted with Betula nana and B. fruticosa in the north and with thick grasses (poor in species) in the southern and drier parts. The Siberian larch predominates also in the alpine tracts fringing the plateau on the north, intermingled with the fir, stone-pine, aspen and birch. In the drier parts the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris) makes its appearance. In the alpine tracts of the north the narrowness of the valleys and the steep stony slopes strewn with debris, on which only lichens and mosses are able to grow, make every plot of green grass (even if it be only of Carex) valuable. For days consecutively the horse of the explorer can get no other food than the dwarf birch. But even in these districts the botanist and the geographer can easily distinguish between the chern or thick forest of the Altai and the taiga of East Siberia. The lower plateau exhibits, of course, new characteristics. Its open spaces are lovely prairies, on which the Daurian flora flourishes in full beauty. In spring the traveller crosses a sea of grass above which the flowers of the paeony, aconite, Orobtis, Carallia, Saussurea and the like wave 4 or 5 ft. high. As the Gobi desert is approached the forests disappear, the ground becomes covered chiefly with dry Gramineae, ana Salsolaceae make their appearance. The high plains of the west slope of the plateau are also rich prairies diversified with woods. Nearly all the species of plants which grow on these prairies are common to Europe (paeonies, HemerocaUis, asters, pinks, gentians, violets, Cypripedium, Aquilegia, Delphinium, aconites, irises and so on) ; but here the plants attain a much greater size; a man standing erect is often hidden by the grasses. The flora of Minusinsk — the Italy of Siberia — is well known ; the prairies on the Ishim and of the Baraba steppe are adorned with the same rich vegetation, so graphically described by Middendorff and O. Finsch. Farther north we come to the urmans of West Siberia, dense thickets of trees often rising from a treacherous carpet of thickly interlaced grasses, which conceals deep marshes, where even the bear has learnt to tread circumspectly. Fauna. — The fauna of Siberia is closely akin to that of central Europe; and the Ural Mountains, although the habitat of a few species which warrant the naturalist in regarding the southern Urals as a separate region, are not so important a boundary zoologically as they are botanically. As in European Russia, so in Siberia, three principal zones — the arctic, the boreal and the middle — may be distinguished, and these may be subdivided into several sub-regions. The Amur region shares the characteristics of the north Chinese fauna. On the whole, we may say that the arctic and boreal faunas of Europe extend over Siberia, with a few additional species in the Ural and Baraba region— a number of new species also appearing in East Siberia, some spreading along the high plateau and others along the lower plateau from the steppes of the Gobi. The arctic fauna is very poor. According to Nordenskjold * it numbers only twenty-nine species of mammals, of which seven are marine and seventeen or eighteen may be safely considered as living beyond the forest limit. Of these, again, four are characteristic of the land of the Chukchis. The reindeer, arctic fox (Cants lagopus), hare, wolf, lemming (Myodes obensis), collar lemming (Cuniculus torquatus) and two species of voles (Anricolae) are the most common on land. The avifauna is very rich in migratory water and marsh fowl (Grattatores and Nalalores), which come to breed in the coast region; but only five land birds — the ptarmigan (Lagopus alpinus), snow-bunting, Iceland falcon, snow-owl and Vaven — are permanent inhabitants of the region. The boreal fauna is, of course, much more abundant; but here also the great bulk of the species, both mammals and birds, are common to Europe and Asia. The bear, badger, wolverine, pole- cat, ermine, common weasel, otter, wolf, fox, lynx, mole, hedgehog, common shrew, water-shrew and lesser shrew (Sorex vulgaris, S. fodiens and S. pygmaeus), two bats (the long-eared and the boreal), three species of Vespertilio (V. daubentoni, V. natlereri and V. mysta- cinus), the flying and the common squirrel (Tamias striatus), the brown, common, field and harvest mouse (Mus decumanus, M. musculus, M. sylvaticus, M. agrarius and M. minutus), four voles (Arvicola amphibius, A. rufocanus, A. rutilus and A. schistocolor) , the beaver, variable hare, wild boar, roebuck, stag, reindeer, elk and Phoca annelata of Lake Baikal — all these are common alike to Europe and to Siberia ; while the bear, musk-deer (Moschus moschi- ferus), ermine, sable, pouched marmot or souslik (Spermophilus eversmani), Arvicola obscurus and Lagomys hyperboraeus, distributed over Siberia, may be considered as belonging to the arctic fauna. In addition to the above we find in East Siberia Mustela alpina, Canis alpinus, the sable antelope (Aegocerus sibiricus), several species of mouse (Mus gregatus, M. oeconomus and M. saxatilus), two voles (Arvicola russatus and A. macrotus), Syphneus aspalax and the alpine Lagomys from the Central Asian plateaus; while the tiger makes incursions not only into the Amur region but occasionally as far as Lake Baikal. On the lower terrace of the great plateau we find an In Vega Exped. Vetensk. lakttagelser., vol. ii. admixture of Mongolian species, such as Canis corsac, Felis manul, Spermophilus dauricus, the jerboa (Dipus jaculus), two hamsters (Cricetus songarus and C. furunculus), three new voles (Aruicolae), the Tolai hare, Ogotona hare (Lagomys ogotona), Aegocerus argali, Antilope gutturosa and Equus hemionus (jighitai). Of birds no less than 285 species have been observed in Siberia, but of these forty-five only are absent from Europe. In south-east Siberia there are forty- three new species belonging to the north Manchurian or Amur fauna ; and in south-east Transbaikalia, on the borders of the Gobi steppe, only 103 species were found by G. F. R. Radde, among which the most numerous are migratory birds and the birds of prey which pursue them. The rivers and lakes of Siberia abound in fish; but little is known of their relations with the species of neighbouring regions.2 The insect fauna is very similar to that of Russia; but a few genera, as the Tentyria, do not penetrate into the steppe region of West Siberia, while the tropical Colasposoma, Popilia and Languria are found only in south-eastern Transbaikalia, or are confined to the southern Amur. On the other hand, several American genera (Cephalaon, Opnryastes) extend into the north-eastern parts of Siberia.8 As in all uncultivated countries, the forests and prairies of Siberia become almost uninhabitable in summer because of the mosquitoes. East Siberia suffers less from this plague than the marshy Baraba steppe ; but on the Amur and the Sungari large gnats are an intolerable plague. The dredgings of the " Vega " expedition in the Arctic Ocean disclosed an unexpected wealth of marine fauna, and those of L. Schrenck in the north of the Japanese Sea led to the discovery of no fewer than 256 species (Gasteropods, Brachiopods and Conchifers). Even in Lake Baikal Dybowski and Gpdlewski discovered no fewer than ninety-three species of Gammarides and twenty-five of Gasteropods.4 The Sea of Okhotsk is very interesting, owing to its local species and the general composition of its fauna (70 species of Molluscs and 21 of Gasteropods). The land Molluscs, notwithstanding the unfavourable conditions of climate, number about seventy species — Siberia in this respect being not far behind north Europe. The increase of many animals in size (becoming twice as large as in Europe) ; the appearance of white varieties among both mammals and birds, and their great prevalence among domesticated animals (Yakut horses) ; the migrations of birds and mammals over immense regions, from the Central Asian steppes to the arctic coast, not only in the usual rotation of the seasons but also as a result of occasional climacteric conditions are not yet fully understood (e.g. the migration of thousands and thousands of roe- buck from Manchuria across the Amur to the left bank of the river, or the migration of reindeer related by Baron F. von Wrangel) ; the various coloration of many animals according to the composition of the forests they inhabit (the sable and the squirrel are well-known instances) ; the intermingling northern and southern faunas in the Amur region and the remarkable consequences of that intermixture in the struggle for existence; — all these render the study of the Siberian fauna most interesting. Finally, the laws of distribution of animals over Siberia cannot be made out until the changes under- gone by its surface during the Glacial and Lacustrine periods are well established and the Post-Tertiary fauna is better known. The remarkable finds of Quaternary mammals about Omsk and their importance for the history of the Equidae are merely a slight indi- cation of what may be expected in this field. Population. — In 1906 the estimated population was 6,740,600. In 1897 the distribution was as follows. Geographically, though not administratively, the steppe provinces of Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk belong to Siberia. They are described under STEPPES. Governments and Provinces. Area in sq. m. Population in 1897. Density per sq. m. . Tobolsk Tomsk. Irkutsk f Yeniseisk . (general- -i Irkutsk government) t Yakutsk (Transbaikalia Amur . Maritime Sakhalin . 535,739 327,173 981,607 280,429 1,530,253 229,520 172,826 712,585 14,700 1,444,470 1,947,021 572,847 515,132 271,830 676,407 119,909 209,516 27,250 2-7 5'i 0-6 1-8 0-2 3-o 0-6 0-7 1-9 4,784,832 5,784.382 Av. 1-2 2 Czekanowski (Izvestia Sib. Geog. Soc., 1877) has described fifty species from the basin of the Amur ; he considers that these constitute only two-thirds of the species inhabiting that basin. s See L. Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amurlande (1858- 1891). 4 See Mem. de I'academie des sciences de St-Petersbourg, vol. xxii. (1876). SIBERIA Of the total in 1897, 81-4% were Russians, 8-3% Turko-Tatars, 5 % Mongols and 0-6 % " indigenous " races, i.e. Chukchis, Koryaks, Ghilyaks, Kamchadales and others. Only 8% of the Kussiaas. totaj are c[asse(j as urban. The great bulk of the popula- tion are Russians, whose number increased with great rapidity during the igth century; although not exceeding 150,00x3 in 1709 and 500,000 a century later, they numbered nearly 6,500,000 in 1904. Between 1870 and 1890 over half a million free immigrants entered Siberia from Russia, and of these 80 % settled in the govern- ment of Tobolsk; and between 1890 and 1905 it is estimated that something like a million and a half free immigrants entered the country. These people came for the most part from the northern parts of the black earth zone of middle Russia, and to a smaller extent from the Lithuanian governments and the Ural governments of Perm and Vyatka. The Russians, issuing from the middle Urals, have travelled as a broad stream through south Siberia, sending branches to the Altai, to the Hi river in Turkestan and to Minusinsk, as well as down the chief rivers which flow to the Arctic Ocean, the banks of which are studded with villages 15 to 20 m. apart. As Lake Baikal is approached the stream of Russian immigration becomes narrower, being confined mostly to the valley of the Angara, with a string of villages up the Irkut; but it widens out again in Transbaikalia, and sends branches up the Selenga and its tributaries. It follows the course of the Amur, again in a succession of villages some 20 m. apart, and can be traced up the Usuri to Lake Khangka and Vladivostok, with a string of villages on the plains between the Zeya and the Silinji. Small Russian settlements are planted on a few bays of the North Pacific and the Sea of Okhotsk, as well as on Sakhalin. Colonization. — Siberia has been colonized in two different ways. On the one hand, the government sent parties (l) of Cossacks to settle on the frontiers, (2) of peasants who were bound to settle at appointed places and maintain communication along the routes, (3) of stryeltsy (i.e. Moscow imperial guards) to garrison forts, (4) of yamshiks — a special organization of Old Russia entrusted with the maintenance of horses for postal communication, and finally (5) of convicts. A good deal of the Amur region was peopled in this way. Serfs in the imperial mines were liberated and organized in Cossack regiments (the Transbaikal Cossacks) ; some of these were settled on the Amur, forming the Amur and Usuri Cossacks. Other parts of the river were colonized by peasants who emigrated with govern- ment aid, and were bound to settle in villages, along the Amur, at spots designated by officials. As a rule, this kind of colonization has not produced the results that were expected. On the other hand, free colonization has been more successful and has been undertaken on a much larger scale. Soon after the first appearance (1580) of the Cossacks of Yermak in Siberia thousands of hunters, attracted by the furs, immigrated from north Russia, explored the country, traced the first footpaths and erected the first houses in the wilder- ness. Later on serfdom, religious persecutions and conscription were the chief causes which led the peasants to make their escape to Siberia and build their villages in the most inaccessible forests, on the prairies and even on Chinese territory. But the severe measures adopted by the government against such " runaways " were power- less to prevent their immigration into Siberia. While governmental colonization studded Siberia with forts, free colonization filled up the intermediate spaces. Since the emancipation of the serfs in 1 86 1, it has been steadily increasing, the Russian peasants of a village often emigrating en bloc.1 Siberia was for many years a penal colony. Exile to Siberia began in the first years of its discovery, and as early as 1658 we read of the Exiles Nonconformist priest Awakum 2 following in chains the ex- ploring party of Pashkov on the Amur. Raskolniks or Non- conformists in the second half of the 1 7th century, rebel stryeltsy under Peter the Great, courtiers of rank during the reigns of the empresses, Polish confederates under Catherine II., the " Decembrists " under Nicholas I., nearly 50,000 Poles after the insurrection of 1863, and later on whole generations of socialists were sent to Siberia; while the number of common-law convicts and exiles transported thither increased steadily from the end of the 1 8th century. No exact statistics of Siberian exile were kept before 1823. But it is known that in the first years of the igth century nearly 2000 persons were transported every year to Siberia. This figure reached an average of 18,250 in 1873-1877, and from about 1880 until the discontinuance of the system in 1900 an average of 20,000 persons were annually exiled to Siberia. After liberation the hard-labour convicts are settled in villages; but nearly all are in a wretched condition, and more than one-third have disappeared without being accounted for. Nearly 20,000 men (40,000 according to other estimates) are Jiving in Siberia the life of brodyagi (runaways or outlaws), trying to make their way through the forests to their native provinces in Russia. Asiatic Races. — The Ural- Altaians consist principally of Turko- Tatars, Mongols, Tunguses, Finnish tribes and Samoyedes. The Samoyedes, who are confined to the province of Tobolsk, Tomsk 1 See Yadrintsev, Siberia as a Colony (in Russian, 2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1892). 2 The autobiography of the protopope Avvakum is one of the most popular books with Russian Nonconformists. and Yeniseisk, do not exceed 12,000 in all. The Finns consist principally of Mordvinians (18,500), Ostiaks (20,000) and Voguls (5000). Survivals of Turkish blood, once much more numerous, are scattered all over south Siberia as far as Lake Baikal. Their territories are being rapidly occupied by Russians, and their settle- ments are cut in two by the Russian stream— the Baraba Tatars and the Yakuts being to the north of it, and the others having been driven back to the hilly tracts of the Altai and Sayan Mountains. In all they number nearly a quarter of a million. The Turkish stock of the Yakuts in the basin of the Lena numbers 227,400. Most of these Turkish tribes live by pastoral pursuits and some by agriculture, and are a most laborious and honest population. The Mongols (less than 300,000) extend into West Siberia from the high plateau — nearly 20,000 Kalmucks living in the eastern Altai. In East Siberia the Buriats occupy the Selenga and the Uda, parts of Nerchinsk, and the steppes between Irkutsk and the upper Lena, as also the Baikal Mountains and the island of Orknon; they support themselves chiefly by live-stock breeding, but some, especially in Irkutsk, are agriculturists. On the left of the Amur there are some 60,000 Chinese and Manchurians about the mouth of the Zeya, and 26,000 Koreans on the Pacific coast. The Tunguses (nearly 70,000) occupy as their hunting-grounds an immense region on the high plateau and its slopes to the Amur, but their limits are yearly becoming more and more circumscribed both by Russian gold-diggers and by Yakut settlers. In the Maritime Province, before the Boxer uprising of 1900, 26% of the population in the N. Usuri district and 36 % in the S. Usuri district were Koreans and Chinese, and in the Amur province there were nearly 15,000 Manchus and Koreans. Jews number 32,650 and some 5000 gipsies wander about Siberia. At first the indigenous populations were pitilessly deprived of their hunting and grazing grounds and compelled to resort to agriculture — a modification exceedingly hard for them, not only on account of their poverty but also because they were compelled to settle in the less favourable regions. European civilization made them familiar with all its worst sides and with none of its best. Taxed with a tribute in furs from the earliest years of the Russian conquest, they often revolted in the 1 7th century, but were cruelly reduced to obedience. In 1824 the settled indigenes had to pay the very heavy rate of n roubles (about £ij per head, and the arrears, which soon became equal to the sums levied, were rigorously exacted. On the other hand the severe measures taken by the government prevented the growth of anything like legalized slavery on Siberian soil ; but the people, ruined as they were both by the intrusion of agricultural colonists and by the exactions of government officials, fell into what was practically a kind of slavery to the merchants. Even the best-intentioned government measures, such as the importation of corn, the prohibition of the sale of spirits, and so on, became new sources of oppression. The action of mission- aries, who cared only about nominal Christianizing, had no better effect. Social Features. — In West Siberia there exist compact masses of Russians who have lost little of their primitive ethnographical features: but the case is otherwise on the outskirts. M. A. Castren characterized Obdorsk (mouth of the Ob) as a true Samoyedic town, although peopled with " Russians." The Cossacks of West Siberia have the features and customs and many of the manners of life of the Kalmucks and Kirghiz. Yakutsk is thoroughly Yakutic; marriages of Russians with Yakut wives are common, and in the middle of the igth century the Yakut language was predominant among the Russian merchants and officials. At Irkutsk and in the valley of the Irkut the admixture of Tungus and Burial blood is obvious, and still more in the Nerchinsk district and among the Transbaikal Cossacks settled on the Argun. They speak the Burial language as often as Russian, and in a Buriat dress can hardly be distinguished from ihe Buriats. In different parts of Siberia, on Ihe borders of ihe hilly tracts, intermarriage of Russians with Tatars was quite common. Of course it is now rapidly growing less, and the settlers who entered Siberia in the igth century married Russian wives and remained thoroughly Russian. There are accordingly parts of Siberia, especially among the Raskolniks or Nonconformists, where the north Russian, the Great Russian and the Ukrainian (or soulhern) lypes have maintained themselves in their full purity, and only some differences in domestic architecture, in the disposition of Iheir villages and in ihe language and character of the population remind the Iraveller lhat he is in Siberia. The special features of the language and partly also of the nalional character are due to the earliest settlers, who came mostly from northern Russia. The natural rate of increase of population is very slow as a rule, and does not exceed 7 or 8 per 1000 annually. The great mortality, especially among the children, is one of the causes of this, the birth- rate being also lower lhan in Russia. The climate of Siberia, how- ever, cannot be called unhealthy, except in certain localities where goitre is common, as it is on the Lena, in several valleys of Nerchinsk and in the Altai Mountains. The rapid growth of the actual popula- lion is chiefly due lo immigration. Towns. — Only 8-1 % of the population live in towns (6-4% only in the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk). There are seventeen towns with a population of 10,000 or more, namely, Tomsk (63,533 i6 SIBERIA in 1900) and Irkutsk (49,106) — the capitals of West and East Siberia respectively; Blagpvyeshchensk (37,368), Vladivostok (38,000). Tyumen (29,651) in West Siberia, head of Siberian navigation; Barnaul (29,850), capital of the Altai region; Krasnoyarsk (33,337) and Tobolsk (21,401), both mere administrative centres; Biysk (17,206), centre of the Altai trade; Khabarovsk (15,082), adminis- trative centre of the Amur region; Chita (11,480), the capital of Transbaikalia; Nikolsk (22,000); Irbit (20,064); Kolyvan (11,703). the centre of the trade of southern Tomsk; Yeniseisk (11,539), the centre of the gold-mining region of the same name; Kurgan (10,579), a growing town in Tobolsk; and Minusinsk (10,255), i° the southern part of the Yeniseisk province, trading with north-west Mongolia. Education. — Education stands at a very low level. The chief town of every province is provided witW a classical gymnasium for boys and a gymnasium or progymnasium for girls; but the education there received is not of a high grade, and the desire of the local population for " real schools ' is not satisfied. Primary education is in a very unsatisfactory state, and primary schools very scarce. The petitions for a university at Irkutsk, the money required for which has been freely offered to the government, have been refused, and the imperative demands of the local tradesmen for technical instruction have likewise met with little response. The Tomsk University remains incomplete, and has only 560 students. There are nevertheless eighteen scientific societies in Siberia, which issue publications of great value. Twelve natural history and ethnological museums have been established by the exiles — the Minusinsk museum being the best. There are also twenty public libraries. Agriculture. — Agriculture is the chief occupation both of the settled Russians and of the native population. South Siberia has a very fertile soil and yields heavy crops, but immense tracts of the country are utterly unfit for tillage. Altogether it is estimated that not more than 500,000 sq. m. are suitable for cultivation. The aggregate is thus distributed — 192,000 sq. m. in West Siberia, 20,000 in Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk, 100,000 in East Siberia, 85,000 in Transbaikalia, 40,000 in Amur, and 63,000 in Usuri. In the low- lands of West Siberia cultivation is carried on up to 61 ° N.1 On the high plains fringing the alpine tracts on the north-west it can be carried on only in the south, farther north only in the valleys, reaching 62° N. in that of the Lena, and in the alpine tracts in only a few valleys, as that of the Irkut. On the high plateau all attempts to grow cereals have failed, the wide trenches alone (Uda, Selenga, Jida) offering encouragement to the agriculturist. On the lower plateau, in Transbaikalia, grain is successfully raised in the Ner- chinsk region, with serious risks, however, from early frosts in the valleys. South-east Transbaikalia suffers from want of water, and the Buriats have to irrigate their fields. Although agriculture is carried on on the upper Amur, where land has been cleared from virgin forests, it really prospers only below Kumara and on the fertile plains of the Zeya and Silinji. In the depression between the Bureya range and the coast ranges it suffers greatly from the heavy July and August rains, and from inundations, while on the lower Amur the agriculturists barely maintain themselves by growing cereals in clearances on the slopes of the hills, so that the settlements on the lower Amur and Usuri continually require help from govern- ment to save them from famine. The chief grain-producing regions of Siberia are — the Tobol and Ishim region, -the Baraba, the region about Tomsk and the outskirts of the Altai. The Minusinsk district, one of the richest in Siberia (45,000 inhabitants, of whom 24,000 are nomadic), has more than 45,000 acres under crops. Mining, the second industry in point of importance, is dealt with above. Land Tenure. — Out of the total area of over 3,000,000,000 acres of land in Siberia, close upon 96 % belong to the state, while the cabinet of the reigning emperor owns 114,700,000 acres (112,300,000 in the Altai and 2,400,000 in Nerchinsk) or nearly 4%. Private property is insignificant in extent — purchase of land being permitted only in the Amur region. (In West Siberia it was only temporarily per- mitted in 1860-1868.) Siberia thus offers an example of the nationali- zation of land unparalleled throughout the world. Any purchase of land within a zone 67 m. wide on each side of the trans-Siberian railway was absolutely prohibited in 1895, and the extent of crown lands sold to a single person or group of persons never exceeds 1080 acres unless an especially usefuj industrial enterprise is projected, and in that case the maximum is fixed at 2700 acres. The land is held by the Russian village communities in virtue of the right of occupation. Industrial surveys, having for their object the granting of land to the peasants to the extent of 40 acres per each male head, with 8 additional acres of wood and 8 acres as a reserve,- were started many years ago, and after being stopped in 1887 were commenced again in 1898. At the present time the land allotments per male head vary greatly, even in the relatively populous region of southern Siberia. In the case of the peasants the allotments vary on an average from 32 to 102 acres (in some cases from 21-6 to 240 acres); the Transbaikal Cossacks have about in acres per male head, and the indigenous population 108 to 154 acres. 1 The northern limits of agriculture are 60° N. on the Urals, 62° at Yakutsk, 61° at Aldansk, 54° 30' at Udskoi, and 53° to 54^° in the interior of Kamchatka (Middendorff, Sibirische Reise, vol. iv.). The'total cultivated area and the average area under crops every year have been estimated by A. Kaufmann as follows2: — Under Crops (Acres). Province or Government. Area cultivated, Acres. Total. Average per House- hold. Average per 100 Inhabit- ants. Tobolsk 5,670,000 3,270,000 13-2 243 Tomsk . 8,647,000 5,259,000 15-7 310 Yeniseisk 1,830,000 977,000 13-0 267 Irkutsk 1,800,000 910,000 13-2 265 Transbaikalia . 1,415,000 872,000 9-4 '59 Yakutsk 81,000 43,000 0-8 16 Amur (Russians) 143,000 143,000 19-4 275 South Usuri (peasants only) 151,000 151,000 24-0 375 19,737,000 11,625,000 Live stock. Bee- keeping, These figures are somewhat under-estimated, but the official figures are still lower, especially for Tomsk. Tillage is conducted on very primitive methods. After four to twelve years' cultivation the land is allowed to lie fallow for ten years or more. In the Baraba district it is the practice to sow four different grain crops in five to seven years and then to let the land rest ten to twenty-five years. The yield from the principal crops fluctuates greatly; indeed in a very good year it is almost three times that in a very bad one. The southern parts of Tobolsk, nearly all the government of Tomsk (exclusive of the Narym region), southern Yeniseisk and southern Irkutsk, have in an average year a surplus of grain varying from 35 to 40% of the total crop, but in bad years the crop falls short of the actual needs of the population. There is considerable move- ment of grain in Siberia 'tself, the populations of vast portions of the territory, especially of the mining regions, having to rely upon imported corn. The forest area under supervision is about 30,000,000 acres (in Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk and Irkutsk), out of a total area of forest land of 63,000,000 acres. As an independent pursuit, live-stock breeding is carried on by the Russians in eastern Transbaikalia, by the Yakuts in the province of Yakutsk, and by the Buriats in Irkutsk and Trans- baikalia, but elsewhere it is secondary to agriculture. Both cattle-breeding and sheep-grazing are more profit- able than dairying; but the Kirghiz herds are not well tended, being left to graze on the steppes all the year, where they perish from wild animals and the cold. The live stock includes some 180,000 camels. Bee-keeping is widelycarried on, especially in Tomsk and the Altai. Honey is exported to Russia. The seeds of the stone-pine are collected for oil in West Siberia. Hunting. — Hunting is a profitable occupation, the male population of whole villages in the hilly and woody tracts setting out in October for a month's hunting. The sable, however, which formerly con- stituted the wealth of Siberia, is now exceedingly scarce. Squirrels, bears, foxes, arctic foxes, antelopes and especially deer in spring are the principal objects of the chase. The forests on the Amur yielded a rich return of furs during the first years of the Russian occupation, and the Amur sable, although much inferior to the Yakutsk and Transbaikalian, was largely exported.- Fishing. — Fishing is a valuable source of income on the lower courses of the great rivers, especially the Ob. The fisheries on Lake Baikal supply cheap food (the omul) to the poorer classes of Irkutsk and Transbaikalia. The native populations of the Amur — Golds and Gilyaks — support themselves chiefly by fishing, when the salmon enters the Amur and its tributaries in dense masses. Fish (e.g. the heta, salmon and sturgeon) are a staple article of diet in the north. Manufactures. — Though Siberia has within itself all the raw produce necessary for prosperous industries, it continues to import from Russia all the manufactured articles it uses. Owing to the distances over which they are carried and the bad organization of trade, all manufactured articles are exceedingly dear, especially in the east. The manufactories of Siberia employ less than 25,000 workmen, and of these some 46% are employed in West Siberia. Nearly one-third of the total value of the output represents wine- spirit, 23% tanneries, 18% tallow-melting and a considerable sum cigarette-making. It is estimated that about one-half of the Russian agricultural population supplement their income by engaging in non-agricultural pursuits, but not more than 18 to 22% carry on domestic trades, the others finding occupation in the carrying trade — which is still important, even since the construction of the railway — in hunting (chiefly squirrel-hunting) and in work in the mines. Domestic and petty trades are therefore developed only round Tyumen, Tomsk and Irkutsk. The principal of these trades are the weaving of carpets — about Tyumen; the making of wire sieves; the painting of ikons or sacred images; the making of wooden vessels and of the necessaries for the carrying trade about Tomsk (sledges, wheels, &c). ; 2 Russian Encyclopaedic Dictionary, vol. lix. (1900). SIBERIA the preparation of felt boots and sheepskins; and the manufacture of dairy utensils and machinery. Weaving is engaged in for domestic purposes. But all these trades are sporadic, and are confined to limited areas, and often only to a few separate villages. Commerce. — There are no figures from which even an approximate idea can be gained as to the value of the internal trade of Siberia, but it is certainly considerable. The great fair at Irbit retains its importance, and there are, besides, over 500 fairs in Tobolsk and over loo in other parts of the region. The aggregate returns of all these are estimated at £2,643,000 annually. The trade with the natives continues to be mainly the sale of spirits. In the external trade the exports to Russia consist chiefly of grain, cattle, sheep, butter and other animal products, furs, game, feathers and down. The production of butter for export began only in 1894, but grew with great rapidity. In 1902 some 1800 dairies were at work, the greater number in West Siberia, and 40,000 tons of butter were exported. The total trade between Russia and China amounts to about £5,500,000 annually, of which 87 % stands for imports into Russia and 13% for exports to China. Tea makes up nearly one-half of the imports, the other commodities being silks, cottons, hides and wool; while cottons and other manufactured wares constitute considerably over 50% of the exports. Part of this commerce (textiles, sugar, tobacco, steel goods) is conveyed by sea to the Pacific ports. The principal centre for the remainder (textiles and petroleum), conveyed by land, is Kiakhta on the Mongolian frontier. Prior to the building of the trans-Siberian railway a fairly active trade was carried on between China and the Amur region; but since the opening of that railway (in 1902-1905) the Amur region has seriously and rapidly declined in all that concerns trade, industry, general prosperity and civilization. There is further an import trade amounting to between two and three-quarters and three millions sterling annually with Manchuria, to over one million sterling with the United States, and to a quarter to half a million sterling with Japan. As nearly as can be estimated, the total imports into. Siberia amount approximately to £5,000,000, the amount having practically doubled between 1890 and 1962; the total exports average about £9,000,000. In the Far East the chief trade centres are Vladivostok and Nikolayevsk on the Amur, with Khabarovsk and Blagovyeshchensk, both on the same river. For some years a small trade was carried on by the British Captain Wiggins with the mouth of the river Yenisei through the Kara Sea, and after his death in 1905 the Russians themselves endeavoured to carry farther the pioneer work which he had begun. Communications. — Navigation on the Siberian rivers has developed both as regards the number of steamers plying and the number of branch rivers traversed. In 1900, one hundred and thirty private and several crown steamers plied on the Ob-Irtysh river system as far as Semipalatinsk on the Irtysh, Biysk on the Ob, and Achinsk on the Chulym. The Ob- Yenisei canal is ready for use, but its actual usefulness is impaired by the scarcity of water in the smaller streams forming part of the system. On the Yenisei steamers ply from Minusinsk to Yeniseisk, and to Ghilghila at its mouth; on its tributary, the Angara, of which some rapids have been cleared, though the Padun rapids have still to be rounded by land; and on the Selenga. On the Lena and the Vitim there are steamers, and a small railway connects the Bodoibo river port with the Olekma gold-washings. In the Amur system, the Zeya, the Bureya and the Argun are navigated. The main line of communication is the great Moscow road. It starts from Perm on the Kama, and, crossing the Urals, reaches Ekaterinburg — the centre of mining industry — and Tyumen on the Tura, whence steamers ply via Tobolsk to Tomsk. From Tyumen the road proceeds to Omsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, sending off from Kolyvan a branch south to Barnaul in the Altai and to Turkestan. From Irkutsk it proceeds to Transbaikalia, Lake Baikal being crossed either by steamer or (when frozen) on sledges, in either case from Listvinichnoe to Misovaya. A route was laid out about 1868 round the south shore of Lake Baikal in order to maintain communication with Transbaikalia during the spring and autumn, and in 1905 the great Siberian railway was com- pleted round the same extremity of the lake. From Lake Baikal the road proceeds to Verkhne-udinsk, Chita and Stryetensk on the Shilka, whence steamers ply to the mouth of the Amur and up the Usuri and Sungacha to Lake Khangka. When the rivers are frozen communication is maintained by sledges on the Amur; but in spring and autumn the only continuous route down the Shilka and the Amur, to its mouth, is on horseback along a mountain path (very difficult across the Bureya range). On the lower Amur and on the Usuri the journey is also difficult even on horseback. When the water in the upper Amur is low, vessels are sometimes unable to reach the Shilka. Another route of importance before the conquest of the Amur is that which connects Yakutsk with Okhotsk or Ayan. Regular postal communication is maintained by the Russians between Kiakhta and Kalgan (close by Peking) across the desert of Gobi. The first railway to reach Siberia was built in 1878, when a line was constructed between Perm, at which point travellers for Siberia Pall a a used to strike off from the Kama eastwards, and Ekaterin- ' burg, on the eastern slope of the Urals. In 1884 this line was continued as far as Tyumen, the head of navigation on the Siberian rivers. It was supposed at that time that this line would form part of the projected trans-Siberian railway ; but it was finally decided, in 1885, to give a more southerly direction to the railway and to continue the Moscow-Samara line to Ufa, Zlatoust in the Urals, and Chelyabinsk on the west Siberian prairies, at the head of one of the tributaries of the Ob. Thence the line was continued across the prairies to Kurgan and Omsk, and from there it followed the great Siberian highway to Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, and on round Lake Baikal to Chita and Stryetensk on the Shilka. From that place it was intended to push it down the Amur to Khabarovsk, and finally to proceed up the Usuri to Vladivostok. The building of the railway was begun at several points at once in 1892; it had, indeed, been started a year before that in the Usuri section. For reasons indicated elsewhere (see RUSSIA: Railways) it was found inadvisable to continue the railroad along the Shilka and the Amur to Khabarovsk, and arrangements were made in 1 896 with the Chinese government for the construction of a trans-Manchurian railway. This line connects Kaidalovo, 20 m. below Chita, with Vladivostok, and sends off a branch from Kharbin, on the Sungari, to Dalny and Port Arthur. Those parts of it which run through Russian territory (in Transbaikalia 230 m.; in the neighbourhood of Vladivostok 67 m.) were opened in 1902, and also the trans-Manchurian line (1000 m.), although not quite completed. A line was constructed from Vladivostok to the Amur before it became known that the idea of following the latter part of the route originally laid down would have to be abandoned. This line, which has been in working order since 1898, is 479 m. long, and proceeds first to Grafskaya, across the fertile and populous south Usuri region, then down the Usuri to Khabarovsk at the confluence of that river with the Amur. Returning westwards, Chelyabinsk has been connected with Ekaterinburg (153 m.); and a branch line has been built from the main Siberian line to Tomsk (54 m.). Altogether the entire railway system, including the cost of the Usuri line, the unfinished Amur line, the circum- Baikal line and the eastern Chinese railway, is put down at a total of £87,555,760, and the total distance, all branches included, is 5413 m., of which 1070 m. are in Chinese territory. History. — The shores of all the lakes which filled the depressions during the Lacustrine period abound in remains dating from the Neolithic Stone period; and numberless kurgans (tumuli), furnaces and so on bear witness to a much denser population than the present. During the great migrations in Asia from east to west many popula- tions were probably driven to the northern borders of the great plateau and thence compelled to descend into Siberia; succeeding waves of immigration forced them still farther towards the barren grounds of the north, where they melted away. According to Radlov, the earliest inhabitants of Siberia were the Yeniseians, who spoke a language different from the Ural-Altaic; some few traces of them (Yeniseians, Sayan-Ostiaks, and Kottes) exist among the Sayan Mountains. The Yeniseians were followed by the Ugro- Samoyedes, who also came originally from the high plateau and were compelled, probably during the great migration of the Huns in the 3rd century B.C., to cross the Altai and Sayan ranges and to enter Siberia. To them must be assigned the very numerous remains dating from the Bronze period which are scattered all over southern Siberia. Iron was unknown to them; but they excelled in bronze, silver and gold work. Their bronze ornaments and implements, often polished, evince considerable artistic taste; and their irrigated fields covered wide areas in the fertile tracts. On the whole, their civilization stood much higher than that of their more recent suc- cessors. Eight centuries later the Turkish stocks of " Tukiu " (the Chinese spelling for "Turks"), Khagases and Uigurs — also com- pelled to migrate north-westwards from their former seats — subdued the Ugro-Samoyedes. These new invaders likewise left numerous traces of their sojourn, and two different periods may be easily distinguished in their remains. They were acquainted with iron, and learned from their subjects the art of bronze-casting, which they used for decorative purposes only, and to which they gave a still higher artistic stamp. Their pottery is much more perfect and more artistic than that of the Bronze period, and their ornaments are accounted among the finest of the collections at the St Petersburg museum of the Hermitage. This Turkish empire of the Khagases must have lasted until the 1 3th century, when the Mongols, under Jenghiz Khan, subdued them and destroyed their civilization. A decided decline is shown by the graves which have been discovered, until the country reached the low level atwhich it was found by the Russians on their arrival towards the close of the l6th century. In the beginning of the i6th century Tatar fugitives from Turkestan subdued the loosely associated tribes inhabiting the lowlands to the east of the Urals. Agriculturists, tanners, merchants and mollahs (priests) were called from Turkestan, and small principalities sprang up on the Irtysh and the Ob. These were united by Khan Ediger, and conflicts with the Russians who were then colonizing the Urals brought him into collision with Moscow; his envoys came to Moscow in !555 and consented to a yearly tribute of a thousand sables. As early as the nth century the Novgorodians had occasionally pene- trated into Siberia; but the fall of the republic and the loss of its north-eastern dependencies checked the advance of the Russians across the Urals. On the defeat of the adventurer Stenka Razin (1667-1671) many who were unwilling to submit to the iron rule of Moscow made their way to the settlements of Stroganov in Perm, i8 SIBI— SIBSAGAR and tradition has it that, in order to get rid of his guests, Stroganov suggested to their chief, Yermak, that he should cross the Urals into Siberia, promising to help him with supplies of food and arms. Yermak entered Siberia in 1580 with a band of 1636 men, following the Tagil and Tura rivers. Next year they were on the Tobol, and 500 men successfully laid siege to Isker, the residence of Khan Kuchum, in the neighbourhood of what is now Tobolsk. Kuchum fled to the steppes, abandoning his domains to Yermak, who, accord- ing to tradition, purchased by the present of Siberia to Ivan IV. his own restoration to favour. Yermak was drowned in the Irtysh in 1584 and the Cossacks abandoned Siberia. But new bands of hunters and adventurers poured every year into the country, and were supported by Moscow. To avoid conflicts with the denser populations of the south, they preferred to advance eastwards along higher latitudes; meanwhile Moscow erected forts and settled labourers around them to supply the garrisons with food. Within eighty years the Russians had reached the Amur and the Pacific. This rapid conquest is accounted for by the circumstance that neither Tatars nor Turks were able to offer any serious resistance. In 1607— 1610 the Tunguses fought strenuously for their independence, but were subdued about 1623. In 1628 the Russians reached the Lena, founded the fort of Yakutsk in 1637, and two years later reached the Sea of Okhotsk at the mouth of the Ulya river. The Burials offered some opposition, but between 1631 and 1641 the Cossacks erected several palisaded forts in their territory, and in 1648 the fort on the upper Uda beyond Lake Baikal. In 1643 Poyarkov's boats descended the Amur, returning to Yakutsk by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Aldan, and in 1649-1650 Khabarov occupied the banks of the Amur. The resistance of the Chinese, however, obliged the Cossacks to quit their forts, and by the treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) Russia abandoned her advance into the basin of the river. In 1852 a Russian military expedition under Muraviev explored the Amur, and by 1857 a chain of Russian Cossacks and peasants were settled along the whole course of the river. The accomplished fact was recognized by China in 1857 and 1860 by a treaty. In the same year in which Khabarov explored the Amur (1648) the Cossack Dejnev, starting from the Kolyma, sailed round the north-eastern extremity of Asia through the strait which was rediscovered and described eighty years later by Bering (1728). Cook in 1778, and after him La Perouse, settled definitively the broad features of the northern Pacific coast. Although the Arctic Ocean had been reached as early as the first half of the 1 7th century, the exploration of its coasts by a series of expeditions under Ovtsyn, Minin, Pronchishev, Lasinius and Laptev— whose labours constitute a brilliant page in the annals of geographical discovery — was begun only in the 1 8th century (1735-1739)- The scientific exploration of Siberia, begun in the period ^1733 to 1742 by Messerschmidt, Gmelin, and De Lisle de la Crpyere, was followed up by Miiller, Fischer and Georgi. Pallas, with several Russian students, laid the first foundation of a thorough exploration of the topography, fauna, flora and inhabitants of the country. The journeys of Hansteen and Erman (1828-1830) were a most important step in the exploration of the territory. Humboldt, Ehrenberg and Gustav Rose also paid in the course of these years short visits to Siberia, and gave a new impulse to the accumulation of scientific knowledge; while Ritter elaborated in his Asien (1832- 1859) the foundations of a sound knowledge of the structure of Siberia. Middendorff's journey (1844-1845) to north-eastern Siberia — contemporaneous with Castren's journeys for the special study of the Ural-Altaian languages— directed attention to the far north and awakened interest in the Amur, the basin of which soon became the scene of the expeditions of Akhte and Schwarz (1852), and later on (1854-1857) of the Siberian expedition to which we owe so marked an advance in our knowledge of East Siberia. The Siberian branch of the Russian Geographical Society was founded at the same time at Irkutsk, and afterwards became a permanent centre for the ex- ploration of Siberia; while the opening of the Amur and Sakhalin attracted Maack, Schmidt, Glenn, Radde and Schrenck, whose works on the flora, fauna and inhabitants of Siberia have become widely known. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. T. von Middendorff, Sibirische Reise (St Petersburg, 1848-1875); L. Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amurgebiet (St Petersburg, 1858-1891); Trudy of the Siberian expedition — mathematical part (also geographical) by Schwarz, and physical part by Schmidt, Glehn and Brylkin (1874, seq.); G. Kennan, Tent Life in Siberia (1870); Paplov, Siberian Rivers (1878); A. E. Nordenskjoid, Voyage of the Vega (1881) and Vega Exped. Vetensk. lakttagelser (5 vols., Stockholm, 1872-1887); P. P. Semenov, Geogr. and Stat. Dictionary of the Russian Empire (in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-1884) — a most valuable source of information, with full bibliographical details under each article; Picturesque Russia (in Russian), ed. by P. Semenov, vol. xi. (West Siberia) and xii. (East Siberia) ; Schegflov, Chronology of Sib. Hist, from 1032 to 1882; Yadrintsev, Siberia (St Petersburg, 2nd ed., 1892, in Russian); Vagin, " Historical Documents on Siberia," in the collection Sibir, vol. i. ; Yadrintsev, Siberia as a Colony (new ed., 1892); F. M. Dostoievsky's novel, Buried Alive (1881); Baron A. von Rosen, Memoiren eines russischen Dekabristen (Leipzig, 1870). Consult further Materials for the Study of the Economic Conditions of West Siberia (22 vols., St Petersburg, 1889-1898), condensed in Peasant Land-Tenure and -Husbandry in Tobolsk and Tomsk (St Petersburg, 1894), both in Russian. Similar Materials for the Altai region, published at St Petersburg by the Cabinet of the emperor, and for Irkutsk and Yeniseisk (12 fasc., Irkutsk, 1889— 1893); Materials for Transbaikalia (16 vols., St Petersburg, 1898), summed up in Transbaikalia, by N. Razumov (St Petersburg, 1899). Other works deserving special mention are: Ermolov, Siberia as a Colony (3rd ed., 1894) ; Jarilow, Ein Beitrag zur Landwirtschaft in Sibirien (Leipzig, 1896). Among books of more recent publication must be mentioned G. Krahmer, Russland in Asien (3 vols., Lejpzig, 1898-1900) and Sibirien und die grosse sibirische Eisenbahn (2nd ed., 1900); Wirt Gerrare, Greater Russia (London 1903); J. F. Fraser, The Real Siberia (London, 1902) ; P. Kropotkin, Orographie de la Siberie (Brussels, 1904); P. Leroy-Beaulieu, La Renovation de I' Asie centrale (Paris, 1900); J. Stadling, Through Siberia (London, 1901); S. Turner, Siberia (London, 1906) ; G. F. Wright, Asiatic Russia (2 vols., London, 1903) ; L. Deutsch, Sixteen Years in Siberia (Eng. trans., London, 1905) ; V. Dolgorukov, Guide through Siberia (3rd ed., Tomsk, 1898, in Russian, with summaries in French) ; A. N. de Koulomzine, Le Trans-siberien (Paris, 1904) ; Bishop of Norwich, My Life in Mongolia and Siberia (London, 1903); S. Patkanov, Essai d'une statistique el d'une geographic des peuples paleoasiatigues de la Siberie (St Petersburg, 1903) ; M. P. de Semenov, La Russie extra-europeenne et polaire (Paris, 1900) ; I. W. Bookwalter, Siberia and Central Asia (Springfield, Ohio, 1899); Siberia and the Great Siberian Railway, by Ministry of Finance (Eng. trans., ed. by J. M. Crawford, St Petersburg, 1893, vol. v. for flora). Climatological Atlas of the Russian Empire, by the Physical Observatory (St Petersburg, 1900), gives data and observations covering the period 1849-1899. A full bibliography will be found in the Russian Ency- clopaedic Dictionary, as also in Mezhov, Siberian Bibliography (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1891-1892), and in A. Pypin's History of Russian Ethnography, vol. iv. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) SIBI, a town and district of Baluchistan. The town is now an important junction on the Sind-Peshin railway, where the Harnai line and the Quetta loop line meet, near the entrance of the Bolan pass, 88 m. S.E. of Quetta. Pop. (1901) 4551. The district, which was constituted in 1903, has an area of 4iS2sq.m.; pop. (1901) 74,555. The greater part became British territory by the treaty of Gandamak in 1879; the rest is ad- ministered under a perpetual lease from the khan of Kalat. Political control is also exercised over the Marri-Bugti country, with an additional area of 7129 sq. m.: pop. (1901) 38,919. Besides the town of Sibi, the district contains the sanatorium of Ziarat, the summer residence of the government. See Sibi District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1907). SIBONGA, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, 30 m. S.W. of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903) 25,848. Sibonga is an agricultural town with a port for coasting vessels, and is served by a railway. The principal products are Indian corn and tobacco. The climate is hot, but healthy. The language is Cebu-Visayan. SIBPUR, a town of British India, in the Hugli district of Bengal, on the right bank of the river Hugli, opposite Calcutta. It is a suburb of Howrah. It contains jute-mills, a flour-mill, rope- works, brick-works and other industrial establishments; the royal botanical garden; and the engineering college with electrical and mining departments and a boarding-house. The college, of gothic architecture, was originally built for a missionary institution, as the Bishop's College, in 1824. It has recently been decided to remove it to Ranchi, in Chota Nagpur. SIBSAGAR, a town and district of British India, in eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is situated on the Dikhu river, about 9 m. from the left bank of the Brahmaputra, being pictur- esquely built round a magnificent tank, covering an area of 114 acres. Pop. (1901) 5712. In 1907 the transfer of the district headquarters to Jorhak (pop. 2899), on the Disai river, was sanctioned. The DISTRICT OF SIBSAGAR has an area of 4996 sq. m. It consists of a level plain, much overgrown with grass and jungle, and intersected by numerous tributaries of the Brahmaputra. It is divided by the little river Disai into two tracts, which differ in soil and general appearance. The surface of the eastern portion is very flat, the general level being broken only by the long lines of embankments raised by the Ahom kings to serve both as roadways and as a protection against floods. The soil consists of a heavy loam of a whitish colour, which is well adapted for rice cultivation. West of the Disai, though the surface soil is of the same character, the general aspect is diversified SIBTHORP— SIBYLS by the protrusion of the subsoil, which consists of a stiff clay abounding in iron nodules, and is furrowed by frequent ravines and water-courses, which divide the cultivable fields into innumerable small sunken patches or kolas. The chief river is the Brahmaputra, which is navigable throughout the year by steamers. The tributaries of the Brahmaputra comprise the Dhaneswari, the Dihing, the Disang and the Dikhu, all flowing in a northerly direction from the Naga Hills. Included within the district is the island of Maguli, formed by the silt brought down by the Subansiri river from the Himalayas and deposited in the wide channel of the Brahmaputra. Coal, iron, petroleum and salt are found. The climate, like that of the rest of the Assam valley, is comparatively mild and temperate, and the annual rainfall averages about 94 in. In 1901 the population was 597,969, showing an increase of 24 % in the decade. Sibsagar is the chief centre of tea cultivation in the Brahmaputra valley, which was introduced by the Assam Company in 1852. It contains a large number of well-managed tea-gardens, which bring both men and money into the province. There are also several timber mills. The Assam-Bengal railway serves the southern part of the district, and a light railway connects this line with Kalikamukh on the Brahmaputra, itself an important highway of communication. On the decline of the Ahom dynasty Sibsagar, with the rest of the Assam valley, fell into the hands of the Burmese. As a result of the first Burmese war (1824-1826) the valley was annexed to British India, and the country now forming Sibsagar district, together with the southern portion of Lakhimpur, was placed under the rule of Raja Purandhar Singh, on his agreeing to pay a tribute of £5000. Owing to the raja's misrule, Sibsagar was reduced to a state of great poverty, and, as he was unable to pay the tribute, the territories were resumed by the government of India, and in 1838 were placed under the direct management of a British officer. See Sibsagar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1906). SIBTHORP, JOHN (1758-1796), English botanist, was born at Oxford on the 28th of October 1758, and was the youngest son of Dr Humphrey Sibthorp (1713-1797), who from 1747 to 1784 was Sherardian professor of botany at Oxford. He graduated at Oxford in 1777, and then studied medicine at Edinburgh and Montpellier. In 1784 he succeeded his father in the Sherardian chair. Leaving his professional duties to a deputy he left England for Gb'ttingen and Vienna, in preparation for a botanical tour in Greece (1786). Returning to England at the end of the following year he took part in the foundation of the Linnaean Society in 1788, and set to work on a flora of Oxfordshire, which was published in 1794 as Flora Oxoniensis. He made a second journey to Greece, but developed consumption on the way home and died at Bath on the 8th of February 1796. By his will he bequeathed his books on natural history and agriculture to Oxford university, where also he founded the Sibthorpian professorship of rural economy, attaching it to the chair of botany. He directed that the endowment should first be applied to the publication of his Flora Graeca and Florae Graecae Prodromus, for which, however, he had done little beyond collecting some three thousand species and providing the plates. The task of preparing the works was undertaken by Sir J. E. Smith, who issued the two volumes of'the Prodromus in 1806 and 1813, and six volumes of the Flora Graeca between 1806 and 1828. The seventh appeared in 1830, after Smith's death, and the remaining three were produced by John Lindley between 1833 and 1840. Another member of the family, RALPH WALDO SIBTHORP (1792-1879), a grandson of Dr Humphrey Sibthorp, was a well-known English divine. He was educated at Oxford and took Anglican orders in 1815. He became known as a prominent " evangelical " in London, but in 1841 was received into the Roman Church. Two years later he returned to the Anglican Church, though he was not readmitted to the ministry till 1857. Finally he re-entered the Roman communion in 1865, but on his death in 1879 he was, by his own request, buried according to the service of the English Church. His elder brother, COLONEL CHARLES DE LAET WALDO SIBTHORP (1783-1855), represented Lincoln in parliament from 1826 until his death, except for a short period in 1833-1834, and was notorious for the vigour with which he expressed his opinions and for his opposition to the Catholic Emancipation Bill and the Reform Bill. The eldest son of Colonel Sibthorp, GERVAISE TOTTENHAM WALDO SIB- THORP (1815-1861), was also M.P. for Lincoln. SIBYLLINE ORACLES, a collection of Apocalyptic writings, composed in imitation of the heathen Sibylline books (see SIBYLS) by the Jews and, later, by the Christians in their efforts to win the heathen world to their faith. The fact that they copied the form in which the heathen revelations were conveyed (Greek hexameter verses) and the Homeric language is evidence of a degree of external Hellenization, which is an important fact in the history of post-exilic Judaism. Such was the activity of these Jewish and Christian missionaries that their imitations have swamped the originals. Even Virgil in his fourth Eclogue seems to have used Jewish rather than purely heathen oracles. The extant fragments and conglomerations of the Sibylline oracles, heathen, Jewish and Christian, were collected, examined, translated and explained by C. Alexandre in a monumental edition full of exemplary learning and acumen. On the basis of his results, as they have been scrutinized by scholars like Schiirer and Geffcken, it is possible to disentangle some of the different strata with a certain degree of confidence. 1. Book III. contains Jewish oracles relative to the Golden Age established by Roman supremacy in the East about the middle of the 2nd century B.C. (especially 175-181: cf. i Mace, viii. 1-16). The evacuation of Egypt by Antiochus Epiphanes at the bidding of the Roman ambassadors suits the warning addressed to " Greece " (732-740) against overweening ambition and any attempt upon the Holy City, which is somewhat strangely enforced by the famous Greek oracle, " Let Camarina be, 'tis best unstirred." Older ihan these are the Babylonian oracle (97-154) and the Persian (381-387). A later Jewish oracle (46-62) refers to the wars of the second Triumvirate of Rome, and the whole compilation seems to come from a Christian redactor. 2. Book IV. is a definite attack upon the heathen Sibyl — the Jews and Christians did not attempt to pass off their " forgeries " as genuine — as the mouthpiece of Apollo by a Jew who speaks for the Great God and yet uses a Greek review (49- 114) of ancient history from the Assyrian empire. There are references to the legendary escape of Nero to Parthia (119-124) and the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (130-136). 3. Book V. contains a more developed form of the myth of Nero redivivus in which a panegyric on him (137-141) has bee» brought up to date by some Jew or Christian, and eulogies of Hadrian and his successors (48-51) side by side with the legend of the miserable death of Titus in quittance of his destruction of Jerusalem (411-413) which probably represents the hope of the zealots who survived it. 4. The remaining books appear to be Christian (some heretical) and to belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries. EDITIONS. — C. Alexandre (Paris, 1841, 2 vols. ; 1869, i vol.); Rzach (Prague, 1891; text and appendix of sources); Geffcken (Leipzig, 1902; text with full apparatus of variants, sources and parallel passages) ; see also his Komposilion und Entstehungszeit des Oracula Sibyllina (Leipzig, 1902). An annotated Eng. trans, was undertaken in 1910 by H. C. O. Lanchester. For references to modern literature see Schiirer, Geschichle des jiidischen Volkes, iii. (4th ed.), 555-592- (J. H. A. H.) SIBYLS l (Sibyllae), the name given by the Greeks and Romans to certain women who prophesied under the inspiration of a deity. The inspiration manifested itself outwardly in distorted features, foaming mouth and frantic gestures. Homer does not refer to a Sibyl, nor does Herodotus. The first Greek writer, so far as we know, who does so is Heraclitus (c. 500 B.C.). As to the number and native countries of the Sibyls much diversity of opinion prevailed. Plato only speaks of one, but in course of time the number increased to ten according to Lactantius 1 The word is usually derived from Zto-0oXXa, the Doric form of 0eoO 0ov\t (=will of God). 20 SICANI— SICILY (quoting from Varro): the Babylonian or Persian, the Libyan, the Cimmerian, the Delphian, the Erythraean, the Samian, the Cumaean, the Hellespontine, the Phrygian and the Tiburtine. The Sibyl of whom we hear most is the Erythraean, generally identified with the Cumaean, whom Aeneas consulted before his descent to the lower world (Aeneid, vi. 10); it was she who sold to Tarquin the Proud the Sibylline books. She first offered him nine; when he refused tLem, she burned three and offered him the remaining six at the same price; when he again refused them, she burned three more and offered him the remaining three still at the same price. Tarquin then bought them (Dion. Halic. iv. 62). He entrusted them to the care of two patricians; after 367 B.C. ten custodians were appointed, five patricians and five plebeians; subsequently (probably in the time of Sulla) their number was increased to fifteen. These officials, at the command of the senate, consulted the Sibylline books in order to discover, not exact predictions of definite future events, but the religious observances necessary to avert extraordinary calamities (pestilence, earthquake) and to expiate prodigies in cases where the national deities were unable, or unwilling, to help. Only the interpretation of the oracle which was con- sidered suitable to the emergency was made known to the public, not the oracle itself. An important effect of these books was the grecizing of Roman religion by the introduction of foreign deities and rites (worshipped and practised in the Troad) and the amalgamation of national Italian deities with the correspond- ing Greek ones (fully discussed in J. Marquardt, Staatsver- wallung, iii., 1885, pp. 42, 350, 382). They were written in hexa- meter verse and in Greek; hence the college of curators was always assisted by two Greek interpreters. The bocks were kept in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol and shared the destruction of the temple by fire in 83. After the restoration of the temple the senate sent ambassadors in 76 to Erythrae to collect the oracles afresh and. they brought back about 1000 verses; others were collected in Ilium, Samos, Sicily, Italy and Africa. In the year 12 B.C. Augustus sought out and burned a great many spurious oracles and subjected the Sibylline books to a critical revision; they were then placed by him in the temple of Apollo Patroiis on the Palatine, where we hear of them still existing in A.D. 363. They seem to have been burned by Stilicho shortly after 400. According to the researches of R. H. Klausen (Aeneas und die Penaten, 1839), the oldest collection of Sibylline oracles appears to have been made about the time of Solon and Cyrus at Gergis on Mount Ida in the Troad; it was attributed to the Hellespontine Sibyl and was preserved in the temple of Apollo at Gergis. Thence it passed to Erythrae, where it became famous. It was this very collection, it would appear, which found its way to Cumae and from Cumae to Rome. Some genuine Sibylline verses are preserved in the Book of Marvels (ttcpi OavnaaUav) of Phlegon of Tralles (and century A.D.). See H. Diels, Sibyllinische Blatter (1890). On the subject generally see J. Marquardt as above; A. Bouch<5-Leclerq, La Divination dans I'antiquite (1879-1882); E. Maass, De Sibyllarum indicibus (1879); C. Schultess, Die sibyllinischen Bucher in Rom (1895; with references to authorities in notes). SICANI, in ancient geography, generally regarded (together with the Elymi) as the oldest inhabitants of Sicily. Sicania (the country of the Sicani) and the Siculi (q.v.) or Siceli are mentioned in Homer (Odyssey, xx. 383, xxiv. 307), the latter apparently being known to the Greeks as slave-dealers. There existed considerable difference of opinion among the ancients as to the origin of the Sicani. From the similarity of name, it would be natural to identify them with the Siculi, but ancient authorities expressly state that they were two distinct peoples (see SICILY: History, ad init.). At first the Sicani occupied nearly the whole of the island, but were gradually driven by the Siceli into the interior and the N. and N.W. They lived chiefly in small towns and supported themselves by agriculture. These towns were not subject to a single king, but each had its own ruler and constitution. The most important of the towns to which a Sicanian origin can be with certainty assigned and whose site can be determined, are: Hyccara (Muro di Carini), taken and plundered by the Athenians during the Sicilian expedition (41 5 B.C.); Omphake, between Agrigentum (Girgenti) and Gela ( Terranova) ; and Camicus (site unknown) , the residence of the mythical Sicanian king Cocalus, constructed for him by Daedalus (q.v.), to whom he had given shelter when pursued by Minos, king of Crete. SICARD, ROCH-AMBROISE CUCURRON (1742-1822), French abbe and instructor of deaf-mutes, was born at Le Fousseret, Haute-Garonne, on the 2oth of September 1742. Educated as a priest, he was made principal of a school of deaf-mutes at Bordeaux in 1786, and in 1789, on the death of the Abbe de 1'Epee (see EPEE), succeeded him at Paris. His chief work was his Cours d 'instruction d'un sourd-muet de naissance (1800). See DEAF AND DUMB. The Abbe Sicard managed to escape any serious harm in the political troubles of 1792, and became a member of the Institute in 1795, but the value of his educational work was hardly recognized till shortly before his death at Paris on the loth of May 1822. SICILY (Ital. Sicilia), an island of the Mediterranean Sea belonging to the kingdom of Italy, and separated from the nearest point of the mainland of Italy only by the Straits of Messina, which at their narrowest part are about 2 m. in width. It is nearly bisected by the meridian of 14° E., and by far the greater part lies to the south of 38° N. Its southernmost point, however, in 36° 38' N. is 40' to the north of Point Tarifa, the southernmost point of Spain and of the continent of Europe. In shape it is roughly triangular,1 whence the ancient poetical name of Trinacria, referring to its three promontories of Pelorum (now Faro) in the north-east, Pachynum (now Passero) in the south-east, and Lilybaeum (now Boeo) in the west. Its area, exclusive of the adjacent small islands belonging to the comparti- mento, is, according to the calculations of the Military Geographi- cal Institute of Italy, 9860 sq. m.; while the area of the whole compartimento is 9936 sq. m. The island occupies that part of the Mediterranean in which the shallowing of the waters divides that sea into two basins, and in which there are numerous indications of frequent changes in a recent geological period. The channel between Cape Bon in Tunis and the south-west of Sicily (a distance of 80 m.) is, on the whole, shallower than the Straits of Messina, being for the most part under 100 fathoms in depth, and exceeding 200 fathoms only for a very short interval, while the Straits of Messina, have almost everywhere a depth exceeding 1 50 fathoms. The geological structure in the neighbourhood of this strait shows that the island must originally have been formed by a rupture between it and the mainland, but that this rupture must have taken place at a period long antecedent to the advent of man, so that the name Rhegium cannot be based even on the tradition of any such catastrophe. The mountain range that runs out towards the north-east of Sicily is composed of crystal- line rocks precisely similar to those forming the parallel range of Aspromonte in Calabria, but both of these are girt about by sedimentary strata belonging in part to an early Tertiary epoch. That a subsequent knd connexion took place, however, by the elevation of the sea-bed there is abundant evidence to show; and the occurrence of the remains of African Quaternary mammals, such as Elephas meridionalis, E. antiquus, Hippo- potamus pentlandi, as well as of those of still living African forms, such as Elephas africanus and Hyaena crocuta, makes it probable that there was a direct post-Tertiary connexion also with the African continent. The north coast is generally steep and cliff-bound, and abundantly provided with good harbours, of which that of Palermo is the finest. In the west and south, and in the south part of the east side, the hills are much lower and recede farther from the sea. The coast is for the most part flat, more regular in outline and less favourable to shipping, while in the east, 1 The name Tpivanpla was no doubt suggested by the Qpivaxlii of Homer (which need not, however, be Sicily), and the geography was then fitted to the apparent meaning given to the name Dy the change. But of these three so-called promontories the last is not a true promontory, and it is more accurate to treat Sicily as having a fourth side on the west. SICILY where the sea-bottom sinks rapidly down towards the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, steep rocky coasts prevail except opposite the plain of Catania. In the northern half of this coast the lava streams of Mount Etna stand out for a distance of about 20 m. in a line of bold cliffs and promontories. At various points on the east, north and west coasts there are evidences of a rise of the land having taken place within historical times, at Trapani on the west coast even within the igth century. As in the rest of the Mediterranean, tides are scarcely observable; but at several points on the west and south coasts a curious oscillation in the level of the waters, known to the natives as the marrobbio (or marobia), is sometimes noticed, and is said to be always preceded by certain atmospheric signs. This consists in a sudden rise of the sea-level, occasionally to the height of 3 ft., sometimes occurring only once, sometimes repeated at intervals of a minute for two hours, or even, at Mazzara, where it is most frequently observed, for twenty-four hours together. The surface of Sicily lies for the most part more than 500 ft. above the level of the sea. Caltanissetta, which occupies the middle point in elevation as well as in respect of geographical situation, stands 1900 ft. above sea-level. Considerable mount- ains occur only in the north, where the lower slopes of all the heights form one continuous series of olive-yards and orangeries. Of the rest of the island the greater part forms a plateau varying in elevation and mostly covered with wheat-fields. The only plain of any great extent is that of Catania, watered by the Simeto, in the east; to the north of this plain the active volcano of Etna rises with an exceedingly gentle slope to the height of 10,868 ft. from a base 400 sq. m. in extent. This is the highest elevation of the island. The steep and narrow crystalline ridge which trends north-eastwards, and is known to geographers by the name of the Peloritan Mountains, does not reach 40x30 ft. The Nebrodian Mountains, a limestone range connected with the Peloritan range and having an east and west trend, rise to a somewhat greater height, and farther west, about the middle of the north coast, the Madonie (the only one of the groups mentioned which has a native name) culminate at the height of nearly 6500 ft. From the western end of the Nebrodian Mountains a lower range (in some places under 1500 'it, in height) winds on the whole south-eastwards in the direction of Cape Passaro. With the exception of the Simeto, the principal perennial streams — the Salso, the Platani and the Belice — enter the sea on the south coast. Geology.1 — In general, the older beds occur along the northern coast, and progressively newer and newer beds are found towards the south. Folding, however, has brought some of the older beds to the surface in the hills which lie to the north and north-east of Sciacca. The Monti Peloritani at the north-eastern extremity of the island consists of gneiss and crystalline schists; but with this ex- ception the whole of Sicily is formed of Mesozoic and later deposits, the Tertiary beds covering by far the greater part. Triassic rocks form a discontinuous band along the northern coast, and are especially well developed in the neighbourhood of Palermo. They rise again to the surface in the southern part of the island, in the hills which lie to the north of Sciacca and Bivona. In both areas they are accompanied by Jurassic, and occasionally by Cretaceous, beds; but of the latter there are only a few small patches. In the south- eastern part of the island there are also a few very small outcrops of Mesozoic beds. The Eocene and Oligocene form a broad belt along the northern coast, very much more continuous than the Mesozoic band, and from this belt a branch extends southwards to Sciacca. Another patch of considerable size lies to the east of Piazza-Armerina. Miocene and Pliocene deposits cover nearly the whole of the country south of a line drawn from Etna to Marsala ; and there is also a considerable Miocene area in the north about Mistretta. Volcanic lavas and ashes of a recent geological period form not only the whole of Etna but also a large part of the Monti Iblei in the south. Small patches occur also at Pachino and in the hills north of Sciacca. Climate. — The climate of Sicily resembles that of the other lands in the extreme south of Europe. As regards temperature, it has the warm and equable character which belongs to most of the Mediter- ranean region. At Palermo (where continuous observations have been made since 1791) the range of temperature between the mean of 1 A general account of the geology of the island will be found in L. Baldacci, Descrizione geologica dell' isola di Sicilia (Rome, 1886), with map. For fuller and later information reference should be made to the publications of the Reale Comitato Geologico d'ltalia. 21 the coldest and that of the hottest month is little greater than at Greenwich. The mean temperature of January (51?° F.) is nearly as high as that of October in the south of England, that of July (77° F-) about 13° warmer than the corresponding month at Green- wich. In only seven of the thirty years, 1871-1900, was the ther- mometer observed to sink below the freezing-point; frost thus occurs in the island even on the low grounds, though never for more than a few hours. On the coast snow is seldom seen, but it does fall occasionally. On the Madonie it lies till June, on Etna till July. The annual rainfall except on the higher mountains does not reach 30 in., and, as in other parts of the extreme south of Europe, it occurs chiefly in the winter months, while the three months (June, July and August) are almost quite dry. During these months the whole rainfall does not exceed 2 in., except on the slopes of the mountains in the north-east. Hfence most of the streams dry up in summer. The chief scourge is the sirocco, which is experienced in its most characteristic form on the north coast, as an oppressive, parch- ing, hot, dry wind, blowing strongly and steadily from the south, the atmosphere remaining through the whole period of its duration leaden-coloured and hazy in consequence of the presence of immense quantities of reddish dust. It occurs most frequently in April, and then in May and September, but no month is entirely free from it. Three days are the longest period for which it lasts. The same name is sometimes applied to a moist and not very hot, but yet oppressive, south-east wind which blows from time to time on the east coast. Malaria occurs in some parts of the island. Flora. — The flora of Sicily is remarkable for its wealth of species; but, comparing Sicily with other islands that have been long separ- ated from the mainland, the number of endemic species is not great. The orders most abundantly represented are the Compositae, Cruci- ferae, Labiatae, Caryophyllaceae and Scrophulariaceae. The Rosaceae are also abundantly represented, and among them are numerous species of the rose. The general aspect of the vegetation of Sicily, however, has been greatly affected, as in other parts of the Mediter- ranean, by the introduction of plants within historical times. Being more densely populated than any other large Mediterranean island, and having its population dependent chiefly on the products of the soil, it is necessarily more extensively cultivated than any other of the larger islands referred to, and many of the objects of cultivation are not originally natives of the island. Not to mention the olive, which must have been introduced at a remote period, all the members of the orange tribe, the agave and the prickly pear, as well as other plants highly characteristic of Sicilian scenery, have been introduced since the beginning of the Christian era. With respect to vegetation and cultivation three zones may be distinguished. The first reaches to about 1600 ft. above sea-level, the upper limit of the members of the orange tribe; the second ascends to about 3300 ft., the limit of the growth of wheat, the vine and the hardier evergreens; and the third, that of forests, reaches from about 3300 ft. upwards. But it is not merely height that determines the general character of the vegetation. _The cultivated trees of Sicily mostly demand such an amount of moisture as can be obtained only on the mountain slopes, and it is worthy of notice that the structure of the mountains is peculiarly favourable to the supply of this want. The limestones of which they are mostly composed act like a sponge, absorbing the rain-water through their innumerable pores and fissures, and thus storing it up in the interior, afterwards to allow it to well forth in springs at various elevations lower down. In this way the irrigation which is absolutely indispensable for the members of the orange tribe during the dry season is greatly facilitated, and even those trees for which irrigation is not so indispensable receive a more ample supply of moisture during_ the rainy season. Hence it is that, while the plain of Catania is almost treeless and tree-cultivation is comparatively limited in the west and south, where the extent of land under 1600 ft. is considerable, the whole of the north and north-east coast from the Bay of Castellammare round to Catania is an endless succession of orchards, in which oranges, citrons and lemons alternate with olives, almonds, pomegranates, figs, carob trees, pistachios, mulberries and vines. The limit in height of the olive is about 2700 ft., and that of the vine about 3500 ft. The lemon is really grown upon a bitter orange tree, grafted to bear the lemon. A consider- able silk production depends on the cultivation of the mulberry in the neighbourhood of Messina and Catania. Among other trees and shrubs may be mentioned the sumach, the date-palm, the plantain, various bamboos, cycads and the dwarf-palm, the last of which grows in some parts of Sicily more profusely than anywhere else, and in the desolate region in the south-west yields almost the only vegetable product of importance. The Arundo Donax, the tallest of European grasses, is largely grown for vine-stakes. Population. — The area and population of the several provinces are shown in the table on the next page. Thus between 1881 and 1901 the population increased at the rate of 20-5%. The average density is extremely high for a country which lives almost exclusively by agriculture, and is much higher than the average for Italy in general, 293 per sq. m. In 1905 the popula- tion was 3,368,124, the rate of increase being only 4-4% per annum; the low rate is due to emigration. 22 SICILY Province. Area in sq. m. Population 1881. Population 1901. No. of Communes. Density per sq. m. 1901. Caltanissetta . Catania . Girgenti . Messina . Palermo . Syracuse . Trapani . 1263 1917 1172 1246 1948 1442 948 266,379 563-457 312,487 460,924 699,151 341,526 283,977 329,449 703,598 380,666 550,895 796,151 433,796 373,569* 28 63 41 97 76 32 20 262 371 317 440 4°3 296 373 9936 '2,927,901 3,568,124 357 Av. 352 * In 1861, 2,392,414; in 1871, 2,584,099. The chief towns in each of these provinces, with their communal populations in 1901, are as follow: Callanissetta (43,023), Castro- giovanni (26,081), Piazza Armerina (24,119), Terranova (22,019), San Cataldo (18,090); Catania (146,504), Caltagirone (44,527), Acireale (35,203), Giarre (26,194), Paterno (22,857), Leonforte (21,236), Bronte (20,166), Vizzini (18,013), Agira (17,634), Nicosia (15,811), Grammichele (15,017); Girgenti (24,872), Canicatti (24,687), Sciacca (24,64^5), Licata (22,993), Favara (20,403) ; Messina (147,106), Racalmuto (16,028), Palma (14,384), Barceltona (24,133), Milazzo (16,214), Mistretta (14,041); Palermo (305,716), Partinico (23,668), Monreale (23,556), Termini Imerese (20,633), Bagheria (18,329), Corleone (16,350), Cefalu (14,518); Syracuse (31,807) Modica (49,951), Ragusa (32,453), Vittoria (32,219), Comiso (25,837) Noto (22,284), Lentini (17,100), Avola (16,301), Scicli (16,220) Palazzolo Acreide (15,106); Trapani (61,448), Marsala (57,824) Alcamo (51,798), Monte S. Giuliano (29,824), Castelvetrano (24,510) Castellammare del Golfo (20,665), Mazzara del Vallo (20,044) , Salemi (17,159). The archiepiscopal sees (the suffragan sees, if any, being placed after each in brackets) are Catania (Acireale), Messina (Lipari, Nicosia, Patti), Monreale (Caltanissetta, Girgenti), Palermo (Cefalu, Mazara, Trapani), Syracuse (Caltagirone, Noto, Piazza Armerina). Agriculture. — Sicily, formerly called the granary of Italy, ex- ported grain until the end of the 1 8th century. Now, although the island still produces every year some 15 million bushels, the supply barely suffices for the consumption of a population of which bread is almost the exclusive diet. The falling-off in the exportation of cereals is not a consequence of any decadence in Sicilian agriculture, but rather of the increase of population, which nearly doubled within the igth century. Two types of agriculture prevail in Sicily — the extensive and the intensive. The former covers mainly the interior of the island and half the southern coast, while the latter is generally adopted on the eastern and northern coasts. Large holdings of at least 500 hectares *(a hectare equals about 2j acres) are indispensable to the profitable pursuit of extensive agriculture. These holdings are usually called feudi or latifondi. Their proprietors alternate the cultivation of wheat with that of barley and beans. During the years in which the soil is allowed to lie fallow, the grass and weeds which spring up serve as pasture for cattle, but the poverty of the pasture is such that at least two hectares are required for the maintenance of every animal. This poverty is due to the lack of rain, which, though attaining an annual average of 29 in. at Palermo, reaches only 21 in. at Syracuse on the east coast, and about igi in. at Caltanissetta, on the central high plateau. The system of extensive cultivation proper to the latifondi gives an annual average gross return of about 200 lire per hectare (£3, 4s- 5.d. per acre). Intensive agriculture in Sicily is limited to fruit trees and fruit- bearing plants, and is not combined with the culture of cereals and vegetables, as in central and parts of northern Italy. Originally the Sicilian system was perhaps due to climatic difficulties, but now it is recognized in most cases to be more rational than com- bined culture. Large extents of land along the coasts are therefore exclusively cultivated as vineyards, or as olive, orange, and lemon groves. Vineyards give an annual gross return of between £11 and £13 per acre, and orange and lemon groves between £32 and £48 per acre. The by-products of the citrus-essences, citrate of lime, &c. are also of some importance. Much damage is done by the olive fly. Vegetables are grown chiefly in the neighbourhood of large cities. Almonds are freely cultivated, and they seem to be the only trees susceptible also of cultivation upon the latifondi together with grain. A large export trade in almonds is carried on with north and central Europe. Hazel nuts are grown in woods at a level of more than 1200 ft. above the sea. These also are largely exported to central Europe for use in the manufacture of chocolate. The locust bean (used for forage), figs, and peaches are widely grown, while in certain special zones the pistachio and the manna-ash yield rich returns. On the more barren soil the sumach shrub, the leaves of which are used for tanning, and the prickly pear grow freely. The latter fruit constitutes, with bread, the staple food of the poorest part of the rural population for several months in the year. The cultivation of cotton, which spread during the American War of Secession, is now rare, since it has not been able to withstand the competition of more favoured countries. All these branches of intensive cultivation yield a higher gross return than that of the extensive system. Along the coast landed property is as a rule broken up into small holdings, usually cultivated by their owners. There is possibility of great development of market-gardening. Climatic conditions prevent cattle-raising in Sicily from being as prosperous an undertaking as in central Italy. The total number of bullocks in the island is calculated to be less than 200,000; and although the ratio of consumption of meat is low in proportion to the population, some of the cattle for slaughter have to be imported. Sheep and goats, which subsist more easily on scanty pasturage, are relatively more numerous, the total number being calculated at 700,000. Yet the wool harvest is scarce, and the pro- duction of butter a negligible quantity, though there is abundance of the principal product of Sicilian pasture lands, cheese of various kinds, for which there is a lively local demand. The Sicilian race of horses would be good but that it is not prolific, and has degenerated in consequence of insufficient nourishment and overwork. A better breed of horses is being obtained by more care- ful selection, and by crossing with Arab and English stallions imported by the government. Donkeys and mules of various breeds are good, and would be better were they not so often weakened by heavy work before attaining full maturity. Forests. — The absence of forests, which cover hardly 3% of the total area of the island, constitutes a serious obstacle to the pros- perity of Sicilian pastoral and agrarian undertakings. The few remaining forests are almost all grouped around Etna and upon the high zone of the Madonian Mountains, a range which rises 40 m. west of Palermo, running parallel to the northern coast almost as far as Messina, and of which many peaks reach nearly 6000 ft. above the sea. Here they are chiefly composed of oaks and chestnuts. In that part of the island which is cultivated intensively some 100 million gallons of wine are annually produced. Had not the phylloxera devastated the vineyards during the last decade of the igth century, the production would be considerably higher; 7,700,000 gallons of olive oil and 2500 million oranges and lemons are also produced, besides the other minor products above referred to. The zone of the latifondi, or extensive culture, yields, besides wheat, nearly 8,000,000 bushels of barley and beans every year. Mining. — The most important Sicilian mineral is undoubtedly sulphur, which is mined principally in the provinces of Caltanissetta and Girgenti, and in minor quantities in those of Palermo and Catania. Up to 1896 the sulphur industry was in a state of crisis due to the competition of pyrites, to the subdivision of the mines, to antiquated methods, and to a series of other causes which oc- casioned violent oscillations in and a continual reduction of •prices. The formation of the Anglo-Italian sulphur syndicate arrested the downward tendency of prices and increased the output of sulphur, so that the amount exported in 1899 was 424,018 tons, worth £1,738,475, whereas some years previously the value of sulphur exported had hardly been £800,000. Nineteen-twentieths of the sulphur consumed in the world was formerly drawn from Sicilian mines, while some 50,000 persons were employed in the extrac- tion, manufacture, transport and trade in the mineral. But the development of the United States sulphur industry at the beginning of the 2Oth century created considerable difficulties, including the practical loss of the United States market. In 1906, when the con- cession to the Anglo-Sicilian Sulphur Company was about to expire, the government decreed that it should be formed into an obligatory syndicate for a term of twelve years for the control of all sulphur produced in Sicily, and exempted from taxation and_ legal dues, foreign companies established in Italy to exploit industries in which sulphur is a principal element. The Bank, of Sicily was further obliged to make advances to the sulphur industry up to four-fifths of the value of the sulphur deposited in the warehouses. The ex- ports of sulphur in December 1906 were 17,534 tons, as compared with 40,713 tons in 1905; in the year 1904 the total production was 3,291,710 tons (value about £1,522,229) and the total exports 508,980 tons, as compared with 470,341 tons in 1905. Another Sicilian mineral industry is that of common salt and rock- salt. The former is distilled from sea-water near Trapani, and the latter obtained in smaller quantities from mines. The two branches of the industry yielded in 1899 about 180,000 tons per annum, worth £80,000, while in 1906 about 200,000 tons were made at Trapani alone. About half this quantity is exported, principally to Norway. Besides salt, the asphalt mining industry may be mentioned. Its centre is the province of Syracuse. The value of the annual output is about £40,000, and the exports in 1906 amounted to nearly 103,000 tons. Pumice stone is also exported from Lipari (11,010 tons in 1904). Other Industries. — Deep-sea fisheries give employment to some twenty thousand Sicilians, who exercise their calling not only off the coasts of their island, but a)ong the north African shore, from Morocco to Tripoli. In 1894 (the last year for which accurate statistics have been issued) 350 fishing smacks were.in active service, giving a catch of 2480 tons of fish. Approximately, the value of the annual catch may be reckoned at from £600,000 to £800,000. During 1904 the coral fisheries employed 98 vessels with 1138 men: the SICILY profits were about £75,264, the expenses being £64,664. The sponge divers brought up sponges valued at £24,630. The estimated hauls of tunny fish were 5534 tons, valued at £110,324. The majority of the scanty Sicilian industries are directly con- nected with various branches of agriculture. Such, for instance, is the preparation of the elements of citric acid, which is manu- factured at an establishment at Messina. Older and more flourishing is the Marsala industry. Marsala wine is a product of the western vineyards situated slightly above sea-level. In 1899, wine was exported to the value of more than £120,000, while in 1906, 24,080 pipes of the value of £361 ,200 were shipped. The quantity consumed in Italy is far greater than that exported abroad. Another flourishing Sicilian industry carried on by_ a large number of small houses is that of preserving vegetables in tins. Artichokes and tomato sauce are the principal of these products, of which several dozen million tins are annually exported from Sicily to the Italian mainland, to Germany and to South America. Manu- factories of furniture, carriages, gloves, matches and leather exist in large number in the island. They are, as a rule, small in extent, and are managed by the owners with the help of five, ten or at most twenty workmen. There are several glass works at Palermo, a cotton dyeing works at Messina, and a large metal foundry at Palermo. Large shipbuilding yards and a yard for the construction of trams and railway carriages have been constructed in the latter city. There are dry docks both at Palermo and Messina. Communications. — Before 1860 there was no railway in Sicily. The total length of Sicilian railways is now 890 m., all single lines. Their construction was rendered very costly by the mountainous character of the island. They formed a separate system (the Rete Sicula) until in 1906, like the rest of the railways of Italy, they passed into the hands of the state, with the exception of the line round Mount Etna and the line from Palermo to Corleone. Messina is connected with the railway system of the mainland by ferry-boats from Villa S. Giovanni and Reggio, on which the through carriages are conveyed across the straits. From Messina lines run along the northern coast to Palermo, and along the east coast via Catania to Syracuse: the latter line is prolonged along the south of the island (sometimes approaching, sometimes leaving the coast) via Canicatti as far as Aragona Caldare, Girgenti and Porto Empedocle. From Catania another line runs westward through the centre of the island via S. Caterina Xirbi (with a branch to Canicatti) to Roccapalumba (with a branch to Aragona Caldare) and thence northwards to Termini, on the line between Messina and Palermo. This is the direct route from Catania to Palermo. From Catania begins the line round Etna following its south, west and northern slopes, and ending at Giarre Riposto on the east coast railway. From Valsavoia (14 m. S. of Catania on the line to Syracuse) a branch line runs to Caltagirone. From Palermo a line runs southwards to Corleone and S. Carlo (whence there are diligences to Sciacca on the south coast) and another to Castelvetrano, Marsala and Trapani, going first almost as far as the south coast and then running first west and then north along the west coast. The only part of the coast of the island which has no railways is that portion of the south coast between Porto Empedocle and Castelvetrano (Sciacca lies about midway between these two points), where a road already exists, and a railway is projected, and the precipitous north coast between Palermo and Trapani. A steam tramway runs from Messina to the Faro at the north-east extremity of the island, and thence along the north coast to Barcelona, and another along the east coast from Messina to Giampilieri : while the island is fairly well provided with high roads, but is very backward in rural communications, there being only 244 yds. of road per sq. m., as compared with 1480 yds. in north Italy. The communications by sea, however, are at least as important as those by land, even for passengers. A steamer leaves Naples every night for Palermo, and vice versa, the journey (208 m.) being done in II hours, while the journey by rail (438 m.), including the crossing of the Straits of Messina takes 19 J hours; and the weekly steamer from Naples to Messina (216 m.) takes 12 hours, while the journey by rail and ferry boat (292 m.) takes 14 hours. Palermo, Messina and Catania are the most important harbours, the former being one of the two headquarters (the other, and the main one, is Genoa) of the Navigazione Generate Italiana, and a port of call for the steamers from Italy to New York. Emigrants to the number of 37,638 left Palermo direct for New York in 1906, and no less than 46,770 in 1905, while others embarked at Messina and Naples. The movement of trade in these three ports may be shown by the following table: — Palermo. Messina.1 Catania. 1900 1904 1906 Tonnage of shipping ,, goods landed shipping ,, goods landed ,, shipping 1,658,848 398,718 2,298,054 445.036 2, 403 ,85 12 1,683,244 213,624 2,265,381 315,414 2,574,872 1,245,954 235,575 i,5Q3,678 309,514 1,542,520 1 The high proportion of shipping entering Messina is due to its position in the Straits. * Steamships only. Of the other harbours, Porto Empedocle and Licata share with Catania most of the sulphur export trade, and the other ports of note are Marsala, Trapani, Syracuse (which shares with the road- stead of Mazzarelli the asphalt export trade). The total importation of coal in 1906 amounted to 519,478 tons, practically all British. In 1904, 75,779 Sicilians were registered as seamen, and no steamships with a gross tonnage of 145,702 were registered in Sicily. Economic, Intellectual, and Moral Conditions. — As a general rule, trade and the increase of production have not kept pace with the development of the ways of communication. The poverty of the Sicilian population is accentuated by the unequal distribution of wealth among the different classes of society. A small but comparatively wealthy class — composed principally of the owners of latifondi — resides habitually in the large cities of the island, or even at Naples, Rome or Paris. Yet even if all the wealthy landowners resided on their estates, their number would not be sufficient to enable them to play in local public life a part corre- sponding to that of the English gentry. On the other hand, the class which would elsewhere be called the middle class is in Sicily ex- tremely poor. The origin of most of the abuses which vitiate Sicilian political life, and of the frequent scandals in the representative local administrations, is to be found in the straitened condition of the Sicilian middle classes. Emigration only attained serious proportions within the last decade of the igth century. In 1897 the permanent emigration from the island was 15,994, in J898, 21,320, and in 1899, 24,604. Since then it has much increased: in 1905 the emigrants numbered 106,000, and in 1906, 127,000 (3-5% of the population). Of these about three-fourths would be adults; but the population has in- creased so fast as more than to cover the deficiency — with the dis- advantage, however, that in three years 220,000 workers were replaced by 320,000 infants. The moral and intellectual defects of Sicilian society are in part results of -the economic difficulties, and in part the effect of bad customs introduced or maintained during the long period of Sicilian isolation from the rest of Europe. When, in 1860, Sicily was incorporated in the Italian kingdom, hardly a tenth of the population could read and write. Upon the completion of unity, elementary schools were founded everywhere; but, though education was free, the indigence of the peasants in some regions prevented them from taking full advantage of the opportunities offered. Thus, even now, 60% of the Sicilian conscripts come up for military service unable either to read or to write. Secondary and superior education is more diffused. The pupils of the secondary schools in Sicily number 3-94 per 1000, the maximum being 6-60 in Liguria and the minimum 1-65 in Basilicata. Brigandage of the classical type has almost disappeared from Italy. The true brigands haunt only the most remote and most inaccessible mountains. Public security is better in the east than in the west portion of the island. Criminal statistics, though slowly diminishing, are still high — murders, which are the most frequent crimes, having been 27 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1897-1898 and 25-23 per 100,000 in 1903, as against 2-57 in Lombardy, 2-00 in the district of Venetia, 4^50 in Tuscany and 5-24 in Piedmont. Violent assaults with infliction of serious wounds are also frequent. This readiness to commit bloodshed is largely attributable to the senti- ment of the Mafia (q.v.). (G. G. C.; G. Mo.; T. As.) HISTORY The geographical position of Sicily led almost as a matter of necessity to its historical position, as the meeting-place of the nations, the battle-field of contending races and creeds. For this reason, too, Sicily was never in historic times (nor, it seems, in prehistoric times either) the land of a single nation: her history exists mainly in its relation to the history of other lands. Lying nearer to the mainland of Europe and nearer to Africa than any other of the great Mediterranean islands, Sicily is, next to Spain, the connecting-link between those two quarters of the world. It stands also as a breakwater between the eastern and western divisions of the Mediterranean Sea. In prehistoric times those two divisions were two vast lakes, and Sicily is a surviving fragment of the land which once united the two continents. That Sicily and Africa were once joined we know only from modern scientific research; that Sicily and Italy were once joined is handed down in legend. Sicily then, compara- tively near to Africa, but much nearer to Europe, has been a European land, but one specially open to invasion and settlement from Africa. It has been a part of western Europe, but a part which has had specially close relations with eastern Europe. It has stood at various times in close connexion with Greece, Africa and Spain; but its closest connexion has been with Italy. Still the history of Sicily should never be looked on as simply part of the history of Italy. Lying thus between Europe SICILY and Africa, Sicily has been the battle-field of Europe and Africa. That is to say, it has been at two separate periods the battle-field of Aryan and Semitic man. In the later stage of the strife it has been the battle-field of Christendom and Islam. This history Sicily shares with Spain to the west of it and with Cyprus to the east. And with Spain the island has had several direct points of connexion. There was in all likelihood a near kindred between the earliest inhabitants of the two lands. In later times Sicily was ruled by Spanish kings, both alone and in union with other kingdoms. The connexion with Africa has consisted simply in the settlement of conquerors from Africa at two periods, first Phoenician, then Saracen. On the other hand, Sicily has been more than once made the road to African conquest and settlement, both by Sicilian princes and by the Roman masters of Sicily. The connexion with Greece, the most memorable of all, has consisted in the settlement of many colonies from old Greece, which gave the island the most brilliant part of its history, and which made the greater part practically Greek. This Greek element was strengthened at a later time by the long connexion of Sicily with the Eastern, the Greek-speaking, division of the Roman empire. And the influence of Greece on Sicily has been repaid in more than one shape by Sicilian rulers who have at various times held influence and dominion in Greece and elsewhere beyond the Adriatic. The connexion between Sicily and Italy begins with the primitive kindred between some of the oldest elements in each. Then came the contemporary Greek colonization in both lands. Then came the tendency in the dominant powers in southern Italy to make their way into Sicily also. Thus the Roman occupation of Sicily ended the struggle between Greek and Phoenician. Thus the Norman occupation ended the struggle between Greek and Saracen. Of this last came the long connexion between Sicily and southern Italy under several dynasties. Lastly comes the late absorption of Sicily in the modern kingdom of Italy. The result of these various forms of Italian influence has been that all the other tongues of the island have died out before the advance of a peculiar dialect of Italian. In religion again both Islam and the Eastern form of Christianity have given way to its Italian form. Like the British Isles, Sicily came under a Norman dynasty; under Norman rule the intercourse between the two countries was extremely close, and the last time that Sicily was the seat of a separate power it was under British protection. The Phoenician, whether from old Phoenicia or from Carthage, came from lands which were mere strips of sea-coast with a boundless continent behind them. The Greek of old Hellas came from a land of islands, peninsulas and inland seas. So did the Greek of Asia, though he had, like the Phoenician, a vast continent behind him. In Sicily they all found a strip of sea-coast with an inland region behind; but the strip of sea- coast was not like the broken coast of Greece and Greek Asia, and the inland region was not a boundless continent like Africa or Asia. In Sicily therefore the Greek became more continental, and the Phoenician became more insular. Neither people ever occupied the whole island, nor was either people ever able to spread its dominion over the earlier inhabitants very far inland. Sicily thus remained a world of its own, with interests and disputes of its own, and divided among inhabitants of various nations. The history of the Greeks of Sicily is con- stantly connected with the history of old Hellas, but it runs a separate course of its own. The Phoenician element ran an opposite course, as the independent Phoenician settlements in Sicily sank into dependencies of Carthage. The entrance of the Romans put an end to all practical independence on the part of either nation. But Roman ascendancy did not affect Greeks and Phoenicians in the same way. Phoenician life gradually died out. But Roman ascendancy nowhere crushed out Greek life where it already existed, and in some ways it strengthened it. Though the Greeks never spread their dominion over the island, they made a peaceful conquest of it. This process was in no way hindered by the Roman dominion. The question now comes, Who were the original inhabitants of Sicily? The island itself, SueXta, Sicilia, plainly takes its name from the Sicels (SuceXot, Siculi), a people whom we find occupying a great part of the island, chiefly east of the river Gela. They appear also in Italy (see SICULI), in the toe of the boot, and older history or tradition Original spoke of them as having in earlier days held a large gn^ place in Latium and elsewhere in central Italy. They were believed to have crossed the strait into the island about 300 years before the beginning of the Greek settlements, that is to say in the nth century B.C. They found in the island a people called Sicans (cf. Odyssey, xxiv. 306), who claimed to be avroxOovts (i.e. to have originated in the island itself) , but whose name, we are told, might pass for a dialectic form of their own, did not the ancient writers expressly affirm them to be a wholly distinct people, akin to the Iberians. Sicans also appear with the Ligurians among the early inhabitants of Italy (Virg. Aen. vii. 795, viii. 328, xi. 317, and Servius's note). That the Sicels spoke a tongue closely akin to Latin is plain from several Sicel words which crept into Sicilian Greek, and from the Siceliot system of weights and measures — utterly unlike anything in old Greece. When the Greek settlements began, the Sicans, we are told, had hardly got beyond the life of villages on hill-tops (Dion. Hal. v. 6). Hyccara, on the north coast, is the one exception; it was probably a fishing settlement. The more advanced Sicels had their hill-forts also, but they had learned the advantages of the sea, and they already had settlements on the coast when the Greeks came. As we go on, we hear of both Sicel and Sican towns;1 but we may suspect that any approach to true city life was owing to Greek influences. Neither people grew into any form of national unity. They were there- fore partly subdued, partly assimilated, without much effort. The investigations of Professor Orsi, director of the museum at Syracuse, have thrown much light on the primitive peoples of south-eastern Sicily. Of palaeolithic man hardly any traces are to be found; but, though western Sicily has been com- paratively little explored, and the results hardly published at all, in several localities neolithic remains, attributable to the Sicani, have been discovered. The later Siculi do not appear to be a distinct race (cf. P. Orsi in Notizie degli scavi, 1898, 223), and probably both are branches of the Libyco-Iberian stock. Whereas other remains attributable to their villages or settle- ments are rare, their rock-hewn tombs are found by the thousand in the limestone cliffs of south-eastern Sicily. Those of the earliest period, the lower limit of which is put about 1500 B.C., are aeneolithic, metal being, however, rare and only found in the form of small ornaments; pottery with linear decoration is abundant. The second period (1500-1000 B.C.) shows a great increase in the use of bronze, and the introduction of gold and silver, and of imported Mycenaean vases. The chief cemeteries of this period have been found on Plemmyrium, the promontory south of Syracuse, at Cozzo Pantano, at Thapsus, at Pantalica near Palazzolo, at Cassibile, south of Syracuse, and at Molinello near Augusta. The third period (1000-500 B.C.) in its first phase (1000-700) shows a continual increase of the introduction of objects of Greek origin; the pottery is at first imported geometric, and then vases of local imitation appear. Typical cemeteries are those of Monte Finocchito near Noto, of Noto itself, of Pantalica and of Leontini. In the second phase (700- 500 B.C.), sometimes called the fourth period, proto-Corinthian and Attic black figured vases are sometimes, though rarely, found, while local geometric pottery develops considerably. But the form of the tombs always remains the same, a small low chamber hewn in the rock, with a rectangular opening about 2 by 2j ft., out of which open other chambers, each with its separate doorway; and inhumation is adopted without excep- tion, whereas in a Greek necropolis a low percentage of cases of 1 Leontini, Megara, Naxos, Syracuse, Zancle are all recorded as sites where the Sicel gave way to the Greek (in regard to Syracuse [q.v.] this has recently been proved to be true), while many other towns remained Sicel longer, among them Abacaenum, Agyrium, Assorus, Centuripae, Cephaloedium, Engyum, Hadranum, Halaesa, Henna, Herbessus, Herbita, Hybla Galeatis, Inessa, Kale Akte, Menaenum, Morgantina. The sites of several of these towns are doubtful. SICILY cremation is always present. Typical cemeteries of this period have been found at Licodia Eubea, Ragusa and Grammichele. After the failure of Ducetius to re-establish the Sicel nation- ality, Greek civilization triumphed over that of the Sicels entirely, and it has not yet been possible to trace the survivals of the latter. See Orsi in Romische Mitteilungen, 1898, 305 sqq., and Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche (Rome, April 1903); also Archeologia (Rome, 1904, 167-191). In the north-west corner of the island we find a small territory occupied by a people who seem to have made much greater advances towards civilized life. The Elymi were a people of uncertain origin, but they claimed a mixed descent, partly Trojan, partly Greek. Thucydides, however, unhesitatingly reckons them among barbarians. They had considerable towns, as Segesta and Eryx, and the history, as well as the remains, of Segesta, shows that Greek influences prevailed among them very early, while at Eryx Phoenician influence was stronger. But, as we have already seen, the Greeks were not the first colonizing people who were drawn to the great island. As in Cyprus and in the islands of the Aegean, the Phoenicians were before them. And it is from this presence of the highest forms of Aryan and of Semitic man that the history of Sicily draws its highest interest. Of Phoenician occupation there are Early two> or ratner three, marked periods. We must always Phoenician remember that Carthage — the new city — was one of settle- the latest of Phoenician foundations, and that the days meats. Qf ^e Carthaginian dominion show us only the latest form of Phoenician life. Phoenician settlement in Sicily began before Carthage became great, perhaps before Carthage came into being. A crowd of small settlements from the old Phoenicia, settlements for trade rather than for dominion, factories rather than colonies, grew up on promontories and small islands all round the coast (Thuc. vi. 2). These were unable to withstand the Greek settlers, and the Phoenicians of Sicily withdrew step by step to form three considerable towns in the north-west corner of the island near to the Elymi, on whose alliance they relied, and at the shortest distance by sea from Carthage — Motya, Solous or Soluntum, and Panormus (see PALERMO). Our earlier notices of Sicily, of Sicels and Sicans, in the Homeric poems and elsewhere, are vague and legendary. Both races appear as given to the buying and selling of slaves nreek (QJ xx_ ^83, xxiv. 21). The intimate connexion be- tween old Hellas and Sicily begins with the foundation of the Sicilian Naxos by Chalcidians of Euboea under Theocles, which is assigned to 735 B.C. (Thuc. v. 3-5). The site, a low promontory on the east coast, immediately below the height of Tauromenium, marks an age which had advanced beyond the hill-fortress and which thoroughly valued the sea. The next year Corinth began her system of settlement in the west: Corcyra, the path to Sicily, and Syracuse on the Sicilian coast were planted as parts of one enterprise. From this time, for about 150 years, Greek settlement in the island, with some intervals, goes steadily on. Both Ionian and Dorian colonies were planted, both from the older Greek lands and from the older Sicilian settlements. The east coast, nearest to Greece and richest in good harbours, was occupied first. Here, between Naxos and Syracuse, arose the Ionian cities of Leontini and Catana (728 B.C.), and the Dorian Megara Hyblaea (726 B.C.). Settlement on the south-western coast began about 688 B.C. with the joint Cretan and Rhodian settlement of Gela, and went on in the foundation of Selinus (the most distant Greek city on this side), of Camarina, and in 582 B.C. of the Geloan settlement of Acragas (Agrigentum, Girgenti), planted on a high hill, a little way from the sea, which became the second city of Hellenic Sicily. On the north coast the Ionian Himera (founded in 648 B.C.) was the only Greek city in Sicily itself, but the Cnidians founded Lipara in the Aeolian Islands. At the north-east corner, opposite to Italy, and commanding the strait, arose Zancle, a city of uncertain date (first quarter of the 7th century B.C.) and mixed origin, better known as Messana (Messene, Messina). Thus nearly all the east coast of Sicily, a great part of the south coast, and a much smaller part of the north, passed into the hands of Greek settlers — Siceliots (SiwXuorat), as dis- tinguished from the native Sicels. This was one of the greatest advances ever made by the Greek people. The Greek element began to be predominant in the island. Among the earlier inhabitants the Sicels were already becoming adopted Greeks. Many of them gradually sank into a not wholly unwilling subjec- tion as cultivators of the soil under Greek masters. But there were also independent Sicel towns in the interior, and there was a strong religious intercommunion between the two races. Sicel Henna (Enna, Castrogiovanni) is the special seat of the worship of Demeter and her daughter. The Phoenicians, now shut up in one corner of the island, with Selinus on one side and Himera on the other founded right in their teeth, are bitter enemies; but the time of their renewed greatness under the headship of Carthage Prosperous has not yet come. The 7th century B.C. and thep™;oA early part of the 6th were a time in which the Greek cities of Sicily had their full share in the general prosperity of the Greek colonies everywhere. For a while they outstripped the cities of old Greece. Their political constitutions were aristocratic; that is, the franchise was confined to the descend- ants of the original settlers, round whom an excluded body (ftjjuos or plebs) was often growing .up. The ancient kingship was perhaps kept on or renewed in some of the Siceliot and Italiot towns; but it is more certain that civil dissensions led very early to the rise of tyrants. The most famous if not the first * is Phalaris (q.v.) of Acragas (Agrigentum), whose exact date is uncertain, whose letters are now cast aside, and whose brazen bull has been called in question, but who clearly rose to power very soon after the foundation of Acragas. Under his rule the city at once sprang to the first place in Sicily, and he was the first Siceliot ruler who held dominion over two Greek cities, Acragas and Himera. This time of prosperity was also a time of intellectual progress. To say nothing of lawgivers like Charondas, the line of Siceliot poets began early, and the circumstances of the island, the adoption of many of its local traditions and beliefs — perhaps a certain intermingling of native blood — gave the intellectual life of Sicily a character in some things distinct from that of old Hellas. Stesichorus of Himera (c. 632-556 B.C.) holds a great place among the lyric poets of Greece, and some place in the political history of Sicily as the opponent of Phalaris. The architecture and sculpture of this age have also left some of their most remarkable monu- ments among the Greek cities of Sicily. The remains of the old temples of Selinus, with- their archaic metopes, attributed to the 6th century B.C., show us the Doric style in its earlier state. In this period, too, begins the fine series of Sicilian coins (see NUMISMATICS: Sicily). This first period of Sicilian history lasts as long as Sicily remains untouched from any non-Hellenic quarter outside, and as long as the Greek cities in Sicily remain as a rule independent of one another. A change begins in the 6th century and is accomplished early in the sth. The Phoe- nician settlements in Sicily become dependent on Carthage, whose growing power begins to be dangerous to the Greeks of Sicily. Meanwhile the growth of tyrannies in the Greek cities was beginning to group several towns together under a single master, and thus to increase the greatness of particular cities at the expense of their freedom. Thus Thero of Acragas (488-472), who bears a good character there, acquired also, like Phalaris, the rule of Himera. One such power held dominion both in Italy and Sicily. Anaxilaus of Rhegium, by a long and strange tale of treachery, occupied Zancle and changed its name to Messana. But the greatest of the Siceliot powers, that of the Deinomenid dynasty, began at Gela in 505, and was in 485 translated by Gelo (q.v.) to Syracuse. That city now Og]o became the centre of a greater dominion over both Greeks and Sicels than the island had ever before seen. But Gelo, like several later tyrants of Syracuse, takes his place — and it is the redeeming point in the position of all of them — as ' ' Panaetius of Leontini (608 B.C.) is said to have been the earliest tyrant in Sicily. SICILY the champion of Hellas against the barbarian. The great double invasion of 480 B.C. was planned in concert by the barbarians of the East and the West (Diod. xi. i; schol. on Find., Pyth. i. 146; Grote v. 294). While the Persians threatened old Greece, Carthage threatened the Greeks of Sicily. There were Siceliots who played the part of the Medizers in Greece : Selinus was on the side of Carthage, and the coming of Hamilcar was immediately brought about by a tyrant of Himera driven out by Thero. But the united power of Gelo and Thero, whose daughter Damarete Gelo had married, crushed the invaders in the great battle of Himera, won, men said, on the same day as Salamis, and the victors of both were coupled as the joint deliverers of Hellas (Herod, vii. 165-167; Diod. xx. 20-25; Find. Pyth. i. 147-156; Simonides, fr. 42; Polyaenus i. 27). But, while the victory of Salamis was followed by a long war with Persia, the peace which was now granted to Carthage stayed in force for seventy years. Gelo was followed by his brother Hiero (478-467), the special subject of the songs of Pindar. Acragas meanwhile flourished under Thero; but a war between him and Hiero led to slaughter and new settlement at Himera. These transplantings from city to city began under Gelo and went on under Hiero (q.v.). They made speakers in old Greece (Thuc. vi. 17) contrast the permanence of habitation there with the constant changes in Sicily. None of these tyrannies was long-lived. The power of Thero fell to pieces under his son Thrasydaeus. When the power of Hiero passed in 467 B.C. to his brother Thrasybulus the freedom of Syracuse was won by a combined movement of Greeks and Sicels, and the Greek cities gradually settled down as they had been before the tyrannies, only with a change to democracy in their constitutions. The mercenaries who had received citizenship from the tyrants were settled at Messana. About fifty years of great prosperity followed. Art, science, poetry had all been encouraged by the tyrants. To these was added the special growth of freedom — the art of public speaking, in which the Sicilian Greeks became especially proficient, Corax being the founder of the rhetorical school of Sicily. Epicharmus (540-450), carried as a babe to Sicily, is a link between native Siceliots and the stranger's invited by Hiero; as the founder of the local Sicilian comedy, he ranks among Siceliots. After him Sophron of Syracuse gave the Sicilian mimes a place among the forms of Greek poetry. But the intellect of free Sicily struck out higher paths. Empedocles of Acragas is best known from the legends of his miracles and of his death in the fires of Aetna; but he was not the less philosopher, poet and physician, besides his political career. Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini had a still more direct influence on Greek culture, as father of the technical schools of rhetoric throughout Greece. Architecture too ad- vanced, and the Doric style gradually lost somewhat of its ancient massiveness. The temple at Syracuse, which is now the metro- politan church, belongs to the earlier days of this time. It is followed by the later temples at Selinus, among them the temple of Apollo, which is said to have been the greatest in Sicily, and by the wonderful series at Acragas (see AGRIGENTUM) . During this time of prosperity there was no dread of Carthaginian inroads. Diodorus's account of a war between Segesta and Lilybaeum is open to considerable suspicion. We have, on the other hand, Pausanias's evidence for the exist- ence in his day at Olympia of statues offered by Acragas out of spoil won from Motya, assigned to Calamis, an artist of this period (Freeman ii. 552), and the evidence of contemporary Condition inscriptions (i) for a Selinuntine victory over some un- of siceis known enemy (possibly over Motya also),(2)for dealings *aa between Athens and Segesta with reference to Halicyae, a Sican town. The latter is important as being the first appearance of Athens in Sicily. As early as 480 (Freeman iii. 8) indeed Themistocles seems to have been looking westward. Far more important are our notices of the earlier inhabitants. For now comes the great Sicel movement under Ducetius, who, between force and persuasion, came nearer towards uniting his people into one body than had ever been done before. From his native hill-top of Menae, rising above the lake dedicated to the Palici, the native deities whom Sicels and Greeks alike honoured, he brought down his people to the new city of Palicae in the plain. His power grew, and Acragas could withstand him only by the help of Syracuse. Alternately victorious and defeated, spared by the Syracusans on whose mercy he cast himself as a suppliant (451), sent to be safe at Corinth, he came back to Sicily only to form greater plans than before. War between Acragas and Syracuse, which arose on account of his return, enabled him to carry out his schemes, and, with the help of another Sicel prince of Herbita, who bore the Greek name of Archonides, he founded Kale Akte on the northern coast. But his work was cut short by his death in 440; the hope of the Sicel people now lay in assimilation to their Hellenic neigh-, bours. Ducetius's own foundation of Kale Akte lived on, and we presently hear of Sicel towns under kings and tyrants, all marking an approach to Greek life. Roughly speaking, while the Sicels of the plain country on the east coast became subject to Syracuse, most of those in other parts of the island remained independent. Of the Sicans we hear less; but Hyccara in the north-west was an independent Sican town on bad terms with Segesta. .On the whole, setting aside the impassable barrier between Greek and Phoenician, other distinctions of race within the island were breaking down through the spread of the Hellenic element, but among the Greek cities themselves the distinction between the Dorian and the Ionian or Chalcidian settlements was still keenly felt. Up to this time the Italiot and Siceliot Greeks have formed part of the general Greek world, while within that world they have formed a world of their own, and Sicily has again formed a world of its own within that. Wars and l°te conquests between Greeks and Greeks, especially on the Athens. part of Syracuse, though not wanting, have been on the whole less constant than in old Greece. It is even possible to appeal to a local Sicilian patriotism (Thuc. vi. 64, 74). Presently this state of Sicilian isolation was broken in upon by the great Peloponnesian War. The Siceliot cities were drawn into alliance with one side or the other, till the main interest of Greek history gathers for a while round the Athenian attack on Syracuse. At the very beginning of the war the Lacedaemonians looked for help from the Dorian Siceliots. But the first active inter- vention came from the other side. Conquest in Sicily was a favourite dream at Athens (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR). But it was only in 427 an opportunity for Athenian interference was found in a quarrel between Syracuse and Leontini and their allies. Leontini craved help from Athens on the ground of Ionian kindred. Her envoy was Gorgias; his peculiar style of rhetoric was now first heard in old Greece (Diod. xii. 53, 54), and his pleadings were successful. For several years from this time (427-422) Athens plays a part, chiefly unsuccessful, in Sicilian affairs. .But the particular events are of little import- ance, except as leading the way to the greater events that follow. The far more memorable interference of Athens in Sicilian affairs in the year 415 was partly in answer to the cry of the exiles of Leontini, partly to a quite distinct appeal from the Elymian Segesta. That city, an ally of Athens, asked for Athenian help against its Greek neighbour Selinus. In a dispute, partly about boundaries, partly about the right of intermarriage between the Hellenic and the Hellenizing city, Segesta was hard pressed. She vainly asked for help at Acragas — some say at Syracuse (Diod. xii. 82) — and even at Carthage. The last appeal was to Athens. The details of the great Athenian expedition (415-413) belong partly to the political history of Athens (q.v.), partly to that of Syracuse (q.v.). But its results make it a marked epoch in Sicilian history, and the Athenian plans, if e*i£dlfioa. successful, would have changed the whole face of the West. If the later stages of the struggle were remarkable for the vast number of Greek cities engaged on both sides, and for the strange inversion of relations among them on which Thucydides (vii. 57, 58) comments, the whole war was yet more remarkable for the large entrance of the barbarian element into the Athenian reckonings. The war was undertaken on behalf of Segesta; SICILY 27 the Sicels gave Athens valuable help; the greater barbarian powers out of Sicily also came into play. Some help actually came from Etruria. But Carthage was more far-sighted. If Syracuse was an object of jealousy, Athens, succeeding to her dominion, creating a power too nearly alike to her own, would have provoked far greater jealousy. So Athens found no active support save at Naxos and Catana, though Acragas, if she would not help the invaders, at least gave no help to her own rival. But after the Spartan Gylippus came, almost all the other Greek cities of Sicily were on the side of Syracuse. The war is instruc- tive in many ways. It reminds us of the general conditions of Greek seamanship when we find that Corcyra was the meeting- place for the allied fleet, and that Syracuse was reached only by a coasting voyage along the shores of Greek Italy. We are struck also by the low military level of the Sicilian Greeks. The Syracusan heavy-armed are as far below those of Athens as those of Athens are below those of Sparta. The gwaw-continental character of Sicily causes Syracuse, with its havens and its island, to be looked on, in comparison with Athens, as a land power (Tjirtipwrai, Thuc. vii. 21). That is to say, the Siceliot level represents the general Greek level as it stood before the wars in which Athens won and defended her dominion. The Greeks of Sicily had had no such military practice as the Greeks of old Greece; but an able commander could teach both Siceliot soldiers and Siceliot seamen to out-manoeuvre Athenians. The main result of the expedition, as regards Sicily, was to bring the island more thoroughly into the thick of Greek affairs. Syracuse, threatened with destruction by Athens, was saved by the zeal of her metropolis Corinth in stirring up the Peloponnesian rivals of Athens to help her, and by the advice of Alcibiades after his withdrawal to Sparta. All chance of Athenian dominion in Sicily or elsewhere in the west came to an end. Syracuse repaid the debt by good service to the Peloponnesian cause, and from that time the mutual influence of Sicily and old Greece is far stronger than in earlier times. But before the war in old Greece was over, seventy years after the great victory of Gelo (410), the Greeks of Sicily had to undergo barbarian invasion on a vaster scale than Phoenician ever. The disputes between Segesta and Selinus invasion called in these enemies also. Carthage, after a long under period of abstention from intervention in Sicilian Hannibal. affajrs> ancj tne observance of a wise neutrality during the war between Athens and Syracuse, stepped in as the ally of Segesta, the enemy of her old ally Selinus. Her leader was Hannibal, -grandson and avenger of the Hamilcar who had died at Himera. In 409, at the head of a vast mercenary host, he sailed to Sicily, attacked Selinus (q.v.), and stormed the town after a murderous assault of nine days. Thence he went to Himera, with the object of avenging his grandfather. By this time the other Greek cities were stirred to help, while Sicels and Sicans joined Hannibal. At last Himera was stormed, and 3000 of its citizens were solemnly slaughtered on the spot where Hamilcar had died. Hannibal then returned to Carthage after an absence of three months only. The Phoenician possessions in Sicily now stretched across the island from Himera to Selinus. The next victim was Acragas, against which another expedition sailed in 406 under Hannibal and Himilco; the town was sacked and the walls destroyed. Meanwhile the revolutions of Syracuse affected the history of Sicily and of the whole Greek world. Dionysius (q.v.) the tyrant began his reign of thirty-eight years in the first montns of 4Oj Almost at the same moment, the new Carthaginian commander, Himilco, attacked Gela and Camarina. Dionysius, coming to the help of Gela, was defeated, and was charged (no doubt with good ground) with treachery. He now made the mass of the people of both towns find shelter at Syracuse. But now a peace, no doubt arranged at Gela, was formally concluded (Freeman iii. 587). Carthage was confirmed in her possession of Selinus, Himera and Acragas, with some Sican districts which had opposed her. The people of Gela and Camarina were allowed to occupy their unwalled towns as tributaries of Carthage. Leontini, latterly a Syracusan fort, as Dioaysius well as Messana and all the Sicels, were declared independent, while Dionysius was acknowledged as master of Syracuse (Diodorus xiii. 114). No war was ever more grievous to freedom and civilization. More than half Sicily was now under barbarian dominion; several of its noblest cities had perished, and a tyrant was established in the greatest. The 5th century B. c., after its central years of freedom and prosperity, ended in far deeper darkness than it had begun. The minuter account of Dionysius belongs to Syracusan history; but his position, one unlike anything that had been before seen in. Sicily or elsewhere in Hellas, forms an epoch in the history of Europe. His only bright side is his championship of Hellas against the Phoenician, and this is balanced by his settlements of barbarian mercenaries in several Greek cities. Towards the native races his policy varied according to momentary interests; but on the whole his reign tended to bring the Sicels more and more within the Greek pale. His dominion is Italian as well as Sicilian; his influence, as an ally of Sparta, is important in old Greece; while, as a hirer of mercenaries everywhere, he had wider relations than any earlier Greek with the nations of western Europe. He further opened new fields for Greek settlement on both sides of the Adriatic. In short, under him Sicily became for the first time the seat of a great European power, while Syracuse, as its head, became the greatest of European cities. His reign was unusually long for a Greek tyrant, and his career furnished a model for other rulers and invaders of Sicily. With him in truth begins that wider range of Greek warfare, policy and dominion which the Macedonian kingdoms carry on. The reign of Dionysius (405-367) is divided into marked periods by four wars with Carthage, in 398-397, 392, 383-378 and 368. Before the first war his home power was all but overthrown; he was besieged in Syracuse itself "'*ftwar in 403; but he lived through the storm, and extended Carthage. his dominion over Naxos, Catana and Leontini. All three perished as Greek cities. Catana was the first Siceliot city to receive a settlement of Campanian mercenaries, while others settled in non-Hellenic Entella. Naxos was settled by Sicels; Leontini was again merged in Syracuse. Now begin the dealings of Dionysius with Italy, where the Rhegines, kinsmen of Naxos and Catana, planned a fruitless attack on him in common with Messana. He then sought a wife at Rhegium, but was refused with scorn, while Locri gladly gave him Doris. The two cities afterwards fared accordingly. In the first war with Carthage the Greek cities under Carthaginian dominion or dependence helped him; so did Sicans and Sicels, which last had among them some stirring leaders; Elymian Segesta clave to Carthage. Dionysius took the Phoenician stronghold of Motye; but Himilco recovered it, destroyed Messana, founded the hill-town of Tauromenium above Naxos for Sicels who had joined him, defeated the fleet of Dionysius off Catana and besieged Syracuse. Between invasion and home discontent, the tyrant was all but lost; but the Spartan Pharacidas stood his friend; the Carthaginians again suffered from pestilence in the marshes of Lysimelia; and after a masterly combined attack by land and sea by Dionysius Himilco went away utterly defeated, taking with him his Carthaginian troops and forsaking his allies. Gela, Camarina, Himera, Selinus, Acragas itself, became subject allies of Dionysius. The Carthaginian dominion was cut down to what it had been before Hannibal's invasion. Dionysius then planted mercenaries at Leontini, conquered some Sicel towns, Henna among them, and made alliances with others. He restored Messana, peopling it with motley settlers, among whom were some of the old Messenians from Peloponnesus. But the Spartan masters of the old Messenian land grudged this possible beginning of a new Messenian power. Dionysius therefore moved his Messenians to a point on the north coast, where they founded Tyndaris. He clearly had a special eye to that region. He took the Sicel Cephaloedium (Cefalii), and even the old Phoenician border-fortress of Solous was betrayed to him. He beat back a Rhegine expedition; but his advance was checked by a failure to take the new Sicel settlement of Tauro- menium. His enemies of all races now declared themselves. SICILY Many of the Sicels forsook him; Acragas declared herself independent ; Carthage herself again took the field. The Carthaginian war of 392-391 was not very memorable. Both sides failed in their chief enterprises, and the main interest of the story comes from the glimpses which we get of the Sicel states. Most of them joined the Carthaginian leader Mago; but he was successfully withstood at Agyrium by Agyris, the ally of Dionysius, who is described as a tyrant second in power to Dionysius himself. This way of speaking would imply that Agyrium had so far advanced in Greek ways as to run the usual course of a Greek commonwealth. The two tyrants drove Carthage to a peace by which she abandoned all her Sicel allies to Dionysius. This time he took Tauromenium and settled it with his mercenaries. For new colonists of this kind the established communities of all races were making way. Former transportations had been movements of Greeks from one Greek site to another. Now all races are confounded. Dionysius, now free from Phoenician warfare, gave his mind to enterprises which raised his power to its greatest height. In the years 390-387 he warred against the Italiot cities in alliance with their Lucanian enemies. Rhegium, Croton, the whole toe of the boot, were conquered. Their lands were given to Locri; their citizens were taken to Syracuse, sometimes as slaves, sometimes as citizens. The master of the barbarians fell below the lowest Hellenic level when he put the brave Rhegine general Phyton to a lingering death, and in other cases imitated the Carthaginian cruelty of crucifixion. Conqueror of southern Italy, he turned his thoughts yet further, and became the first ruler of Sicily to stretch forth his hands towards the eastern peninsula. In the Adriatic he helped Hellenic extension, desiring no doubt to secure the important trade route into central Europe. He planted directly and indirectly some settlements in Apulia, while Syracusan exiles founded the more famous Ancona. He helped the Parians in their settlements of Issa and Pharos; he took into his pay Illyrian warriors with Greek arms, and helped the Molossian Alcetas to win back part of his kingdom. He was even charged with plotting with his Epirot ally to plunder Delphi. This even Sparta would not endure; Dionysius had to content himself with sending a fleet along the west coast of Italy, to carry off the wealth of the great temple of Caere. In old Greece men now said that the Greek folk was hemmed in between the barbarian Artaxerxes on the one side and Dionysius, master and planter of barbarians, on the other. These feelings found expression when Dionysius sent his embassy to the Olympic games of 384, and when Lysias bade Greece rise against both its oppressors. Dionysius vented his wrath on those who were nearest to him, banishing many, among them his brother Leptines and his earliest friend Philistus, and putting many to death. He was also once more stirred up to play the part of a Hellenic champion in yet another Punic war. In this war (383-378) Dionysius seems for once to have had his head turned by a first success. His demand that Carthage should altogether withdraw from Sicily was met by a crushing defeat. Then came a treaty by which Carthage kept Selinus and part of the land of Acragas. The Halycus became the boundary. Dionysius had also to pay 1000 talents, which caused him to be spoken of as becoming tributary to the bar- barians. In the last years of his reign we hear dimly of both Syracusan and Carthaginian operations in southern Italy. He also gave help to Sparta against Thebes, sending Gaulish and Iberian mercenaries to take part in Greek warfare. His last war with Carthage, which began with an invasion of western Sicily, and which was going on at his death in 367 B.C., was ended by a peace by which the Halycus remained the boundary. The tyranny of Dionysius fell, as usual, in the second genera- tion; but it was kept up for ten years after his death by the energy of Philistus, now minister of his son Dionysius the Younger. It fell with the coming back of the exile Dion in 357. The tyranny had lasted so long that it was less easy than at the overthrow of the elder tyrants to fall back on an earlier state of things. It had been a time of frightful changes throughout Sicily, full of breaking Dion. up of old landmarks, of confusion of races, and of movements of inhabitants. But it also saw the foundation of new cities. Besides Tyndaris and Tauromenium, . the foundation of Halaca marks another step in Sicel progress towards Hellenism, while the Carthaginians founded their strong town and fortress of Lilybaeum in place of Motya. Among these changes the most marked is the settle- ment of Campanian mercenaries in Greek and Sicel towns. Yet they too could be brought under Greek influences; they were distant kinsfolk of the Sicels, and the forerunners of Rome. They mark one stage of migration from Italy into Sicily. The reign of Dionysius was less brilliant in the way of art and literature than that of Hiero. Yet Dionysius himself sought fame as a poet, and his success at Athens shows that his compositions did not deserve the full scorn of his enemies. The dithyrambic poet Philoxenus, by birth of Cythera, won his fame in Sicily, and other authors of lost poems are mentioned in various Siceliot cities. One of the greatest losses in all Greek history is thatjof the writings of Philistus (436-356), the Syracusan who had seen the Athenian siege and who died in the warfare between Dion and the younger Dionysius. Through the time of both tyrants, he was, next to the actual rulers, the first man in Sicily; but of his record of his own times we have only what filters through the recasting of Diodorus. But the most remark- able intellectual movement in Sicily at this time was the influence of the Pythagorean philosophy, which still lived on in southern Italy. It led, through Dion, to the several visits of Plato to Sicily under both the elder and the younger Dionysius. The time following the Dionysian tyranny was at Syracuse a time full of the most stirring local and personal interest, under her two deliverers Dion and Timoleon. It is less easy _. to make out the exact effect on the rest of Sicily of the three years' career of Dion. Between the death of Dion in 354 and the coming of Timoleon in 344 we hear of a time of confusion in which Hellenic life seemed likely to die out. The cities, Greek and Sicel, were occupied by tyrants. The work of Timoleon (q.v.), whose headquarters were first at Tauromenium, then at Hadranum, was threefold — the immediate deliverance of Syracuse, the restoration of Sicily in general to freedom and Greek life, and the defence of the Greek cities against Carthage. The great victory of the Crimissus in 339 led to a peace with Carthage with the old frontier; but all Greek cities were to be free, and Carthage was to give no help to any tyrant. Timoleon drove out all the tyrants, and it specially marks the fusion of the two races that the people of the Sicel Agyrium were admitted to the citizenship of free Syracuse. From some towns he drove out the Campanians, and he largely invited Greek settlement, especially from the Italiot towns, which were hard pressed by the Bruttians. The Corinthian deliverer gave, not only Syracuse, but all Greek Sicily, a new lease of life, though a short one. We have unluckily no intelligible account of Sicily during the twenty years after the death of Timoleon (337-317). His deliverance is said to have been followed by great immediate prosperity, but wars and dissensions very soon began again. The Carthaginians played off one city and party against another, and Agathocles,1 following the same policy, became in 317, by treachery and massacre, undis- puted tyrant of Syracuse, and spread his dominion over many other cities. Acragas, strengthened by Syracusan exiles, now stands out again as the rival of Syracuse. The Carthaginian Hamilcar won many Greek cities to the Punic alliance. Agathocles, however, with Syracuse blockaded by a Carthaginian fleet, formed the bold idea of carrying the war into Africa. For more than three years (310-307) each side carried on warfare in the land of the other. Carthage was hard pressed by Agathocles, while Syracuse was no [less hard pressed by Hamilcar. The force with which Agathocles invaded Africa was far from being wholly Greek; but it was representatively European. Gauls, Samnites, Tyrrhenians, fought for him, while mercenary Greeks and Syracusan exiles fought for Carthage. He won many battles and towns; he quelled mutinies of his own 1 See Tillyard, Agathocles (1908) SICILY 29 troops; by inviting and murdering Ophelias, lord of Cyrene, he doubled his army and brought Carthage near to despair. Meanwhile Syracuse, all but lost, had driven back Hamilcar, and had taken him prisoner in an unsuccessful attack on Euryelus, and slain him when he came again with the help of the Syracusan exile Deinocrates. Meanwhile Acragas, deeming Agathocles and the barbarians alike weakened, proclaimed freedom for the Sicilian cities under her own headship. Many towns, both Greek and Sicel, joined the confederacy. It has now become impossible to distinguish the two races; Henna and Herbessus are now the fellows of Camarina and Leontini. But the hopes of Acragas perished when Agathocles came back from Africa, landed at Selinus, and marched to Syracuse, taking one town after another. A new scheme of Sicilian union was taken up by Deinocrates, which cut short his dominion. But he now relieved Syracuse from the Carthaginian blockade; his mer- cenaries gained a victory over Acragas; and he sailed again for Africa, where fortune had turned against his son Archagathus, as it now did against himself. He left his sons and his army to death, bondage or Carthaginian service, and came back to Sicily almost alone. Yet he could still gather a force which enabled him to seize Segesta, to slay or enslave the whole population, and to settle the city with new inhabitants. This change amounts to the extinction of one of the elements in the old population of Sicily. We hear no more of Elymi; indeed Segesta has been practically Greek long before this. Deinocrates and Agathocles came to a kind of partnership in 304, and a peace with Carthage, with the old boundary, secured Agathocles in the possession of Syracuse and eastern Sicily (301). At some stage of his African campaigns Agathocles had taken the title of king. Earlier tyrants were well pleased to be spoken of as kings; but no earlier rulers of Sicily put either their heads or their names on the coin. Agathocles now put his name, first without, and then with, the kingly title, though never his own likeness — Hiero II. was the first to do this. This was in imitation of the Macedonian leaders who divided the dominion of Alexander. The relations between the eastern and western Greek worlds are drawing closer. Agathocles in his old age took a wife of the house of Ptolemy; he gave his daughter Lanassa to Pyrrhus, and established his power east of Hadria, as the first Sicilian ruler of Corcyra. Alike more daring and more cruel than any ruler before him, he made the island the seat of a greater power than any of them. On the death of Agathocles tyrants sprang up in various cities. Acragas, under its king Phintias, won back for the Period moment somewhat of its old greatness. By a new after depopulation of Gela, he founded the youngest of Agatho- Siceliot cities, Phintias, by the mouth of the southern des. Himera. And Hellas was cut short by the seizure of Messana by the disbanded Campanian mercenaries of Agathocles (c. 282), who proclaimed themselves a new people in a new city by the name of Mamertines, children of Mamers or Mars. Messana became an Italian town — " Mamertina civitas." The Campanian occupation of Messana is the first of the chain of events which led to the Roman dominion in Sicily. As Pvrrhus ye' R°me nas hardly been mentioned in Sicilian story. The Mamertine settlement, the war with Pyrrhus, bring us on quickly. Pyrrhus (q.v.) came as the champion of the western Greeks against all barbarians, whether Romans in Italy or Carthaginians in Sicily. His Sicilian war (278-276)' was a mere interlude between the two acts of his war with Rome. As son-in-law of Agathocles, he claimed to be specially king of Sicily, and he held the Sicilian conquest of Corcyra as the dowry of Lanassa. With such a deliverer, deliverance meant submission. Pyrrhus is said to have dreamed of kingdoms of Sicily and of Italy for his two sons, the grandsons of Agathocles, and he himself reigned for two years in Sicily as a king who came to be no less hated than the tyrants. Still as Hellenic champion in Sicily he has no peer. The Greek king, on his way back to fight for Tarentum against Rome, had to cut his way through Carthaginians and Mamertines 1 For the ensuing years cf. ROME: History, II. "The Republic." in Roman alliance. His saying that he left Sicily as a wrestling- ground for Romans and Carthaginians was the very truth of the matter. Very soon came the first war between Rome and Carthage (the " First Punic War "). It mattered much, now that Sicily was to have a barbarian master, whether that master should be the kindred barbarian of Europe or the bar- barian of Asia transplanted to the shore of Africa. Sicily in truth never had a more hopeful champion than Hiero II. of Syracuse. The established rule of Carthage in western Sicily was now something that could well be tHentti endured alongside of the robber commonwealth at Messana. The dominion of the freebooters was spreading. Besides the whole north-eastern corner of the island, it reached inland to Agyrium and Centoripa. The Mamertines leagued with other Campanian freebooters who had forsaken the service of Rome to establish themselves at Rhegium. But a new Syracusan power was growing up to meet them. Hiero, claiming descent from Gelo, pressed the Mamertines hard. He all but drove them to the surrender of Messana; he even helped Rome to chastise her own rebels at Rhegium. The wrestling-ground was thus opened for the two barbarian commonwealths. Car- thaginian troops held the Messanian citadel against Hiero, while another party in Messana craved the help of the head of Italy. Rome, chastiser of the freebooters of Rhegium, saw Italian brethren in the freebooters of Messana. The exploits of Hiero had already won him the kingly title (270) at Syracuse, and he was the representative of Hellenic life and independence throughout the island. Partly in this char- acter, partly as direct sovereign, he was virtual ruler of a large part of eastern Sicily. But he could not aspire to the dominion of earlier Syracusan rulers. The advance of Rome after the retreat of Pyrrhus kept the new king from all hope of their Italian position. And presently the new kingdom exchanged independence for safety. When Rome entered Sicily as the ally of the Mamertines, Hiero became the ally of Carthage. But in the second year of the war (263) he found it needful to change sides. His alliance with Rome marks a great epoch in the history of the Greek nation. The kingdom of Hiero was the first-fruits out of Italy of the system by which alliance with Rome grew into subjection to Rome. He was the first of Rome's kingly vassals. His only burthen was to give help to the Roman side in war; within his kingdom he was free, and his dominions flourished as no part of Sicily had flourished since the days of Timoleon. During the twenty-three years of the First Punic War (264- 241) the rest of the island suffered greatly. The war for Sicily was fought in and round Sicily, and the Sicilian cities were taken and retaken by the contending powers (see PUNIC WARS). The highest calling of the Greek had now, in the western lands, passed to the Roman. By the treaty which ended the war in 241 Carthage ceded to Rome all her possessions in Sicily. As that part of the island which kept a national Greek government became the first kingdom dependent on Rome, so the share of BiC< Carthage became the first Roman province. Messana alone remained an Italian ally of Rome on Sicilian soil. We have no picture of Sicily in the first period of Roman rule. One hundred and seventy years later, several towns within the original province enjoyed various degrees of freedom, which they had doubtless kept from the beginning. Panormus, Segesta, with Centoripa, Halesa and Halikye, once Sicel but now Hellenized, kept the position of free cities (liberae et immunes, Cic. Verr. iii. 6). The rest paid tithe to the Roman people as landlord. The province was ruled by a praetor sent yearly from Rome. It formed, as it had even from the Carthaginian period, a closed customs district. Within the Roman province the new state of things called forth much discontent; but Hiero remained the faithful ally of Rome through a long life. On his death (216) and the accession of his grandson Hieronymus, his dynasty was swept away by the last revolution of Greek Syracuse. The result was revolt against Rome, the great siege and capture of the city, the addition of Hiero's kingdom to the war. SICILY Roman province. Two towns only, besides Messana, which had taken the Roman side, Tauromenium and Netos, were admitted to the full privileges of Roman alliance. Tauromenium indeed was more highly favoured than Messana. Rome had a right to demand ships of Messana, but not of Tauromenium. Some towns were destroyed; the people of Henna were massacred. Acragas, again held for Carthage, was for four years (214-210) the centre of an active campaign. The story of Acragas ended in plunder, slaughter and slavery; three years later, the story of Agrigentum began. The reign of Hiero was the last time of independent Greek culture in Sicily. His time marks the growth of a new form of local Sicilian genius. The spread of Hellenic culture among the Sicels had in return made a Greek home for many Sicel beliefs, traditions and customs. Bucolic poetry is the native growth of Sicily; in the hands of Theocritus it grew out of the germs supplied by Epicharmus and Sophron into a distinct and finished form of the art. The poet, himself of Syracuse, went to and fro between the courts of Hiero and Ptolemy Philadelphus; but his poetry is essentially Sicilian. So is that of his successors, both the Syracusan Moschus and Bion of Smyrna, who came to Sicily as to his natural school. With the incorporation of the kingdom of Hiero into the Roman province independent Sicilian history comes to an end for many ages. In one part of the island the SRomaa Roman people stepped into the position of Carthage, in another part into that of King Hiero. The allied cities kept their several terms of alliance; the free cities kept their freedom; elsewhere the land paid to the Roman people, accord- ing to the law of Hiero, the tithe which it had paid to Hiero. But, as the tithe was let out to publicani, oppression was easy. The praetor, after the occupation of Syracuse, dwelled there in the palace of Hiero, as in the capital of the island. But, as a survival of the earlier state of things, one of his two quaestors was quartered at Eryx, the other being in attendance on himself. Under the supreme dominion of Rome even the unprivileged cities kept their own laws, magistrates and assemblies, provision being made for suits between Romans and Sicilians and between Sicilians of different cities (Verr. ii. 16). In Latin the one name Siculi takes in all the inhabitants of the island; no distinction is drawn between Greek and Sicel, or even between Greek and Phoenician cities. It is assumed that all Siculi are Greeks (Verr. ii. 3, 29, 49, 52, 65; iii. 37, 40, 73). Even in Greek, 2tKeXoi is now sometimes used instead of Si/ceXuoroi. All the persons spoken of by Cicero have Greek names save — a most speaking exception — Gaius Heius of Mamertina civitas. Inscriptions too from Sicel and Phoenician cities are commonly Greek, even when they commemorate men with Phoenician names, coupled perhaps with Greek surnames. The process of Hellenization which had been so long going on had at last made Sicily thoroughly Greek. Roman conquest itself, which everywhere carried a Greek element with it, would help this result. The corn of the fertile island was said even then to feed the Roman people. It was this character of Sicily which led to its one frightful piece of local history. The wars of Rome, and the systematic piracy and kidnapping that followed them, filled the Mediter- ranean lands with slaves of all nations. Sicily stood out before the rest as the first land to be tilled by slave-gangs, on the estates both of rich natives and of Roman settlers. It became the granary of Rome and the free population naturally degenerated and died out. The slaves were most harshly treated, and even encouraged by their masters to rob. The land was full of disorder, and the praetors shrank from enforcing the law against offenders, many of whom, as Roman knights, might be their own judges. Of these causes came the two great slave- revolts of the second half of the 2nd century B.C. The first lasted from 134 to 132, the time of Tiberius Gracchus and the fall of Numantia. Enna and Tauromenium were the headquarters of the revolt. The second (the centre of which was Triocala, the modern S. Anna, 9 m. N.E. of Sciacca) lasted from 102 to 99, the time of the Cimbrian invasion. At other times the power of Rome might have quelled the revolt more speedily. Slave revolts. The slave wars were not the only scourge that fell on Sicily. The pirates troubled the coast, and all other evils were out- done by the three years' government of Verres (73-70 Later B.C.). Besides the light which the great impeachment Roman throws on the state of the island, his administration rule la seems really to have dealt a lasting blow to its Sicily. prosperity. The slave wars had not directly touched the great cities; Verres plundered and impoverished everywhere, re- moving anything of value, especially works of art, that took his fancy, and there is hardly a city that had not to complain of what it suffered at his hands. Another blow was the occupation of Messana by Sextus Pompeius in 43 B.C. He was master of Sicily for seven years, and during this period the corn supply of Rome was seriously affected, while Strabo (vi. 2, 4) attributed to this war the decayed state of several cities. To undo this mischief Augustus planted Roman colonies at Palermo, Syracuse, Tauromenium, Thermae, Tyndaris and Catana. The island thus received another Italian infusion; but, as elsewhere, Latin in no way displaced Greek; it was simply set up alongside of it for certain purposes. Roman tastes now came in; Roman buildings, especially amphitheatres, arose. The Mamertines were Roman citizens, and Netum, Centuripae and Segesta had become Latin, perhaps by a grant of Caesar himself, but in any case before the concession of Latin rights to the rest of Sicily; this was followed by M. Antonius's grant of full citizenship to the whole island. But Sicily never became thoroughly Roman; no roads were constructed, so that not a single Roman milestone has been found in the whole island. In the division of provinces between Augustus and the senate, Sicily fell to the latter. Under the empire it has practically no history. Few emperors visited Sicily; Hadrian was there, as everywhere, in A.D. 126, and ascended Etna, and Julian also (C.D. 10). In its provincial state Sicily fell back more than some other provinces. Ausonius could still reckon Catana and fourfold Syracuse (" quadruplices Syracusas ") among the noble cities; but Sicily is not, like Gaul, rich in relics of later Roman life, and it is now Egypt rather than Sicily that feeds Rome. The island has no internal history beyond a very characteristic fact, a third revolt of slaves and bandits, which was quelled with difficulty in the days of Gallienus. External history there could be none in the central island, with no frontier open to Germans or Persians. There was a single Prankish attack under Probus (276-282). In the division of Constantine, when the word " province " had lost its meaning, when Italy itself was mapped out into provinces, Sicily became one of these last. Along with Africa, Raetia and western Illyricum, it became part of the Italian praefecture; along with the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, it became part of the Italian diocese. It was now ruled by a corrector, afterwards by a consular under the authority of the vicar of the Roman city (Not. Imp. 14, 5). Sicilian history began again when the wandering of the nations planted new powers, not on the frontier of the empire, but at its heart. The powers between which Sicily now passed to and fro were Teutonic powers. The masters earlier stages of Teutonic advance could not touch Sicily. Alaric thought of a Sicilian expedition, but a storm hindered him. Sicily was to be reached only by a Teutonic power which made its way through Gaul, Spain and Africa. The Vandal now dwelt at Carthage instead of the Canaanite. Gaiseric (429-477) subdued the great islands for which Roman and Phoenician had striven. Along with Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Isles, Sicily was again a possession of a naval power at Carthage. Gaiseric made a treaty with Odoacer almost like that which ended the First Punic War. He gave up (Victor Vitensis i. 4) the island on condition of a tribute, which was hardly paid by Theodoric. Sicily was now ruled by a Gothic count, and the Goths claimed to have treated the land with special tenderness (Procopius, Bell. Goth. iii. 16). The island, like the rest of Theodoric's dominions, was certainly well looked after by the great king and his minister; yet we hear darkly of disaffection to Gothic rule (Cass. Var. i. 3). Theodoric gave back Lilybaeum to the Vandal king Thrasamund as the dowry SICILY of his sister Analafrida (Proc. Bell. Vand. i. 8). Yet Lilybaeum was a Gothic possession when Belisarius, conqueror of Africa, demanded it in vain as part of the Vandal possessions (Proc. Bell. Vand. ii. 5; Bell. Goth. i. 3). In the Gothic war Sicily was the first land to be recovered for the empire, and that with the good will of its people (535). Panormus alone was stoutly defended by its Gothic garrison. In 550 Totila took some fortresses, but the great cities all withstood him, and the Goths were driven out the next year. Sicily was thus won back to the Roman dominion. Belisarius Sicily was Pyrrhus and Marcellus in one. For 430 years under the some part of Sicily, for 282 years the whole of it, Eastern again remained a Roman province. To the Gothic Empire. count again succeeded, under Justinian, a Roman praetor, in Greek orpariiyos. That was the official title; we often hear of a patrician of Sicily, but patrician (q.v.) was in strictness a personal rank. In the later mapping out of the empire into purely military divisions, the theme (0eyua) of Sicily took in both the island and the nearest peninsula of the mainland, the oldest Italy. The island itself was divided for financial purposes, almost as in the older times, into the two divisions of Syracuse and Lilybaeum. The revolutions of Italy hardly touched a land which looked steadily to the eastern Rome as its head. The Lombard and Prankish masters of the peninsula never fixed themselves in the island. When the Frank took the imperial crown of the west, Sicily still kept its allegiance to the Augustus who reigned at Constantinople, and was only torn away piecemeal from the empire by the next race of conquerors. This connexion of Sicily with the eastern division of the empire no doubt largely helped to keep up Greek life in the Efcksi- island. This was of course strengthened by union with astical a power which had already a Greek side, and where the relations Greek side soon became dominant. Still the connexion with Italy. ^^ Italy was close, especially the ecclesiastical connexion. Some things tend to make Sicily look less Greek than it really was. The great source of our knowledge of Sicily in the century which followed the reconquest by Beli- sarius is the Letters of Pope Gregory the Great, and they naturally show the most Latin side of things. The merely official use of Latin was, it must be remembered, common to Sicily with Constantinople. Gregory's Letters are largely occupied with the affairs of the great Sicilian estates held by the Roman church, as by the churches of Milan and Ravenna. But they deal with many other matters. Saint Paul's visit to Syracuse naturally gave rise to many legends; but the Christian church undoubtedly took early root in Sicily. We hear of Manichaeans (C.D. 163); Jews were plentiful, and Gregory causes compensation to be made for the unlawful destruction of synagogues. Many Christian catacombs and Byzantine rock-cut villages, churches and tombs have been explored of recent years. See the compre- hensive work by the late J. Fiihrer and V. Schultze, " Die altchristlichen Grabstatte Siziliens " (Berlin, 1907, Jahrbuch des K.D. archdologischen Insiiluts, Erganzungsheft vii.): and several articles by P. Orsi in the Notizie degli scavi, and in Byzantinische Zeitschrift (1898, i; 1899, 613). Of paganism we find no trace, save that pagan slaves, doubtless not natives of the island, were held by Jews (C.D. 127). Herein is a contrast between Sicily and Sardinia, where, according to a letter from Gregory to the empress Constantina, wife of the emperor Maurice (594-595), praying for a lightening of taxation in both islands, paganism still lingered (C.D. 121). Sicily belonged to 77 829 tne Latin patriarchate; but we already (C.D. 103) see glimmerings of the coming disputes between the Eastern and Western Churches. Things were changed when Leo the Isaurian confiscated the Sicilian and Calabrian estates of the Roman Church (Theoph. i. 631). In the gth, loth and nth centuries the old drama of Sicily was acted again. The island is again disputed between Europe and Asia, transplanted to Africa between Greek and Semitic dwellers on her own soil. Panormus and Syracuse are again the headquarters of races and creeds, of creeds yet more than Saracen conquest. of races. The older religious differences were small compared with the strife for life and death between Christendom and Islam. Gregory and Mahomet were contemporaries, and, though Saracen occupation did not begin in Early Sicily till more than two centuries after Gregory's inroads. death, Saracen inroads began much sooner. In 655 (Theoph. i. 532) part of Sicily was plundered, and its inhabitants carried to Damascus. Then came the strange episode of the visit of Constans II. (641-668), the first emperor, it would seem, who had set foot in Sicily since Julian. After a war with the Lombards, after twelve days' plunder of Rome, he came on to Syracuse, where his oppressions led to his murder in 668. Sicily now saw for the first time the setting up of a tyrant in the later sense. Mezetius, commander of the Eastern army of Constans, revolted, but Sicily and Roman Italy kept their allegiance to the new emperor Constantine Pogonatus, who came in person to destroy him. Then came another Saracen inroad from Alexandria, in which Syracuse was sacked (Paul. Diac. v. 13). Towards the end of the 8th century, though Sicily itself was untouched, its patricians and their forces play a part in the affairs of southern Italy as enemies of the Frankish power. Charlemagne himself was believed (Theoph. i. 736) to have designs on Sicily; but, when it came to Saracen invasion, the sympathies of both pope and Caesar lay with the invaded Christian land (Mon. Car. 323, 328). In 813 a peace for ten years was made between the Saracens and the patrician Gregory. A few years after it expired Saracen settlement in the island began. About this time Crete was seized by Spanish adventurers. But the first Saracen settlers in Sicily were the African neighbours of Sicily, and they were called to the work by a home treason. The story has been tricked out with many romantic details (Chron. Salem. 60, ap. Pertz, iii. 498; Theoph. Cent. ii. 272; George Cedrenus, ii. 97); but it seems plain that Euphemius or Euthymius of Syracuse, supported by his own citizens, revolted against Michael the Stammerer (820-829), and, when defeated by an imperial army, asked help of Ziyadet Allah, the Aghlabite prince of Ifairawan, and offered to hold the island of him. The struggle of 138 years now began. Euphemius, a puppet emperor, was led about by his Saracen allies much as earlier puppet emperors had been led about by Alaric and Ataulf, till he was slain in one of the many sieges. The second Semitic conquest of Sicily began in 827 at Mazzara on the old border of Greek and Phoenician. The advance of the invaders was slow. In two years all that was done was to occupy Mazzara and Mineum — the old Menae cf Ducetius — strange points certainly to begin with, and seemingly to destroy Agrigentum, well used to destruction. Attacks on Syracuse failed; so did attacks on Henna — Caslrum Ennae, now changing into Caslrum Johannis (perhaps Kaorpo- Lavvrj), Castrogiovanni. The actual gain was small; but the invaders took seizin alike of the coast and of the island. A far greater conquest followed when new invaders came from Spain and when Theodotus was killed in 830. The next year Panormus pased away for ever from Roman, for 230 years from Christian, rule. Syracuse was for fifty years, not only, as of old, the bulwark of Europe, but the bulwark of Christendom. By the conquest of Panormus the Saracens were firmly rooted in the island. It became the seat of the amir or lord of Sicily. We hear dimly of treasonable dealings with them on the part of the strategos Alexius, son-in-law of the emperor Theophilus; but we see more clearly that Saracen advance was largely hindered by dissensions between the African and the Spanish settlers. In the end the Moslem conquests in Sicily became an Aghlabite principality owning at best a formal superiority in the princes of ijairawan. With the Saracen occupation begins a new division of the island, which becomes convenient in tracing the progress of Saracen conquest. This is into three valleys, known in later forms of language as Val di Mazzara or Mazza in the N.W., Val di Noto in the S.E. and Val Demone (a name of uncertain origin) in the N.E. (see Amari, Musulmani in Sicilia, i. 465). The first Saracen settlement 829-1060. SICILY of Val di Mazzara answers roughly to the old Carthaginian possessions. From Panormus the amir or lord of Sicily, Mahommed ibn Abdallah, sent forth his plunderers throughout Sicily and even into southern Italy. There, however, they made no lasting settlements. The chief work of the next ten years was the conquest of the Val di Noto, but the first great advance was made elsewhere. In 843 the Saracens won the Mamertine city, Messana, and thus stood in the path between Italy and Sicily. Then the work of conquest, as described by the Arabic writers, went on, but slowly. At last, in 859, the very centre of the island, the strong- hold of Henna, was taken, and the main part of Val di Noto followed. But the divisions among the Moslems helped the Christians; they won back several towns, and beat off all attacks on Syracuse and Tauromenium. It is strange that the reign of Basil the Macedonian (867), a time of such renewed vigour in the empire, was the time of the greatest of all losses in Sicily. In Italy the imperial frontier largely advanced; in Sicily imperial fleets threatened Panormus. But in 875 the accession of Ibrahim ibn Ahmad in Africa changed the face of things. The amir in Sicily, Ja'far ibn Ahmad, received strict orders to act vigorously against the eastern towns. In 877 began the only successful Semitic siege of Syracuse. The next year the city passed for the first time under the yoke of strangers to the fellowship of Europe. Thus in fifty-one years the imperial and Christian territory in Sicily was cut down to a few points on or near the eastern coast, to the Val Demone in short without Messana. But between Moslem dissension and Christian valour the struggle had still to be waged for eighty-seven years. Henna had been the chief centre of Christian resistance a generation earlier; its place was now taken by the small fort of Rametta not far from Messina. The Moslems of Sicily were busy in civil wars; Arabs fought against Berbers, both against the African overlord. In 900 Panormus had to be won by a son of Ibrahim from Moslem rebels provoked by his father's cruelty. But when Ibrahim himself came into Sicily, renewed efforts against the Christians led to the first taking of Tauromenium (908), of Rametta and of other points. The civil war that followed his death, the endless revolutions of Agrigentum, where the weaker side did not scruple to call in Christian help, hindered any real Saracen occupation of eastern Sicily. The emperors never gave up their claims to Sicily or their hopes of recovering it. Besides the struggle with the Christians in the island, there was often direct warfare between the empire and the Saracens; but such warfare was more active in Italy than in Sicily. In 956 a peace or truce was made by the emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. A few years later, Otho the Great, the restorer of the Western empire, looked to Sicily as a land to be won back for Christendom. It had not yet wholly passed away; but the day soon came. Strange to say, as Syracuse fell in the reign of Basil the Mace- donian, the Saracen occupation was completed in the reign of Nikephoros Phokas (Nicephorus Phocas), the deliverer of Crete. In the year of his accession (963) Tauromenium was taken, and became for a hundred years a Mahommedan possession. Rametta was the last stronghold to fall (965). Thus in 138 years the Arab did what the Canaanite had never done. The whole island was a Semitic, that is a Mahommedan, possession. Yet the complete Saracen possession of Sicily may seem a thing of a moment. Its first and longest period lasted only 73 years. In that time Mahommedan Sicily was threatened by a Western emperor; the Arabic writers claim Kecoa- tne Saracen army by which Otho II. was beaten back quest by in 982 as a Sicilian army. A mightier enemy was Eastern threatening in the East. Basil II. planned the recovery Empire. of gjcjjy jn gOO(j earnest. In 1027 he sent a great army ; but his death stopped their progress before they reached the island. But the great conqueror had left behind him men trained in his school, and eleven years later the eagles of the new Rome again marched to Sicilian victories. The ravages of the Sicilian Saracens in the Greek islands were more frightful than ever, and George Maniaces, the first captain of his time, la 1038. was sent to win back the lost land. He too was helped by Saracen dissensions. The amir Abul-afar became a Roman vassal, and, like Alaric of old, became magister militum in the Roman army. His brother and rival Abuhaf as brought help from Africa; and finally all joined against the Christians. Four years of Christian victory (1038-1042) followed. In the host of Maniaces were men of all races — Normans, who had already begun to show themselves in south Italy, and the Varangian guard, the best soldiers of the empire, among whom Harold Hardrada himself is said to have held a place. Town after town was delivered, first Messana, then Syracuse, then a crowd of others. The exact extent of the reconquest is uncertain ; Byzantine writers claim the deliverance of the whole island; but it is certain that the Saracens never lost Panormus. But court influence spoiled everything: Maniaces was recalled; under his successor Stephen, brother-in-law of the emperor Michael, the Saracens won back what they had lost. Messana alone held out, for how long a time is uncertain. But a con- queror came who had no empresses to thwart him. In 1060 began the thirty years' work of the first Roger. Thus for 263 years the Christian people of some part or other of Sicily were in subjection to Moslem masters. But that subjection differed widely in different times and places. gictty The land was won bit by bit. One town was taken under by storm; another submitted on terms harsher or Saracen more favourable. The condition of the Christians ruje' varied from that of personal slaves to that of communities left free on the payment of tribute. The great mass were in the intermediate state usual among the non-Mahommedan subjects of a Mahommedan power. The dhimmi of Sicily were in essentially the same case as the rayahs of the Turk. While the conquest was going on, the towns that remained unconquered gained in point of local freedom. They became allies rather than subjects of the distant emperor. So did the tributary districts, as long as the original terms were kept. But, as ever, the condition of the subject race grew worse. After the complete conquest of the island, while the mere slaves had turned Mahom- medans, 'there is nothing more heard of tributary districts. At the coming of the Normans the whole Christian population was in the state of rayahs. Still Christianity and the Greek tongue never died out; churches and monasteries received and held property; there still are saints and scholars. It would be rash to deny that traces of other dialects may not have lingered on; but Greek and Arabic were the two written tongues of Sicily when the Normans came. The Sicilian Saracens were hindered by their internal feuds from ever becoming a great power; but they stood high among Mahommedan nations. Their advance in civilization is shown by their position under the Normans, and above all by their admirable style of architecture (see PALERMO). They had a literature which Norman kings studied and promoted. The Normans in short came into the inheritance of the two most civilized nations of the time, and allowed them to flourish side by side. The most brilliant time for Sicily as a power in the world begins with the coming of the Normans. Never before or after was the island so united or so independent. Some of the old tyrants had ruled out of Sicily; none had ruled over all Sicily. The Normans held all Sicily as the centre of a dominion which stretched far beyond it. The conquest was the work of one man, Count Roger of the house of Hauteville (see ROGER I.). The conquests of the Normans in Italy and Sicily form part of one enterprise; but they altogether differ in character. In Italy they overthrew the Byzantine dominion; their own rule was perhaps not worse, but they were not deliverers. In Sicily they were welcomed by the Christians as deliverers from infidel bondage. As in the Saracen conquest of Sicily, as in the Byzantine recovery, so in the Norman conquest, the immediate occasion was given by a home traitor. Count Roger had already m ade {g6g Jg9g a plundering attack, when Becumen of Catania, driven out by his brother, urged him tb serious invasion. Messina was taken in 1060, and became for a while the Norman capital. The Norman conquest. SICILY 33 Christians everywhere welcomed the conqueror. But at Troina they presently changed their minds, and joined with the Saracens to besiege the count in their citadel. At Catania Becumen was set up again as Roger's vassal, and he did good service till he was killed. Roger soon began to fix his eye on the Saracen capital. Against that city he had Pisan help, as the inscription on the Pisan duomo witnesses (cf. Geoff. Mai. ii. 34). But Palermo was not taken until 1071, and then only by the help of Duke Robert, who kept the prize to himself. Still its capture was the turning-point in the struggle. Taormina (Tauromenium) was won in 1078. Syracuse, under its amir Benarvet, held out stoutly. He retook Catania by the help of a Saracen to whom Roger had trusted the city, and whom he himself punished. Catania was won back by the count's son Jordan. But progress was delayed by Jordan's rebellion and by the absence of Roger in his brother's wars. In 1085 Syracuse was won. Next year followed Girgenti and Castrogiovanni, whose chief became a Christian. Noto held out till 1090. Then the whole island was won, and Roger completed his conquest by a successful expedition to Malta. Like the condition of the Greeks under the Saracens, so the condition of the Saracens under the Normans differed in different Saraceas places according to the circumstances of each conquest. under The Mahommedan religion was everywhere tolerated, Norman in many places much more. But it would seem that, ™/e> just as under the Moslem rule, conversions from Christianity to Islam were forbidden. On the other hand, conversions from Islam to Christianity were not always en- couraged; Saracen troops were employed from the beginning, and Count Roger seems to have thought them more trustworthy when unconverted. At Palermo the capitulation secured to the Saracens the full enjoyment of their own laws; Girgenti was long mainly Saracen; in Val di Noto the Saracens kept towns and castles of their own. On the other hand, at Messina there were few or none, and we hear of both Saracen and Greek villeins, the latter doubtless abiding as they were in Saracen times. But men of both races were trusted and favoured accord- ing to their deserts. The ecclesiastical relations between Greeks and Latins are harder to trace. At the taking of Palermo the Greek bishop was restored; but his successors were Latins, and Latin prelates were placed in the bishoprics which Count Roger founded. Urban II. visited Sicily to promote the union of the church, and he granted to the count those special ecclesiastical powers held by the counts and kings of Sicily as hereditary legates of the Holy See which grew into the famous Sicilian monarchy (Geoff. Mai. iv. 29). But Greek worship went on; at Messina it lingered till the i$th century (Pirro, Sicilia sacra, i. 420, 431, 449), as it has been since brought back by the Albanian colonists. But the Greeks of Sicily have long been united Greeks, admitting the authority of the see of Rome. In its results the Norman conquest of Sicily was a Latin conquest far more thorough than that which had been made by the Roman commonwealth. The Norman princes Linguistic protected all the races, creeds and tongues of the island, Greek, Saracen and Jew. But new races came to settle alongside of them, all of whom were Latin as far as their official speech was concerned. The Normans brought the French tongue with them; it remained the court speech during the i2th century, and Sicily was thrown open to all speakers of French, many of whom came from England. There was constant intercourse between the two great islands, both ruled by Norman kings, and many natives of England filled high places in Sicily. But French was only a language of society, not of business or literature. The languages of inscriptions and documents are Greek, Arabic and Latin, in private writings sometimes Hebrew. The kings understood Greek and Arabic, and their deeds and works were commemorated in both tongues. Hence'Comes the fact, at first sight so strange, that Greek, Arabic and French have all given way to a dialect of Italian. But the cause is not far to seek. The Norman conquest opened Sicily to settlers from Italy, above all from the Norman possessions in Italy. Under the name of Lombards, XXV. 2 elements In Sicily. they became an important, in some parts a dominant, element. Thus at Messina, where we hear nothing of Saracens, we hear much of the disputes between Greeks and Lombards. The Lombards had hardly a distinct language to bring with them. At the time of the conquest, it was already found out that French had become a distinct speech from Latin; Italian hardly was such. The Lombard element, during the Norman reign, shows itself, not in whole documents or inscriptions, but in occasional words and forms, as in some of the mosaics at Monreale. And, if any element, Latin or akin to Latin, had lingered on through Byzantine and Saracen rule, it would of course be attracted to the new Latin element, and would help to strengthen it. It was this Lombard element that had the future before it. Greek and Arabic were antiquated, or at least isolated, in a land which Norman conquest had made part of western Europe and Latin Christendom. They could grow only within the island; they could gain no strength from outside. Even the French element was in some sort isolated, and later events made it more so. But the Lombard element was constantly strengthened by settlement from outside. In the older Latin conquest, the Latin carried Greek with him, and the Greek element absorbed the Latin. Latin now held in western Europe the place which Greek had held there. Thus, in the face of Italian, both Greek and Arabic died out. Step by step, Christian Sicily became Latin in speech and in worship. But this was not till the Norman reigns were over. Till the end of the i2th century Sicily was the one land where men of divers creeds and tongues could live side by side. Hence came both the short-lived brilliancy of Sicily and its later decay. In Sicily there were many nations all protected by the Sicilian king; but there was no Sicilian nation. Greek, Saracen, Norman, Lombard and Jew could not be fused into one people; it was the boast of Sicily that each kept his laws and tongue undisturbed. Such a state of things could live on only under an enlightened despotism; the discordant elements could not join to work out really free and national institutions. Sicily had parliaments, and some constitutional principles were well understood. But they were assemblies of barons, or at most of barons and citizens; they could only have repre- sented the Latin elements, Norman and Lombard, in the island. The elder races, Greek and Saracen, stand outside the relations between the Latin king and his Latin subjects. Still, as long as Greek and Saracen were protected and favoured, so long was Sicily the most brilliant of European kingdoms. But its greatness had no groundwork of national life; for lack of it the most brilliant of kingdoms presently sank below the level of other lands. Four generations only span the time from the birth of Count Roger, about 1030, to the death of the emperor Frederick II. in 1250. Roger, great count of Sicily, was, at his death in 1101, succeeded by his young son Simon, and he in 1105 by the second Roger, the first king. He inherited all Sicily, save half Palermo — the other half had been given up — and part of Calabria. The rest of Palermo was soon granted; the Semitic capital became the abiding head of Sicily. On the death of his cousin Duke William of Apulia, Roger gradually founded (1127-1140) a great Italian dominion. To the Apulian duchy he added (1136) the Norman principality of Capua, Naples (1138), the last dependency of the Eastern empire in Italy, and (1140) the Abruzzi, an undoubted land of the Western empire. He thus formed a dominion which has been divided, united and handed over from one prince to another oftener than any other state in Europe, but whose frontier has hardly changed at all. In 1130 Roger was crowned at Palermo, by authority of the antipope Anacletus, taking the strange title of " king of Sicily and Italy." This, on his reconciliation with Pope Innocent II., he exchanged for " king of Sicily and of the duchy of Apulia and of the principality of Capua." By virtue of the old relations between the popes and the Normans of Apulia, he held bis kingdom in fief of the Holy See, a position which on the whole strengthened the royal power. But his power, like that of Dionysius and Agathocles, was felt in more distant regions. His admiral George of Antioch, Greek by birth and creed, warred 34 SICILY Tancred. against the Eastern empire, won Corfu (Korypho; the name of Korkyra is forgotten) for a season, and carried off the silk-workers from Thebes and Peloponnesus to Sicily. But Manuel Comnenus ruled in the East, and, if Roger threatened Constantinople, Manuel threatened Sicily. In Africa the work of Agathocles was more than renewed; Mahdia and other points were won and kept as long as Roger lived. These exploits won him the name of the " terror of Greeks and Saracens." To the Greeks, and still more to the Saracens, of his own island he was a protector and something more. His love for mathematical science, geography, &c., in which the Arabs excelled, is noteworthy. Roger's son William, surnamed the Bad, was crowned in his father's lifetime in 1151. Roger died in 1154, and William's sole reign lasted till 1 166. It was a time of domestic re- rrtlltatn /. i • n • i i • » i I • anil u. Demons, chiefly against the king s unpopular ministers, and it is further marked by the loss of Roger's African conquests. After William the Bad came (1166-1189) ms son William the Good. Unlike as were the two men in themselves, in their foreign policy they are hardly to be distinguished. The Bad William has a short quarrel with the pope; otherwise Bad and Good alike appear as zealous supporters of Alexander III. and as enemies of both empires. The Eastern warfare of the Good is stained by the frightful sack of Thessalonica; it is marked also by the formation of an Eastern state under Sicilian supremacy (1186). Corfu, the possession of Agathocles and Roger, with Durazzo, Cephalonia and Zante, was granted by William to his admiral Margarito with the strange title of king of the Epeirots. He founded a dynasty, though not of kings, in Cephalonia and Zante. Corfu and Durazzo were to be more closely connected with the Sicilian crown. The brightest days of Sicily ended with William the Good. His marriage with Joanna, daughter of Henry of Anjou and England, was childless, and William tried to procure the succession of his aunt Constance and her husband, King Henry VI. of Germany, son of the emperor Frederick I. But the prospect of German rule was unpopular, and on William's death the crown passed to Tancred, an illegitimate grandson of King Roger, who figures in English histories in the story of Richard III.'s crusade. In 1191 Henry, now emperor, asserted his claims; but, while Tancred lived, he did little, in Sicily nothing, to enforce them. On the death of Tancred (1194) and the accession of his young son William III., the emperor came and conquered Sicily and the Italian possessions, with an amount of cruelty which outdid any earlier war or revolution. First of four Western emperors who wore the Sicilian crown, Henry died in 1197, leaving the kingdom to his young son Frederick, heir of the Norman kings through his mother. The great days of the Norman conquest and the Norman reigns have been worthily recorded by contemporary historians. For few times have we richer materials. The oldest is Aime or Amato of Monte Cassino, who exists only in an Old-French translation. We have also for the Norman conquest the halting hexameters of William of Apulia, and for the German conquest the lively and partial verses of Peter of Eboli.1 Of prose writers we have Geoffrey Malaterra, Alexander abbot of Telesia, Romuald archbishop of Salerno, Falco of Benevento, and above all Hugo Falcandus, one of the very foremost of medieval writers. Not one of these Latin writers was a native of the island, and we have no record from any native Greek. Occasional notices we of course have in the Byzantine writers, and Archbishop Eustathius's account of the taking of Thessalonica is more than occasional. And the close connexion between Sicily and England leads to many occasional references to Sicilian matters in English writers. The relations between the various races of the islands are most instructive. The strong rule of Roger kept all in order. He called himself the defender of Christians; others, on account of his favour to the Saracens, spoke of him as a pagan. He certainly encouraged Saracen art and literature in every shape. 1 Petri Ansplini de Ebtilo de rebus Siculis carmen (republished in the new edition of Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, by E. Rota, torn, xxxi., Citta di Castello, 1904). ' His court was full of eunuchs, of whom we hear still more under William the Bad. Under William the Good the Saracens, without any actual oppression, seem to be losing their position. Hitherto they had been one element in the land, keeping their own civilization alongside of others. By a general outbreak on the death of William the Good, the Saracens, especially those of Palermo, were driven to take shelter in the mountains, where they sank into a wild people, sometimes holding points of the island against all rulers, sometimes taking military service under them. The Jews too begin to sink into bondmen. Sicily is ceasing to be the land of many nations living side by side on equal terms. The Germans who helped Henry to win the Sicilian crown did not become a new element in the island, but only a source of confusion during the minority of his son. Frederick — presently to be the renowned emperor Frederick II., BmPer°r .... .,.,.„' Frederick Fndencus stupor mundi et immutator mirabilis — u was crowned at Palermo in 1198; but the child, deprived of both parents, was held to be under the protection of his lord Pope Innocent III. During his minority the land was torn in pieces by turbulent nobles, revolted Saracens, German captains seeking settlements, the maritime cities of Italy, and professed French deliverers. In 1210 the emperor Otto IV., who had overrun the continental dominions, threatened the island. In 1212, just when Frederick was reaching an age to be of use in his own kingdom, he was called away to dispute the crown of Germany and Rome with Otto. Eight years more of disorder followed; in 1220 the emperor-king came back. He brought the Saracens of the mountains back again to a life in plains and cities, and presently planted a colony of them on the mainland at Nocera, when they became his most trusty soldiers. His necessary absences from Sicily led to revolts. He came back in 1 233 from his crusade to suppress a revolt of the eastern ' cities, which seem to have been aiming at republican indepen- dence. A Saracen revolt in 1243 is said to have been followed by a removal of the whole remnant to Nocera. Some, however, certainly stayed or came back; but their day was over. Under Frederick the Italian or Lombard element finally prevailed in Sicily. Of all his kingdoms Sicily was the best-beloved. He spoke all its tongues; he protected, as far as circumstances would allow, all its races. The heretic alone was persecuted; he was the domestic rebel of the church; Saracen and Jew were entitled to the rights of foreigners. Yet Frederick, patron of Arabic learning, sus- pected even of Moslem belief, failed to check the decline of the Saracen element in Sicily. The Greek element had no such forces brought against it. It was still a chief tongue of the island, in which Frederick's laws were put forth as well as in Latin. But it was clearly a declining element. Greek and Saracen were both becoming survivals in an island which was but one of the many kingdoms of its king. The Italian element advanced at the cost of all others. Frederick chose it as the court speech of Sicily, and he made it the speech of a new-born literature. Sicily, strangely enough, became the cradle of Italian song. Two emperors had now held the Sicilian crown. On Frederick's death in 1250 the crown passed to his son Conrad, not emperor indeed, but king of the Romans. He was nominally succeeded by his son Conradin. The real ruler under both was Frederick's natural son Manfred. In 1258, on a false rumour of the death of Conradin, Manfred was himself crowned king of Palermo. He had to found the kingdom afresh. Pope Innocent IV. had crossed into Sicily, to take advantage of the general discontent. The cities, whose growing liberties had been checked by Frederick's legislation, strove for practical, if not formal, independence, sometimes for dominion over their fellows. The 5th century B.C. seemed to have come back. Messina laid waste the lands of Taormina, because Taormina would not obey the bidding of Messina. Yet, among these and other elements of confusion, Manfred succeeded in setting up again the kingly power, first for his kinsmen and then for himself. His reign continued that of his father, so far as a mere king could continue the reign of such an emperor. The king of Sicily Maatred. SICILY 35 was the first potentate of Italy, and came nearer than any prince since Louis II. to the union of Italy under Italian rule. He sought dominion too beyond the Adriatic: Corfu, Durazzo, and a strip of the Albanian coast became Sicilian possessions as the dowry of Manfred's Greek wife. But papal enmity was too much for him. His overlord claimed to dispose of his crown, and hawked it about among the princes of the West. Edmund of England bore the Sicilian title for a moment. More came of the grant of Urban IV. (1264) to Charles, count of Anjou, and through his wife sovereign count of Provence. Charles, Charles of ju • u j * * i Aoiou crowned by the pope m 1266, marched to take posses- sion of his lord's grant. Manfred was defeated and slain at Benevento. The whole Sicilian kingdom became the spoil of a stranger who was no deliverer to any class of its people. The island sank yet lower. Naples, not Palermo, was the head of the new power; Sicily was again a province. But a province Sicily had no mind to be. In the continental lands Charles founded a dynasty; the island he lost after sixteen years. His rule was not merely the rule of a stranger king surrounded by stranger followers; the degradation of the island was aggravated by gross oppression, grosser than in the continental lands. The continental lands submitted, with a few slight efforts at resist- ance. The final result of the Angevin conquest of Sicily was its separation from the mainland. Sicilian feeling was first shown in the support given to the luckless expedition of Conradin in 1268. Frightful executions in the island followed his fall. The rights of the Swabian house were now held to pass to Peter (Pedro), king of Aragon, husband of Manfred's daughter Constance. The connexion with Spain, which has so deeply affected the whole later history of Sicily, now begins. Charles held the Greek possessions of Manfred and had designs both on Epeiros and on Constantinople. The emperor Michael Palaeologus and Peter of Aragon became allies against Charles; the famous John of Procida acted as an agent between them; the costs of Charles's eastern warfare caused great discontent, especially in an island where some might still look to the Greek emperor as a natural deliverer. Peter and Michael were doubtless watching the turn of things in Sicily; but the tale of a long-hidden conspiracy between them and the whole Sicilian people has been set aside by Amari. The actual outbreak of 1282, the famous Sicilian Vespers, was stirred up by the wrongs of the moment. A gross case of insult offered by a Frenchman to a Sicilian woman led to the massacre at Palermo, and the like scenes followed elsewhere. The strangers were cut off; Sicily was left to its own people. The towns and districts left without a ruler by no means designed to throw off the authority of the overlord; they sought the good will of Pope Martin. But papal interests were on the side of Charles; and he went forth with the blessing of the church to win back his lost kingdom. Angevin oppression had brought together all Sicily in a common cause. There was at last a Sicilian nation, a nation for a while capable of great deeds. Sicily now stands out as a main centre of European politics. But the land has lost its character; it is becoming the plaything of powers, instead of the meeting-place of nations. The tale, true or false, that Frenchmen and Provencals were known from the natives by being unable to frame the Italian sound of c shows how thoroughly the Lombard tongue had overcome the other tongues of the island. In Palermo, once city of threefold speech, a Greek, a Saracen, a Norman who spoke his own tongue must have died with the strangers. Charles was now besieging Messina; Sicily seems to have put on some approach to the form of a federal commonwealth. Meanwhile Peter of Aragon was watching and pre- Aragon. paring. He now declared himself. 'To all, except the citizens of the great cities, a king would be accept- able; Peter was chosen with little opposition in a parliament at Palermo, and a struggle of twenty-one years began, of which Charles and Peter saw only the first stage. In fact, after Peter had helped the Sicilians to relieve Messina, he was very little in Sicily; he had to defend his kingdom of Aragon, which Pope Martin had granted to another French Charles. He was repre- sented by Queen Constance, and his great admiral Roger de Loria kept the war away from Sicily, waging it wholly in Italy, and making Charles, the son of King Charles, prisoner. In 1285 both the rival kings died. Charles had before his death been driven to make large legislative concessions to his subjects to stop the tendency shown, especially in Naples, to join the revolted Sicilians. By Peter's death Aragon and Sicily were separated; his eldest son Alphonso took Aragon, and his second son James took Sicily, which was to pass to the third james son Frederick, if James died childless. James was crowned, and held his reforming parliament also. With the popes no terms could be made. Charles, released in 1 288 under a deceptive negotiation, was crowned king of Sicily by Honorius IV.; but he had much ado to defend his continental dominions against James and Roger. In 1291 James succeeded Alphonso in the kingdom of Aragon, and left Frederick not king, according to the entail, but only his lieutenant in Sicily. Frederick was the real restorer of Sicilian independence. He had come to the island so young that he felt as a native. He defended the land stoutly, even against his brother. For James presently played Sicily false. In 1295 he "**' was reconciled to the church and released from all French claims on Aragon, and he bound himself to restore Sicily to Charles. But the Sicilians, with Frederick at their head, dis- owned the agreement, and in 1296 Frederick was crowned king. He had to defend Sicily against his brother and Roger de Loria, who forsook the cause, as did John of Procida. Hitherto the war had been waged on. the mainland; now it was transferred to Sicily. King James besieged Syracuse as admiral of the Roman Church; Charles sent his son Robert in 1299 as his lieutenant in Sicily, where he gained some successes. But in the same year the one great land battle of the war, that of Falconaria, was won for Sicily. The war, chiefly marked by another great siege of Messina, went on till 1302, when both sides were thoroughly weakened and eager for peace. By a treaty, con- firmed by Pope Boniface VIII. the next year, Frederick was acknowledged as king of Trinacria for life. He was to marry the daughter of the king of Sfcily, to whom the island kingdom was to revert at his death. The terms were never meant to be carried out. Frederick again took up the title of king pgfer of Sicily, and at his death in 1337 he was succeeded by his son Peter. VThere were thus two Sicilian kingdoms and two kings of Sicily. The king of the mainland is often spoken of for convenience as king of Naples, but that description was never borne 'as a formal title save in the i6th century by Philip, king of England and Naples, and in the igth by Joseph Buona- parte and Joachim Murat. The strict distinction was between Sicily on this side the Pharos (of Messina) and Sicily beyond it. Thus the great island of the Mediterranean again became an independent power. And, as far as legislation could make it, Sicily became one of the freest countries in Europe. By the laws of Frederick parliaments were to be regularly held, and without their consent the king could not make war, peace or alliance. The treaty of 1302 was not confirmed by parliament, and in 1337 parliament called Peter to the crown. But Sicily never rose to the greatness of its Greek or its Norman days, and its old character had passed away. Of Greeks and Saracens we now hear only as a degraded remnant, to be won over, if it may be, to the Western Church. The kingdom had no foreign possessions; yet faint survivals of the days of Agathocles and Roger lingered on. The isle of Gerba off the African coast was held for a short time, and traces of the connexion with Greece went on in various shapes. If the kings of Sicily on this side the Pharos kept Corfu down to 1386, those beyond the Pharos became in 1311 overlords of Athens, when that duchy was seized by Catalan adventurers, disbanded after the wars of Sicily. In 1530 the Sicilian island of Malta became the shelter of the Knights of Saint John driven by the Turk from Rhodes, and Sicily has received several colonies of Christian Albanians, who have replaced Greek and Arabic by yet another tongue. (See NAPLES, KINGDOM OF.) (E. A. F.; T. As.) SICKINGEN— SICULI SICKINGEN, FRANZ VON (1481-1523), German knight, one of the most notable figures of the first period of the Reformation, was born at Ebernburg near Worms. Having fought for the emperor Maximilian I. against Venice in 1508, he inherited large estates on the Rhine, and increased his wealth and reputation by numerous private feuds, in which he usually posed as the friend of the oppressed. In 1513 he took up the quarrel of Balthasar Schlor, a citizen who had been driven out of Worms, and attacked this city with 7000 men. In spite of the imperial ban, he devas- tated its lands, intercepted its commerce, and only desisted when his demands were granted. He made war upon Antony, duke of Lorraine, and compelled Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to pay him 35,000 gulden. In 1518 he interfered in a civil conflict in Metz, ostensibly siding with the citizens against the governing oligarchy. He led an army of 20,000 men against the city, compelled the magistrates to give him 20,000 gold gulden and a month's pay for his troops. In 1518 Maximilian released him from the ban, and he took part in the war carried on by the Swabian League against Ulrich I., duke of Wiirttemberg. In the contest for the imperial throne upon the death of Maximilian in 1519, Sickingen accepted bribes from Francis I., king of France, but when the election took place he led his troops to Frankfort, where their presence assisted to secure the election of Charles V. For this service he was made imperial chamberlain and councillor, and in 1521 he led an expedition into France, which ravaged Picardy, but was beaten back from Mezieres and forced to retreat. About 1517 Sickingen became intimate with Ulrich von Hutten, and gave his support to Hutten's schemes. In 1519 a threat from him freed John Reuchlin from his enemies, the Dominicans, and his castles became in Hutten's words a refuge for righteousness. Here many of the reformers found shelter, and a retreat was offered to Martin Luther. After the failure of the French expedition, Sickingen, aided by Hutten, formed, or revived, a large scheme to overthrow the spiritual princes and to elevate the order of knighthood. He hoped to secure this by the help of the towns and peasants, and to make a great position for himself. A large army was soon collected, many nobles from the upper Rhineland joined the standard, and at Landau, in August 1522, Sickingen was formally named commander. He declared war against his old enemy, Richard of Greiffenklau, archbishop of Trier, and marched against that city. Trier was loyal to the archbishop, and the landgrave of Hesse and Louis V., count palatine of the Rhine, hastened to his assistance. Sickingen, who had not obtained the help he wished for, was compelled to fall back on his castle of Landstuhl, near Kaiserslautern, collecting much booty on the way. On the 22nd of October 1522 the council of regency placed him under the ban, to which he replied, in the spring of 1523, by plundering Kaiserslautern. The rulers of Trier, Hesse and the Palatinate decided to press the campaign against him, and having obtained help from the Swabian League, marched on Landstuhl. Sickingen refused to treat, and during the siege was seriously wounded. This attack is notable as one of the first occasions on which artillery was used, and by its aid breaches were soon made in an otherwise impregnable fortress. On the 6th of May 1523 he was forced to capitulate, and on the following day he died. He was buried at Landstuhl, and in 1889 a splendid monument was raised at Ebernburg to his memory and to that of Hutten. His son Franz Conrad was made a baron of the empire (Reichs- freiherr) by Maximilian II., and a descendant was raised in 1773 to the rank of count (Reichsgraf). A branch of the family still exists in Austria and Silesia. See H. Ulmann, Franz von Sickingen (Leipzig, 1872); F. P. Bremer, Sickingens Fehde gegen Trier (Strassburg, 1885); H. Prutz, " Franz von Sickingen " in Der neue Plutarch (Leipzig, 1880), and the " Flersheimer Chronik " in Hutten's Deutsche Schriften, edited by O. Waltz und Szamatolati (Strassburg, 1891). SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825- ), American soldier and diplomatist, was born in New York City on the 2oth of October 1825. He learned the printer's trade, studied in the university of the City of New York (now New York University), was admitted to the bar in 1846, and was a member of the state Assembly in 1847. In 1853 he became corporation counsel of New York City, but resigned soon afterward to become secretary of the U.S. legation in London, under James Buchanan. He returned to America in 1855, was a member of the state Senate in 1856-1857, and from 1857 to 1861 was a Democratic repre- sentative in Congress. In 1859 he was tried on a charge of murder, having shot Philip Barton Key, U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia, whom Sickles had discovered to have a liaison with his wife; but was acquitted after a dramatic trial lasting twenty days. At the outbreak of the Civil War Sickles was active in raising United States volunteers in New York, and was appointed colonel of a regiment. He became a brigadier- general of volunteers in September 1 861 , led a brigade of the Army of the Potomac with credit up to the battle of Antietam, and then succeeded to a divisional command. He took part with dis- tinction in the battle of Fredericksburg, and in 1863 as a major- general commanded the III. army corps. His energy and ability were conspicuous in the disastrous battle of Chancellors- ville (q.v.); and at Gettysburg (q.v.) the part played by the III. corps in the desperate fighting around the Peach Orchard was one of the most noteworthy incidents in the battle. Sickles himself lost a leg and his active military career came to an end. He was, however, employed to the end of the war, and in 1867 received the brevets of brigadier-general U.S.A. and major-general U.S.A. for his services at Fredericksburg and Gettysburg respectively. General Sickles was one of the few successful volunteer generals who served on either side. Soon after the close of the Civil War he was sent on a confidential mission to Colombia to secure its compliance with a treaty agreement (of 1846) permitting the United States to convey troops across the Isthmus of Panama. In 1866-1867 ne commanded the department of the Carolinas. In 1866 he was appointed colonel of the 42nd infantry (Veteran Reserve Corps), and in 1869 he was retired with the rank of major-general. He was minister to Spain from 1869 to 1873, and took part in the negotiations growing out of the " Virg'inius Affair " (see SANTIAGO, CUBA). General Sickles was president of the New York State Board of Civil Service Commissioners in 1888-1889, was sheriff of New York in 1890, and was again a representative in Congress in 1893-1895. SICULI, an ancient Sicilian tribe, which in historical times occupied the eastern half of the island to which they gave their name. It plays a large though rather shadowy part in the early traditions of pre-Roman Italy. There is abundant evidence that the Siculi once lived in Central Italy east and even north of Rome (e.g. Servius ad Aen. vii. 795; Dion. Hal. i. 9. 22; Thucy- dides vi. 2). Thence they were dislodged by the Umbro-Safme tribes, and finally crossed to Sicily. Archaeologists are not yet agreed as to the particular stratum of remains in Italy to which the name of the Siculi should be attached (see for instance B. Modestov, Introduction a I'histoire romaine, Paris, 1907, pp. 135 sqq.). They were distinct from the Sicani (q.v.; Virg. Aen. viii. 328) who inhabited the western half of the island, and who according to Thucydides came from Spain, but whom Virgil seems to recognize in Italy. Both traditions may be true (cf. W. Ridgeway, Who were the Romans? London, 1908, p. 23). Of the language of the Siculi we know a very little from glosses preserved to us by ancient writers, most of which were collected by E. A. Freeman (Sicily, vol. i. App. note iv.), and from an inscription upon what is presumably an ornamental earthen- ware wine vessel, which has very much the shape of a tea-pot, preserved and transcribed by R. S. Conway in the Collection of the Grand Duke of Baden at Karlsruhe (Winnefeld, Grossherzogl. vereinigte Sammlungen, 1887, 120), which has been discussed by R. Thurneysen (Kuhn's Zeitschrift, xxxv. 214). The inscription was found at Centuripa, and the alphabet is Greek of the sth or 6th century B.C. We have not enough evidence to make a translation possible, despite Thurneysen's valiant effort, but the recurrence of the phrase hemiton esti durom in a varied order (durom hemiton esti) — presumably a drinking song or proverb, " half a cup is sorry cheer," though it is possible that the sign read as m may really denote some kind of i — makes the division of these three words quite certain, and renders it highly probable that we have to do with an Indo-European language. None of SICYON— SIDDONS 37 the groups of sounds occurring in the rest of the inscription, nor any of the endings of words so far as they may be guessed, present any reason for doubting this hypothesis; and the glosses already mentioned can one and all be easily connected with Greek or Latin words (e.g. noirov, mutuum) ; in fact it would be difficult to rebut the contention that they should all be regarded as mere borrowings. (R. S. C.) The towns of the Siculi, like those of the Sicani, formed no political union, but were under independent rulers. They played an important part in the history of the island after the arrival of the Greeks (see SICILY). Their agricultural pursuits and the volcanic nature of the island made them worshippers of the gods of the nether world, and they have enriched mythology with some distinctly national figures. The most important of these were the Palici, protectors of agriculture and sailors, who had a lake and temple in the neighbourhood of the river Symaethus, the chief seat of the Siceli; Adranus, father of the Palici, a god akin to Hephaestus, in whose temple a fire was always kept burning; Hybla (or Hyblaea), after whom three towns were named, whose sanctuary was at Hybla Gereatis. The connexion of Demeter and Kore with Henna (the rape of Proserpine) and of Arethusa with Syracuse is due to Greek influence. The chief Sicel towns were: Agyrium (San Filippo d' Argiro); Centuripa (or Centuripae; Centorbi)', Henna (Caslrogiovanni, a corruption of Castrum Hennae through the Arabic Casr-janni) ; Hybla, three in number, (a) Hybla Major, called Geleatis or Gereatis, on the river Symaethus, probably the Hybla famous for its honey, although according to others this was (b) Hybla Minor, on the E. coast N. of Syracuse, afterwards the site of the Dorian colony of Megara, (c) Hybla Heraea in the S. of the island. For authorities see SICILY. SICYON, or SECYON (the latter being the older form used by the natives), an ancient Greek city situated in northern Pelopon- nesus between Corinthia and Achaea. It was built on a low triangular plateau about 2 m. from the Corinthian Gulf, at the confluence of the Asopus and the Helisson, whose sunken beds protected it on E. and W. Between the city and its port lay a fertile plain with olive-groves and orchards. Sicyon's primitive name Aegialeia indicates that its original population was Ionian; in the Iliad it appears as a dependency of Agamemnon, and its earjy connexion with Argos is further proved by the myth and surviving cult of Adrastus. After the Dorian invasion the com- munity was divided anew into the ordinary three Dorian tribes and an equally privileged tribe of lonians, besides which a class of Kopvvii6poi or Ka.TC>jva.Ko6pm lived on the land as serfs. For some centuries Sicyon remained subject to Argos, whence its Dorian conquerors had come; as late as 500 B.C. it acknowledged a certain suzerainty. But its virtual independence was estab- lished in the yth century, when a line of tyrants arose and initiated an anti-Dorian policy. This dynasty, known after its founder Orthagoras as the Orthagoridae, exercised a mild rule, and there- fore lasted longer than any other succession of Greek tyrants (about 665-565 B.C.). Chief of these rulers was the founder's grandson Cleisthenes — the uncle of the Athenian legislator of that name (see CLEISTHENES, 2). Besides reforming the city's con- stitution to the advantage of the lonians and replacing Dorian cults by the worship of Dionysus, Cleisthenes gained renown as the chief instigator and general of the First Sacred War (590) in the interests of the Delphians. From Herodotus' famous account of the wooing of Agariste it may be inferred that he held intercourse with many commercial centres of Greece and south Italy. About this time Sicyon developed the various industries for which it was noted in antiquity. As the abode of the sculptors Dipoenus and Scyllis it gained pre-eminence in wood- carving and bronze work such as is still to be seen in the archaic metal facings found at Olympia. Its pottery, which resembled the Corinthian ware, was exported with the latter as far as Etruria. In Sicyon also the art of painting was supposed to have been " invented." After the fall of the tyrants their institutions survived till the end of the 6th century, when the Dorian supre- macy was re-established, perhaps by the agency of Sparta, and the city was enrolled in the Peloponnesian League. Henceforth its policy was usually determined either by Sparta or by its powerful neighbour Corinth. During the Persian wars Sicyon could place 3000 heavy-armed men in the field; its school of bronze sculptors still flourished, and produced in Canachus (q.v.) a master of the late archaic style. In the 5th century it suffered like Corinth from the commercial rivalry of Athens in the western seas, and was repeatedly harassed by flying squadrons of Athenian ships. In the Peloponnesian war Sicyon followed the lead of Sparta and Corinth. When these two powers quarrelled after the peace of Nicias it remained loyal to the Spartans; but the latter thought it prudent to stiffen the oligarchic government against a nascent democratic movement. Again in the Corinthian war Sicyon sided with Sparta and became its base of operations against the allied troops round Corinth. In 369 it was captured and garrisoned by the Thebans in their successful attack on the Peloponnesian League. On this occasion a powerful citizen named Euphron effected a democratic revolution and established himself tyrant by popular support. His deposition by the Thebans and subsequent murder freed Sicyon for a season, but new tyrants arose with the help of Philip II. of Macedon. Never- theless during this period Sicyon reached its zenith as a centre of art: its school of painting gained fame under Eupompus and attracted the great masters Pamphilus and Apelles as students; its sculpture was raised to a level hardly surpassed in Greece by Lysippus and his pupils. After participating in the Lamian war and the campaigns of the Macedonian pretenders the city was captured (303) by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who trans- planted all the inhabitants to the Acropolis and renamed the site Demetrias. In the 3rd century it again passed from tyrant to tyrant, until in 251 it was finally liberated and enrolled in the Achaean League by Aratus (q.v.). The destruction of Corinth ( 1 46) brought Sicyon an acquisition of territory and the presidency over the Isthmian games; yet in Cicero's time it had fallen deep into debt. Under the empire it was quite obscured by the re- stored cities of Corinth and Patrae; in Pausanias' age (A.D. 150) it was almost desolate. In Byzantine times it became a bishop's seat, and to judge by its later name" Hellas " it served as a refuge for the Greeks from the Slavonic immigrants of the 8th century. The village of Vasiliko which now occupies the site is quite insignificant. On the plateau parts of the ancient fortifications are still visible, including the wall between town and Acropolis near the southern apex. A little north of this wall are remains of a theatre and stadium, traces of aqueducts and foundations of buildings. The theatre, which was excavated by the American School of Archaeology in 1886-1887, 1891 and 1898, was built in the slope towards the Acropolis, probably in the first half of the 4th century, and measured 400 ft. in diameter; the stage was rebuilt in Roman times. The side entrances to the auditorium were covered in with vaults of Greek construction; a curious feature is a tunnel from below the stage into the middle of the auditorium. AUTHORITIES. — Strabo, pp. 382, 389; Herodotus v. 67-68, vi. 92, ix. 28; Thucydides i. 108, in; iv. 70, 101 ; v. 52, 82; Xenophon, Hellenica, iv., vi., vii. ; Diodorus xviii. II, xx. 102 ; Pausanias ii. 5-11; W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (London, 1830), iii. PP- 35!-38l; E. Curtius, Peloponnesos (Gotha, 1851), ii. pp. 482-505; American Journal of Archaeology, v. (1889) pp. 267-303, viii. (1893) PP- 288-400, xx. (1905) pp. 263-276; L. Dyer in the Journal of Hellenic Studies (1906), pp. 76-83; for coins, B. V. Head, Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 345-346; also NUMIS- MATICS, section Greek, § " Patrae, Sicyon." (M. O. B. C.) SIDDONS, SARAH (1755-1831), English actress, the eldest of twelve children of Roger Kemble, was born in the " Shoulder of Mutton " public-house, Brecon, Wales, on the sth of July 1755. Through the special care of her mother in sending her to the schools in the towns where the company played, Sarah Kemble received a remarkably good education, although she was accustomed to make her appearance on the stage while still a child. She became attached to William Siddons, an actor of the company; but this was discountenanced by her parents, who wished her to accept the offer of a squire. Siddons was dismissed from the company, and she was sent to a situation as lady's maid to Mrs Greathead at Guy's Cliff in Warwickshire. Here she recited Shakespeare, Milton and Rowein the servants' SIDE— SIDEBOARD hall, and occasionally before aristocratic company, and here also she began to develop a capacity for sculpture which was sub- sequently developed (between 1789 and 1790), and of which she provided samples in busts of herself and of her son. The necessary consent to her union with Siddons was at last obtained, and the marriage took place at Trinity Church, Coventry, on the a6th of November 1773. It was while playing at Cheltenham in the following year that Mrs Siddons met with the earliest decided recognition of her powers as an actress, when by her representation of Belvidera in Otway's Venice Preserved she moved to tears a party of " people of quality " who had come to scoff. Her merits were made known by them to Garrick, who sent his deputy to Cheltenham to see her as Calista in Rowe's Fair Penitent, the result being that she was engaged to appear at Drury Lane at a salary of £5 a week. Owing to inex- perience as well as other circumstances, her first appearances as Portia and in other parts were unfortunate, and when, after playing with success in Birmingham, she was about to return to town she received a note from the manager of Drury Lane stating that her services would not be required. Thus, in her own words, " banished from Drury Lane as a worthless candidate for fame and fortune," she again in the beginning of 1777 went on " the circuit " in the provinces. After a very successful engagement at Bath, beginning in 1778 and lasting five years, she again accepted an offer from Drury Lane, when her appearance as Isabella ih Garrick's version of Southerne's Fatal Marriage, on the loth of October 1782, was a triumph, only equalled in the history of the English stage by that of Garrick's first night at Drury Lane in 1741 and that of Edmund Kean's in 1814. In her earlier years it was in scenes of a tender and melting character that she exercised the strongest sway over an audience; but in the performance of Lady Macbeth, in which she appeared on the and of February 1785 for the first time in London, it was the grandeur of her exhibition of the more terrible passions as related to one awful purpose that held them spellbound. In Lady Macbeth she found the highest and best scope for her gifts. It fitted her as no other character did, and as perhaps it will never fit another actress. Her extraordinary and peculiar physical endowments — tall and striking figure, brilliant beauty, power- fully expressive eyes, and solemn dignity of demeanour — en- abled her to confer a weird majesty on the character which in- expressibly heightened the tragic awe surrounding her fate. After Lady Macbeth she played Desdemona, Rosalind and Ophelia, all with great success; but it was in Queen Catherine — which she first played on the occasion of her brother John Kemble's spectacular revival of Henry VIII. in 1788 — that she discovered a part almost as well adapted to her peculiar powers as that of Lady Macbeth. As Volumnia in Kemble's version of Coriolanus she also secured a triumph. In her early life she had attempted comedy, but her gifts in this respect were very limited. It was of course inevitable that comparisons should be made between her and her only peer, Rachel, who undoubtedly excelled her in intensity and the portrayal of fierce passion, but was a less finished artist and lacked Mrs Siddons' dignity and pathos. Though Mrs Siddons' minute and systematic study perhaps gave a certain amount of stiffness to her representations, it conferred on them a symmetry and proportion to which Rachel never attained. Mrs Siddons formally retired from the stage in 1812, but occasionally appeared on special occasions even when advanced in years. Her last appearance was on the oth of June 1819 as Lady Randolph in Home's Douglas, for the benefit of Mr and Mrs Charles Kcmble. Her most striking impersona- tions, besides the r61es already mentioned, were those of Zara in Congreve's Mourning Bride, Constance in King John, Mrs Haller in The Stranger, and Elvira in Pizarro. In private life Mrs Siddons enjoyed the friendship and respect of many of the most eminent persons of her time. Horace Walpole at first refused to join the fashionable chorus of her praise, but he was ultimately won over. Dr Johnson wrote his name on the hem of her garment in the famous picture of the actress as the Tragic Muse by Reynolds (now in the Dulwich Gallery). " I would not lose," he said, " the honour this opportunity afforded to me for my name going down to posterity on the hem of your garment." Mrs Siddons died in London on the 8th of June 1831, and was buried in Paddington churchyard. On the 1 4th of June 1897 Sir Henry Irving unveiled at Pad- dington Green a marble statue of her by Chavalliaud, after the portrait by Reynolds. There is also a large statue by Chantrey in Westminster Abbey. Portraits by Lawrence and Gains- borough are in the National Gallery, and a portrait ascribed to Gainsborough is in the Garrick Club, London, which also possesses two pictures of the actress as Lady Macbeth by George Henry Harlow. See Thomas Campbell, Life of Mrs Siddons (2 vols., 1834); Fitz- gerald, The Kembles ( 3 vols., 1871); Frances Ann Kemble, Records of a Girlhood (3 vols., 1878). SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia), an ancient city on the Pamphylian coast about 12 m. E. of the mouth of the Eurymedon. Possessing a good harbour in the days of small craft, it was the most im- portant place in Pamphylia. Alexander visited and occupied it, and there the Rhodian fleet defeated that of Antiochus the Great, and in the succeeding century the Cilician pirates established their chief seat. An inscription found on the site shows it to have had a considerable Jewish population in early Byzantine times. The great ruins, among the most notable in Asia Minor, have been re-occupied by some 200 families of Cretan Moslems. They cover a large promontory, fenced from the mainland by a ditch and wall which has been repaired in medieval times and is singularly perfect. Within this is a maze of structures out of which rises the colossal ruin of the theatre, built up on arches like a Roman amphitheatre for lack of a convenient hill-side to be hollowed out in the usual Greek fashion. The auditorium is little less perfect than that of Aspendus and very nearly as large; but the scena wall has collapsed over stage and proscenium in a cataract of loose blocks. The arches now afford shelter and stabling for the Cretans. Besides the theatres, three temples, an aqueduct and a nymphaeum are noticeable. See C. Lanckorouski, Les Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie, i. (1890). (D. G..H.) SIDEBOARD, a high oblong table fitted with drawers, cup- boards or pedestals, and used for the exposition or storage of articles required in the dining-room. Originally it was what its name implies — a side- table, to which the modern dinijer- wagon very closely approximates. Then two- or three-tiered sideboards were in use in the Tudor period, and were perhaps the ancestors, or collaterals, of the court-cupboard, which in skeleton they much resembled. Early in the i8th century they began to be replaced by side-tables properly so called. They were one of the many revolutions in furniture produced by the introduction of mahogany, and those who could not afford the new and costly wood used a cheap substitute stained to resemble it. In the beginning these tables were entirely of wood and comparatively slight, but before long it became the fashion to use a marble slab instead of a wooden top, which necessitated a somewhat more robust construction; here again there was a field for imitation, and marble was sometimes replaced by scagliola. Many of the sideboard tables of this period were exceedingly handsome, with cabriole legs, claw or claw and bill feet, friezes of acanthus, much gadrooning and mask pendants. Many such tables came from Chippendale's workshops, but although that great genius beautified the type he found, he had no influence upon the evolution of the sideboard. That evolution was brought about by the growth of domestic needs. Save upon its surface, the side- board-table offered no accommodation; it usually lacked even a drawer. Even, however, in the period of Chippendale's zenith separate " bottle cisterns " and " lavatories " for the convenience of the butler in washing the silver as the meals proceeded were, sparsely no doubt, in use. By degrees it became customary to place a pedestal, which was really a cellarette or a plate-warmer, at each end of the sideboard-table. One of them would contain ice and accommodation for bottles, the other would be a cistern. Sometimes a single pedestal would be surmounted by a wooden vase lined with metal and filled with water, and fitted with a tap. To whom is due the brilliant inspiration of attaching the SIDGWICK— SIDI-BEL-ABBES 39 pedestals to the table and creating a single piece of furniture out of three components there is nothing to show with certainty. It is most probable that the credit is due to Shearer, who unques- ^ionably did much for the improvement of the sideboard; Hepplewhite and the brothers Adam distinguished themselves in the same field. The pedestals, when incorporated as an integral part of the piece, became cupboards and the vases knife-boxes, and, with the drawers, which had been occasionally used much earlier, the sideboard, in what appears to be its final form, was completed. Pieces exist in which the ends have been cut away to receive the pedestals. If Shearer and Hepplewhite laid its foundations, it was brought to its full floraison by Sheraton. By the use of fine exotic woods, the deft employment of satin wood and other inlays, and by the addition of gracefully orna- mented brass- work at the back, sometimes surmounted by candles to light up the silver, Sheraton produced effects of great elegance. But for sheer artistic excellence in the components of what presently became the sideboard, the Adams stand unrivalled, some of their inlay and brass mounts being almost equal to the first work of the great French school. By replacing the straight outline with a bombe front, Hepplewhite added still further to the grace of the late 18th-century sideboard. No art remains long at its apogee, and in less than a quarter of a century the sideboard lost its grace, and, influenced by the heavy feeling of the Empire manner, grew massive and dull. Since the end of the 1 8th century there has indeed been no advance, artistically speaking, in this piece of furniture. SIDGWICK, HENRY (1838-1900), English philosopher, was born at Skipton in Yorkshire, where his father, the Rev. W. Sidgwick (d. 1841), was headmaster of the grammar-school, on the 3ist of May 1838. He was educated at Rugby (where his cousin, subsequently his brother-in-law, E. W. Benson — after- wards archbishop — was a master), and at Trinity, Cambridge, where his- career was a brilliant one. In 1859 he was senior classic, 33rd wrangler, chancellor's medallist and Craven scholar. In the same year he was elected to a fellowship at Trinity, and soon afterwards appointed to a classical lectureship there. This post he held for ten years, but in 1869 exchanged his lectureship for one in moral philosophy, a subject to which he had been turn- ing his attention more and more. In the same year, finding that he could no longer declare himself a member of the Church of England, he resigned his fellowship. He retained his lectureship, and in 1881 was elected an honorary fellow. In 1874 he published his Method of Ethics (6th ed. 1901, containing emendations written just before his death), which first won him a reputation outside his university. In 187 5 he was appointed praclector on moral and political philosophy at Trinity, in 1883 he was elected Knight- bridge professor of moral philosophy, and in 1885, the religious Jest having been removed, his college once more elected him to a fellowship on the foundation. Besides his lecturing and literary labours, Sidgwick took an active part in the business of the university, and in many forms of social and philanthropic work. He was a member of the General Board 'of Studies from its foundation in 1882 till 1899; he was also a member of the Council of the Senate of the Indian Civil Service Board and the Local Examinations and Lectures Syndicate, and chairman of the Special Board for Moral Science. He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research, and was a member of the Metaphysical Society. None of his work is more closely identified with his name than the part he took in pro- moting the higher education of women. He helped to start the higher local examinations for women, and the lectures held at Cambridge in preparation for these. It was at his suggestion and with his help that Miss Clough opened a house of residence for students; and when this had developed into Newnham College, and in 1880 the North Hall was added, Mr Sidgwick, who had in 1876 married Eleanor Mildred Balfour (sister of A. J. Balfour), went with his wife to live there for two years. After Miss Clough 's death in 1892 Mrs Sidgwick became principal of the college, and she and her husband resided there for the rest of his life. During this whole period Sidgwick took the deepest interest in the welfare of the college. In politics he was a Liberal, and became a Liberal Unionist in 1886. Early in 1900 he was forced by ill-health to resign his professorship, and he died on the 28th of August of the same year. Though in many ways an excellent teacher he was primarily a student, and treated his pupils as fellow-learners. He was deeply interested in psychical phenomena, but his energies were primarily devoted to the study of religion and philosophy. Brought up in the Church of England, he gradually drifted from orthodox Christianity, and as early as 1862 he described himself as a theist. For the rest of his life, though he regarded Chris- tianity as " indispensable and irreplaceable — looking at it from a sociological point of view," he found himself unable to return to it as a religion. In political economy he was a Utilitarian on the lines of Mill and Bentham; his work was the careful investiga- tion of first principles and the investigation of ambiguities rather than constructive. In philosophy he devoted himself to ethics, and especially to the examination of the ultimate intuitive principles of conduct and the problem of free will. He gave up the psychological hedonism of Mill, and adopted instead a position which may be described as ethical hedonism, according to which the criterion of goodness in any given action is that it produces the greatest possible amount of pleasure. This hedonism, however, is not confined to the self (egoistic), but involves a due regard to the pleasure of others, and is, therefore, distinguished further as universalistic. Lastly, Sidg- wick returns to the principle that no man should act so as to destroy his own happiness, and leaves us with a somewhat unsatisfactory dualism. His chief works are Principles of Political Economy (1883, 3rd ed. 1901) ; Scope and Method of Economic Science (1885) ; Outlines of the History of Ethics (1886, 5th ed. 1902), enlarged from his article ETHICS in the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Elements of Politics (1891, 2nd ed. 1897), an attempt to supply an adequate treatise on the subject starting from the old lines of Bentham and Mill. The following were published posthumously: Philosophy; its Scope and Relations (1902) ; Lectitres on the Ethics of T. H. Green, Mr Herbert Spencer and J. Martineau (1902); The Development of European Polity (1903); Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses (1904); Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant (1905). His younger brother, ARTHUR SIDGWICK, had a brilliant school and university career, being second classic at Cambridge in 1863 and becoming fellow of Trinity; but he devoted himself thence- forth mainly to work as a teacher. After being for many years a master at Rugby, he became in 1882 fellow and tutor of Corpus, Oxford; and from 1894 to 1906 was Reader in Greek in the uni- versity. He published a number of admirable classical school- books, including Greek Prose (1876) and Greek Verse (1882), and texts (Virgil, 1890; Aeschylus, 1880-1903), and was well known as a consummate classical scholar, remarkable for literary taste and general culture. In the college life of Corpus he took the deepest interest and had the most stimulating influence;, and he also played an active part in social and political move- ments from an advanced Liberal point of view. A Memoir of Henry Sidgwick, written by his brother with the collaboration of his widow, was published in 1906. SIDI-BEL-ABBES, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Oran, Algeria, 48 m. by rail S. of Oran, 1552 ft. above the sea, on the right bank of the Mekerra. Pop. (1906) of the town, 24,494 (of whom three-fourths are French or Spaniards) ; of the commune, 29,088; of the arrondissement, which includes 17 communes, 98,309. The town, which occupies an important strategic position in the plain dominated by the escarpments of Mount Tessala, has barrack accommodation for 6000 troops, and is the headquarters of the ier regiment etranger, one of the two regiments known as the Foreign Legion. It is encircled by a crenellated and bastioned wall with a fosse, and has four gates, named after Oran, Daia, Mascara and Tlemcen respectively. Starting from the gates, two broad streets, shaded by plane trees, traverse the town east to west and north to south, the latter dividing the civil from the military quarters. There are numerous fountains fed by the Mekerra. Sidi-bel-Abbes is also an im- portant agricultural centre, wheat, tobacco and alfa being the chief articles of trade. There are numerous vineyards and olive- SIDMOUTH, IST VISCOUNT- -SIDNEY, A. groves in the vicinity. The town, founded by the French, derives its name from the kubba (tomb) of a marabout named Sidi-bel-Abbes, near which a redoubt was constructed by General Bedeau in 1843. The site of the town, formerly a swamp, has been thoroughly drained. The surrounding country is healthy, fertile and populous. SIDMOUTH, HENRY ADDINGTON, IST VISCOUNT (1757- 1844), English statesman, son of Dr Anthony Addington, was born on the 3Oth of May 1757. Educated at Winchester College and Brasenose College, Oxford, he graduated in 1778, and took the chancellor's prize for an English essay in 1779. Owing to his friendship with William Pitt he turned his attention to politics, and after his election as member of parliament for Devizes in 1784 gave a silent but steady support to the ministry of his friend. By close attention to his parliamentary duties, he obtained a wide knowledge of the rules and procedure of the House of Commons, and this fact together with his intimacy with Pitt, and his general popularity, secured his election as Speaker in June 1789. Like his predecessors, Addington con- tinued to be a partisan after his acceptance of this office, took part at times in debate when the house was in committee; and on one occasion his partiality allowed Pitt to disregard the authority of the chair. He enjoyed the confidence of George III., and in the royal interest tried to induce Pitt to withdraw his proposal for a further instalment of relief to Roman Catholics. Rather than give way on this question Pitt resigned office early in 1801, when both he and the king urged Addington to form a government. Addington consented, and after some delay caused by the king's illness, and by the reluctance of several of Pitt's followers to serve under him, became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer in March 1801. The new prime minister, who was specially acceptable to George, was loyally supported by Pitt; and his first important work, the conclusion of the treaty of Amiens in March 1802, made him popular in the country. Signs, however, were not wanting that the peace would soon be broken, and Pitt, dissatisfied with the ministry for ignoring the threatening attitude of Napoleon, and making no preparations for a renewal of the war, withdrew his support. Addington then took steps to strengthen the forces of the crown, and suggested to Pitt that he should join the cabinet and that both should serve under a new prime minister. This offer was declined, and a similar fate befell Addington's subsequent proposal to serve under Pitt. When the struggle with France was renewed in May 1803, it became evident that as a war minister Addington was not a success; and when Pitt became openly hostile, the continued confidence of the king and of a majority in the House of Commons was not a sufficient counter- poise to the ministry's waning prestige. Although careful and industrious, Addington had no brilliant qualities, and his medi- ocrity afforded opportunity for attack by his enemies. Owing to his father's profession he was called in derision " the doctor," and George Canning, who wrote satirical verses at his expense, referred to him on one occasion as " happy Britain's guardian gander." Without waiting for defeat in the House he resigned office in April 1804, and became the leader of the party known as the " king's friends." Pitt, who now returned to office, was soon reconciled with his old friend; in January 1805 Addington was created Viscount Sidmouth, and became lord president of the council. He felt aggrieved, however, because his friends were not given a larger share of power, and when Pitt complained because some of them voted against the ministry, Sidmouth left the cabinet in July 1805. In February 1806 he became lord privy seal in the ministry of Fox and Grenville, but resigned early in 1807 when the government proposed to throw open commissions in the army and navy to Roman Catholics and Protestant dissenters; in 1812 he joined the cabinet of Spencer Perceval as lord president of the council, becoming home secretary when the ministry was reconstructed by the earl of Liverpool in the follow- ing June. The ten years during which he held this office coincided with much misery and unrest among the labouring classes, and the government policy, for which he was mainly responsible, was one of severe repression. In 1817 the Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, and Sidmouth issued a circular to the lords- lieutenant declaring that magistrates might apprehend and hold to bail persons accused on oath of seditious libels. For this step he was severely attacked in parliament, and was accused of fomenting rebellion by means of his spies. Although shaken by the acquittal of William Hone on a charge of libel the govern- ment was supported by parliament; and after the " Manchester massacre " in August 1819 the home secretary thanked the magistrates and soldiers for their share in quelling the riot. He was mainly responsible for the policy embodied in the " Six Acts " of 1819. In December 1821 Sidmouth resigned his office, but remained a member of the cabinet without official duties until 1824, when he resigned owing to his disapproval of the recognition of the independence of Buenos Aires. Subsequently he took very little part in public affairs; but true to his earlier principles he spoke against Catholic emancipation in April 1829, and voted against the Reform Bill in 1832. He died at his residence in Rich- mond Park on the i$th of February 1844, and was buried at Mortlake. In 1781 he married Ursula Mary, daughter of Leonard Hammond of Cheam, Surrey, who died in 1811, leaving a son, William Leonard, who succeeded his father as Viscount Sidmouth, and four daughters. In 1823 he married secondly Marianne, daughter of William Scott, Baron Stowell (d. 1836), and widow of Thomas Townsend of Honington, Warwickshire. Sidmouth suffers by comparison with the great men of his age, but he was honest and courageous in his opinions, loyal to his friends, and devoted to church and state. The 2nd Viscount Sidmouth (1794-1864) was a clergyman of the Church of England; he was succeeded as 3rd Viscount by his son, William Wells Addington (b. 1824). See Hon. G. Pellew, Life of Sidmouth (London, 1847); Lord John Russell, Life and Times of C. J. Fox (London, 1859-1866); Earl Stanhope, Life of Pitt (London, 1861-1862); Sir G. C. Lewis, Essays on the Administrations of Great Britain (London, 1864) ; Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886). (A. W. H.*) SIDMOUTH, a market town and watering-place in the Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the river Sid and the English Channel, 167! m. W. by S. of London, by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4201. Lying in a hollow, the town is shut in by hills which ter- minate in the forelands of Salcombe and High Peak, two sheer cliffs of a deep red colour. The shore line curves away, beyond these, westward to the Start and eastward to Portland — both visible from Sidmouth beach. The restored church of St Nicholas, dating from the i3th century, though much altered in the i$th, contains a window given by Queen Victoria in 1866 in memory of her father, the duke of Kent, who lived at Woolbrook Glen, close by, and died there in 1820. An esplanade is built along the sea-wall, and the town possesses golf links and other recreation grounds. The bathing is good, the climate warm. Formerly o( some importance, the harbour can no longer be entered by large vessels, and goods are transhipped into flat-bottomed lighters for conveyance ashore. Fishing is extensively carried on and cattle fairs are held. In the i3th century Sidmouth was a borough governed by a port-reeve. Tradition tells of an older town buried under the sea; and Roman coins and other remains have been washed up on the beach. Traces of an ancient camp exist on High Peak. SIDNEY (or SYDNEY), ALGERNON (1622-1683), English politician, second son of Robert, 2nd earl of Leicester, and of Dorothy Percy, daughter of Henry, gth earl of Northumberland, was born at Penshurst, Kent, in 1622. As a boy he showed much talent, which was carefully trained under his father's eye. In 1632 with his elder brother Philip he accompanied his father on his mission as ambassador extraordinary to Christian IV. of Denmark, whom he saw at Rendsburg. In May 1636 Sidney went with his father to Paris, where he became a general favourite, and from there to Rome. In October 1641 he was given a troop in his father's regiment in Ireland, of which his brother, known as Lord Lisle, was in command. In August 1643 the brothers returned to England. At Chester their horses were taken by the Royalists, whereupon they again put out to sea and landed at Liverpool. Here they were detained by the Parliamentary SIDNEY, A. commissioners, and by them sent up to London for safe custody. Whether this was intended by Sidney or no, it is certain that from this time he ardently attached himself to the Parliamentary cause. On the loth of May 1644 he was made captain of horse in Manchester's army, under the Eastern Association. He was shortly afterwards made lieutenant-colonel, and charged at the head of his regiment at Marston Moor (2nd July), where he was wounded and rescued with difficulty. On the 2nd of April 1645 he was given the command of a cavalry regiment in Cromwell's division of Fairfax's army, was appointed governor of Chichester on loth May, and in December was returned to parliament for Cardiff. In July 1646 he went to Ireland, where his brother was lord-lieutenant, and was made lieutenant-general of horse in that kingdom and governor of Dublin. Leaving London on ist of February 1647, Sidney arrived at Cork on the 22nd. He was soon (8th April), however, recalled by a resolution of the House passed through the interest of Lord Inchiquin. On the 7th of May he received the thanks of the House of Commons* On the I3th of October 1648 he was made lieutenant of Dover castle, of which he had previously been appointed governor. He was at this time identified with the Independents as opposed to the Presbyterian party. He was nominated one of the com- missioners to try Charles I., but took no part in the trial, retiring to Penshurst until sentence was pronounced. That Sidney approved of the trial, though not of the sentence, there can, however, be little doubt, for in Copenhagen he publicly and vigorously expressed his concurrence. On the i$th of May 1649 he was a member of the committee for settling the succession and for regulating the election of future parliaments. Sidney lost the governorship of Dover, however, in March 1651, in conse- quence, apparently, of a quarrel with his officers. He then went to the Hague, where he quarrelled with Lord Oxford at play, and a duel was only prevented by their friends. He returned to England in the autumn, and henceforward took an active share in parliamentary work. On the 25th of November Sidney was elected on the council of state and was evidently greatly con- sidered. In the usurpation of Cromwell, however, he utterly re- fused all concurrence, nor would he leave his place in parliament except by force when Cromwell dispersed it on the 2oth of April 1653. He immediately retired to Penshurst, where he was con- cerned chiefly with family affairs. In 1654 he again went to the Hague, and there became closely acquainted with De Witt. On his return he kept entirely aloof from public affairs, and it is to this period that the Essay on Love is ascribed. Upon the restoration of the Long Parliament, in May 1659, Sidney again took his seat, and was placed on the council of state. He showed himself in this office especially anxious that the military power should be duly subordinated to the civil. In June he was appointed one of three commissioners to mediate for a peace between Denmark, supported by Holland, and Sweden. He was probably intended to watch the conduct of his colleague, Admiral Montagu (afterwards ist earl of Sandwich), who was in command of the Baltic squadron. Of his character we have an interesting notice from Whitelocke, who refused to accompany him on the ground of his " overruling temper and height." Upon the conclusion of the treaty he went to Stockholm as plenipotentiary ; and in both capacities he behaved with resolution and address. When the restoration of Charles II. took place Sidney left Sweden, on the 28th of June 1660, bringing with him from the king of Sweden a rich present in testimony of the estimation in which he was held. Sidney went first to Copenhagen, and then, being doubtful of his reception by the English court, settled at Hamburg. From there he wrote a celebrated letter vindicating his conduct, which will be found in the Somers Tracts. He shortly afterwards left Hamburg, and passed through Germany by way of Venice to Rome. His stay there, however, was embittered by misunderstandings with his father and consequent straits for money. Five shillings a day, he says, served him and two men very well for meat, drink and firing. He devoted himself to the study of books, birds and trees, and speaks of his natural delight in solitude being largely in- creased. In 1663 he left Italy, passed through Switzerland, xxv. 2 a where he visited Ludlow, and came to Brussels in September, where his portrait was painted by van Egmondt; it is now at Penshurst. He had thoughts of joining the imperial service, and offered to transport from England a body of the old Common- wealth men; but this was refused by the English court. It is stated that the enmity against him was so great that now, as on other occasions, attempts were made to assassinate him. On the breaking out of the Dutch war, Sidney, who was at the Hague, urged an invasion of England, and shortly afterwards went to Paris, where he offered to raise a rebellion in England on receipt of 100,000 crowns. Unable, however, to come to terms with the French government, he once more went into retirement in 1666, — this time to the south of France. In August 1670 he was again in Paris, and Arlington proposed that he should receive a pension from Louis; Charles II. agreed, but insisted that Sidney should return to Languedoc. In illustration of his austere principles it is related that, Louis having taken a fancy to a horse belonging to him and insisting on possessing it, Sidney shot the animal, which, he said, " was born a free creature, had served a free man, and should not be mastered by a king of slaves." His father was now very ill, and after much difficulty Sidney obtained leave to come to England in the autumn of 1677. Lord Leicester died in November; and legal business connected with other portions of the succession detained Sidney from returning to France as he had intended. He soon became involved in political intrigue, joining, in general, the country party, and holding close com- munication with Barillon, the French ambassador. In the beginning of 1679 he stood for Guildford, and was warmly supported by William Penn, with whom he had long been in- timate, and to whom he is said (as is now thought, erroneously) to have afforded assistance in drawing up the constitution of Pennsylvania. He was defeated by court influence, and his petition to the House, complaining of an undue return, never came to a decision. His Letters to Henry Savile, written at this period, are of great interest. He was in Paris, apparently only for a short while, in November 1679. Into tne prosecution of the Popish Plot Sidney threw himself warmly, and was among those who looked to Monmouth, rather than to Orange, to take the place of James in the succession, though he afterwards dis- claimed all interest in such a question. He now stood for Bramber (Sussex), again with Penn's support, and a double return was made. He is reported on the loth of August 1679 as being elected for Amersham (Buckingham) with Sir Roger Hill. When parliament met, however, in October 1680, his election was declared void. But now, under the idea that an alliance between Charles and Orange would be more hostile to English liberty than would the progress of the French arms, he acted with Barillon in influencing members of parliament in this sense, and is twice mentioned as receiving the sum of 500 guineas from the ambassador. Of this there is no actual proof, and it is quite possible that Barillon entered sums in his accounts with Louis which he never paid away. In any case it is to be remembered that Sidney is not charged with receiving money for advocating opinions which he did not enthusiastically hold. Upon the dissolution of the last of Charles's parliaments the king issued a justificatory declaration. This was at once answered by a paper entitled A Just and Modest Vindication, &c., the first sketch of which is imputed to Sidney. It was then, too, that his most celebrated production, the Discourses con- cerning Government, was concluded, in which he upholds the doctrine of the mutual compact and traverses the High Tory positions from end to end. In especial he vindicates the pro- priety of resistance to kingly oppression or misrule, upholds the existence of an hereditary nobility interested in their country's good as the firmest barrier against such oppression, and main- tains the authority of parliaments. In each point the English constitution, which he ardently admires, is, he says, suffering: the prerogatives of the crown are disproportionately great; the peerage has been degraded by new creations; and parlia- ments are slighted. For a long while Sidney kept himself aloof from the duke of Monmouth, to whom he was introduced by Lord Howard. After SIDNEY, SIR HENRY the death of Shaftesbury, however, in November 1682, he entered into the conferences held between Monmouth, Russell, Essex, Hampden and others. That treasonable talk went on seems certain, but it is probable that matters went no further. The watchfulness of the court was, however, aroused, and on the discovery of the Rye House Plot, Sidney, who had always been regarded in a vague way as dangerous, was arrested while at dinner on the 26th of June 1683. His papers were carried off, and he was sent at once to the Tower on a charge of high treason. For a considerable while no evidence could be found on which to establish a charge. Jeffreys, however, was made lord chief- justice in September; a jury was packed; and, after consulta- tions between the judge and the crown lawyers, Sidney was brought to listen to the indictment on the 7th of November. The trial began on the 2ist of November: Sidney was refused a copy of the indictment, in direct violation of law, and he was refused the assistance of counsel. Hearsay evidence and the testimony of the perjured informer Lord Howard, whom Sidney had been instrumental in introducing to his friends, were first produced. This being insufficient, partial extracts from papers found in Sidney's study, and supposed only to be in his hand- writing, in which the lawfulness of resistance to oppression was upheld, were next relied on. He was indicted for " conspiring and compassing the death of the king/' Sidney conducted his case throughout with great skill; he pointed especially to the fact that Lord Howard, whose character he easily tore to shreds, was the only witness against him as to treason, whereas the law required two, that the treason was not accurately defined, that no proof had been given that the papers produced were his, and that, even if that were proved, these papers were in no way connected with the charge. Against the determination to secure a conviction, however, his courage, eloquence, coolness and skill were of no avail, and the verdict of " guilty " was given. On the 25th of November Sidney presented a petition to the king, praying for an audience, which, however, under the influence of James and Jeffreys, Charles refused. On the 26th he was brought up for judgment, and again insisted on the illegality of his con- viction. Upon hearing his sentence he gave vent to his feelings in a few noble and beautiful words. Jeffreys having suggested that his mind was disordered, he held out his hand and bade the chief-justice feel how calm and steady his pulse was. By the advice of his friends he presented a second petition, offering, if released, to leave the kingdom at once and for ever. The supposed necessity, however, of checking the hopes of Mon- mouth's partisans caused the king to be inexorable. The last days of Sidney's life were spent in drawing up his Apology and in discourse with Independent ministers. He was beheaded on the morning of the 7th of December 1683. His remains were buried at Penshurst. (O. A.) SIDNEY, SIR HENRY (1520-1586), lord deputy of Ireland, was the eldest son of Sir William Sidney, a prominent politician and courtier in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., from both of whom he received extensive grants of land, in- cluding the manor of Penshurst in Kent, which became the principal residence of the family. Henry was brought up at court as the companion of Prince Edward, afterwards King Edward VI.; and he continued to enjoy the favour of the sovereign throughout the reigns of Edward and Mary. In 1 556 he went to Ireland with the lord deputy, the earl of Sussex, who in the previous year had married his sister Frances Sidney; and from the first he had a large share in the administration of the country, especially in the military measures taken by his brother-in-law for bringing the native Irish chieftains into submission to the English Crown. In the course of the lord deputy's Ulster expedition in 1557 Sidney devastated the island of Rathlin; and during the absence of Sussex in England in the following year Sidney was charged with the sole responsibility for the govern- ment of Ireland, which he conducted with marked ability and success. A second absence of the lord deputy from Ireland, occasioned by the accession of Queen Elizabeth, threw the chief control into Sidney's hands at the outbreak of trouble with Shane O'Neill, and he displayed great skill in temporizing with that redoubtable chieftain till Sussex reluctantly returned to his duties in August 1559. About the same time Sidney resigned his office of vice-treasurer of Ireland on being appointed president of the Welsh Marches, and for the next few years he resided chiefly at Ludlow Castle, with frequent visits to the court in London. In 1565 Sidney was appointed lord deputy of Ireland in place of Sir Nicholas Arnold, who had succeeded the earl of Sussex in the previous year. He found the country in a more impoverished and more turbulent condition than when he left it, the chief disturbing factor being Shane O'Neill in Ulster. With difficulty he persuaded Elizabeth to sanction vigorous measures against O'Neill; and although the latter successfully avoided a decisive encounter, Sidney restored O'Neill's rival Calvagh O'Donnell to his rights, and established an English garrison at Derry which did something to maintain order. In 1567 Shane was murdered by the MacDonnells of Antrim (see O'NEILL), and Sidney was then free to turn his attention to the south, where with vigour and determination he arranged the quarrel between the earls of Desmond and Ormonde, and laid his hand heavily on other dis- turbers of the peace; then, returning to Ulster, he compelled Turlough Luineach O'Neill, Shane's successor in the clan chief- tainship, to make submission, and placed garrisons at Belfast and Carrickfergus to overawe Tyrone and the Glynns. In the autumn of 1567 Sidney went to England, and was absent from Ireland for the next ten months. On his return he urged upon Cecil the necessity for measures to improve the economic con- dition of Ireland, to open up the country by the construction of roads and bridges, to replace the Ulster tribal institutions by a system of freehold land tenure, and to repress the ceaseless disorder prevalent in every part of the island. In pursuance of this policy Sidney dealt severely with the unruly Butlers in Munster. At Kilkenny large numbers of Sir Edmund Butler's followers were hanged, and three of Ormonde's brothers were attainted by an actof thelrish parliament in 1570. Enlightened steps were taken for the education of the people, and encourage- ment was given to Protestant refugees from the Netherlands to settle in Ireland. Sidney left Ireland in 1 5 7 1 , aggrieved by the slight appreciation of his statesmanship shown by the queen; but he returned thither in September 1575 with increased powers and renewed tokens of royal approval, to find matters in a worse state than before, especially in Antrim, where the MacQuillins of the Route and Sorley Boy MacDonnell (q.v.) were the chief fomenters of disorder. Having to some extent pacified this northern territory, Sidney repaired to the south, where he was equally successful in making his authority respected. He left his mark on the administrative areas of the island by making shire divisions on the English model. At an earlier period he had already in the north combined the districts of the Ardes and Clandeboye to form the county of Carrickfergus, and had converted the country of the O'Farrells into the county of Longford; he now carried out a similar policy in Connaught, where the ancient Irish district of Thomond became the county Clare, and the counties of Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Roscommon were also delimited. He suppressed a rebellion headed by the earl of Clanricarde and his sons in 1576, and hunted Rory O'More to his death two years later. Meantime Sidney's methods of taxation had caused discontent among the gentry of the Pale, who carried their grievances to Queen Elizabeth. Greatly to Sidney's chagrin the queen censured his extravagance, and notwithstanding his distinguished services to the crown he was recalled in September 1578, and was coldly received by Elizabeth. He lived chiefly at Ludlow Castle for the remainder of his life, performing his duties as president of the Welsh Marches, and died there on the sth of May 1 586. Sir Henry Sidney was the ablest statesman charged with the government of Ireland in the i6th century; and the meagre recognition which his unrewarded services received was a con- spicuous example of the ingratitude of Elizabeth. Sidney married in 1551 Mary, eldest daughter of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, by whom he had three sons and four daughters. His eldest son was Sir Philip Sidney (q.v.), and his second was SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP 43 Robert Sidney, ist earl of Leicester (?.».); his daughter Mary married Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, and by reason of her association with her brother Philip was one of the most celebrated women of her time (see PEMBROKE, EARLS OF). See Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Henry VIII.- Elizabelh; Calendar of the Carew MSS.; J. O'Donovan's edition of The Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851)' Holinshed's Chronicles, vol. iii. (6 vols., London, 1807); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885) ; Calendar of Ancient Records of Dublin, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert, vols. i. and ii. (Dublin, 1889) ; Sir J. T. Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865); J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870). (R. J. M.) SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586), English poet, statesman and soldier, eldest son of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary Dudley, was born at Penshurst on the 3oth of November 1554. His father, Sir Henry Sidney (1529-1586), was three times lord deputy of Ireland, and, in 1560 became lord president of Wales. Philip Sidney's childhood was spent at Penshurst; and before he had completed his tenth year he was nominated by his father lay rector of Whitford, Flintshire. A deputy was appointed, and Philip enjoyed the revenue of the benefice for the rest of his life. On the 1 7th of October 1 564 he was entered at Shrewsbury school, not far from his father's official residence at Ludlow Castle, on the same day with his life-long friend and first biographer, Fulke Greville. An affectionate letter of advice from his father and mother, written about 1565, was preserved and printed in 1591 (A Very Godly Letter . . . ). In 1568 Sidney was sent to Christ Church, Oxford, where he formed lasting friendships with Richard Hakluyt and William Camden. But his chief companion was Fulke Greville, who had gone to Broadgates Hall (Pembroke College). Sir Henry Sidney was already anxious to arrange an advantageous marriage for his son, who was at that time heir to his uncle, the earl of Leicester; and Sir William Cecil agreed to a betrothal with his daughter Anne. But in 1571 the match was broken off, and Anne Cecil married Edward Vere, i7th earl of Oxford. In that year Philip left Oxford, and, after some months spent chiefly at court, received the queen's leave in 1572 to travel abroad " for his attaining the knowledge of foreign languages." He was attached to the suite of the earl of Lincoln, who was sent to Paris in that year to negotiate a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the due d'Alencon. He was in the house of Sir Francis Walsingham in Paris during the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and the events he witnessed no doubt intensified his always militant Protestantism. In charge of Dr Watson, dean, and afterwards bishop, of Winchester, he left Paris for Lorraine, and in March of the next year had arrived in Frankfort on the Main. He lodged there in the house of the learned printer Andrew Wechel, among whose guests was also Hubert Languet. Fulke Greville describes Philip Sidney when a schoolboy as characterized by " such staidness of mind, lovely and familiar gravity, which carried grace and reverence far above greater years." " Though I lived with him, and knew him from a child," he says, " yet I never knew him other than a man." These qualities attracted to him the friendship of grave students of affairs, and in France he- formed close connexions with the Huguenot leaders. Languet, who was an ardent supporter of the Protestant cause, conceived a great affection for the younger man, and travelled in his company to Vienna. In October Sidney left for Italy, having first of all entered into a compact with his friend to write every week. This arrangement was not strictly observed, but the extant letters, more numerous on Languet's side than on Sidney's, afford a considerable insight into Sidney's moral and political development. Languet's letters abound with sensible and affectionate advice on his studies and his affairs generally. Sidney settled for some time in Venice, and in February 1574 he sat to Paolo Veronese for a portrait, destined for Languet. His friends seem to have feared that his zeal for Protestantism might be corrupted by his stay in Italy, and Languet exacted from him a promise that he would not go to Rome. In July he was seriously ill, and immediately on his recovery started for Vienna. From there he accompanied Languet to Poland, where he is said to have been asked to become a candidate for the vacant crown. On his return to Vienna he fulfilled vague diplomatic duties at the imperial court, perfecting himself meanwhile, in company with Edward Wotton, in the art of horsemanship under John Pietro Pugliano, whose skill and wit he celebrates in the opening paragraph of the Defence of Poesie. He addressed a letter from Vienna on the state of affairs to Lord Burghley, in December 1574. In the spring of 1575 he followed the court to Prague, where he received a summons to return home, appar- ently because Sir Francis Walsingham, who was now secretary of state, feared that Sidney had leanings to Catholicism. His sister, Mary Sidney, was now at court, and he had an influential patron in his uncle, the earl of Leicester. He accom- panied the queen on one of her royal progresses to Kenilworth, and afterwards to Chartley Castle, the seat of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex. There he met Penelope Devereux, the " Stella " of the sonnets, then a child of twelve. Essex went to Ireland in 1576 to fill his office as earl marshal, and in September occurred his mysterious death. Philip Sidney was in Ireland with his father at the time. Essex on his deathbed had desired a match between Sidney and his daughter Penelope. Sidney was often harassed with debt, and seems to have given no serious thought to the question for some time, but Edward Waterhouse, an agent of Sir Henry Sidney, writing in November 1576, mentions " the treaty between Mr Philip and my Lady Penelope " (Sidney Papers, i. p. 147). In the spring of 1577 Sidney was sent to con- gratulate Louis, the new elector Palatine, and Rudolf II., who had become emperor of Germany. He received also general in- structions to discuss with various princes the advancement of the Protestant cause. After meeting Don John of Austria at Louvain, March 1577, he proceeded to Heidelberg and Prague. He persuaded the elector's brother, John Casimir, to consider proposals for a league of Protestant princes, and also for a conference among the Protestant churches. At Prague he ventured on a harangue to the emperor, advocating a general league against Spain and Rome. This address naturally produced no effect, but does not seem to have been resented as much as might have been expected. On the return journey he visited William of Orange, who formed a high opinion of Sidney. In April 1577 Mary Sidney married Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, and in the summer Philip paid the first of many visits to her at her new home at Wilton. But later in the year he was at court defending his father's interests, particularly against the earl of Ormonde, who was doing all he could to prejudice Elizabeth against the lord deputy. Sidney drew up a detailed defence of his father's Irish govern- ment, to be presented to the queen. A rough draft of four of the seven sections of this treatise is preserved in the British Museum (Cotton MS., Titus B, xii. pp. 557-559), and even in its frag- mentary condition it justifies the high estimate formed of it by Edward Waterhouse (Sidney Papers, p. 228). Sidney watched with interest the development of affairs in the Netherlands, but was fully occupied in defending his father's interests at court. He came also in close contact with many men of letters. In 1578 he met Edmund Spenser, who in the next year dedicated to him his Shepherdes Calendar. With Sir Edward Dyer he was a member of the Areopagus, a society which sought to introduce classical metres into English verse, and many strange experi- ments were the result. In 1578 the earl of Leicester entertained Elizabeth at Wanstead, Essex, with a masque, The Lady oj the May, written for the occasion by Philip Sidney. But though Sidney enjoyed a high measure of the queen's favour, he was not permitted to gratify his desire for active employment. He was already more or less involved in the disgrace of his uncle Leicester, following on that nobleman's marriage with Lettice, countess of Essex, when, in 1579, he had a quarrel on the tennis- court at Whitehall with the earl of Oxford. Sidney proposed a duel, which was forbidden by Elizabeth. There was more in the quarrel than appeared on the surface. Oxford was one of the chief supporters of the queen's proposed marriage with Alencon, 44 SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP now due d'Anjou, and Sidney, in giving the lie to Oxford, affronted the leader of the French party. In January 1580 he went further in his opposition to the match, addressing to Eliza- beth a long letter in which the arguments against the alliance were elaborately set forth. This letter (Sidney Papers, pp. 287- 292), in spite of some judicious compliments, was regarded, not unnaturally, by the queen as an intrusion. Sidney was compelled to retire from court, and some of his friends feared for his personal safety. A letter from Languet shows that he had written to Elizabeth at the instigation of " those whom he was bound to obey," probably Leicester and Walsingham. Sidney retired to Wilton, or the neighbouring village of Ivychurch, where he joined his sister in writing a paraphrase of the Psalms. Here too he began his Arcadia, for his sister's amusement and pleasure. In October 1580 he addressed a long letter of advice, not without affectionate and colloquial inter- ruptions, to his brother Robert, then about to start on his con- tinental tour. This letter (Sidney Papers, p. 283) was printed in Profitable Instructions for Travellers (1633). It seems that a promise was exacted from him not to repeat his indiscretions in the matter of the French marriage, and he returned to court. In view of the silence of contemporary authority, it is hardly possible to assign definite dates to the sonnets of Astrophel and Stella. Penelope Devereux was married against her will to Robert, Lord Rich, in 1581, probably very soon after the letter from Penelope's guardian, the earl of Huntingdon, desiring the queen's consent. The earlier sonnets are not indicative of over- whelming passion, and it is a reasonable assumption that Sidney's liking for Penelope only developed into passion when he found that she was passing beyond his grasp. Mr A. W. Pollard assigns the magnificent sequence beginning with No. 33 — " I might! unhappy word — O me, I might, And then would not, or could not, see my blisse,"- to the period following on Stella's reappearance at court as Lady Rich. It has been argued that the whole tenor of Philip's life and character was opposed to an overmastering passion, and that there is no ground for attaching biographical value to these sonnets, which were merely Petrarchan exercises. That Sidney was, like his contemporaries, a careful and imitative student of French and Italian sonnets is patent. He himself confesses in the first of the series that he " sought fit words to paint the blackest face of woe," by " oft turning others' leaves " before he obeyed the command of his muse to " look in his heart and write." The account of his passion is, however, too circumstantial to be lightly regarded as fiction. Mr Pollard sees in the sonnets a description of a spiritual struggle between his sense of a high political mission and a disturbing passion calculated to lessen his efforts in a larger sphere. It seems certain, at any rate, that he was not solely preoccupied with scruples against his love for Stella because she was already married. He had probably been writing sonnets to Stella for a year or more before her marriage, and he seems to have continued to address her after his own marriage. Thomas Nash defined the general argument epigram- matically as " cruel chastity — the prologue Hope, the epilogue Despair." But after Stella's final refusal Sidney recovered his earlier serenity, and the sonnet placed by Mr Pollard at the end of the series — " Leave me, O Love, which reachest but to dust " — expresses the triumph of the spirit. Meanwhile he prosecuted his duties as a courtier and as member for Kent in parliament. On the isth and i6th of May 1581 he was one of the four challengers in a tournament arranged in honour of the visit of the duke of Anjou. In 1579 Stephen Gosson had dedicated to Sidney his School of Abuse, an attack on the stage, and incidentally on poetry. Sidney was probably moved by this treatise to write his own Apologie for Poetrie, dating from about 1581. In 1583 he was knighted in order that he might act as proxy for Prince John Casimir, who was to be installed as Knight of the Garter, and in the autumn of that year he married Frances, daughter of his friend and patron Sir Francis Walsingham, a girl of fourteen or fifteen years of age. In 1584 he met Giordano Bruno at the house of his friend Fulke Greville, and two of the philosopher's books are dedicated to him. Sidney was employed about this time in the translation from the French of his friend Du Plessis Mornay's treatise on the Christian religion. He still desired active service and took an eager interest in the enterprises of Martin Frobisher, Richard Hakluyt and Walter Raleigh. In 1584 he was sent to France to condole with Henry III. on the death of his brother, the duke of Anjou, but the king was at Lyons, and unable to receive the embassy. Sidney's interest in the struggle of the Protestant princes against Spain never relaxed. He recommended that Elizabeth should attack Philip II. in Spain itself. So keen an interest did he take in this policy that he was at Plymouth about to sail with Francis Drake's fleet in its expedition against the Spanish coast (1585) when he was recalled by the queen's orders. He was, however, given a command in the Netherlands, where he was made governor of Flushing. Arrived at his post, he con- stantly urged resolute action on his commander, the earl of Leicester, but with small result. In July 1586 he made a success- ful raid on Axel, near Flushing, and in September he joined the force of Sir John Norris, who was operating against Zutphen. On the 22nd of the month he joined a small force sent out to intercept a convoy of provisions. During the fight that ensued he was struck in the thigh by a bullet. He succeeded in riding back to the camp. The often-told story that he refused a cup of water in favour of a dying soldier, with the words, " Thy need is greater than mine," is in keeping with his character. He owed his death to a quixotic impulse. Sir William Pelham happening to set out for the fight without greaves, Sidney also cast off his leg-armour, which would have defended him from the fatal wound. He died twenty-five days later at Arnheim, on the i7th of October 1 586. The Dutch desired to have the honour of his funeral, but the body was taken to England, and, after some delay due to the demands of Sidney's creditors, received a public funeral in St Paul's Cathedral on the i6th of February 1587. Sidney's death was a personal grief to people of all classes. Some two hundred elegies were produced in his honour. Of all these tributes the most famous is Astrophel, A Pastoral Elegie, added to Edmund Spenser's Colin Clout's Come Home Again (1595). Spenser wrote the opening poem; other contributors are Sidney's sister, the countess of Pembroke, Lodowick Bryskett and Matthew Roydon. In the bare enumeration of Sidney's achievements there seems little to justify the passionate admira- tion he excited. So calm an observer as William of Orange desired Fulke Greville to give Elizabeth " his knowledge and opinion of a fellow-servant of his, that (as he heard) lived unemployed under her. . . . If he could judge, her Majesty had one of the ripest and greatest counsellors of estate in Sir Philip Sidney, that this day lived in Europe " (Fulke Greville, Life of Sidney, ed. 1816, p. 21). His fame was due first of all to his strong, radiant and lovable character. Shelley placed him in Adonais among the " inheritors of unfulfilled renown," as " sublimely mild, a spirit without spot." Sidney left a daughter Frances (b. 1584), who married Roger Manners, earl of Rutland. His widow, who, in spite of the strictures of some writers, was evidently sincerely attached to him, married in 1590 Robert Devereux, second earl of Essex, and, after his death in 1601, Richard de Burgh, earl of Clanricarde. Sidney's writings were not published during his lifetime. A Worke concerning the trewnesse of the Christian Religion, trans- lated from the French of Du Plessis Mornay, was completed and published by Arthur Golding in 1587. The Countesse of Pembroke's Arcadia written by Philippe Sidnei (1590), in quarto, is the earliest edition of Sidney's famous romance.1 A folio edition, issued in 1593, is stated to have been revised and rearranged by the countess of Pembroke, for whose delectation the romance was written. She was charged to destroy the work sheet by sheet as it was sent to her. The circumstances of its composition partly explain the difference between its intricate sentences, full of far-fetched conceits, repetition and antithesis, and the simple and dignified phrase of the Apologie for Poetrie. The style is a concession to the fashionable taste in 1 For a bibliography of this and subsequent editions see the fac- simile reprint (1891) of this quarto, edited by Dr Oskar Sommer. SIDNEY— SIDON 45 literature which the countess may reasonably be supposed to have shared; but Sidney himself, although he was no friend to euphuism, was evidently indulging his own mood in this highly decorative prose. The main thread of the story relates how the princes Musidorus and Pyrocles, the latter disguised as a woman, Zelmane, woo the princesses Pamela and Philoclea, daughters of Basilius and Gynaecia, king and queen of Arcady. The shepherds and shepherdesses occupy a humble place in the story. Sidney used a pastoral setting for a romance of chivalry complicated by the elaborate intrigue of Spanish writers. Nor are these intrigues of a purely innocent and pastoral nature. Sidney described the passion of love under many aspects, and the guilty queen Gynaecia is a genuine tragic heroine. The loose frame- work of the romance admits of descriptions of tournaments, Elizabethan palaces and gardens and numerous fine speeches. It also contains some lyrics of much beauty. Charles I. recited and copied out shortly before his death Pamela's prayer, which is printed in the Eikon Basilike. Milton reproached him in the Eikonoklastes with having " borrowed to a Christian use prayers offered to a heathen god . . . and that in no serious book, but in the vain amatorious poem of Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia." Professor Courthope (Hist, of English Poetry, i. 215) points out that the tragedy of Sidney's life, the divorce between his ideals of a nobly active life and the enforced idleness of a courtier's existence, is intimately connected with his position as a pioneer in fiction, in which the life represented is tacitly recognized as being contrary to the order of existence. Sidney's wide acquaint- ance with European literature is reflected in this book, but he was especially indebted to the Arcadia of Jacopo Sannazaro, and still more to George Montemayor's imitation of Sannazaro, the Diana Enamorada. The artistic defects of the Arcadia in no way detracted from its popularity. Both Shakespeare and Spenser were evidently acquainted with it. John Day's lie of Guls, and the plots of Beaumont and Fletcher's Cupid's Revenge, and of James Shirley's Arcadia, were derived from it. The book had more than one supplement. Gervase Markham, Sir William Alexander (earl of Stirling) and Richard Beling wrote con- tinuations. The series of sonnets to Stella were printed in 1591 as Sir P.S.: His Astrophel and Stella, by Thomas Newman, with an intro- ductory epistle by T. Nash, and some sonnets by other writers. In the same year Newman issued another edition with many changes in the text and without Nash's preface. His first edition was (probably later) reprinted by Matthew Lownes. In 1598 the sonnets were reprinted in the folio edition of Sidney's works, entitled from its most considerable item The Countesse of Pembroke's Arcadia, edited by Lady Pembroke, with con- siderable additions. The songs are placed in their proper position among the sonnets, instead of being grouped at the end, and two of the most personal poems (possibly suppressed out of con- sideration for Lady Rich in the first instance), which afford the best key to the interpretation of the series, appear for the first time. Sidney's sonnets adhere more closely to French than to Italian models. The octave is generally fairly regular on two rhymes, but the sestet usually terminates with a couplet. The Apologie for Poetrie was one of the " additions " to the countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (1598), where it is entitled " The Defence of Poesie." It first appeared separately in 1594 (unique copy in the Rowfant Library, reprint 1904, Camb. Univ. Press). Sidney takes the word " poetry " in the wide sense of any imagina- tive work, and deals with its various divisions. Apart from the subject matter, which is interesting enough, the book has a great value for the simple, direct and musical prose in which it is written. The Psalmes of David, the paraphrase in which he collaborated with his sister, remained in MS. until 1823, when it was edited by S. W. Singer. A translation of part of the Divine Sepmaine of G. Salluste du Bartas is lost. There are two pastorals by Sidney in Davison's Poetical Rhapsody (1602). Letters and Memorials of State . . . (1746) is the title of an in- valuable collection of letters and documents relating to the Sidney family, transcribed from originals at Penshurst and elsewhere by Arthur Collins. Fulke Greville's Life of the Renowned Sir Philip Sidney is a panegyric dealing chiefly with his public policy. The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet was trans- lated from the Latin and published with a memoir by Steuart A. Pears (1845). The best biography of Sidney is A Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney by H. R. Fox Bourne (1862). A revised life by the same author is included in the " Heroes of the Nations " series (1891). Critical appreciation is available in J. A. Symonds's Sir Philip Sidney (1886), in the " English Men of Letters " series; in J. J. A. Jusserand's English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare (1890) ; and in modern editions of Sidney's works, among which may be mentioned Mr A. W. Pollard's edition (1888) of Astrophel and Stella, Professor Arbor's reprint (1868) of An Apologie for Poetrie, and Mr Sidney Lee's Elizabethan Sonnets (1904) in the re-issue of Professor Arber's English Garner, where the sources of Sidney's sonnets are fully discussed. See also a collection of Sidneiana printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1837, a notice by Mrs Humphry Ward in Ward's English Poets, i. 341 seq., and a dissertation by Dr K. Brunhuber, Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia und ihre Nachlaufer (Niirnberg, 1903). A com- plete text of Sidney's prose and poetry, edited by Albert Feuillerat, is to be included in the Cambridge English Classics. SIDNEY, a city and the county-seat of Shelby county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Miami river, about 33 m. S. by W. of Lima. Pop. (1890) 4850; (1900) 5688, including 282 foreign-born and 108 negroes; (1910) 6607. Sidney is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Western Ohio (electric) railways. The city is situated on an elevated tableland, in an agricultural region. Sidney has a public library, and a monumental building, a memorial, erected in 1875, to the soldiers in the American Civil War, and now devoted to various public uses. The river here provides some water-power, and the city has various manu- factures. Sidney was laid out as the county-seat in 1819, was incorporated as a village in 1831 and first chartered as a city in 1897. SIDON (Phoen. px, Hebrew p-s, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna), formerly the principal city of Phoenicia, now a small town of about 15,000 inhabitants, situated on the Syrian coast between Beirut and Sur (Tyre). The name, which the Arabs now pronounce Saida, has been explained as meaning " fish- town " (cf. Hebr. iis " to hunt," in Phoen. perhaps " to fish "); more likely it is connected with the god Sid, who is known only as an element in proper names (see Cooke, North-Sent. Inscrr. p. 91); possibly both town and people were named after him. The ancient city extended some 800 yds. inland from the shore over ground which is now covered by fruit-gardens. From a series of inscriptions, all giving the same text, discovered at Bostan esh-Shekh, a little way to the N. of Saida, we learn that the ancient city was divided into three divisions at least, one of which was called " Sidon by the sea," and another " Sidon on the plain " (?) (see N.-Sem. Inscrr. App. i.). In front of the flat promontory to which the modern Sidon is confined there stretches northwards and southwards a rocky peninsula; at the northern extremity of this begins a series of small rocks enclosing the harbour, which is a very bad one. The port was formerly pro- tected on the north by the Qal'at el-Bahr (" Sea Castle "), a building of the i3th century, situated on an island still connected with the mainland by a bridge. On the S. side of the town lay the so-called Egyptian harbour, which was filled up in the I7th century in order to keep out the Turks. The wall by which Sidon is at present surrounded is pierced by two gates; at the southern angle, upon a heap of rubbish, stand the remains of the citadel. The streets are very narrow, and the buildings of any interest few; most prominent are some large caravanserais belonging to the period of Sidon's modern prosperity, and the large mosque, formerly a church of the knights of St John. The inhabitants support themselves mainly on the produce of their luxuriant gardens; but the increasing trade of Beirut has withdrawn the bulk of the commerce from Sidon. In earlier days Phoenicia produced excellent wine, that of Sidon being specially esteemed; it is mentioned in an Aramaic papyrus from Egypt (4th century B.C., N.S.I, p. 213). One of the chief in- dustries of Sidon used to be the manufacture of glass from the fine sand of the river Belus. To the S.E. of the town lies the Phoenician necropolis, which has been to a great extent investi- gated. The principal finds are sarcophagi, and next to these sculptures and paintings. It was here that the superb Greek 46 SIEBENGEBIRGE— SIEDLCE sarcophagi, which are now in the Imperial Museum at Constanti- nople, were found, and the sarcophagi of the two Sidonian kings Eshmunazar (Louvre) and Tabnith (Imperial Museum, Con- stantinople) , both of them with important Phoenician inscriptions. The ancient history of Sidon is discussed in the article PHOENICIA. In A.D. 325 a bishop of Sidon attended the Council of Nicaea. In 637-638 the town was taken by the Arabs. During the Crusades it was alternately in the possession of the Franks and the Mahommedans, but finally fell into the hands of the latter in 1291. As the residence of the Druse Amir Fakhr ud-Din, it rose to some prosperity about the beginning of the 1 7th century, but towards the close of the i8th its commerce again passed away and has never returned. The biblical references to Sidon are Gen. x. 15 (the people), xlix. 13; Is. xxiii. 1-14; Ezek. xxvii. 8; Acts xxvii. 3. Sidon is nearly always mentioned along with Tyre — Jer. xxvii. 3, xlvii. 4; Ezra iii. 7; Joel iii. 4; Mark iii. 8 and Luke vi. 17; Mark vii. 24, 31, and Matt. xv. 21 ; Matt. xi. 21 and Luke x. 13 f. ; Acts xii. 20. In the Old Testa- ment, as frequently in Greek literature, " Sidonians " is used not in a local but in an ethnic sense, and means " Phoenicians," hence the name of Sidon was familiar to the Greeks earlier than that of Tyre, though the latter was the more important city (ed. Meyer, Encycl. Bibl. col. 4505). See Robinson, Bibl. Res. ii. 478 ff. ; Prutz, Aus Phonicien (1876), 98 ff. ; Pietschmann, Gesch. d. Phonizier (1889), 53-58; Hamdy Bey and T. Reinach, Necropole royale a Sidon (1892-1896); A. Socin in Baedeker, Pal. u. Syrien. (G. A. C.*) SIEBENGEBIRGE (" The Seven Hills "), a cluster of hills in Germany, on the Rhine, 6 m. above Bonn. They are of volcanic origin, and form the north-western spurs of the Westerwald. In no part of the Rhine valley is the scenery more attractive ; crag and forest, deep dells and gentle vine-clad slopes, ruined castles and extensive views over the broad Rhine and the plain beyond combine to render the Siebengebirge the most favourite tourist resort on the whole Rhine. The hills are as follows: the steep Drachenfels (1067 ft.), abutting on the Rhine and surmounted by the ruins of an old castle; immediately behind it, and connected by a narrow ridge, the Wolkenburg (1076 ft.); lying apart, and to the N. of these, the Petersberg (1096 ft.), with a pilgrimage chapel of St Peter; then, to the S. of these three, a chain of four — viz. the Olberg (1522 ft.), the highest of the range; the Lowenburg (1506 ft.); the Lohrberg (1444 ft.), and, farthest away, the Nonnenstromberg (1107 ft.). At the foot of the Drachenfels, on the north side, lies the little town of Konigswinter, whence a mountain railway ascends to the summit, and a similar railway runs up the Petersberg. The ruins which crown almost every hill are those of strongholds of the archbishops of Cologne and mostly date from the 1 2th century. See von Dechen, Geognostischer Fiihrer in das Siebengebirge (Bonn, 1861); von Stiirtz, Fiihrer durch das Siebengebirge (Bonn, 1893); Laspeyres, Das Siebengebirge am Rhein (Bonn, 1901). SIEBOLD, CARL THEODOR ERNST VON (1804-1883), German physiologist and zoologist, the son of a physician and a descendant of what Lorenz Oken called the " Asclepiad family of Siebolds," was born at Wiirzburg on the i6th of February 1804. Educated in medicine and science chiefly at the university of Berlin, he became successively professor of zoology, physiology and comparative anatomy in Konigsberg, Erlangen, Freiburg, Breslau and Munich. In conjunction with F. H. Stannius he published (1845-1848) a Manual of Comparative Anatomy, and along with R. A. Kolliker he founded in 1848 a journal which soon took a leading place in biological literature, Zeitschrift fiir •wissenschaftliche Zoologie. He was also a laborious and successful helminthologist and entomologist, in both capacities contributing many valuable papers to his journal, which he continued to edit until his death at Munich on the 7th of April 1885. In these ways, without being a man of marked genius, but rather an industrious and critical observer, he came to fill a peculiarly distinguished position in science, and was long reckoned, what his biographer justly calls him, the Nestor of German zoology. See Ehlers, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. (1885). SIEBOLD, PHILIPP FRANZ VON (1796-1866), scientific explorer of Japan, elder brother of the physiologist, was born at Wiirzburg, Germany, on the i7th of February 1796. He studied medicine and natural science at Wiirzburg, and obtained his doctor's diploma in 1820. In 1822 he entered the service of the king of the Netherlands as medical officer to the East Indian Army. On his arrival at Batavia he was attached to a new mission to Japan, sent by the Dutch with a view to improve their trading relations with that country. Siebold was well equipped with scientific apparatus, and he remained in Japan for six years, with headquarters at the Dutch settlement on the little island of Deshima. His medical qualifications enabled him to find favoui with the Japanese, and he gathered a vast amount of information concerning a country then very little known, especially concerning its natural history and ethnography. He had comparatively free access to the interior, and his reputation spreading far and wide brought him visitors from all parts of the country. His valuable stores of information were enriched by trained natives whom he sent to collect for him in the interior. In 1824 he published De historiae naluralis in Japonia statu and in 1832 his splendid Fauna Japonica. His knowledge of the language enabled him also in 1826 to issue from Batavia his Epitome linguae Japonicae. In Deshima he also laid the founda- tion of his Catalogus librorum Japonicorum and Isagoge in bibliothecam Japonicam, published after his return to Europe, as was his Bibliolheca Japonica, which, with the co-operation of J. Hoffmann, appeared at Leiden in 1833. During the visit which he was permitted to make to Yedo (Tokio), Siebold made the best of the rare opportunity; his zeal, indeed, outran his discretion, since, for obtaining a native map of the country, he was thrown into prison and compelled to quit Japan on the ist of January 1830. On his return to Holland he was raised to the rank of major, and in 184? to that of colonel. After his arrival in Europe he began to give to the world the fruits of his researches and observations in Japan. His Nippon; Archiv zur Beschrei- bung von Japan und dessen Neben- und Schulz-Landern was issued in five quarto volumes of text, with six folio volumes of atlas and engravings. He also issued many fragmentary papers on various aspects of Japan. In 1854 he published at Leiden Urkundliche Darstellung der Bestrebungen Nicderlands und Russlands zur Erojfnung Japans. In 1859 Siebold undertook a second journey to Japan, and was invited by the emperor to his court. In 1861 he obtained permission from the Dutch government to enter the Japanese service as negotiator between Japan and the powers of Europe, and in the same year his eldest son was made interpreter to the English embassy at Yedo. Siebold was, however, soon obliged by various intrigues to retire from his post, and ultimately from Japan. Returning by Java to Europe in 1862, he set up his ethnographical collections, which were ultimately secured by the government of Bavaria and removed to Munich. He con- tinued to publish papers on various Japanese subjects, and received honours from many of the learned societies of Europe. He died at Munich on the i8th of October 1866. See biography by Moritz Wagner, in Allgemeine Zeilung, I3th to i6th of November 1866. SIEDLCE (Russian Syedlets), a government of Russian Poland, between the Vistula and the Bug, having the governments of Warsaw on the W., Lomza on the N., Grodno and Volhynia on the E., Lublin on the S., and Radom on the S.W. Its area is 5533 sq. m. The surface is mostly flat, only a few hilly tracts appearing in the middle, around Biala, and in the east on the banks of the Bug. Extensive marshes occur in the north and in the south-east. Cretaceous, Jurassic and Tertiary strata cover the surface, and are overlain by widely spread Glacial deposits. The valley of the Vistula is mostly wide, with several terraces covered with sand-dunes or peat-bogs. Siedlce is drained by the Vistula, which borders it for 50 m. on the west ; by the Bug, which is navigable from Opalin in Volhynia and flows for 170 m. on the east and north-east borders; by the Wieprz, a tributary of the Vistula, which is also navigable, and flows for 25 m. along the southern boundary; and by the Liwiec, a tributary of the Bug, which is navigable for some 30 m. below Wegrow. Of the total area only 5-2% is unproductive; 48-1% is under crops and 17-2 under meadows and pasture land. The estimated SIEDLCE— SIEMENS 47 population in 1906 was 907,700. The inhabitants consist of Little Russians (40%), Poles (43%), Jews (155%) and Germans (15%). The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of which are the capital Siedlce, Biala, Konstantinow, Garwolin, Lukow, Radzyn, Sokolow, VVegrow, Wlodawa. The main occupation is agriculture, the principal crops being rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. The area under forests amounts to 19-6% of the total. Live-stock breeding is second in importance to agriculture. Manufactures and trade are in- significant. SIEDLCE, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 56 m. E.S.E. of the city of Warsaw, on the Brest- Litovsk railway. It is a Roman Catholic episcopal see. The Oginskis, to whom it belonged, have embellished it with a palace and gardens; but it is nothing more than a large village. Pop. 23,714 (1897), two-thirds Jews. SIEGBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the river Sieg, 16 m. by rail S.E. of Cologne by the railway to Giessen. Pop. (1905) 14,878. It has a royal shell factory, calico-printing mills, lignite mines, stone quarries and pottery and tobacco factories. The parish church, dating from the i3th century, possesses several richly decorated reliquaries of the 1 2th to 1 5th centuries. The buildings of the Benedictine abbey, founded in 1066, are now used as a prison. The town, which was founded in the nth century, attained the height of its prosperity in the i$th and i6th centuries owing to its pottery wares. Siegburg pitchers (Siegburgcr Krtige) were widely famed. Their shape was often fantastic and they are now eagerly sought by collectors. See R. Heinekamp, Siegburgs Vergangenheit und Gcgenwart (Siegburg, 1897); and Renard, Die Kunstdenkmdler des Siegkreises (Dusseldorf, 1907). SIEGE (O. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf . Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege), the " sitting down " of an army or military force before a fortified place for the purpose of taking it, either by direct military operations or by starving it into submission (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). A special form of coin is known as a " siege-piece." These are coins that were struck during a siege of a town when the ordinary mints were closed or their issues were not available. Such coins were commonly of special shape to distinguish them from the normal coinage, and were naturally of rough workmanship. A common shape for the siege pieces which were issued during the Great Rebellion was the lozenge. A noteworthy example is a shilling siege-piece struck at Newark in 1645 (see TOKEN MONEY). SIEGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated 63 m. E. of Cologne by rail, on the Sieg, a tributary entering the Rhine opposite Bonn. Pop. (1905) 25,201. The town contains two palaces of the former princes of Nassau-Siegen, a technical and a mining school. The sur- rounding district, to which it gives its name, abounds in iron- mines, and iron founding and smelting are the most important branches of industry in and near the town. Large tanneries and leather works, and factories for cloth, paper and machinery, are among the other industrial establishments. Siegen was the capital of an early principality belonging to the house of Nassau; and from 1606 onwards it gave name to the junior branch of Nassau-Siegen. Napoleon incorporated Siegen in the grand-duchy of Berg in 1806; and in 1815 the congress of Vienna assigned it to Prussia, under whose rule it has nearly quintupled its population. Rubens is said to have been born here in 1577. See Cuno, Geschichte der Stadt Siegen (Dillenburg, 1873). SIEMENS, ERNST WERNER VON (1816-1892), German electrician, was born on the i3th of December 1816 at Lenthe in Hanover. After attending the gymnasium at Lubeck, he entered the Prussian army as a volunteer, and for three years was a pupil in the Military Academy at Berlin. In 1838 he received a commission as lieutenant in the artillery, and six years later he was appointed to the responsible post of superintendent of the artillery workshops. In 1848 he had the task of protecting the port of Kiel against the Danish fleet, and as commandant of Friedrichsort built the fortifications for the defence, of Eckern- fb'rde harbour. In the same year he was entrusted with the laying of the first telegraph line in Germany, that between Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main, and with that work his military career came to an end. Thenceforward he devoted his energies to furthering the interests of the newly founded firm of Siemens and Halske, which under his guidance became one of the most important electrical undertakings in the world, with branches in different countries that gave it an international influence; in the London house he was associated with Sir William Siemens, one of his younger brothers. Although he had a decided pre- dilection for pure research, his scientific work was naturally determined to a large extent by the demands of his business, and, as he said when he was admitted to the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1874, the filling up of scientific voids presented itself to him as a technical necessity. Considering that his entrance into commercial life was almost synchronous with the introduc- tion of electric telegraphy into Germany, it is not surprising that many of his inventions and discoveries relate to telegraphic apparatus. In 1847, when he was a member of the committee appointed to consider the adoption of the electric telegraph by the government, he suggested the use of gutta-percha as a material for insulating metallic conductors. Then he in- vestigated the electrostatic charges of telegraph conductors and their laws, and established methods for testing underground and submarine cables and for locating faults in their insula- tion; further, he carried out observations and experiments on electrostatic induction and the retardation it produced in the speed of the current. He also devised apparatus for duplex and diplex telegraphy, and automatic recorders. In a somewhat less specialized sphere, he was an early advocate of the desirability of establishing some easily reproducible basis for the measurement of electrical resistance, and suggested that the unit should be taken as the resistance of a column of pure mercury one metre high and one square millimetre in cross-section, at a temperature of o° C. Another task to which he devoted much time was the construction of a selenium photometer, depending on the property possessed by that substance of changing its electrical resistance according to the intensity of the light falling upon it. He also claimed to have been, in 1866, the discoverer of the principle of self-excitation in dynamo-electric machines, in which the residual magnetism of the iron of the electro-magnets is utilized for excitation, without the aid of permanent steel magnets or of a separate exciting current. In another brancn of science he wrote several papers on meteorological subjects, discussing among other things the causation of the winds and the forces which produce, maintain and retard the motions of the air. In 1886 he devoted half a million marks to the foundation of the Physikalisch- Technische Reichsanstalt at Charlottenburg, and in 1888 he was ennobled. He died at Berlin on the 6th of December 1892. His scientific memoirs and addresses were collected and pub- lished in an English translation in 1892, and three years later a second volume appeared, containing his technical papers. SIEMENS, SIR WILLIAM [KARL WILHELM] (1823-1883), British inventor, engineer and natural philosopher, was born at Lenthe in Hanover on the 4th of April 1823. After being educated in the polytechnic school of Magdeburg and the uni- versity of Gottingen, he visited England at the age of nineteen, in the hope of introducing a process in electroplating invented by himself and his brother Werner. The invention was adopted by Messrs Elkington, and Siemens returned to Germany to enter as a pupil the engineering works of Count Stolberg at Magdeburg. In 1844 he was again in England with another invention, the " chronometric " or differential governor for steam engines. Finding that British patent laws afforded the inventor a pro- tection which was then wanting in Germany, he thenceforth made England his home; but it was not till 1859 that he formally became a naturalized British subject. After some years spent in active invention and experiment at mechanical works near Birmingham, he went into practice as an engineer in 1851. He laboured mainly in two distinct fields, the applications of heat and the applications of electricity, and was characterized 48 SIENA in a very rare degree by a combination of scientific comprehension with practical instinct. In both fields he played a part which would have been great in either alone; and, in addition to this, he produced from time to time miscellaneous inventions and scientific papers sufficient in themselves to have established a reputation. His position was recognized by his election in 1862 to the Royal Society, and later to the presidency of the Institu- tion of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Telegraph Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, and the British Association; by honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford, Glasgow, Dublin and Wurzburg; and by knighthood (in 1883). He died in London on the igth of November 1883. In the application of heat Siemens's work began just after J. P. Joule's experiments had placed the doctrine of the conservation of energy on a sure basis. While Rankine, Clausius and Lord Kelvin were developing the dynamical theory of heat as a matter of physical and engineering theory, Siemens, in the light of the new ideas, made a bold attempt to improve the efficiency of the steam engine as a converter of heat into mechanical work. Taking up the regenerator — a device invented by Robert Stirling twenty years before, the im- portance of which had meanwhile been ignored — he applied it to the steam engine in the form of a regenerative condenser with some success in 1847, and in 1855 engines constructed on Siemens's plan were worked at the Paris exhibition. Later he also attempted to apply the regenerator to internal combustion or gas engines. In 1856 he introduced the regenerative furnace, the idea of his brother Friedrich (1826-1904), with whom he associated himself in directing its applications. In an ordinary furnace a very large part of the heat of combustion is lost by being carried off in the hot gases which pass up the chimney. In the regenerative furnace the hot gases pass through a regenerator, or chamber stacked with loose bricks, which absorb the heat. When the bricks are well heated the hot gases are diverted so to pass through another similar chamber, while the air necessary for combustion, before it enters the furnace, is made to traverse the heated chamber, taking up as it goes the heat which has been stored in the bricks. After a suitable interval the air currents are again reversed. The process is repeated periodically, with the result that the products of combustion escape only after being cooled, the heat which they take from the furnace being in great part carried back in the heated air. But another invention was required before the regenerative furnace could be thoroughly successful. This was the use of gaseous fuel, produced by the crude distillation and incomplete combustion of coal in a distinct furnace or gas-pro- ducer. From this the gaseous fuel passes by a flue to the regenerative furnace, and it, as well as the entering air, is heated by the regenerative method, four brick-stacked chambers being used instead of two. The complete invention was applied at Chance's glass-works in Birmingham in 1861, and furnished the subject of Faraday's farewell lecture to the Royal Institution. It was soon applied to many industrial processes, but it found its greatest development a few years later at the hands of Siemens himself in the manufacture of steel. To produce steel directly from the ore, or by melting together wrought-iron scrap with cast-iron upon the open hearth, had been in his mind from the first, but it was not till 1867, after two years of experiment in " sample steel works " erected by himself for the purpose, that he achieved success. The product is a mild steel of exceptionally trustworthy quality, the use of which for boiler-plates has done much to make possible the high steam-pressures that are now common, and has consequently contributed, indirectly, to that improvement in the thermodynamic efficiency of heat engines which Siemens had so much at heart. Just before his death he was again at work upon the same subject, his plan being to use gaseous fuel from a Siemens producer in place of solid fuel beneath the boiler, and to apply the regenerative principle to boiler furnaces. His faith in gaseous fuel led him to anticipate that it would in time supersede solid coal for domestic and industrial purposes, cheap gas being supplied either from special works or direct from the pit; and among his last inventions was a house grate to burn gas along with coke, which he regarded as a possible cure for city smoke. In electricity Siemens's name is closely associated with the growth of land and submarine telegraphs, the invention and development of the dynamo, and the application of electricity to lighting and to locomotion. In 1860, with his brother Werner, he invented the earliest form of what is now known as the Siemens armature; and in 1867 he communicated a paper to the Royal Society " On the Con- version of Dynamical into Electrical Force without the aid of Per- manent Magnetism," in which he announced the invention by Werner Siemens of the dynamo-electric machine, an invention which was also reached independently and almost simultaneously by Sir Charles Wheatstone and by S. A. Varley. The Siemens-Alteneck or multiple-coil armature followed in 1873. While engaged in con- structing a trans-Atlantic cable for the Direct United States Tele- graph Company, Siemens designed the very original and successful ship " Faraday," by which that and other cables were laid. One of the last of his works was the Portrush and Bushmills electric tram- way, in the north of Ireland, opened in 1883, where the water-power of the river Bush drives a Siemens dynamo, from which the electric energy is conducted to another dynamo serving as a motor on the car. In the Siemens electric furnace the intensely hot atmosphere of the electric arc between carbon points is employed to melt re- fractory metals. Another of the uses to which he turned electricity was to employ light from arc lamps as a substitute for sunlight in hastening the growth and fructification of plants. Among his miscellaneous inventions were the differential governor already alluded to, and a highly scientific modification of it, described to the Royal Society in 1866; a water-meter which acts on the principle of counting the number of turns made by a small reaction turbine through which the supply of water flows; an electric thermometer and pyrometer, in which temperature is determined by its effect on the electrical conductivity of metals; an attraction meter for de- termining very slight variations in the intensity of a gravity; and the bathometer, by which he applied this idea to the problem of finding the depth of the sea without a sounding line. In a paper read before the Royal Society in 1882, " On the Conservation of Solar Energy," he suggested a bold but unsatisfactory theory of the sun's heat, in which he sought to trace on a cosmic scale an action similar to that of the regenerative furnace. His fame, however, does not rest on his contributions to pure science, valuable as some of these were. His strength lay in his grasp of scientific principles, in his skill to perceive where and how they could be applied to practical affairs, in his zealous and instant pursuit of thought with action, and in the indomitable persistence with which he clung to any basis of effort that seemed to him theoretically sound. Siemens's writings consist for the most part of lectures and papers scattered through the scientific journals and the publications of the Royal Society, the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, the British Association, &c. A biography by Dr William Pole was published in 1888. (J. A. E.) SIENA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Tuscany, Italy, capital of the province of Siena, 59 m. by rail S. of Florence and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 25,539 (town); 40,423 (commune). The area of the city within the walls is about 23 sq. m., and the height above sea-level 1115 ft. The plan, spreading from the centre over three hills, closely resembles that of Perugia. The city possesses a university, founded in 1263 and limited to the faculties of law and medicine. Among the other public institu- tions the following are the more important: the town library, first opened to students in the I7th century; the Archivio, a record office, instituted in 1858, containing a valuable and splendidly arranged collection of documents; the Fine Arts Institution, founded in 1816; and the natural history museum of the Royal Academy of the Physiocritics, inaugurated in the same year. There are also many flourishing charities, including an excellent hospital and a school for the deaf and dumb. The chief industries are weaving and agriculture. The public festivals of Siena known as the " Palio delle Con- trade " have a European celebrity. They are held in the public square, the curious and historic Piazza del Campo (now Piazza di Vittorio Emanuele) in shape resembling an ancient theatre, on the 2nd of July and the i6th of August of each year; they date from the middle ages and were instituted in commemoration of victories and in honour of the Virgin Mary (the old title of Siena, as shown by seals and medals, having been " Sena vetus civitas Virginis "). In the isth and i6th centuries the celebrations consisted of bull-fights. At the close of the i6th century these were replaced by races with mounted buffaloes, and since 1650 by (ridden) horses. Siena is divided into seventeen contrade (wards), each with a distinct appellation and a chapel and flag of its own; and every year ten of these contrade, chosen by lot, send each one horse to compete for the prize palio or banner. The aspect of Siena during these meetings is very characteristic, and the whole festivity bears a medieval stamp in harmony with the architecture and history of the town. Among the noblest fruits of Sienese art are the public buildings adorning the city. The cathedral, one of the" finest examples of Italian Gothic architecture, obviously influenced in plan by the abbey of S. Galgano (infra}, built in black and white marble, was begun in the early years of the I3th century, but interrupted by the plague of 1248 and wars at home and abroad, and in 1317 its walls were extended to the baptistery of San Giovanni; a further enlargement was begun in 1339 but never carried out, and a few ruined walls and arches alone remain to show the SIENA 49 magnificence of the uncompleted design, which would have produced one of the largest churches in the world. The splendid west front, of tricuspidal form, enriched with a multitude of columns, statues and inlaid marbles, is said to have been begun by Giovanni Pisano, but really dates from after 1370; it was finished in 1380, and closely resembles that of Orvieto, which is earlier in date (begun in 1310). Both facades have been recently restored, and the effect of them not altogether improved by modern mosaics. The fine Romanesque campanile belongs to the first halt of the 1 4th century. Conspicuous among the art treasures ot the interior is the well-known octagonal pulpit by Niccola Pisano, dating from 1266-1268. It rests on columns supported by lions, and i finely sculptured. Numerous statues and bas-reliefs by Renaissance artists adorn the various altars and chapels. The cathedral pave- ment is almost unique. It is inlaid with designs in colour and black and white, representing Biblical and legendary subjects, and is supposed to have been begun by Duccio della Buoninsegna. But the finest portions beneath the domes, with scenes from the history ol Abraham, Moses and Elijah, are by Domenico Beccafumi and are executed with marvellous boldness and effect. The choir stalls also deserve mention: the older ones (remains of the original choir) are in tarsia work; the others, dating from the l6th century, are carved from Riccio's designs. The Piccolomini Library, adjoining the duomo, was founded by Cardinal Francesco Piccolomini (afterwards Pius III.) in honour of his uncle, Pius II. Here are Pinturicchio s famous frescoes of scenes from the life of the latter pontiff, and the collection of choir books (supported on sculptured desks) with splendid illuminations by Sienese and other artists. The church of San Giovanni, the ancient baptistery, beneath the cathedral is ap- proached by an outer flight of marble steps built in 1451. It has a beautiful but incomplete facade designed by Giovanni di Mino del Pellicciaio in 1382, and a marvellous font with bas-reliefs by Dona- tello, Ghiberti, Jacopo della Quercia and other 1 5th-century sculptors. The Opera del Duomo contains Duccio's famous Madonna, painted for the cathedral in 1308-131 1 , and other works of art. Among the other churches are S. Maria di Provenzano, a vast baroque building of some elegance, designed by Schifardini (1594); Sant' Agostino, rebuilt by Vanvitelli in 1755, containing a Cruci- fixion and Saints by Perugino, a Massacre of the Innocents by Matteo di Giovanni, the Coming of the Magi by Sodoma, and a St Anthony by Spagnoletto (?); the beautiful church of the Servites (i5th century), which contains another Massacre of the Innocents by Matteo di Giovanni and other good examples of the Sienese school ; San Francesco, designed by Agostino and Agnolo about 1326, and now restored, which once possessed many fine paintings by Duccio Buoninsegna, Lorenzetti, Sodoma and Beccafumi, some of which perished in the great fire of 1655 ; San Domenico, a fine 13th-century building with a single nave and transept, containing Sodoma's splendid fresco the Swoon of St Catherine, the Madonna of Guido da Siena, 1281, and a crucifix by Sano di Pietro. This church crowns the Fontebranda hill above the famous fountain of that name im- mortalized by Dante, and in a steep lane below stands the house of St Catherine, now converted into a church and oratory, and main- tained at the expense of the inhabitants of the Contrada dell' Oca. It contains some good pictures by_ Pacchia and other works of art, but is chiefly visited for its historic interest and as a striking memorial of the characteristic piety of the Sienese. The Accademia di Belle Arti contains a good collection of pictures of the Sienese school, illustrating its development. The communal palace in the Piazza del Campo was begun in 1288 and finished in 1309. It is built of brick, is a fine specimen of Pointed Gothic, and was designed by Agostino and Agnolo. The light and elegant tower (Torre del Mangla) soaring from one side of the palace was begun in 1338 and finished after 1348, and the chapel standing at its foot, raised at the expense of the Opera del Duomwas a public thank-offering after the plague of 1348, begun in 1352 and com- pleted in 1376. This grand old palace has other attractions besides the beauty of its architecture, for its interior is lined with works of art. The atrium has a fresco by Bartolo di Fredi and the two ground-floor halls contain a Coronation of the Virgin by Sano di Pietro and a splendid Resurrection by Sodoma. In the Sala del Nove or della Pace above are the noble allegorical frescoes of Ambrogio Lorenzett representing the effects of just and unjust government; the Sala delle Balestre or del Mappamondo is painted by Simone di Martino (Memmi) and others, the Cappella della Signoria by Taddeo d' Bartolo, and the Sala del Consistorio by Beccafumi. Another hall the Sala di Balia, has frescoes by Spinello Arctino (1408) with scenes from the life of Pope Alexander III., while yet another has been painted by local artists with episodes in recent Italian history. An interesting exhibition of Sienese art, including many objects from neighbouring towns and villages, was held here in 1904. The former hall of the grand council, built in 1327, was converted into the chie theatre of Siena by Riccio in 1560, and, after being twice burnt, was rebuilt in 1753 from Bibbiena's designs. Another Sienese theatre that of the Rozzi, in Piazza San Pellegrino, designed by A. Doveri anc erected in 1816, although modern, has an historic interest as the work of an academy dating from the 1 6th century, called the Congrega de' Rozzi, that played an important part in the history of the Italian comic stage. The city is adorned by many other noble edifices both public ud private, among which the following palaces may be mentioned — Tolomei (1205); Buonsignori, formerly Tegliacci, an elegant 14th- century construction, restored in 1848; Grottanelli, formerly Pecci ind anciently the residence of the captain of war, recently restored n its original style; Sansedoni; Marsilii; Piccolomini, now be- onging to the Government and containing the state archives;1 'iccolomini delle Papesse, like the other Piccolomini mansion, designed by Bernardo Rossellino, and now the Banca d' Italia; :he enormous block of the Monte de' Paschi, a bank of considerable wealth and antiquity, enlarged and partly rebuilt in the original style jetween 1877 and 1881, the old Dogana and Salimbeni palaces; the ?alazzo Spannochi, a fine early Renaissance building by Giuliano da Vlaiano (now the post office) ; the Loggia di Mercanzia (i 5th century), now a club, imitating the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, with sculp- tures of the I5th century; the Loggia del Papa, erected by Pius II.; and other fine buildings. We may also mention the two celebrated buntains, Fonte Gaia and Fontebranda; the former, in the Piazza del Campo, by Jacopo della Quercia (1409-1419), but freely restored in 1868, the much-damaged original reliefs being now in the Opera del Duomo; the Fonte Nuova, near Porta Ovile, by Camaino di Crescentino also deserves notice (1298). Thanks to all these archi- tectural treasures, the narrow Sienese streets with their many wind- ngs and steep ascents are full of picturesque charm, and, _ together with the collections of excellent paintings, foster the local pride of the inhabitants and preserve their taste and feeling for art. The medieval walls and gates are still in the main preserved. The ruined Cistercian abbey of S. Galgano, founded in 1201, with its fine church (1240- 1268) is interesting and imposing. It lies some 20 m. south-west of ;na. History. — Siena was probably founded by the Etruscans (a few tombs of that period have been found outside Porta Camellia), and then, falling under the Roman rule, became a colony in the reign of Augustus, or a little earlier, and was distinguished by the name of Saena Julia. It has the same arms as Rome — the she-wolf and twins. But its real importance dates from the middle ages. Few memorials of the Roman era 2 or of the first centuries of Christianity have been preserved (except the legend of St Ansanus), and none at all of the interval pre- ceding the Lombard period. We have documentary evidence that in the 7th century in the reign of Rotaris (or Rotari), there was a bishop of Siena named Mauro. Attempts to trace earlier bishops as far back as the sth century have yielded only vague and contradictory results. Under the Lombards the civil government was in the hands of a gastaldo, under the Carolingians of a count, whose authority, by slow degrees and a course of events similar to what took place in other Italian communes, gave way to that of the bishop, whose power in turn gradually diminished and was superseded by that of the consuls and the commonwealth. We have written evidence of the consular government of Siena from 1125 to 1212; the number of consuls varied from three to twelve. This government, formed of gentiluomini or nobles, did not remain unchanged throughout the whole period, but was gradually forced to accept the participation of the popolani or lower classes, whose efforts to rise to power were continuous and determined. Thus in 1137 they obtained a third part of the government by the Teconstitution of the general council with 100 nobles and 50 popolani. In 1199 the institution of a foreign podestd (a form of government which became per- manent in 1212) gave a severe blow to the consular magistracy, which was soon extinguished; and in 1233 the people again rose against the nobles in the hope of ousting them entirely from office. The strife was largely economic, the people desiring to deprive the nobles of the immunity of taxation which they had enjoyed. The attempt was not completely successful; but the government was now equally divided between the two estates by the creation of a supreme magistracy of twenty-four citizens — twelve nobles and twelve popolani. During the rule of the nobles and the mixed rule of nobles and popolani the commune of Siena was enlarged by fortunate acquisitions of neighbouring lands and by the submission of feudal lords, such as the Scialenghi, Aldobrandeschi, Pannocchieschi, Visconti di Campiglia, &c. 1 In these are especially interesting the painted covers of the books of the bicchierna and gabella, or revenue and tax offices. 2 There are, however, remains of baths some 2j m. to the east; see P. Piccolomini in Bullettino Senesede storia patria, vi. (1899). SIENA Before long the reciprocal need of fresh territory and frontier disputes, especially concerning Poggibonsi and Montepulciano, led to an outbreak of hostilities between Florence and Siena. Thereupon, to spite the rival republic, the Sienese took the Ghibelline side, and the German emperors, beginning with Frederick Barbarossa, rewarded their fidelity by the grant of various privileges. During the i2th and I3th centuries there were continued disturbances, petty wars, and hasty reconciliations between Florence and Siena, until in 1254-1255 a more binding peace and alliance was concluded. But this treaty, in spite of its apparent stability, led in a few years to a fiercer struggle; for in 1258 the Florentines complained that Siena had infringed its terms by giv- ing refuge to the Ghibellines they had expelled, and on the refusal of the Sienese to yield to these just remonstrances both states made extensive preparations for war. Siena applied to Manfred, obtained from him a strong body of German horse, under the command of Count Giordano, and likewise sought the aid of its Ghibelline allies. Florence equipped a powerful citizen army, of which the original registers are still preserved in the volume entitled 77 Libra di Montaperti in the Florence archives. This army, led by the podesta of Florence and twelve burgher captains, set forth gaily on its march towards the enemy's territories in the middle of April 1260, and during its first campaign, ending on the 1 8th of May, won an insignificant victory at Santa Petronilla, outside the walls of Siena. But in a second and more important campaign, in which the militia of the other Guelf towns of Tuscany took part, the Florentines were signally defeated at Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. This defeat crushed the power of Florence for many years, reduced the city to desola- tion, and apparently annihilated the Florentine Guelfs. But the battle of Benevento (1266) and the establishment of the dynasty of Charles of Anjou on the Neapolitan throne put an end to the Ghibelline predominance in Tuscany. Ghibelline Siena soon felt the effects of the change in the defeat of its army at Colle di Valdelsa (1269) by the united forces of the Guelf exiles, Florentines and French, and the death in that battle of her powerful citizen Provenzano Salvani (mentioned by Dante), who had been the leading spirit of the government at the time of the victory of Montaperti. For some time Siena remained faithful to the Ghibelline cause; nevertheless Guelf and demo- cratic sentiments began to make head. The Ghibellines were on several occasions expelled from the city, and, even when a temporary reconciliation of the two parties allowed them to return, they failed to regain their former influence. Meanwhile the popular party acquired increasing power in the state. Exasperated by the tyranny of the Salimbeni and other patrician families allied to the Ghibellines, it decreed in 1277 the exclusion of all nobles from the supreme magistracy (consisting since 1270 of thirty-six instead of twenty-four members) , and insisted that this council should be formed solely of Guelf traders and men of the middle class. This constitution was confirmed in 1 280 by the reduction of the supreme magistracy to fifteen members, all of the humbler classes, and was definitively sanctioned in 1285 (and 1287) by the institution of the magistracy of nine. This council of nine, composed only of burghers, carried on the government for about seventy years, and its rule was sagacious and peaceful. The territories of the state were enlarged; a friendly alliance was maintained with Florence; trade flourished; in 1321 the university was founded, or rather revived, by the introduction of Bolognese scholars; the principal buildings now adorning the town were begun; and the charitable institutions, which are the pride of modern Siena, increased and prospered. But meanwhile the exclusiveness of the single class of citizens from whose ranks the chief magistrates were drawn had converted the government into a close oligarchy and excited the hatred of every other class. Nobles, judges, notaries and populace rose in frequent revolt, while the nine defended their state (1295-1309) by a strong body of citizen militia divided into terzieri (sections) and contrade (wards), and violently repressed these attempts. But in 1355 the arrival of Charles IV. in Siena gave fresh courage to the malcontents, who, backed by the imperial authority, overthrew the government of the nine and substituted a magistracy of twelve drawn from the lowest class. These new rulers were to some extent under the influence of the nobles who had fomented the rebellion, but the latter were again soon excluded from all share in the govern- ment. This was the beginning of a determined struggle for supre- macy, carried on for many years, between the different classes of citizens, locally termed ordini or monti — the lower classes striving to grasp the reins of government, the higher classes already in office striving to keep all power in their own hands, or to divide it in proportion to the relative strength of each monte. As this struggle is of too complex a nature to be described in detail, we must limit ourselves to a summary of its leading episodes. The twelve who replaced the council of nine (as these had previously replaced the council of the nobles) consisted — both as individuals and as a party — of ignorant, incapable, turbulent men, who could neither rule the state with firmness nor confer prosperity on the republic. They speedily broke with the nobles, for whose manoeuvres they had at first been useful tools, and then split into two factions, one siding with the Tolomei, the other, the more restless and violent, with the Salimbeni and the novcschi (partisans of the nine), who, having still some influence in the city, probably fomented these dissensions, and, as we shall see later on, skilfully availed themselves of every chance likely to restore them to power. In 1368 the adversaries of the twelve succeeded in driving them by force from the public palace, and substituting a government of thirteen — ten nobles and three noveschi. This government lasted only twenty-two days, from the 2nd to the 24th September, and was easily overturned by the dominant faction of the dodicini (partisans of the twelve), aided by the Salimbeni and the populace, and favoured by the emperor Charles IV. The nobles were worsted, being driven from the city as well as from power; but the absolute rule of the twelve was brought to an end, and right of participation in the govern- ment was extended to another class of citizens. For, on the expulsion of the thirteen from the palace, a council of 124 plebeians created a new magistracy of twelve difensori (defenders) , no longer drawn exclusively from the order of the twelve, but composed of five of the popolo minuto, or lowest populace (now first admitted to the government), four of the twelve, and three of the nine. But it was of short duration, for the dodicini were ill satisfied with their share, and in December of the same year (1368) joined with the popolo minuto in an attempt to expel the three noveschi from the palace. But the new popular order, which had already asserted its predominance in the council of the riformatori, now drove out the dodicini, and for five days (nth to i6th December) kept the government in its own hands. Then, however, moved by fear of the emperor, who had passed through Siena two months before on his way to Rome, and who was about, to halt there on his return, it tried to conciliate its foes by creating a fresh council of 150 riformatori, who replaced the twelve defenders by a new supreme magistracy of fifteen, consisting of eight popolani, four dodicini, and three noveschi, entitled respectively " people of the greater number," " people of the middle number," and " people of the less number. " From this renewal dates the formation of the new order or monle dei riformatori, the title henceforth bestowed on all citizens, of both the less and the greater people, who had reformed the government and begun to participate in it in 1368. The turbulent action of the twelve and the Salimbeni, being dissatisfied with these changes, speedily rose against the new government. This 'time they were actively aided by Charles IV., who, having returned from Rome, sent his militia, commanded by the imperial vicar Malatesta da Rimini, to attack the public palace. But the Sienese people, being called to arms by the council of fifteen, made a most determined resistance, routed the imperial troops, captured the standard, and confined the emperor in the Salimbeni palace. Thereupon Charles came to terms with the government, granted it an imperial patent, and left the city, consoled for his humiliation hy the gift of a large sum of money. SIENA In spite of its wide basis and great energy, the monte del riformatori, the heart of the new government, could not satisfac- torily cope with the attacks of adverse factions and treacherous allies. So, the better to repress them, it created in 1369 a chief of the police, with the title of esecutore, and a numerous associa- tion of popolani — the company or casata grande of the people — as bulwarks against the nobles, who had been recalled from banishment, and who, though fettered by strict regulations, were now eligible for offices of the state. But the appetite for power of the " less people " and the dregs of the populace was whetted rather than satisfied by the installation of the riformatori in the principal posts of authority. Among the wool-carders — men of the lowest class, dwelling in the precipitous lanes about the Porta Ovile — there was an association styling itself the "company of the worm." During the famine of 1371 this company rose in revolt, sacked the houses of the rich, invaded the public palace, drove from the council of fifteen the four members of the twelve and the three of the nine, and replaced them by seven tatter- demalions. Then, having withdrawn to its own quarter, it was suddenly attacked by the infuriated citizens (noveschi and dodicini), who broke into houses and workshops and put numbers of the inhabitants to the sword without regard for age or sex. Thereupon the popular rulers avenged these misdeeds by many summary executions in the piazza. These disorders were only checked by fresh changes in the council of fifteen. It was now formed of twelve of the greater people and three noveschi, to the total exclusion of the dodicini, who, on account of their grow- ing turbulence, were likewise banished from the city. Meanwhile the government had also to contend with difficulties outside the walls. The neighbouring lords attacked and ravaged the municipal territories; grave injuries were inflicted by the mercenary bands, especially by the Bretons and Gascons. The rival claims to the Neapolitan kingdom of Carlo di Durazzo and Louis of Anjou caused fresh disturbances in Tuscany. The Sienese government conceived hopes of gaining possession of the city of Arezzo, which was first occupied by Durazzo's men, and then by Enguerrand de Coucy for Louis of Anjou; but while the Sienese were nourishing dreams of conquest the French general unexpectedly sold the city to the Florentines, whose negotiations had been conducted with marvellous ability and despatch (1384). The gathering exasperation of the Sienese, and notably of the middle class, against their rulers was brought to a climax by this cruel disappointment. Their discontent had been gradually swelled by various acts of home and foreign policy during the sixteen years' rule of the riformatori, nor had the concessions granted to the partisans of the twelve and the latter's recall and renewed eligibility to office availed to conciliate them. At last the revolt broke out and gained the upper hand, in March 1385. The riformatori were ousted from power and expelled the city, and the trade of Siena suffered no little injury by the exile of so many artisan families. The fifteen were replaced by a new supreme magistracy of ten priors, chosen in the following proportions — four of the twelve, four of the nine, and two of the people proper, or people of the greater number, but to the exclusion of all who had shared in the government or sat in council under the riformatori. Thus began a new order or monte del popolo, composed of families of the same class as the riformatori, but having had no part in the government during the latter's rule. But, though now admitted to power through the burgher reaction, as a concession to democratic ideas, and to cause a split among the greater people, they enjoyed very limited privileges.1 In 1387 fresh quarrels with Florence on the subject of Monte- pulciano led to an open war, that was further aggravated by the interference in Tuscan affairs of the ambitious duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti. With him the Sienese concluded an alliance in 1389 and ten years later accepted his suzerainty and resigned the liberties of their state. But in 1402 the death of 1 The following are the ordini or monti that held power in Siena for any considerable time — gentiluomini, from the origin of there- public; nme, from about 1285; dodici,irom 1355; riformatori, from 1368; popolo, from 1385. Gian Galeazzo lightened their yoke. In that year the first plot against the Viscontian rule, hatched by the twelve and the Salimbeni and fomented by the Florentines, was violently re- pressed, and caused the twelve to be again driven from office; but in the following year a special balia, created in consequence of that riot, annulled the ducal suzerainty and restored the liberties of Siena. During the interval the supreme magistracy had assumed a more popular form. By the partial readmission of the riformatori and exclusion of the twelve, the permanent balm was now composed of nine priors (three of the nine, three of the people, and three of the riformatori) and of a captain of the people to be chosen from each of the three monti in turn. On nth April peace was made with the Florentines and Siena en- joyed several years of tranquil prosperity. But the great Western schism then agitating the Christian world again brought disturbance to Siena. In consequence of the decisions of the council of Pisa, Florence and Siena had declared against Gregory XII. (1409); Ladislaus of Naples, therefore, as a supporter of the pope, seized the opportunity to make incursions on Sienese territory, laying it waste and threatening the city. The Sienese maintained a vigorous resistance till the death of this monarch in 1414 freed them from his attacks. In 1431 a fresh war with Florence broke out, caused by the latter's attempt upon Lucca, and continued in consequence of the Florentines' alliance with Venice and Pope Eugenius IV., and that of the Sienese with the duke of Milan and Sigismund, king of the Romans. This monarch halted at Siena on his way to Rome to be crowned, and received a most princely welcome. In 1433 the opposing leagues signed a treaty of peace, and, although it was disadvantageous to the Sienese and temptations to break it were frequently urged upon them, they faithfully adhered to its terms. During this period of comparative tranquillity Siena was honoured by the visit of Pope Eugenius IV. (1443) and by that of the emperor Frederick III., who came there to receive his bride, Eleanor of Portugal, from the hands of Bishop Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, his secretary and historian (1452). This meeting is recorded by the memorial column still to be seen outside the Camollia gate. In 1453 hostilities against Florence were again resumed, on account of the invasions and ravages of Sienese territory committed by Florentine troops in their conflicts with Alphonso of Naples, who since 1447 had made Tuscany his battle- ground. Peace was once more patched up with Florence in 1454. Siena was next at war for several years with Aldobrandino Orsini, count of Pitigliano, and with Jacopo Piccinini, and suffered many disasters from the treachery of its generals. About the same time the republic was exposed to still graver danger by the conspiracy of some of its leading citizens to seize the reins of power and place the city under the suzerainty of Alphonso, as it had once been under that of the duke of Milan. But the plot came to light; its chief ringleaders were beheaded, and many others sent into exile (1456); and the death of Alphonso at last ended all danger from that source. During those critical times the government of the state was strengthened by a new executive magistracy called the balia, which from 1455 began to act independently of the priors or consistory. Until then it had been merely a provisional committee annexed to the latter. But henceforward the balia had supreme jurisdiction in all affairs of the state, although always, down to the fall of the republic, nominally preserving the character of a magistracy extraordinary. The election of Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini to the papal chair in ^458 caused the utmost joy to the Sienese; and in compliment to 'their illustrious fellow-citizen they granted the request of the nobles and readmitted them to a share in the government. But this concession, grudgingly made, only remained in force for a few years, and on the death of the pope (1464) was revoked altogether, save in the case of members of the Piccolomini house, who were decreed to be popolani and were allowed to retain all their privileges. Meanwhile fresh discords were brewing among the plebeians at the head of affairs. The conspiracy of the Pazzi in 1478 led to a war in which Florence and Milan were opposed to the pope and the king of Naples, and which was put an end to by the peace of i3th SIENA March 1480. Thereupon Alphonso, duke of Calabria, who was fighting in Tuscany on the side of his father Ferdinand, came to an agreement with Siena and, in the same way as his grandfather Alphonso, tried to obtain the lordship of the city and the recall of the exiled rebels in 1456. The noveschi (to whose order most of the rebels belonged) favoured his pretensions, but the riformatori were against him. Many of the people sided with the noveschi, rose in revolt on 22nd June 1480 and, aided by the duke's soldiery, reorganized the government to their own advant- age. Dividing the power between their two orders of the nine and the people, they excluded the riformatori and replaced them by a new and heterogeneous order styled the aggregati, composed of nobles, exiles of 1456 and citizens of other orders who had never before been in office. But this violent and perilous upset of the internal liberties of the republic did not last long. A decree issued by the Neapolitan king (1482) depriving the Sienese of certain territories in favour of Florence entirely alienated their affections from that monarch. Meanwhile the monte of the nine, the chief promoters of the revolution of 1480, were exposed to the growing hatred and envy of their former allies, the monte del popolo, who, conscious of their superior strength and numbers, now sought to crush the noveschi and rise to rJbwer in their stead. This change cf affairs was accomplished by a series of riots between 7th June 1482 and 2oth February 1483. The monte del popolo seized the lion's share of the government; the riformatori were recalled, the aggregati abolished and the noveschi condemned to perpetual banishment from the govern- ment and the city. But " in perpetuo " was an empty form of words in those turbulent Italian republics. The noveschi, being " fat burghers " with powerful connexions, abilities and tradi- tions, gained increased strength and influence in exile; and five years later, on 22nd July 1487, they returned triumphantly to Siena, dispersed the few adherents of the popolo who offered resistance, murdered the captain of the people, reorganized the state, and placed it under the protection of the Virgin Mary. And, their own predominance being assured by their numerical strength and influence, they accorded equal shares of power to the other monti. Among the returned exiles was Pandolfo Petrucci, chief of the noveschi and soon to be at the head of the government. During the domination of this man (who, like Lorenzo de' Medici, was surnamed " the Magnificent ") Siena enjoyed many years of splendour and prosperity. We use the term " domination " rather than " signory " inasmuch as, strictly sp«aking, Petrucci was never lord of the state, and left its established form of govern- ment intact; but he exercised despotic authority in virtue of his strength of character and the continued increase of his personal power. He based his foreign policy on alliance with Florence and France, and directed the internal affairs of the state by means of the council (collegia) of the balia, which, although occasionally reorganized for the purpose of conciliating rival factions, was always subject to his will. He likewise added to his power by assuming the captainship of the city guard (1495) , and later by the purchase from the impoverished commune of several outlying nasties (1507)- Nor did he shrink from deeds of bloodshed and revenge; the assassination of his father-in-law, Niccolo Borghesi (1500), is an indelible blot upon his name. He successfully withstood all opposition within the state, until he was at last worsted in his struggle with Cesare Borgia, who caused his ex- pulsion from Siena in 1502. But through the friendly mediation of the Florentines and the French king he was recalled from banishment on 2gth March 1503. He maintained his power until his death at the age of sixty on 2ist May 1512, and was interred with princely ceremonials at the public expense. The predominance of his family in Siena did not last long after his decease. Pandolfo had not the qualities required to found a dynasty such as that of the Medici. He lacked the lofty intellect of a Cosimo or a Lorenzo, and the atmosphere of liberty- loving Siena with its ever-changing factions was in no way suited to his purpose. His eldest son, Borghese Petrucci, was incapable, haughty and exceedingly corrupt; he only remained three years at the head of affairs and fled ignominiously in 1515. Through the favour of Leo X., he was succeeded by his cousin Raffaello Petrucci, previously governor of St Angelo and afterwards a cardinal. This Petrucci was a bitter enemy to Pandolfo's children. He caused Borghese and a younger son named Fabio to be proclaimed as rebels, while a third son, Cardinal Alphonso, was strangled by order of Leo X. in 1518. He was a tyrannical ruler, and died suddenly in 1522. In the following year Clement VII. insisted on the recall of Fabio Petrucci; but two years later a fresh popular outbreak drove him from Siena for ever. The city then placed itself under the protection of the emperor Charles V., created a magistracy of " ten conservators of the liberties of the state" (December 1524), united the different monti in one named the " monte of the reigning nobles," and, rejoicing to be rid of the last of the Petrucci, dated their public books, ab instaurata libertate year I., II., and so on. The so-called free government subject to the empire lasted for twenty-seven years; and the desired protection of Spain weighed more and more heavily until it became a tyranny. The imperial legates and the captains of the Spanish guard in Siena crushed both government and people by continual ex- tortions and by undue interference with the functions of the balm. Charles V. passed through Siena in 1535, and, as in all the other cities of enslaved Italy, was received with the greatest pomp; but he left neither peace nor liberty behind him. From 1 5 2 7 to 1 545 the city was torn by faction fights and violent revolts against the noveschi, and was the scene of frequent bloodshed, while the quarrelsomeness and bad government of the Sienese gave great dissatisfaction in Tuscany. The balia was recon- stituted several times by the imperial agents — in 1 530 by Don Lopez di Soria and Alphonso Piccolomini, duke of Amalfi, in 1540 by Granvella (or Granvelle) and in 1548 by Don Diego di Mendoza; but government was carried on as badly as before, and there was increased hatred of the Spanish rule. When in 1549 Don Diego announced the emperor's purpose of erecting a fortress in Siena to keep the citizens in order, the general hatred found vent in indignant remonstrance. The historian Orlando Malavolti and other special envoys were sent to the emperor in 1550 with a petition signed by more than a thousand citizens praying him to spare them so terrible a danger; but their mission failed: they returned unheard. Meanwhile Don Diego had laid the foundation of the citadel and was carrying on the work with activity. Thereupon certain Sienese citizens in Rome, headed by Aeneas Piccolomini (a kinsman of Pius II.), entered into negotiations with the agents of the French king and, having with their help collected men and money, marched on Siena and forced their way in by the new gate (now Porta Romana) on 26th July 1552. The townspeople, encouraged and reinforced by this aid from without, at once rose in revolt, and, attacking the Spanish troops, disarmed them and drove them to take refuge in the citadel (28th July). And finally by an agreement with Cosimo de' Medici, duke of Florence, the Spaniards were sent away on the 5th August 1552 and the Sienese took possession of their fortress. The government was now reconstituted under the protection of the French agents; the balia was abolished, its very name having been rendered odious by the tyranny of Spain, and was replaced by a similar magistracy styled capitani del popolo e reggimento. Siena exulted in her recovered freedom; but her sunshine was soon clouded. First, the emperor's wrath was stirred by the influence of France in the counsels of the republic; then Cosimo, who was no less jealous of the French, conceived the design of annexing Siena to his own dominions. The first hostilities of the imperial forces in Val di Chiana (1552-1553) did little damage; but when Cosimo took the field with an army commanded by the marquis of Marignano the ruin of Siena was at hand. On 26th January Marignano captured the forts of Porta Camellia (which the whole population of Siena, including the women, had helped to construct) and invested the city. On the 2nd of August of the same year, at Marciano in Val di Chiana, he won a complete victory over the Sienese and French troops under Piero Strozzi, the Florentine exile and SIENA 53 marshal of France. Meanwhile Siena was vigorously besieged, and its inhabitants, sacrificing everything for their beloved city, maintained a most heroic defence. A glorious record of their sufferings is to be found in the Diary of Sozzini, the Sienese historian, and in the Commentaries of Blaise de Monluc, the French representative in Siena. But in April 1555 the town was reduced to extremity and was forced to capitulate to the emperor and the duke. On 2ist April the Spanish troops entered the gates; thereupon many patriots abandoned the city and, taking refuge at Montalcino, maintained there a shadowy form of republic until 1559. Cosimo I. de' Medici being granted the investiture of the Sienese state by the patent of Philip II. of Spain, dated 3rd July 1557, took formal possession of the city on the ipth of the same month. A lieutenant-general was appointed as repre- sentative of his authority; the council of the balia was recon- stituted with twenty members chosen by the duke; the con- sistory and the general council were left in existence but deprived of their political autonomy. Thus Siena was annexed to the Florentine state under the same ruler and became an integral part of the grand-duchy of Tuscany. Nevertheless it retained a separate administration for more than two centuries, until the general reforms of the grand-duke Pietro Leopoldo, the French domination, and finally the restoration swept away all differences between the Sienese and Florentine systems of government. In 1859 Siena was the first Tuscan city that voted for annexation to Piedmont and the monarchy of Victor Emmanuel II., this decision (voted 26th June) being the initial step towards the unity of Italy. Literary History. — The literary history of Siena, while recording no gifts to the world equal to those bequeathed by Florence, and without the power and originality by which the latter became the centre of Italian culture, can nevertheless boast of some illustrious names. Of these a brief summary, beginning with the department of general literature and passing on to history and science, is sub- joined. Many of them are also dealt with in separate articles, to which the reader is referred. As early as the I3th century the vulgar tongue was already well established at Siena, being used in public documents, commercial records and private correspondence. The poets flourishing at that period were Folcacchiero, Cecco Angiolieri — a humorist of a very high order — and Bindo Bonichi, who belonged also to the following century. The chief glory of the I4th century was St Catherine Benincasa. The year of her death (1380) was that of the birth of St Bernardino Albizzeschi (S Bernardino of Siena), a popular preacher whose sermons in the vulgar tongue are models of style and diction. To the I5th century belongs Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.), humanist, historian and political writer. In the i6th century we find another Piccolomini (Alexander), bishop of Patras, author of a curious dialogue, Delia bella creanza delle donne; another bishop, ClaudioTolomei, diplomatist, poet and philologist, who revived the use of ancient Latin metres ; and Luca Contile, a writer of narratives, plays and poems. Prose fiction had two representatives in this century — -Scipione Bargagli, a writer of some merit, and Pietro Fortini, whose productions were trivial and indecent. In the iyth century we find Ludovico Sergardi (Quinto Settano), a Latinist and satirical writer of much talent and culture; but the most original and brilliant figure in Sienese literature is that of Girolamo Gigli (1660-1722), author of the Gazzetlino, La Sorellinadi Don Pilone, II Vocabolario cateriniano and the Diario ecclesiastico. As humorist, scholar and philologist, Gigli would take a high place in the literature of any land. His resolute opposition to all hypocrisy — whether religious or literary — exposed him to merciless persecution from the Jesuits and the Delia Cruscan Academy. In the domain of history we have first the old Sienese chronicles, which down to the I4th century are so confused that it is almost impossible to disentangle truth from fiction or even to decide the personality of the various authors. Three 14th-century chronicles, attributed to Andrea Dei, AgnolodiTura, called II Grasso, and Neri di Donati, are published in Muratori (vol. xy.). To the I5th century belongs the chronicle of Allegretto Allegretti, also in Muratori (vol. xxiii.) ; and during the same period flourished Sigismondo Tizio (a priest of Siena, though born at Castiglione Aretino), whose volumin- ous history written in Latin and never printed (now among the MSS. of the Chigi Library in Rome), though devoid of literary merit, con- tains much valuable material. The best Sienese historians belong to the 1 6th century. They are Orlando Malavolti (151 5-1 596) , a man of noble birth, the most trustworthy of all; Antonio Bellarmati; Alessandro Sozzini di Girolamo, the sympathetic author of the Diario dell' ultima guerra senese; and Giugurta Tommasi, of whose tedious history ten books, down to 1354, have been published, the rest being still in manuscript. Together with these historians we must mention the learned scholars Celso Cittadini (d. 1627), Ulberto Benvoglienti (d. 1 733), one of Muratori's correspondents, and Gio. Antonio Picci (d. 1768), author of histories of Pandolfo Petrucci and the bishopric of Siena. In the same category may be classed the librarian C. F. Carpellini (d. 1872), author of several monographs on the origin of Siena and the constitution of the republic, and Scipione Borghesi (d. 1877), who has left a precious store of historical, biographical and bibliographical studies and documents. In theology and philosophy the most distinguished names are : Bernardino Ochino and Lelio and Fausto Soccini (i6th century) ; in jurisprudence, three Soccini: Mariano senior, Bartolommeo and Mariano junior (isth and i6th centuries); and in political economy, Sallustio Bandini (1677-1760), author of the Discorso sulla Ma- remma. In physical science the names most worthy of mention are those of the botanist Pier Antonio Mattioli (1501-1572), of Pirro Maria Gabrielli (1643-1705), founder of the academy of the Physio- critics, and of the anatomist Paolo Mascagni (d. 1825). Art. — Lanzi happily designates Sienese painting as " Lieta scuola fra lieto popolo " (" the blithe school of a blithe people "). The special characteristics of its masters are freshness of colour, vivacity of expression and distinct originality. The Sienese school of painting owes its origin to the influence of Byzantine art ; but it improved that art, impressed it with a special stamp and was for long inde- pendent of all other influences. Consequently Sienese art seemed almost stationary amid the general progress and development of the other Italian schools, and preserved its medieval character down to the end of the 15th century, when the influence of the Um- brian and — to a_ slighter degree^of the Florentine schools began to penetrate into Siena, followed a little later by that of the Lombard. In the 1 3th century we find Guido (da Siena), painter of the well- known Madonna in the church of S Domenico in Siena. The I4th century gives us Ugolino, Ducciodi Buoninsegna, Simone di Martino (or Memmi), Lippo Memmi, Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Andrea di Vanni (painter and statesman), Bartolo di Fredi and Taddco di Bartolo. In the I5th century we have Domenico di Bartolo, Sano di Pietro, Giovanni di Paolo, Stefano di Giovanni (II Sassetta) and Matteo and Benvenuto di Giovanni Bartoli, who fell, however, behind their contemporaries elsewhere, and made indeed but little progress. The 1 6th century boasts the names of Bernardino Fungai, Guidoccio Cossarelli, Giacomo Pacchiarotto, Girolamo del Pacchia and especi- ally Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1537), who while especially celebrated for his frescoes and studies in perspective and chiaroscuro was also an architect of considerable attainments (see ROME); Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, otherwise known as II Sodoma (1477-1549), who, born at Vercelli in Piedmont, and trained at Milan in the school of Leonardo da Vinci, came to Siena in 1504 and there produced some of his finest works, while his influence on the art of the place was con- siderable; Domenico Beccafumi, otherwise known as Micharino (1486-1550), noted for the Michelangelesque daring of his designs; and Francesco Vanni. There may also be mentioned many sculptors and architects, such as Lorenzo Maitani, architect of Orvieto cathedral (end of I3th century) ;CamainodiCrescentino;Tinodi Camaino, sculptor of the monument to Henry VII. in the Campo Santo of Pisa; Agostino and Agnolo, who in 1330 carved the fine tomb of Bishop Guido Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo; Lando di Pietro (i4th century), architect, entrusted by the Sienese commune with the proposed en- largement of the cathedral (1339), and perhaps author of the famous Gothic reliquary containing the head of S Galgano in the Chiesa del Santuccio, which, however, is more usually attributed to Ugolino di Vieri, author of the tabernacle in the cathedral at Orvieto ; Giacopo (or Jacopo) della Quercia, whose lovely fountain, the Fonte Gaia, in the Piazza, del Campo has been recently restored ; Lorenzo di Pietro (II Vecchietta), a pupil of Della Quercia and an excellent artist in marble and bronze; Francesco d'Antonio, a skilful goldsmith of the l6th century; Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439—1502), painter, sculptor, military engineer and writer on art; Giacomo Cozzarelli (i5th century); and Lorenzo Mariano, surnamed II Marrina (i6th century). Wood-carving also flourished here in the 15th and l6th centuries, and so also did the ceramic art, though few of its products are preserved. According to the well-known law, however, the Renaissance, made for the people of the plains, never fully took root in Siena, as in other parts of Tuscany, and the loss of its independ- ence and power in 1 555 led to a suspension of building activity, which to the taste of the present day is most fortunate, inasmuch as the baroque of the 1 7th and the false classicism of the i8th centuries have had hardly any effect here ; and few towns of Italy are so un- spoilt by restoration or the addition of incongruous modern buildings, or preserve so many characteristics and so much of the real spirit (manifested to-day in the grave and pleasing courtesy of the inhabi- tants) of the middle ages, which its narrow and picturesque streets seem to retain. Siena is indeed unsurpassed for its examples of I3th and I4th century Italian Gothic, whether in stone or in brick. See W. Heywood, Our Lady of August and the Palio (Siena, 1899) and other works ; R. H. Hobart Cust, The Pavement Masters of Siena (London, 1901) ; Langton Douglas, History of Siena (London, 1902); E. G. Gardner, The Story of Siena (London, 1902) ; St Catherine of Siena (London, 1908) ; W. Heywood and L. Olcott, Guide to Siena (Siena, 1603) ; A. Jahn Rusconi, Siena (Bergamo, 1904). (C. PA. ; T. As.) SIENETJO— SIERRA LEONE SIENETJO, one of the Shangalla tribes living in south-west Abyssinia near the Sudan frontier, who claim to be a remnant of the primitive population. They are apparently a Hamitic people, and their skin is of a yellowish tint. Their women never intermarry with the Negroes or Arabs. Sienet jo villages are usually built on hilltops. They are an industrious people, skilful jewellers, weavers and smiths. SIENKIEWICZ, HENRYK (1846- ), Polish novelist, was born in 1846 at Wola Okrzeska near Lukow, in the province of Siedlce, Russian Poland. He studied philosophy at Warsaw University. His first work, a humorous novel entitled A Prophet in his own Country, appeared in 1872. In 1876 Sienkiewicz visited America, and under the pseudonym of " Litwos, " con- tributed an account of his travels to the Gazeta Polska, a Warsaw newspaper. Thenceforward his talent as a writer of historical novels won rapid recognition, and his best-known romance, Quo Vadis? a study of Roman society under Nero, has been translated into more than thirty languages. Originally pub- lished in 1895, Quo Vadis? was first translated into English in 1896, and dramatized versions of it have been produced in England, the United States, France and Germany. Remarkable powers of realistic description, and a strong religious feeling which at times borders upon mysticism, characterize the best work of Sienkiewicz. Hardly inferior to Quo Vadis? in popu- larity, and superior in literary merit, is the trilogy of novels describing 17th-century society in Poland during the wars with the Cossacks, Turks and Swedes. This trilogy comprises Ogniem i mieczem (" With Fire and Sword, " London, 1890, 1892 and 1895), Potop (" The Deluge, " Boston, Mass., 1891) and Pan Woxodjowski (" Pan Michael," London, 1893). Among other very successful novels and collections of tales which have been translated into English are Bez Dogmatu (" Without Dogma, " London, 1893; Toronto, 1899), Janko muzykant: nowele (" Yanko the Musician and other Stories," Boston, Mass., 1893), Krzyzacy (" The Knight of the Cross, " numerous British and American versions), Hania (" Hania, " London, 1897) and Ta Trzecia (" The Third Woman, " New York, 1898). Sienkiewicz lived much in Cracow and Warsaw, and for a time edited the Warsaw newspaper Slowo; he also travelled in England, France, Italy, Spain, Greece, Africa and the East, and published a description of his journeys in Africa. In 1905 he received the Nobel prize for literature. A German edition of his collected works was published at Graz (1906, &c.), and his biography was written in Polish by P. Chmiel- owski (Lemberg, 1901) and J. Nowinski (Warsaw, 1901). SIERADZ, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Kalisz, situated on theWarta, no m. S.W. of the city of Warsaw. Pop. (1897) 7019. It is one of the oldest towns of Poland, founded prior to the introduction of Christianity, and was formerly known asSyra orSyraz. The annals mention it in 1139. Several seims, or diets, of Poland were held there during the i3th to 1 5th centuries, and it was a wealthy town until nearly destroyed by % fire in 1447. The old castle, which suffered much in the Swedish war of 1702-1711, was destroyed by the Germans in 1800. There are two churches, dating from the i2th and i4th centuries respectively. SIERO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, on the river Nora, and on the Oviedo-Trifiesto railway. Pop. (1900) 22,503. Siero is in the centre of a fertile agricultural district, in which live-stock is extensively reared. There are coal mines in the neighbourhood, and the local industries include tanning and manufactures of soap, coarse linen and cloths. SIERRA LEONE, a British colony and protectorate on the west coast of Africa. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. and E. by French Guinea and S. by Liberia. The coast-line, following the indentations, is about 400 m. in length, extending from 9° 2' N. to 6° 55' N. It includes the peninsula of Sierra Leone — 23 m. long with an average breadth of 14 m. — Sherbro Island, Bance, Banana, Turtle, Plantain and other minor islands, also Turner's Peninsula, a narrow strip of land southward of Sherbro Island, extending in a S.E. direction about 60 m. Except in the Sierra Leone peninsula, Sherbro Island and Turner's Peninsula, the colony proper does not extend inland to a greater depth than half a mile. The protectorate, which adjoins the colony to the north and east, extends from 7° N. to 10° N. and from 10° 40' W. to 13° W., and has an area of rather more than 30,000 sq. m., being about the size of Ireland. (For map, see FRENCH WEST AFRICA.) The population of the colony proper at the 1901 census was 76,655. The popula- tion of the protectorate is estimated at from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000. Physical Features. — Sierra Leone is a well-watered, well-wooded and generally hilly country. The coast-line is deeply indented in its northern portion. Here the sea has greatly eroded the normal regular, harbourless line of the west coast of Africa, forming bold capes and numerous inlets or estuaries. The Sierra Leone peninsula is the most striking result of this marine action. North of it are the Sierra Leone and Scarcies estuaries; to the south is Yawry Bay. Then in 7° 30' N. Sherbro Island is reache-1. This is succeeded by Turner's Peninsula (in reality an island). The seaward faces of these islands are perfectly regular and indica e the original continental coast-line. They have been detached fr'.m the mainland partly by a marine inlet, partly by the lagoon-like creeks formed by the rivers. In the Sierra Leone peninsula the hills come down to the sea, else- where a low coast plain extends inland 30 to 50 m. The plateau which forms the greater part of the protectorate has an altitude varying from 800 to 3000 ft. On the north-east border by the Niger sources are mountains exceeding 5000 ft. The most fertile parts of the protectorate are Sherbro and Mendiland in the south-west. In the north-west the district between the Great Scarcies and the Rokell rivers is flat and is named Bullom (low land). In the south-east bordering Liberia is a belt of densely forested hilly country extending 50 m. S. to N. and very sparsely inhabited. The hydrography of the country is comparatively simple. Six large rivers — 300 to 500 m. long — rise in the Futa Jallon highlands in or beyond the northern frontier of the protectorate and in whole or in part traverse the country with a general S.W. course; the Great and Little Scarcies in the north, the Rokell and Jong in the centre and the Great Bum and Sulima in the south. These rivers are navi- gable for short distances, but in general rapids or cataracts mark their middle courses. The Great Scarcies, the Rio dos Carceres of the Portuguese, rises not far from the sources of the Senegal. Between 9° 50' and 9° 15' N. it forms the boundary between the protectorate and French Guinea; below that point it is wholly in British territory. The Little Scarcies enters Sierra Leone near Yomaia, in the most northerly part of the protectorate. Known in its upper course as the Kabba, it flows through wild rocky country, its banks in places being 900 ft. high. After piercing the hills it runs parallel with the Great Scarcies. In their lower reaches the two rivers — both large streams — traverse a level plain, separated by no obstacles. The mouth of the Little Scarcies is 20 m. S. of that of the Great Scarcies. South of the estuary of the Scarcies the deep inlet known as the Sierra Leone river forms a perfectly safe and commodious harbour accessible to the largest vessels. At its entrance on the southern shore lies Freetown. Into the estuary flows, besides smaller streams, the Rokell, known in its upper course as the Seli. The broad estuary which separates Sherbro Island from the mainland, and is popularly called the Sherbro river, receives the Bagru from the N.W. and the Jong river, whose headstream, known as the Taia, Pampana and Sanden, flows for a considerable distance east of and parallel to the Rokell. The sources of the Taia, and those of the Great Bum, are near to those of the Niger, the watershed between the coast streams and the Niger basin here forming the frontier. The main upper branch of the Great Bum (or Sewa) river is called the Bague or Bagbe (white river). It flows east of and more directly south than the Taia. In its lower course the Bum passes through the Mendi country and enters the network of lagoons and creeks separated from the ocean by the long low tract of Turner's Peninsula. The main lagoon waterway goes by the name of the Bum-Kittam river, and to the north opens into the Sherbro estuary. Southward it widens out and forms Lake Kasse (20 m. long), before reaching the ocean just north of the estuary of the Sulima. The Wanje or upper Kittam joins this creek, and is also connected with Lake Mabessi, a sheet of water adjacent to Lake Kasse. The Sulima or Moa is a magnificent stream and flows through a very fertile country. One of its headstreams, the Meli, rises in French Guinea in 10 30' W. 9° 17' N. and flows for some distance parallel to the infant Niger, but in the opposite direction. It joins the Moa within Sierra Leone. The main upper stream of the Moa separates French Guinea and Liberia and enters British territory in 10° 40' W. 8° 20' N. Only the lower course is known as the Sulima. Between 7° 40' and 7° 20' are lacustrine reaches. Six miles S. of the mouth of the Sulima the Mano or Bewa river enters the sea. It rises in Liberia, and below 7° 30' N. forms the frontier between that republic and the protectorate. The Sierra Leone peninsula, the site of the oldest British settle- ment, lies between the estuary of the same name and Yawry Bay to the south. It is traversed on its seaward face by hills attaining a height of 1700 ft. in the Sugar Loaf, and nearly as much in Mount Herton farther south. The hills consist of a kind of granite and of SIERRA LEONE 55 beds of red sandstone, the disintegration of which has given a dark- coloured ferruginous soil of moderate fertility. Sugar Loaf is timbered to the top, and the peninsula is verdant with abundant vegetation. Climate. — The coast lands are unhealthy and have earned for Sierra Leone the unenviable reputation of being " the white man's grave." The mean annual temperature is above 8p°, the rainfall, which varies a great deal, is from 150 to 180 or more inches per annum. In 1896 no fewer than 203 in. were recorded. In 1894 , a " dry " year, only 144 in. of rain fell. In no other part of West Africa is the rainfall so heavy. December, January, February and March are practically rainless; the rains, beginning in April or May, reach their maximum in July, August and September, and rapidly diminish in October and November. During the dry season, when the climate is very much like that of the West Indies, there occur terrible tornadoes and long periods of the harmattan — a north-east wind, dry and desiccating, and carrying with it from the Sahara clouds of fine dust, which sailors designate " smokes." The dangers of the climate are much less in the interior; 40 or 50 m. inland the country is tolerable for Europeans. Flora. — The characteristic tree of the coast districts is the oil- palm. Other palm trees found are the date, bamboo, palmyra, coco and dom. The coast-line, the creeks and the lower courses of the rivers are lined with mangroves. Large areas are covered with brushwood, among which are scattered baobab, shea-butter, bread fruit, corkwood and silk-cotton trees. The forests contain valuable timber trees such as African oak or teak (Oldfieldia Africana), rose- wood, ebony, tamarind, camwood, odum — whose wood resists the attacks of termites — and the tolmgah or brimstone tree. The frankincense tree (Daniellia thurifera) reaches from 50 to 150 ft., the negro pepper (Xylopia Aethiopica) grows to about 60 ft., the fruit being used by the natives as pepper. There are also found the black pepper plant (Piper Clusii), a climbing plant abundant in the moun- tain districts; the grains of paradise or melegueta pepper plant (Amomum Melegueta) and other Amomums whose fruits are prized. Of the Apocynaceae the rubber plants are the most important. Both Landolphia florida and Landolphia owaricnsis are found. Of several fibre-yielding plants the so-called aloes of the orders Amaryl- lidaceae and Liliaceae are common. The kola (Cola acuminata) and the bitter kola (Garcinia cola), the last having a fruit about the size of an apple, with a flavour like that of green coffee, are common. Of dye-yielding shrubs and plants camwood and indigo may be mentioned ; of those whence gum is obtained the copal, acacia and African tragacanth (Sterculia tragacantha). Besides the oil-palm, oil is obtained from many trees and shrubs, such as the benni oil plant. Of fruit trees there are among others the blood-plum (Haematostaphis Barteri) with deep crimson fruit in grape-like clusters, and the Sierra Leone peach (Sarcocephalus esculentus). The coffee and cotton plants are indigenous; of grasses there are various kinds of millet, including Paspalum exile, the so-called hungry rice or Sierra Leone millet. Ferns are abundant in the marshes. Bright coloured flowers are somewhat rare. Fauna. — The wild animals include the elephant, still found in large numbers, the leopard, panther, chimpanzee, grey monkeys, antelope of various kinds, the buffalo, wild hog, bush goat, bush pig, sloth, civet and squirrel. The hippopotamus, manatee, crocodile and beaver are found in the rivers, and both land and fresh-water tortoises are common. Serpents, especially the boa-constrictor, are numerous. Chameleons, lizards and iguanas abound, as do frogs and toads. Wild birds are not very common ; among them are the hawk, parrot, owl, woodpecker, kingfisher, green pigeon, African magpie, the honey-sucker and canary. There are also wild duck, geese and other water fowl, hawk's bill, laggerheads and partridges. Mosquitoes, termites, bees, ants, centipedes, millipedes, locusts, grasshoppers, butterflies, dragonflies, sandflies and spiders are found in immense numbers. Turtle are common on the southern coast-line, sand and mangrove oysters are plentiful. Fish abound; among the common kinds are the bunga (a sort of herring), skate, grey mullet and tarpon. Sharks infest the estuaries. Inhabitants. — Sierra Leone is inhabited by various negro tribes, the chief being the Timni, the Sulima, the Susu and the Mendi. From the Mendi district many curious steatite figures which had been buried have been recovered and are exhibited in the British Museum. They show considerable skill in carving. Of semi-negro races the Fula inhabit the region of the Scarcies. Freetown is peopled by descendants of nearly every negro tribe, and a distinct type known as the Sierra Leoni has been evolved ; their language is pidgin English. Since 1900 a considerable number of Syrians have settled in the country as traders. Most of the negroes are pagans and each tribe has its secret societies and fetishes. These are very powerful and are employed often for beneficent purposes, such as the regulation of agriculture and the palm-oil industry. There are many Christian converts (chiefly Anglicans and Wesleyans) and Mahommedans. In the protectorate are some Mahommedan tribes, as for instance the Susu. The majority of the Sierra Leonis are nominally Christian. The European population numbers about 500. Towns. — Besides Freetown (q.v.) the capital (pop., 1901, 34,463), the most important towns for European trade are Bonthe, the port of Sherbro, Port Lokko, at the head of the navigable waters of a stream emptying itself into the Sierra Leone estuary, and Songo Town, 30 m. S.E. of Freetown, with which it is con- nected by railway. In the interior are many populous centres. The most noted is Falaba, about 190 m. N.E. of Freetown on the Fala river, a tributary of the Little Scarcies. It lies about 1600 ft. above the sea. Falaba was founded towards the end of the i8th century by the Sulima who revolted from the Mahommedan Fula, and its warlike inhabitants soon attained supremacy over the neighbouring villages and country. Like many of the native towns it is surrounded by a loopholed wall, with flank defences for the gates. The town is the meeting-place of many trade routes, including some to the middle Niger. Kambia on the Great Scarcies is a place of some importance. It can be reached by boat from the sea. On the railway running S.E. from Freetown are Rotifunk, Mano, and Bo, towns which have increased greatly in importance since the building of the railway. Agriculture and Trade. — Agriculture is in a backward condition, but is being developed. The wealth of the country consists, however, chiefly in its indigenous trees of economic value — the oil-palm, the kola-nut tree and various kinds of rubber plants, chiefly the Land- olphia owariensis. The crops cultivated are rice, of an excellent quality, cassava, maize and ginger. The cultivation of coffee and of native tobacco has been practically abandoned as unremunerative. The sugar cane is grown in small quantities. The ginger is grown mainly in the colony. proper. Minor products are benni seeds, pepper and piassava. The oil-palm and kola-nut tree are especially abundant in the Sherbro district and its hinterland, the Mendi country. The palms, though never planted, are in practically unlimited numbers. The nuts are gathered twice a year. Formerly groundnuts were largely cultivated, but this industry has been superseded by exports from India. Its place has been taken to some extent by the extrac- tion of rubber. The cotton plant grows freely throughout the protectorate and the cloth manufactured is of a superior kind. Exotic varieties of cotton do not thrive. Experiments were made during 1903-1906 to intro- duce the cultivation of Egyptian and American varieties, but they did not succeed. Cattle are numerous but of a poor breed ; horses do not thrive. The chief export is palm kernels, the amount of palm oil exported being comparatively slight. Next to palm products the most valuable articles exported are kola-nuts — which go largely to neighbouring French colonies — rubber and ginger. The imports are chiefly textiles, food and spirits. Nearly three-fourths of the imports come from Great Britian, which, however, takes no more than some 35% of the exports. About 10% of the exports go to other British West African colonies. Germany, which has but a small share of the import trade, takes about 45 % of the exports. The value of the trade increased in the ten years 1896-1905 from £943,000 to £1,265,000. In 1908 the imports were valued at £813,700, the ex- ports at £736,700. The development of commerce with the rich regions north and east of the protectorate has been hindered by the diversion of trade to the French port of Konakry, which in 1910 was placed in railway communication with the upper Niger. Moreover, the main trade road from Konakry to the middle Niger skirts the N.E. frontier of the protectorate for some distance. Sierra Leone is thus forced to look- to its economic development within the bounds of the protectorate. Communications. — Internal communication is rendered difficult by the denseness of the " bush " or forest country. The rivers, however, afford a means of bringing country produce to the seaports. A railway, state owned and the first built in British West Africa, runs S.E. from Freetown through the fertile districts of Mendiland to the Liberian frontier. Begun in 1896, the line reached Bo (136 m.) in the oil-palm district in 1903, and was completed to Baiima, 15 m. from the Liberian frontier — total length 221 m. — in 1905. The gauge throughout is 2 ft. 6 in. The line cost about £4300 per mile, a total of nearly £1,000,000. Tramways and " feeder roads " have •been built to connect various places with the railway; one such road goes from railhead to Kailahun in Liberia. Telegraphic communication with Europe was established in 1886. Steamers run at regular intervals between Freetown and Liverpool, Hamburg, Havre and Marseilles. In the ten years 1899-1908 the tonnage of shipping entered and cleared rose from 1,181,000 to 2,046,000. Administration, Revenue, &fc. — The country is administered as a crown colony, the governor being assisted by an executive and a Iceislative council; on the last-named a minority of nominated un- official members have scats. The law of the colony is the common law of England modified by local ordinances. There is a denomina- tional system of primary and higher education. The schools are SIERRA LEONE inspected by government and receive grants in aid. In 1907 there were 75 assisted elementary schools with nearly 8000 scholars. Furah Bay College is affiliated to Durham University. There is a Wesleyan Theological College; a government school (established 1906) at Bo for the sons of chiefs, and the Thomas Agricultural Academy at Mabang (founded in 1909 by a bequest of £60,000 from S. B. Thomas, a Sierra Leonian). Since 1901 the government has provided separate schools for Mahommedans. Revenue is largely derived from customs, especially from the duties levied on spirits. In the protectorate a house tax is imposed. In 1899-1908 revenue increased from £168,000 to £321,000, and the expenditure from £145,000 to £341,000. In 1906 there was a public debt of £1,279,000. Freetown is the headquarters of the British army in West Africa, and a force of infantry, engineers and artillery is maintained there. The colony itself provides a battalion of the West African Frontier Force, a body responsible to the Colonial Office. The protectorate is divided for administrative purposes into districts, each 'under a European commissioner. Throughout the protectorate native law is administered by native courts, subject to certain modifications. Native courts may not deal with murder, witchcraft, cannibalism or slavery. These cases are tried by the district commissioners or referred to the supreme court at Freetown. The tribal system of government is maintained, and the authority of the chiefs has been strengthened by the British. Domestic slavery is not interfered with. History. — Sierra Leone (in the original Portuguese form Sierra Leona) was known to its native inhabitants as Romarong, or the Mountain, and received the current designation from the Portuguese discoverer Pedro deSintra (i462),eitheronaccount of the " lion-like " thunder on its hill-tops, or to a fancied resem- blance of the mountains to the form of a lion. Here, as elsewhere along the coast, the Portuguese had-" factories "; and though none existed when the British took possession, some of the natives called themselves Portuguese and claimed descent from colonists of that nation. An English fort was built on Bance Island in the Sierra Leone estuary towards the close of the i7th century, but was soon afterwards abandoned, though for a long period the estuary was the haunt of slavers and pirates. English traders were established on Bance and the Banana islands as long as the slave trade was legal. The existing colony has not, however, grown out of their establishments, but owes its birth to the philanthropists who sought to alleviate the lot of those negroes who were victims of the traffic in human beings. In 1786 Dr Henry Smeathman, who had lived for four years on the west coast, proposed a scheme for founding on the peninsula a colony for negroes discharged from the army and navy at the close of the American War of Independence, as well as for numbers of run- away slaves who had found an asylum in London. In 1787 the settlement was begun with 400 negroes and 60 Europeans, the whites being mostly women of abandoned character. In the year following, 1788, Nembana, a Timni chief, sold a strip of land to Captain John Taylor, R.N., for the use of the " free community of settlers, their heirs and successors, lately arrived from England, and under the protection of the British government." Owing mainly to the utter shiftlessness of the settlers and the great mortality among them, but partly to an attack by a body of natives, this first attempt proved a complete failure. In 1791 Alexander Falconbridge (formerly a surgeon on board slave ships) collected the surviving fugitives and laid out a new settle- ment (Granville's Town) ; and the promoters of the enterprise — Granville Sharp, William Wilberforce, Sir Richard Carr Glyn, &c. — hitherto known as the St George's Bay Company, obtained a charter of incorporation as the Sierra Leone Company, with Henry Thornton as chairman. In 1792 John Clarkson, a lieu- tenant in the British navy and brother to Thomas Clarkson the slave trade abolitionist, brought to the colony noo negroes- from Nova Scotia. In 1794 the settlement, which had been again transferred to its original site and named Freetown, was plundered by the French. The governor at the time was Zachary Macaulay, father of Thomas Babington, Lord Macaulay. In 1807, when the inhabitants of the colony numbered 1871, the company, which had encountered many difficulties, transferred its rights to the crown. The slave trade having in the same year been declared illegal by the British parliament, slaves captured by British vessels in the neighbouring seas were brought to Freetown, and thus the population of the colony grew. Its development was hampered by the frequent changes in the governorship. Sydney Smith's jest that Sierra Leone had always two governors, one just arrived in the colony, and the other iust arrived in England, is but a slight exaggeration. In twenty-two years (1792-1814) there were seventeen changes in the governor- ship. After that date changes, although not quite so rapid, were still frequent. Several of the governors, like Zachary Macaulay, Colonel Dixon Denham, the explorer, and Sir Samuel Rowe, were men of distinction. Colonel Denham, after administering the colony for five weeks, died at Freetown of fever on the 9th of June 1828. Sir Charles M'Carthy was, however, governor for ten years (1814-1824), an unprecedented period, during which he did much for the development of the country. Sir Charles fell in battle with the Ashanti on the 2ist of January 1824. Whilst the governors found great difficulty in building up an industrious and agricultural community out of the medley of Africans brought to Sierra Leone, they had also to contend with the illicit slave trade which flourished in places close to the colony. To stop the traffic in Sherbro Island General Charles Turner concluded in 1825 a treaty with its rulers putting the island, Turner's Peninsula and other places under British pro- tection. (This treaty was not ratified by the crown, but was revived by another agreement made in 1882.) At .this time — 1826 — measures were taken to ensure that the liberated slaves should become self-supporting. Many colonists took to trade, and notwithstanding numerous collisions with neighbouring tribes the settlement attained a measure of prosperity. Among the leading agents in spreading civilization were the missionaries sent out from 1804 onwards by the Church Missionary Society. Despite the anxiety of the British govern- ment not to increase their responsibilities in West Africa, from time to time various small territories were purchased, and by 1884 all the land now forming the colony had been acquired. The Los Islands (q.v.) which were ceded by the natives to Great Britain in 1818 were transferred to France in 1904. In 1866 Freetown was made the capital of the new general government set up for the British settlements on the West Coast of Africa (comprising Sierra Leone, Gambia, the Gold Coast and Lagos, each of which was to have a legislative council). In 1874 the Gold Coast and Lagos were detached from Sierra Leone, and the Gambia in 1888. British influence was gradually extended over the hinterland, chiefly with the object of suppressing intertribal wars, which greatly hindered trade. In this work the British authorities enlisted the services of Dr Edward W. ™gtma Blyden (a pure-blooded negro), who in 1872 visited incident. Falaba and in 1873 Timbo, both semi-Mahommedan countries, being cordially received by the ruling chiefs. Falaba — which had been visited in 1869 by Winwood Reade on his journey to the Niger — came definitely under British protection, but Timbo, which is in Futa Jallon, was allowed to become French territory through the supineness of the home government. The area for expansion on the north was in any case limited by the French Guinea settlements, and on the south the territory of Liberia1 hemmed in the colony. In the east and north-east British officers also found themselves regarded as trespassers by the French. The necessity for fixing the frontier in this direction was emphasized by the Waima incident. Both French and British military expeditions had been sent against the Sofas — Moslem mercenaries who, under the chieftainship of Fulas or Mandingos like Samory, ravaged the hinterland both of Sierra Leone and French Guinea. On the 23rd of December 1893 a British' force was encamped at Waima. At dawn it was attacked by a French force which mistook the British troops for Samory's Sofas (save the officers the soldiers of both parties were negroes). Before the mistake was discovered the British had lost in killed three officers — Captain E. A. W. Lendy, Lieut. R. E. Listen and Lieut. C. Wroughton — and seven men, besides eighteen wounded. The French also suffered heavily. Their leader Lieut. Maritz was brought into the British camp mortally wounded, 1 The Anglo-Liberian frontier, partly defined by treaty in 1885, was not delimitated until 1903 (see LIBERIA). SIERRA MORENA— SIEVES 57 and was buried by the British. Steps were taken to prevent the occurrence of any further conflicts, and an agreement denning the frontier was signed in January 1895. This agreement finally shut out Sierra Leone from its natural hinterland. In 1896 the frontier was delimitated, and in the same year (26th of August 1896) a proclamation of a British protectorate was issued. To this extension of authority no opposition was offered at the time by any of the chiefs or tribes. Travelling commissioners were appointed to explore the hinterland, and frontier police were organized. The abolition of the slave trade followed; and with the introduction of the protectorate ordinance in 1897 a house tax of 53. each was imposed, to come into operation in three districts on the ist of January 1898. Chief Bai Bureh, in the Timni country, broke out into open war, necessitating a military punitive expedition. After strenuous fighting, in which the British casualties, including sick, reached 600, he was captured (i4th of November 1898) and deported. Meantime (in April 1898) the Mendi tribes rose, and massacred several British and American missionaries, including four ladies, at Rotifunk and Taiama, some native officials (Sierra Leonis) in the Imperri district, and a large number of police throughout the country. Speedy retribution followed, which effectually put down the revolt. Sir David P. Chalmers was appointed (July 1898) royal commissioner to inquire into the disturbances. He issued a report, July 1899, deprecating the imposition cf the house tax, which was not, however, revoked. The disturbances would appear to have arisen not so much from dislike of the house tax per se as irritation at the arbitrary manner in which it was collected, and from a desire on the part of the paramount chiefs (who chafed at the suppression of slave trading and slave raiding, and who disseminated a powerful fetish "swear," called "Poro," to compel the people to join) to cast off British rule. After the suppression of the rising (January 1899) confidence in the British administration largely increased among the tribes, owing to the care taken to preserve the authority of the chiefs whilst safeguarding the elementary rights of the people. The building of the railway and the consequent development of trade and the introduction of European ideas tended largely to modify native habits. The power of fetishism seemed, however, un- affected. See H. C. Lukach, A Bibliography of Sierra Leone (Oxford 1911); Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. iii. (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900); T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its Hinterland (London, 1901), and A Transformed Colony (London, 1910) — the last with valuable notes on secret societies and fetish; Winwood Reade, The African Sketch Book, vol. ii. (London, 1873); Colonel J. K. Trotter, The Niger Sources (London, 1898) ; Major J. J. Crook, History of Sierra Leone (Dublin, 1903) — a concise account of the colony to the end of the igth century. For fuller details of the foundation and early history of the settlement consult Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years (London, 1894) by E. G. Ingham, bishop of the diocese, and The Rise of British West Africa (London, 1904) by Claude George. Bishop Ingham's book contains long extracts from the diary of Governor Clarkson, which vividly portray the conditions of life in the infant colony. For the rising in 1898 see The Advance of our West African Empire (London, 1903) by C. B. Wallis. A Blue Book on the affairs of the colony is published yearly at Freetown and an Annual Report by the Colonial Office in London. Maps on the scale of I : 250,000 are published by the War Office. SIERRA MORENA, THE, a range of mountains in southern Spain. The Sierra Morena constitutes the largest section of the mountain system called the Cordillera Marianica (anc. Monies mariani) , which also includes a number of minor Spanish ranges, together with the mountains of southern Portugal. The mean elevation of the range is about 2500 ft., but its breadth is certainly not less than 40 m. It extends eastward as far as the steppe region of Albacete, and westward to the valley of the lower Guadiana. Its continuity is frequently interrupted, especially in the west; in the eastern and middle portions it is composed of numerous irregularly disposed ridges. Many of these bear distinctive names; thus the easternmost and loftiest is called the Sierra de Alcaraz (5900 ft.), while some of the component ridges in the extreme west are classed together as the Sierras de Aracena. The great breadth of the Sierra Morena long rendered it a formidable barrier between Andalusia and the north; as such it has played an important part in the social, economic and military history of Spain. Its configuration and hydrography are also important from a geographical point of view, partly because it separates the .plateau region of Castile and Estremadura from the Andalusian plain and the highlands of the Sierra Nevada system, partly because it forms the water- shed between two great rivers, the upper Guadiana on the north and the Guadalquivir on the south. Parts of the Sierra Morena are rich in minerals; the central region yields silver, mercury and lead, while the Sierras de Aracena contain the celebrated copper mines of Tharsis and Rio Tinto ( telescope sights on the rocking-bar principle (see below) were introduced for 4'7-in. Q.F. guns on field mountings these sights admit of continuous laying, i.e. the eye need no1 be removed when the gun is fired. The increased importance ol concealment for one's own guns and the certainty of being called upon to engage concealed targets, brought indirect laying into great prominence (see also ARTILLERY). This form of laying is of two kinds: (i) that in which the gun can be layed for direction over the sight on the target itself, or on some aiming point close by, but from indistinctness or other causes quadrant elevation is pre- ferred; and (2) that used when the target is completely hidden and an artificial line of fire laid out and the guns layed for direction on pointers, or the line transferred to a distant aiming point. The old method of giving quadrant elevation by clinometer was obviously too slow. Scott's sight (see above) was the first attempt to obtain indirect laying for elevation by means of the sight itself, and in that sight the angle of sight was taken into account ; in modern guns this is effected by what is technically called the "independent line of sight" (see ORDNANCE: Field Equipments). It is obtained by different means in different countries, but the principle is the same. There must be two sets of elevating gears, one which brings the axis of the gun and the sights together on to the target, thus finding the angle of sight and also pointing the axis of the gun at the target, and a second by which, independent of the sight which remains fixed, the elevation due to the range can be given to the gun and read by means of a pointer and dial marked in yards for range. This latter is shown in the Krupp equipment (Plate, fig. 14), in which the sight is attached to the cradle, but does not move with it. The hand-wheel that screws the gun and cradle down at the same time screws the sight up, and vice versa. When the target is completely concealed it is necessary to lay the gun on an aiming point more or less out of the line of fire, or to lay on a " director ' with a large amount of deflection, and to align aiming posts with the sights at zero to give the direction of the target, and afterwards perhaps to transfer the line of sight to some other distant object, all of which require a far greater scope of deflection than is afforded by the deflection leaf. In the South African war improvised detachable deflection scales of wood or iron placed over the fore-sight, called gun arcs, were used, but this device was clumsy, inaccurate and insufficient, as it only gave about 30° right or left deflection, and only a sight that admitted of all-round laying could really satisfy the requirements. " The goniometric sight in' its simplest form is a circular graduated base plate on which a short telescope or sighted ruler is pivoted. Besides the main graduations there is usually a separate deflection scale " (Bethell). In this form, which is found in British field artillery, the goniometric or dial sight is used for picking up the line of fire. In the pillar sight used in the French 80- and go-mm. Q.F. guns it is used for laying for direction. The collimateur, or sight proper, has a lateral movement of 9°, and is actuated by the drum on the right turned by the mill- headed screw. The drum is divided into 100 graduations, each equal to 5-4'. The gonio plate below is divided into 4 quadrants, and each quadrant into 10 spaces of 9° each numbered in hundreds from o to 900. The stem is turned by pressing down on the mill- headed screw. The collimateur which is used in many sights is a rectangular box closed at one end by a darkened glass with a bright cross. Its use is graphically described in a French text-book thus: " The layer, keeping his eye about a foot from the collimateur and working the elevating wheel, makes the horizontal fine dance about the landscape until it dances on to the target; then working the traversing gear he does the same with the vertical line; then bringing his eye close, he brings the inter- section on to the target." In the Krupp arc sight (see Plate, fig. 14), the goniometric sight is placed on the top of the arc. In the French field Q.F. artillery the inter- mediate carriage (see description and dia- gram in article ORDNANCE: Field Equipments) carries the sight. tig. 15 shows the reciprocating sight for the 2-5-in. gun. The sight drops through a socket in a pivoted bracket which is provided Mountain w'lt^ a 'eve' anc' a clamP ; the level is fixed at the correct artillery angle for drift ; if the sight (as is especially liable to be sights. ^e case on steeP hillsides) is tilted away from the angle it can be restored by moving the bracket till the bubble of the spirit-level is central, and then clamping it. With howitzers indirect laying is the rule, elevation being usually given by clinometer, direction by laying on banderols marking out the line of fire; then, when the direction has been established, an auxiliary mark, usually in rear, is selected and the line transferred to it. At night this mark is replaced by a lamp installed in rear From Treatise on Service Ordnance. FIG. 15. and in line with the sights. The normal method of laying these is from the fore-sight over the tangent sight to a point in rear bpecial sights were designed for this purpose by Colonel Sir E. H. French, called cross-bar sights, and were in the slege year 1908 still in use with British 6-in. B.L. howitzers artillery The principle of these sights (see fig. 16) is that the slghts- tangent sight has a steel horizontal bar which can slide through the head of the tangent scale for deflection, and is graduated for 3° left and I right deflection. One end of the bar is slotted to take the sliding leaf; this end of the bar is graduated from o° to 6°, and in conjunction with the fore-sight affords a lateral scope of 6° on either side of the normal for picking up an auxiliary mark. The fore- FIG. 16. sight has a fixed horizontal bar slotted and graduated similarly to the slotted portion of the tangent sight. The leaves are reversible, and provided with a notch at one end and a point at the other, so that they can be used for either forward or reverse laying. The leaf of the fore-sight has a pinhole, and that of the tangent sight cross-wires for fine reverse laying. Fore-sights are made right and left; tangent sights are interchangeable, the graduations are cut on the horizontal edges above and below, so that the sight can be changed from right to left or vice versa by removing and reversing the bar. Howitzer sights are vertical and do not allow for drift; they are graduated in degrees only. Goniometric sights have recently been introduced into British siege artillery. The pattern is that of a true sight, that is to say, the base plate is capable of movement about two axes, one parallel to and the other at right angles to the axis of the gun, and has cross spirit-levels and a graduated elevating drum and independent deflection scale, so that compensa- tion for level of wheels can be given and quadrant elevation. In smooth-bore days the term mortar meant a piece of ordnance of a peculiar shape resting on a bed at a fixed angle of quadrant elevation of 45°. It was ranged by varying the charge, and layed for line by means of a line and plumb bob Laying aligned on a picket. The term mortar, though not used Mortars. in the British service, is still retained elsewhere to signify very short, large-calibre howitzers, mounted on a bed with a minimum angle of elevation of 45°, which with the full charge would give the maximum range. Range is reduced by increasing the angle of elevation (by :linometer) or by using reduced charges. In the g-45-in. Skoda howitzer, which is really a mortar as defined above, direction is given by means of a pointer on the mounting and a graduated arc on the bed. For a description of Goerz panoramic. " ghost " and other forms of sights, see Colonel H. A. Bethell, Modern Suns and Gunnery (Woolwich, 1907), and for sights used in the United States, Colonel O. M. Lissak, Ordnance and Gunnery (New York and London, 1907). Sights for Coast Defence Artillery (Fixed Armaments'). In coast defence artillery, owing to the fact that the guns are on ixed mountings at a constant height (except for rise and fall ol :ide) above the horizontal plane on which their targets move, and that consequently the angle of sight and quadrant elevation for every range can be calculated, developments in sights, in a measure, gave way to improved means of giving quadrant elevation. Minor improvements in tangent sights certainly were made, notably an automatic clamp, but quadrant elevation was mainly used, and in the case of guns equipped with position-finders (see RANGE-FINDER) the guns could be layed for direction by means of a graduated arc on the emplacement- and a winter on the mounting. A straight-edge or vertical blade (see fig. 17) was placed above the eaf of the tangent sight, and in some cases on he fore-sight as well, to facilitate laying for ine. This enabled the gun to be layed from iome little distance behind, so that the layer puld be clear of recoil, and continuous laying was thus pos- ible. The arrangements for giving quadrant elevation con- isted of an arc, called index plate (see fig. 18), on the gun, graduated in degrees read by a " reader " on the carriage. A I'ard scale of varnished paper, made out locally for quadrant eleva- ion with regard to height of site, was usually pasted over this. A orrection for level of tide was in many cases necessary, and was From Treatise on. Service Ordnance. FIG. 17. SIGHTS Rocklng- bar sight. telescope. entered in a table or mounted on a drum which gave several correc- tions that had to be applied to the range for various causes. One great drawback to this system was that elevation was given with reference to the plane of the racers upon which the mounting moved, and as this was not always truly horizontal grave errors were intro- duced. To overcome this Colonel H. S. Watkin, C.B., introduced a hydroclinometer fixed on the trunnion. It was provided with a yard scale calculated with reference to height i of site, and elevation was read by the ' intersection of the edge of the liquid with the graduation for the particular 1 range. Special sights were introduced j to overcome the difficulties of dis- | appearing guns, large guns firing through small ports, &c. Such were the Moncrieff reflecting sights, and the FlG. 18. — Sketch of Index " chase sights " for the lo-in. gun in Plate and Reader. which the rear sight, equipped with a mirror, was placed on the chase, and the fore-sight on the muzzle, &c. In the early days of B.L. guns very little change was made in the pattern of sights. Shield sights were in- troduced for disappearing mountings to admit of continuous laying for line, and a disk engraved for yards of range duly corrected for height, and called an " elevation indicator," replaced the index plate and reader. As in mobile artillery, the introduction of trunnionless guns brought about a revolution in laying and sights. Smokeless powder also made rapid firing a possibility and a necessity. Con- tinuous laying and telescopic sights became possible. The reduction of friction by improved mechanical arrangements, and the introduction of electric firing, enabled the layer not only to train and elevate the gun himself, but also to fire it the moment it was truly " on " the target. The rocking-bar sight, which had been for some time in use in the navy, was introduced. In this sight both hind and fore sights are fixed on a rigid bar pivoted about the centre; the rear end is raised or depressed by a rack worked by a hand- wheel ; ranges are read from the periphery of a drum ; the fore-sight and leaf of the hind-sight are provided with small electric glow lamps for night firing. In addition to these open sights the bar also carries a sighting telescope. The advantages compared with a tangent sight are that only half the movement is ' required to raise the sight for any particular range; the ranges on the drum are easier to read, and if necessary can be set by another man, so that the layer need not take his eye from the The pattern of telescope used in coast defence is that designed by Dr Common. It is an erecting telescope with a field of view of 10° and a magnification of 3 diameters, and admits plenty of light. The diamond-shaped pointer is always in focus; focusing for individual eyesight is effected by turning the eye-piece, which is furnished with a scale for readjustment. A higher power glass has since been introduced for long ranges. The improvements in gun mountings mentioned above led the way to the introduction of the automatic sight. The principle of combined sight and range-finder had long been known, Automatic amj was emrx)died in the so-called " Italian" sight, but, sights. on a(;COunt Of tjje siow rate Of fire imposed by black powder, the rapidity of laying conferred by its use was of no great advantage, and it was unsuited to the imperfect mechanical arrange- ments of the gun mountings of the time. When cordite replaced black powder, and the gun sights and all in front of the gun were no longer obscured by hanging clouds of smoke, it became a de- sideratum, and, as the automatic sight, it was reintroduced by Sir G. S. Clarke, when he, as superintendent of the Royal Carriage Factory, had brought gun mountings to such a pitch of perfection that it could be usefully employed. An automatic sight is a sight connected in such a manner with the elevating gear of the gun, that when the sight is directed on the water-line of a target at A any range the gun will have the proper quadrant elevation for that range. Colonel H. S. Watkin, C.B., describes the theory of the sight thus (Pro- ceedings R.A.I. 1898). Conditions. — The gun FlG. 19. — Theory of the Automatic Sight, must be at a certain known height above sea-level — the greater the height the greater the accuracy. The racer path must be level. Let FB (fig. 19) represent a gun at height BD above water-level DC, elevated to such an angle that a shot would strike the water at C. Draw EB parallel to DC. It is clear that under these conditions, if a tangent sight AF be raised to a height F representing the elevation due to the range BC, the object C will be on the line of sight. Then ABF=angle of elevation; EFB = quadrant angle; BCD =angle of sight; EBF = ABF-ABE; and sinceABE = BCD.it also equals ABF- BCD. BCD can always be cal- culated from the formula, angle of sight in minutes = k ^ feet^ X J \46 R (in yards) ): Adam Darowski, Bona Sforza (Pol.) (Rome, 1904). (R. N. B.) SIGISMUND III. (1566-1632), king of Poland and Sweden, son of John III., king of Sweden, and Catherine Jagiellonika, sister of Sigismund II., king of Poland, thus uniting in his person the royal lines of Vasa and Jagiello. Educated as a Catholic by his mother, he was on the death of Stephen Bathory elected king of Poland (August 19, 1587) chiefly through the efforts of the Polish chancellor, Jan Zamoyski, and of his own aunt, Anne, queen-dowager of Poland, who lent the chancellor 100,000 gulden SIGMARINGEN 69 to raise troops in defence of her nephew's cause. On his election, Sigismund promised to maintain a fleet in the Baltic, to fortify the eastern frontier against the Tatars, and not to visit Sweden without the consent of the Polish diet. Sixteen days later were signed the articles of Kalmar regulating the future relations between Poland and Sweden, when in process of time Sigismund should succeed his father as king of Sweden. The two kingdoms were to be perpetually allied, but each of them was to retain its own laws and customs. Sweden was also to enjoy her religion subject to such changes as a general council might make. During Sigismund's absence from Sweden that realm was to be ruled by seven Swedes, six to be elected by the king and one by Duke Charles, his Protestant uncle. Sweden, moreover, was not to be administered from Poland. A week after subscribing these articles the young prince departed to take possession of the Polish throne. He was expressly commanded by his father to return to Sweden, if the Polish deputation awaiting him at Danzig should insist on the cession of Esthonia to Poland as a condition precedent to the act of homage. The Poles proved even more difficult to satisfy than was anticipated; but finally a com- promise was come to whereby the territorial settlement was postponed till after the death of John III. ; and Sigismund was duly crowned at Cracow on the 27th of December 1587. Sigismund's position as king of Poland was extraordinarily difficult. As a foreigner he was from the first out of sympathy with the majority of his subjects. As a man of education and refinement, fond of music, the fine arts, and polite literature, he was unintelligible to the szlachta, who regarded all artists and poets as either mechanics or adventurers. His very virtues were strange and therefore offensive to them. His prudent reserve and imperturbable calmness were branded as stiffness and haughtiness. Even Zamoyski who had placed him on the throne complained that the king was possessed by a dumb devil. He lacked, moreover, the tact and bonhomie of the Jagiellos; but in fairness it should be added that the Jagiellos were natives of the soil, that they had practically made the monarchy, and that they could always play Lithuania off against Poland. Sigismund's difficulties were also increased by his political views which he brought with him from Sweden cut and dried, and which were diametrically opposed to those of the omnipotent chancellor. Yet, impracticable as it may have been, Sigismund's system of foreign policy as compared with Zamoyski's was, at any rate, clear and definite. It aimed at a close alliance with the house of Austria, with the double object of drawing Sweden within its orbit and overawing the Porte by the conjunction of the two great Catholic powers of central Europe. A corollary to this system was the much needed reform of the Polish constitution, without which nothing beneficial was to be expected from any political combination. Thus Sigismund's views were those of a statesman who clearly recognizes present evils and would remedy them. But all his efforts foundered on the jealousy and suspicion of the magnates headed by the chancellor. The first three-and- twenty years of Sigismund's reign is the record of an almost constant struggle between Zamoyski and the king, in which the two opponents were so evenly matched that they did little more than counterpoise each other. At the diet of 1590 Zamoyski successfully thwarted all the efforts of the Austrian party; whereupon the king, taking advantage of sudden vacancies among the chief offices of state, brought into power the Radzi- wills and other great Lithuanian dignitaries, thereby for a time considerably curtailing the authority of the chancellor. In 1592 Sigismund married the Austrian archduchess Anne, and the same year a reconciliation was patched up between the king and the chancellor to enable the former to secure possession of his Swedish throne vacant by the death of his father John III. He arrived at Stockholm on the 3oth of September 1593 and was crowned at Upsala on the igth of February 1594, but only after he had consented to the maintenance of the " pure evangelical religion " in Sweden. On the i4th of July 1594 }ie departed for Poland leaving Duke Charles and the senate to rule Sweden during his absence. Four years later (July 1598) Sigismund was forced to fight for his native crown by the usurpation of his uncle, aided by the Protestant party in Sweden. He landed at Kalmar with 5000 men, mostly Hungarian mercenaries; the fortress opened its gates to him at once and the capital and the country people welcomed him. The Catholic world watched his progress with the most sanguine expectations. Sigismund's success in Sweden was regarded as only the beginning of greater triumphs. But it was not to be. After fruitless negotiations with his uncle, Sigismund advanced with his army from Kalmar, but was defeated by the duke at Stangebro on the 25th of September. Three days later, by the compact of Linkoping, Sigismund agreed to submit all the points in dispute between himself and his uncle to a riksdag at Stockholm; but immediately afterwards took ship for Danzig, after secretly protesting to the two papal prothonotaries who accompanied him that the Linko- ping agreement had been extorted from him, and was therefore invalid. Sigismund never saw Sweden again, but he persistently refused to abandon his claims or recognise the new Swedish government; and this unfortunate obstinacy was to involve Poland in a whole series of unprofitable wars with Sweden. In 1602 Sigismund wedded Constantia, the sister of his deceased first wife, an event which strengthened the hands of the Austrian party at court and still further depressed the chancellor. At the diet of 1605 Sigismund and his partisans endeavoured so far to reform the Polish constitution as to substitute a decision by a plurality of votes for unanimity in the diet. This most simple and salutary reform was, however, rendered nugatory by the opposition of Zamoyski, and his death the same year made matters still worse, as it left the opposition in the hands of men violent and incapable, like Nicholas Zebrzydowski, or sheer scoundrels, like Stanislaw Stadnicki. From 1606 indeed to 1610 Poland was in an anarchical condition. Insurrection and rebellion triumphed everywhere, and all that Sigismund could do was to minimize the mischief as much as possible by his moderation and courage. On foreign affairs these disorders had the most disastrous effect. The simultaneous collapse of Muscovy had given Poland an unexampled opportunity of rendering the tsardom for ever harmless. But the necessary supplies were never forthcoming and the diet remained absolutely indifferent to the triumphs of Zolkiewski and the other great generals who performed Brobdingnagian feats with Lilliputian armies. At the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Sigismund prudently leagued with the emperor to counterpoise the united efforts of the Turks and the Protestants. This policy was very beneficial to the Catholic cause, as it diverted the Turk from central to north- eastern Europe; yet, but for the self-sacrificing heroism of Zolkiewski at Cecora and of Chodkiewicz at Khotin, it might have been most ruinous to Poland. Sigismund died very suddenly in his 66th year, leaving two sons, Wladislaus and John Casimir, who succeeded him in rotation. See Alcksander Rembowski, The Insurrection of Zebrzydowski (Pol.) (Cracow, 1893) ; Stanislaw Niemojewski, Memoires (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1899); Sveriges Historia, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1881); Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, History of the Reign of Sigismund III. (Pol.) (Breslau, 1836). (R. N. B.) SIGMARINGEN, a town of Germany, chief towji of the Prussian principality of Hohenzollern, on the right bank of the Danube, 55 m. S. of Tubingen, on the railway to Ulm. Pop. (1905) 4621. The castle of the Hohenzollerns crowns a high rock above the river, and contains a collection of pictures, an exceptionally interesting museum (textiles, enamels, metal-work, &c.), an armoury and a library. On the opposite bank of the Danube there is a war monument to the Hohenzollern men who fell in 1866 and 1870-1871. The division of Sigmaringen is composed of the two formerly sovereign principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohen- zollern-Hechingen (see HOHENZOLLERN), and has an area of 440 sq. m. and a population (1905) of 68,282. The Sigmaringen part of the Hohenzollern lands was the larger of the two (297 sq. m.) and lay mainly to the south of Hechingen, though the district of Haigerloch on the Neckar also belonged to it. The name of Hohenzollern is used much more frequently than the official Sigmaringen to designate the combined principalities. See Woerl, Fiihrer durch Sigmaringen (Wiirzburg,i886). 7° SIGNAL SIGNAL (a word common in slightly different forms to nearly all European languages, derived from Lat. signum, a mark, sign), a means of transmitting information, according to some pre- arranged system or code, in cases where a direct verbal or written statement is unnecessary, undesirable, or impracticable. The methods employed vary with the circumstances and the purposes in view, and the medium into which the transmitted idea is translated may consist of visible objects, sounds, motions, or indeed anything that is capable of affecting the senses, so long as an understanding has been previously effected with the recipient as to the meaning involved. Any two persons may thus arrange a system for the transmission of intelligence between them, and secret codes of this kind, depending on the inflections of the voice, the accent on syllables or words, the arrangement of sentences, &c., have been so elaborated as to serve for the production of phenomena such as are sometimes attributed to telepathy or thought transference. With the many private developments of such codes we are not here concerned, nor is it necessary to attempt an explanation of the systems of drum-taps, smoke-fires, &c., by which certain primitive peoples are supposed to be able to convey news over long distances with astonishing rapidity; the present article is confined to giving an account of the organized methods of signalling employed at sea, in military operations and on railways, these being matters of practical public importance. Marine Signalling. — A system of marine signals comprises different methods of conveying orders or information to or from a ship in sight and within hearing, but at a distance too great to permit of hailing— in other words, beyond the reach of the voice, even when aided by the speaking-trumpet. The necessity of some plan of rapidly conveying orders or intelligence to a distance was early recognized. Polybius describes two methods, one proposed by Aeneas Tacticus more than three centuries before Christ, and one perfected by himself, which, as any word could be spelled by it, anticipated the underlying principle of later systems. The signal codes of the ancients are believed to have been elaborate. Generally some kind of flag was used. Shields were also displayed in a preconcerted manner, as at the battle of Marathon, and some have imagined that the reflected rays of the sun were flashed from them as with the modern heliograph. In the middle ages flags, banners and lanterns were used to distinguish particular squadrons, and as marks of rank, as they are at present, also to call officers to the admiral, and to report sighting the enemy and getting into danger. The invention of cannon made an important addition to the means of signalling. In the instructions issued by Don Martin de Padilla in 1597 the use of guns, lights and fires is mentioned. The introduction of the square rig permitted a further addition, that of letting fall a sail a certain number of times. Before the middle of the i7th century only a few stated orders and reports could be made known by signalling. Flags were used by day, and lights, occasionally with guns, at night. The signification then, and for a long time after, depended upon the position in which the light or flag was displayed. Orders, indeed, were as often as possible com- municated by hailing or even by means of boats. As the size of ships increased the inconvenience of both plans became intolerable. Some attribute the first attempt at a regular code to Admiral Sir William Penn (1621-1670), but the credit of it is usually given to James II. when duke of York. Notwithstanding the attention paid to the subject by Paul Hoste and others, signals continued strangely imperfect till late in the i8th century. Towards 1780 Admiral Kempenfelt devised a plan of flag-signal- ling which was the parent of that now in use. Instead of in- dicating differences of meaning by varying the position of a solitary flag, he combined distinct flags in pairs. About the beginning of the igth century Sir Home Popham improved a method of conveying messages by flags proposed by R. Hall Gower (1767-1833), and greatly increased a ship's power of communicating with others. The number of night and fog signals that could be shown was still very restricted. In 1867 an innovation of prodigious importance was made by the adop- tion in the British navy of Vice-Admiral (then Captain) Philip Colomb's flashing system, on which he had been at work since 1858. In the British navy, which serves as a model to most others, visual signals . are made with flags or pendants, the semaphore, flashing, and occasionally fireworks. Sound signals are made with fog-horns, steam-whistles, sirens and guns. The number of flags in use in the naval code, comprising what is termed a " set," are 58, and consist of 26 alphabetical flags, 10 numeral flags, 16 pendants and 6 special flags. Flag signals are divided into three classes, to each of which is allotted a separate book. One class consists of two alphabetical flags, and refers to orders usual in the administration of a squadron, such as, for example, the flags LE, which might signify " Captain repair on board flagship." Another class consists of three alphabetical flags, which refer to a coded dictionary, wherein are words and short sentences likely to be required« The remaining refers to evolutionary orders for manoeuvring, which have alpha- betical and numeral flags combined. The flags which constitute a signal are termed a " hoist." One or more hoists may be ma'de. at the same time. Although flag signalling is a slow method compared with others, a fair rate can be attained with practice. For example, a signal involving 162 separate hoists has been re- peated at sight by 13 ships in company in 76 minutes. Semaphore signals are made by the extension of a man's arms through a vertical plane, the different symbols being distinguished by the relative positions of the arms, which are never less than 45° apart. To render the signals more conspicuous the signaller usually holds a small flag on a stick in each hand, but all ships are fitted with mechanical semaphores, which can be worked by one man, and are visible several miles. Flag signalling being comparatively slow and laborious, the ordinary message work in a squadron is generally signalled by semaphore. The convenience of this method is enormous, and by way of example it may be of interest to mention a record message of 350 words which was signalled to 21 ships simultaneously at the rate of 17 words per minute. Flags being limited in size, and only distinguishable by their colour, signals by this means are not altogether satisfactory at long distances, even when the wind is suitable. For signalling at long range the British navy employs a semaphore with arms from 9 to 12 ft. long mounted at the top of the mast and capable .of being trained in any required direction, and worked from the deck. Its range depends upon the clearness of the atmo- sphere, but instances are on record where a message by this means has been read at 16 to 18 m. Night signalling is carried out by means of " flashing," by which is meant the exposure and eclipse of a single light for short and long periods of time, representing the dots and dashes composing the required symbol. The dots and dashes can be made mechanically by an obscuring arrangement, or by electro- mechanical means where magnets do the work, or by simply switching on and off specially manufactured electric lamps. The ordinary rate of signalling by flashing is from 7 to 10 words per minute. In the British navy, as in the army, dots and dashes are short and long exposures of light ; but with some nations the dots and dashes are short and long periods of darkness, the light punctuating the spaces between them. The British navy uses the European modification of the so-called Morse code used in telegraphy, but with- special signs added suitable to their code. The introduction of the " dot and dash " system into the British navy was entirely due to the perseverance of Vice-Admiral Colomb, who, in spite of great opposition, and even after it had once been condemned on its first trial at sea, carried it through with the greatest success. The value of this innovation made in 1867 may be gauged by the fact that now it is possible to handle a fleet with ease and safety in darkness and fog — a state of affairs which did not formerly exist. The simplicity of the dot and dash principle is its best feature. As the system only requires the exhibition of two elements it may be used in a variety of different manners with a,minimum of material, namely, by waving the most conspicuous object at hand through short and long arcs, by exhibiting two different shapes, each representing one of the elements, or dipping a lantern in a bucket, and so on. Its SIGNAL adoption has not only contributed very materially to the in- creased efficiency of the British navy, but it has been made optional for use with the mercantile marine. Curiously enough, flashing is not to any great extent used in the navies of other countries which rely more on some system of coloured lights at night. This system generally takes the form of four or five double-coloured lanterns, which are suspended from some part of the mast in a vertical line. Each lantern generally contains a red and a white lamp, either of which can be switched on. By a suitable keyboard on deck any combination of these coloured lanterns can be shown. The advantage of this system lies in the fact that each symbol is self-evident in its entirety, and does not require an expert signalman to read it, as is the case with flashing, which is a progressive performance. For long distances at night the search-light, or some other high power electric arc light, is utilized on the flashing system. Dots and dashes are then made either by flashing the light directly on the object, or by waving the beam up and down for short and long periods of time. Sometimes when a convenient cloud is available the reflection of the beam has been read for nearly 40 m., with land intervening between the two ships. In a fog signals are made by the steam-whistlef fog-horn, siren or by guns. Except for the latter method the dot and dash system is employed in a similar manner to flashing a light. Guns are some- times used in a fog for signalling, the signification being deter- mined by certain timed intervals between the discharges. The larger British ships are supplied with telegraph instruments for connexion with the shore, and heliographs are provided for land operations. Marine galvanometers are also provided, and can be used to communicate through submarine cables. To the various methods of naval signalling must be added wireless telegraphy, which in its application to ships at sea bids fair to solve some problems hitherto impracticable. (See TELEGRAPHY: HTtnfen.) The international code of signals, for use between ships of all nations, is perhaps the best universal dictionary in exist- ence. By its means mariners can talk with great ease without knowing a word of one another's language. By means of a few flags any question can be asked and answered. The number of international flags and pendants used with the international code is 2-, consisting of a complete alphabet and a special pendant characteristic of the code. At night flashing may be used. (C.A.G.B.; A.F.E.) A rmy Signalling. — Communication by visual signals between portions of an army is a comparatively recent development of military service. Actual signals were of course made in all ages of warfare, either specially agreed upon beforehand, such as a rocket or beacon, or of more general application, such as the old-fashioned wooden telegraph and the combinations of lights, &c.. used by savages on the X.W. frontier of India. But it was not until the middle years of the igth century that military signalling proper, as a special duty of soldiers, became at all general. It was about the year 1865 that, owing to the initiative of Captain Philip Colomb, R.X., whose signal system had been adopted for his own sen-ice, the question of army signalling was seriously taken up by the British military authorities. A school of signal- ling was created at Chatham, and some time later all units of the line were directed to furnish men to be trained as signallers. At first a code book was used and the signals represented code words, but it was found better to revert to the telegraphic system of signalling by the Morse alphabet, amongst the unde- niable advantages of which was the fact that it was used both by the postal service and the telegraph units of Royal Engineers. Thenceforward, in ever-increasing perfection, the work of signallers has been a feature of almost every campaign of the British army. To the original flags have been added the helio- graph (for long-distance work), the semaphore system of the Royal Xavy (for very rapid signalling at short distances), and the lamps of various kinds for working by night. Full and detailed instructions for the proper performance of the work, which provide for almost every possible contingency, have been published and are enforced. The apparatus employed for signalling in the British service consists of flags, large and small, heliograph and lamp for night work. The distances at which their signals can be read vary very considerably, the flags having but a limited "" scope of usefulness, whilst the range of a heliograph is very great indeed. Whether it be 10 m. or 100 away, it has been found in practice that, given good sunlight, nothing but the presence of an intervening physical obstacle, such as a ridge or wood, prevents communication. For shorter distances moonlight, and even artificial light, have on occasion been employed as the source of light. In northern Europe the use of the instrument is much restricted by climate, and, further, stretches of plain country, permitting of a line of vision between distant hills, are not often found. It is in the wilder parts of the earth, that is to say in colonial theatres of war, that the astonishing value of the helio- graph is displayed. In European warfare flag signalling is more usually employed. The flags in use are blue and white, the former for use with light, the latter for dark backgrounds. FIG. i. There is further a distinction between the " small " flag, which is employed for semaphore messages and for rapid Morse over somewhat shorter distances, and the " large " flag, which is readable at a distance of 5 to 7 m., as against the maximum of 4 m. allowed to the small flag. With a clear atmosphere these distances may be exceeded. The respective sizes of these flags are as follows: — large flag 3'X$', pole 5' 6" long; small flag a'X 2', pole 3' 6" long. The lamps used for night signalling are of many kinds. Officially only the " lime light " and the " Beg- bie " lamps are recognized, but a considerable number of the old-fashioned oil lamps is still in use, especially in the auxiliary forces, and many experiments have been made with acetylene. The lime light is obtained by raising a lime pencil to a white heat by forcing a jet of oxygen through the flame of a spirit lamp. The strong light thus produced can be read under favourable conditions at a distance of 1 5 m. ; but the equipment of gas-bag, pressure-bag, and other accessories make the whole instrument rather cumbrous. The bull's-eye lamp differs but slightly from the ordinary lantern of civil life; it burns vegetable oil. The Begbie lamp, which burns kerosene, is rather more elaborate and gives a whiter light. It was in use for many years in India before the objections made by the authorities in Er.glar.d to certain features of the lamp were withdrawn. All these lamps when in use are set up on a tripod stand and signals in the Morse alphabet are made by opening and closing a shutter in front of the light, and thereby showing long and short flashes. SIGNAL The same principle is followed in the heliograph. This instru- ment, invented by Sir Henry C. Mance, receives on a mirror, and thence casts upon the distant station, the rays of the sun; the working of a small key controls the flashes by throwing the mirror slightly off its alignment and thus obscuring the light from the party reading signals. The fact that the heliograph requires sunlight, as mentioned above, militates against its employment in Great Britain, but where it is possible to use it it is by far the best means of signalling. Secrecy and rapidity are its chief advantages. An observer 6 m. distant would see none of its light if he were more than 50 yds. on one side of the exact align- ment, whereas a flag signal could be read from almost every FlG. 2. — Heliograph (by permission of the Controller of H.M. .Stationery Office). hill within range. None of the physical exertion required for fast signalling with the flag is required to manipulate the instru- ment at a high rate of speed. The whole apparatus is packed in a light and portable form. An alternative method of using the heliograph is to keep the rays permanently on the distant point, a shutter of some kind being used in front of it to produce obscurations. When in use the heliograph is fixed upon a tripod. A tangent screw (E) which moves the whole instrument (except the jointed arm L) turns the mirror in any direction. Metal U-shaped arms (C) carry the mirror (B), which is controlled by the vertical rod (J) and its clamping screw (K). The signalling mirror itself (usually having a surface of 5 in. diameter) is of glass, an un- silvered spot (R) being left in the centre. This spot retains its position through all movements in any plane. The instrument is aligned by means of the sighting vane (P) fixed in the jointed arm L, and the rays of the sun are then brought on to the distant station by turning the horizontal and vertical adjustments until the " shadow spot " cast by the unsilvered centre of the mirror appears on the vane. The heliograph is thus ready, and signals are made by the depression and release of the " collar " (I) which, with the pivoted arm (U, V), acts as a telegraph key. When the sun makes an angle of more than 1 20 degrees with the mirror and the distant station, a " duplex mirror " is used in place of the sighting vane. The process of alignment is in this case a little more complicated. Various other means of making dots and dashes are referred to in the official work, ranging from the " collapsible drum " hung on a mast to the rough but effec- tive improvisation of a heliograph out of a shaving-glass. The employment of the beams of the search-light to make flashes on clouds is also a method of signalling which has been in practice very effective. The Morse code employed in army signalling is as follows : — A B C D E F G H I L M N — • O P S • T - U V • W X Y - Z - i • 2 3 4 5 i 8 9' o The semaphore code used in the army is shown below : — ' n 8 C 0 £ 1 3 « 5 I ( r N VlY \ h k "tfum&vls "J or Corrv'ny" Letters Comiaf "Ready1 Fig. 3. — Semaphore (the thin upright strokes represent the seaman's body, the thick strokes his arms). Umsr'W" In using this code the signaller invariably faces his reader, as unless this were enforced each letter might be read as its opposite. In the above diagram the appearance of the signals to the reader is shown, thus the sender's right side only is used for the letter A. In sending a message accuracy is ensured by various checks. The number of words in a message is the most valuable of these, as the receiving station's number must agree before the message is taken as correct. Each word or " group " sent by the Morse code must be " answered " before the sender passes on to another. All figures are checked by the " clock check " in which i is repre- sented by A, 2 by B and so on. All cipher " groups " are repeated back en Hoc. There is an elaborate system of signals relating to the working of the line. The " message form " in use differs but slightly from the ordinary form of the Post Office telegraphs. Signal stations in the field are classed as (o) " fixed " and " mov- ing," the former connecting points of importance, or on a line of communications, the latter moving with the troops; (6) " ter- minal," " transmitting " and " central "; the first two require no definition, the last is intended to send and receive messages in many directions. The " transmitting station " receives and sends on messages, and consists in theory of two full " ter- minals," one to receive and one to send on. It is rarely possible in the field to work rapidly with less than five men at a trans- mitting and three at a terminal station. " Central " stations SIGNAL 73 are manned according to the number of stations with which they communicate. Signalling is used on most campaigns to a large extent. In the Tirah expedition, 1897 and 1898, one signal station received and sent, between the ist and i8th November, as many as 980 messages by heliograph, some of which were 200 to 300 words in length. It is often used as an auxiliary to the field telegraph, especially in mountainous countries, and when the wire is liable to be cut and stolen by hostile natives. In the Waziri expedition, 1881, communication was maintained direct for a distance of 70 m. with a s-in. heliograph. In the Boer War, 1899-1902, the system of heliographic signalling was employed very exten- sively by both sides. In Germany the first army signalling regulations only appeared in 1902. The practice was, however, rapidly developed and towards the end of the 1905 campaign in South-West Africa, 9 signalling officers and 200 signallers were employed in that country. These usually worked in parties of 2 or 3, each party being protected by a few infantrymen or troopers. The apparatus used was heliograph by day and a very elaborate form of lamp by night, and work was carried on between posts separated by 60 and even 90 m. The signallers were employed both with the mobile forces and in a permanent net- work of communication in the occupied territory. In 1907-1908 fresh signalling regulations were issued to the home army, and each company, battery or squadron is now expected to find one station of three men, apart from the regimental and special instructors and staff. Some experiments were carried out at Metz to ascertain the mean distance at which signals made by a man lying down could be seen, this being found to be about 1000 yds. The new regulations allow of the use of flag and lamp signalling at 4 m. instead of as formerly at if. Three flags are used, blue, white and yellow, and it is stated that the last is the most frequently useful of the three. The enormous development of the field telegraph and telephone systems in the elaborate war of positions of 1904-1905 more or less crowded out, so to speak, visual signalling on both sides, and in any case the average illiterate Russian infantryman or the Cossack was not adaptable to signalling needs. Only about one-quarter of the signalling force (which consisted exclusively of engineer troops) in Kuropatkin's army was employed in optical work, the other three- quarters being assigned to telegraph, wireless and telephone station work. The Italians, who are no strangers to colonial warfare, have a well-developed visual signalling system. See British Official Training Manuals: Signalling (1907). Railway Signalling. — In railway phraseology the term " signal " is applied to a variety of hand motions and indications by lamps and other symbols, as well as to fixed signals; but only the last-named class — disks and semaphores, with lights, perman- ently fixed (on posts) at the side of the track — will be considered here. These may be divided into (i) interlocking signals, used at junctions and yards, and (2) block signals, for maintaining an interval of space between trains following one another. In both classes the function of a signal is to inform the engine-driver whether or not he may proceed beyond the signal, or on what conditions he may proceed, and it is essential to give him the information some seconds before it need be acted upon. The semaphore signal, which is now widely used, consists of an arm or blade about 5 ft. long extending horizontally, at right angles to the line of the track, from the top of a post (wood or iron) 15 to 30 ft. high, and sometimes higher (fig. 4). This arm, turning on a spindle, is pulled down (" off ") to indicate that a train may pass it, the horizontal (or " on") position indicating " stop "; sometimes, as on the continent of Europe, use is made of the position of the arm in which it points diagonally upwards, and on one or two English lines the arm in the safety position hangs down perpendicularly, parallel to, but a few inches away from, the post. A lamp is fixed to the side of the post about on a level with the blade, and by the movement of the blade is made to show at night red for " stop " and green for go-ahead or " all clear." The earlier practice, white for " all clear," still prevails largely in America. In the early days of railway signalling three positions of the semaphore arm were recognized: — (l) Horizontal, or at right angles to the post, denoting danger; (2) at a downward angle of 45 degrees, denoting caution; (3) hanging vertically downwards or parallel to the post, denoting all right. Corresponding to the position of the arm, three different lights were employed at night — red for danger, green for caution and white for all right. But now British railways make use of only two positions of the arm and two lights — the arm at right angles to the post and a red light, both signifying danger or xxv. 3 a stop; and the arm at about 60 degress (or vertical, as mentioned above) and a green light, both meaning all right or proceed. It is better to abolish the use of white lights for signalling purposes. The reason is obvious. There are many lights and lamps on the plat- forms, in signal-boxes and in the streets and houses adjacent to a rail- way; and i? white lights were recognized as signals, a driver might mistake a light of this nature as a signal to proceed ; in fact, accidents have been caused in this manner. A white light is not to be regarded as a danger signal, as is sometimes erroneously stated, but rather as no signal at all ; and as there is a well-known rule to the effect that " the absence of a signal at a place where a signal is ordinarily shown must be treated as a danger signal," it follows that a white light, when seen at a place where a red or green light ought to be visible, is to be treated as a danger signal, not because a white light per se means danger, but because in such a case it denotes the absence of the proper signal. Some companies have adopted a purple or small white light as a "danger" signal for shunting purposes in sidings and yards; but this practice is not to be com- mended, since red should be the universal danger signal. Distant signals are used to make it unnecessary for an engine- driver to slacken his speed in case the stop (home) signal is obscured by fog or smoke, or is beyond a curve, or for any reason is not visible sufficiently far away. Encountering the distant signal at a point 400 to 800 yds. before reaching the home signal, he is informed by its position that he may expect to find the latter in the same position; if it is " off " he passes it, knowing that the home signal must be in the same position, but if it is at danger he proceeds cautiously, prepared to stop at the home signal, if necessary. The arm of a distant signal usually has a fish-tail end. In Great Britain its colour indications are generally the same as for the home signal, but occasionally it shows yellow, and on some lines it is distinguished at night by an angular band of light, shaped like a fish-tail, which appears by the side of the red or green light. In America its night colour-indication is made different from that of the home signal. Thus, where white is used to indicate all clear (in both home and distant) the distant arm, when horizontal, shows a green light; where green is the all- clear colour a horizontal distant shows either a yellow light or (on one road) a red and a green light side by side. Two lights for a single arm, giving their indication by position as well as colour, have been used to a limited extent for both home and distant signals. Dwarf signals (a in fig. 5) are used for very slow movements, such as those to or from a siding. Their blades are about i ft. long, and the posts about 4 ft. high; the lower arm on post c being for slow movements, is also frequently made shorter than the upper one. Where more than two full-sized arms are used on a post, the custom in America is to have the upper arm indicate for the track of the extreme right, and the others in the order in which the tracks lie; in Great Britain the opposite rule prevails, the upper arm indicating for the extreme left. But the signals controlling a large number of parallel or diverging tracks are preferably arranged side by side, often on a narrow overhead bridge or gantry spanning the tracks. All the switches and locks are con- nected with the signal cabin by iron rods (channel-iron or gas-pipe) supported (usually near the ground and often covered by boxing) on small grooved wheels set at suitable distances apart. The foundations of these supports are of wood, cast iron or concrete. Concrete foundations are comparatively recent, but are cheap and durable. For signals (but not for points) wire connexions are uni- versal in England, and are usual in America, being cheaper than rods. In changing the direction of a line of redding a bell-crank is used, but with a wire a piece of chain is inserted and run round a grooved pulley. Wire connexions are shown at a and b, fig. 4, the main or " front " wire being attached at a. By this the signalman moves the arm down to the inclined or go- ahead position, to do which he has to lift the counter- y-c -a FIG. 4. — Semaphore signal. R, Red glass; G, green glass. 74 SIGNAL weight c. If the wire should break, the counter-weight would restore the arm to the horizontal (stop) position, and thus prevent the unauthorized passage of a train; and in case of failure of the rod I, the iron spectacle s would act as a safety counter-weight. The back-wire b is added to ensure quick movement of the arm, but is not common in England. Long lines of rigid connexions are "compensated" for expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature by the introduction of bell-cranks or rocker-arms. With wire connexions compen- sation is difficult, and many plans have been tried. The most satisfactory devices are those in which the connexion, in the cabin, between the wire and the lever is broken when the signal is in the horizontal position. The wire is kept taut by a weight or spring, and at each new movement the lever (if the wire has lengthened or shortened) grips it at a new place. So early as 1846 it became a common practice in England to concentrate the levers for working the points and signals of a station in one or more cabins, and the necessity of locking interlocking soon became evident to prevent simul- taneous signals being given over conflicting routes, or for a route not yet prepared to receive the train. In large terminals concentration and interlocking are essential to rapid movements of trains and economical use of ground. Fig. 5 shows a typical arrangement of interlocked signals, the principle being the same whether a yard has one set of points or E3C FIG. 5. — Interlocked signals (American practice, signals at right track, and arras at right of post). arranged that either one of them will be move<5 by the same lever, the position of the point connexions being made to govern the selection of the arm to be moved. A switch rod would be connected to this lever at H; the lever K is for use where a signal is con- nected by two wires, as before described. The lever is held in each of its two positions by the catch rod V, which en- gages with notches in the segment B. When the signalman, preparatory to lowering a signal, grasps the lever at its upper end, he moves thisrodupwards, and in so doing actuates the interlocking, through the tappet N, attached at T. Lifting the tappet locks all levers which need to be locked to make it safe to move this one. In pulling over the lever the rocker R is also pulled; but the slot in it is radial to the o centre on , which ^— B the lever turns, so that during the stroke N remains motionless. On FIG- 6. — Signal Lever, with Mechanical a hundred. The signals (at a, b, and c) are of the semaphore pattern. For the four signals and one pair of points there are, in the second storey of the cabin C, five levers. Each signal arm stands normally in the horizontal position, indicating stop. To permit a train to pass from A to B the signalman moves the arm of signal b to an inclined position (60 degrees to 75 degrees down- wards); and the interlocking of the levers prevents this move- ment unless it can safely be made. If a has been changed to permit a movement from S to B, or if the points x have beeen set for such a movement, or if either signal on post c has been lowered, the lever for b is immovable. In like manner, to incline the arm of signal a for a movement from S to B it is first necessary to have the points set for track S, and to have the levers of all the other signals in the normal (stop) position. A sixth lever, suitably interlocked, works a lock bar, which engages with the head rod of the points; it is connected to the lock through the " detector bar," d. This bar, lying alongside of and close to the rail, must move upwards when the points lock is being moved either to lock or to unlock; and being made of such a length that it is never entirely free of the wheels of any car or engine standing or moving over it, it is held down by the flanges,-and the signalman is prevented from inadvertently changing the points when a train is passing. At r is a throw-off or derailing switch (" catch- points "). When x is set for the passage of trains on the main line, r, connected to the same lever, is open; so that if a car, left on the side track unattended, should be accidentally moved from its position, it could not run foul of the main track. The function of the interlocking machine is to prevent the simultaneous display of conflicting signals, or the display of a signal over points that are not set accordingly. The most common forms of interlocking have the locking bars arranged in a horizontal plane; but for ease of description we may take one having them arranged vertically, the principle being the same. The diagram (fig. 6) shows a section with a side view of one lever. A machine consists of as many levers, placed side by side, as there are points and signals to be moved, though in some cases two pairs of points are moved simultaneously by a single lever, and two or more separate arms on the same post may be so the completion of Interlocking, the stroke and the dropping of V, N is raised still farther, and this unlocks such levers as should be unlocked after this lever is pulled ("cleared" or "reversed"). It will be seen that whenever the tappet N of any lever is locked in the if e e FIG. 7. — Interlocking Frame. position shown in the figure, it is impossible to raise V, and therefore impossible to move the lever. The action of tappet N may be understood by reference to fig. 7. A tappet, say 3, slides vertically in a planed recess in the locking plate, being held in place by strips G and K. Transverse SIGNAL 75 grooves N, 0, P, carry dogs, such as J. Two dogs may be con- nected together by bars, R. The dogs are held in place by straps Y (fig. 6). Locking is effected by sliding the dogs horizon- tally; for example, dog J has been pushed into the notch in tappet i, holding it in the normal position. If tappet 2 were raised, its notch would come opposite dog J; and then the- lifting of i would lock 2 by pushing J to the left. By means of horizontal rod R, the lifting of i also locks 4. If 4 were already up, it would be impossible to lift i. Switch and signal machines are sometimes worked by com- pressed air, or electric or hydraulic power. The use of power makes it possible to move points at a greater distance from the cabin than is permissible with manual locking. power. The most widely used apparatus is the electro- pneumatic, by which the points and signals are moved by compressed air at 70 ft per sq. in., a cylinder with piston being fixed at each signal or switch. From a compressor near the cabin, air is conveyed in iron pipes buried in the ground. The valves admitting air to a cylinder are controlled by electro- magnets, the wires of which are laid from the cabin underground. Each switch or signal, on completing a movement, sends an electric impulse to the cabin, and the interlocking is controlled by this " return." In the machine the " levers " are very small and light, their essential function being to open and close electric circuits. This is performed through the medium of a long shaft placed horizontally with its end towards the operator, which is revolved on its axis through 60 degrees of a circle. This shaft actuates the interlocking, which is in principle the same as that already described; and it opens and closes the electric circuits, governing the aneous with the advent of the railway, the possibility of a block system was early recognized; but its introduction was retarded 'by the great cost of employing attendants at every block station. But as traffic increased, the time-interval system proved in- adequate; and in the United Kingdom the block system is now practically universal, while in America it is in use on many thousand miles of line. In " permissive blocking " a second train is allowed to enter a block section before the first has cleared it, the engine-man being required so to control his speed that if the first train be unexpectedly stopped he can himself stop before coming into collision with it. It thus violates the essential condition of true block signalling. The manual " block " system in use at the present day in no way differs from that devised by W. F. Cooke in 1842, except so far as the details and designs of the telegraphic instruments are con- cerned. Cooke used a single-needle instrument giving two indi- cations— the needle to the left signifying " line clear," to the right, "line blocked"; the instrument was also available for speaking purposes. The instruments employed in Great Britain consist of two dials — one for the up line and one for the down — and a bell. They may be divided into two main classes, those requiring one wire, and those requiring three wires for each double line of rails. The dials of the one-wire instruments give only two indications, namely, " line TO/I bED FIG. 8. — Block signals. (English practice, trains run on left-hand track, signals at left of track, arms on left of post.) admission of air to cylinders, by means of simple metal contact strips rubbing on sections of its surface. The high-pressure machine has been used with hydraulic power instead of pneumatic, and with electrical interlocking instead of mechanical. Interlocking apparatus worked by compressed air at low pressure (15 Ib per sq. in.), and with no electrical features, is in use on some lines in America and has been introduced into England. In place of an electromagnet for admitting compressed air to the cylinders, a rubber diaphragm 8 in. in diameter is used. This is lifted by air at 7 ft pressure, this pressure being con- veyed from a cabin, distant 500 ft. or more, in one or two seconds. As in the electro-pneumatic machine, the lever of a switch cannot complete its stroke until the switch has actually moved home and conveyed a " return indication " to the cabin. Pneumatic apparatus of other designs is in use to a limited extent. Pneumatic interlockings are costly to instal, and, depending on an unfailing source of power, have not been much used at iso- lated places, except on railways where an air-pipe is installed for block signals; but at large yards the pneumatic machines have been made a means of economy, because one attendant can manage as many levers as can two or three in a manual power machine. Moreover, a single lever will work two or more switches, locks, &c., simultaneously, where desirable. The absence of outdoor connexions above ground is also an advantage. Since about 1900 electric power has come into use for working both points and signals. A motor, with gearing and cranks, is fixed to the sleepers at each pair of points, the power is conveyed from the cabin by underground wires, the locking is of common mechanical types, and, in general, the system is similar to pneumatic systems except in the source of power. By using accumulators, charged by dynamos run by gasoline engines, or by a traveling power-car, the cost of power is reduced to a very low figure, so that power-interlocking becomes economical at small as well as large stations. The essence of block signalling is a simple regulation forbidding a train to start from station A until the last preceding train has Block Passed station B; thus a space interval is maintained system. between each train, instead of the time-interval that was relied upon in the early days of railways. As the introduction of the telegraph was almost or quite contempor- clear " and " train on line " or "line blocked," the latter being the normal indication, even when there is no train in the section. The three-wire instrument has the advantage of giving three indications on the dial, namely, " line clear," " line closed " and " train on line," the normal indication being " line closed." The one-wire instru- ment differs from the three-wire in that the indicator is moved over to the different positions by a momentary current, and is then held there by induced magnetism, the wire being then free for any suc- ceeding signals. In the three- wire apparatus there is a separate wire, with an instrument at each end for the up line; the same for the down line; and a wire for the bell, which is common to both lines. When no current is flowing, the indicator is vertical, meaning " line blocked or closed." When a current is sent along one of the wires, the deflections to the right or left, according to the polarity of the current, mean " line clear " or " train on line " respectively. Some dial instruments are made with needles, some with small disks, some with miniature semaphores to give the necessary indications, but the effect is the same. The block instruments and bells should not, as a rule, be used for speaking purposes ; but on a few subsidiary railways, block working is effected by means of ordinary single- needle telegraphic instruments, or by telephone, the drawback to such an arrangement being that the signalman has no indication before him to remind him of the condition of the line. Fig. 8 shows the signals at a typical English station, which may be called B. Notice having been received over the block telegraph that a train is coming from A (on the up track), the signalman in the cabin, b, lowers the home signal h; and (if the block section from B to C is clear of trains) he lowers the starting signal, s, also. The function of a distant signal d has already been described; it is mechanically impossible for it to be lowered unless h has previously been lowered. The relation of the signals to the " crossover road " xx is the same in principle as is shown in fig. 5. Dwarf or disk signals such as would be used for the siding T or the crossover xx are omitted from the sketch. Where the sections are very short, the starting signal of one section is often placed on the same post as the distant signal of the next. Thus, supposing B and C to be very close to each other, B's starting signal would be on the same post as C's distant signal, the latter being below the former, and the two would be so interconnected by " slotting " apparatus that C could not lower his distant signal unless B's starting signal was " off," while B by the act of raising his starting arm would necessarily throw C's distant arm to " danger." In America many block stations have only the home signal, even at stations where there are points and sidings, and on double-track lines the block SIGNAL "a " telegraphing for both is done on a single Morse circuit. In the United Kingdom the practice is to have separate apparatus and separate wires for each track. In the simple block system it is clearly possible for a signal- man, through carelessness, forgetfulness, or other cause, and in disregard of the indications of his telegraph instruments, so to lower his signals as to admit a second train into the block section before the first has left it, and that without the driver of either train being aware of the fact. To eliminate as far as possible the chance of such an occurrence, which is directly opposed to the essence of the block system and may obviously lead to a collision, the locking of the mechanical signals with the electrical block instruments was introduced in England by W. R. Sykes about 1876, the apparatus being so arranged that a signalman at one end of a section is physically unable to lower his signals to let a train enter that section until they have been released electrically from the cabin at the other end. The starting signal at a block section A cannot be lowered until the signalman at the next station B , by means of an electric circuit, unlocks the lever in connexion with it. In so doing he breaks the unlocking circuit at his own station, and this break is restored only on the arrival of the train for which the unlocking was performed, the wheels of the train acting through a lever or by a short rail circuit. Valuable improvements have been made in this machine by Patenall, Coleman and others, and these are in use in America, where the system is known as the " con- trolled manual." The passage of a train is also made to set a signal at "stop" automatically, by disconnecting the rod between the signal and its lever. The connexion cannot be restored by the signalman ; it must be done by an electro-magnet brought into action by the train as it passes the next block station. The block system is used on single as well as on double lines. In the United Kingdom and in Australia the means for pre- venting collisions between trains running towards system. eacn other on single-track railways is the " staff system." The staff, suitably inscribed, is delivered to the engine-driver at station A, and constitutes his authority to occupy the main track between that station and station B. On reaching B he surrenders the staff, and receives another one which gives him the right to the road between B and C. If there are two or more trains to be moved, all except the last one receive tickets, which belong to that particular staff. The staff system requires no telegraph; but to obviate the incon- venience of sometimes finding the staff at the wrong end of the road, electric staff apparatus has been devised. Staffs (or tablets) in any desired number are kept at each of the two stations, and are locked in a' cabinet automatically controlled, through electro-magnets, by apparatus in the cabinet at the other station ; and a staff (or tablet) being taken out at one station, a second one cannot be taken out at either station until ,this first one is re- turned to the magazine at one station or the other. Thus there is a complete block system. By simple " catching apparatus " on the engine, staffs or tablets may be delivered to trains moving at a good speed. The signals so far described depend for their operation, either wholly or partially, on human agency, but there are others, commonly known as " automatic," which are worked signals kv the trains themselves, without human intervention. Such signals, as a rule, are so arranged that normally they are constrained to stand at " safety," instead of in the "danger" position, which, like ordinary signals, they assume if left to themselves; but as a train enters a block section the constraint on the signals that guard it is removed and they return to the danger position, which they retain till the train has passed through. To effect this result an electrical track circuit or rail circuit is employed, in conjunction with some form of power to put the signalling devices to safety. Live-wire circuits were formerly employed, but are now generally abandoned. The current from a battery b (fig. 9) passes along the rails of one side of the track to the signal 5 and returns along the other rails through a relay. If the current through this relay is stopped in any way, whether by failure of the battery or by a short circuit caused by the presence of a train or vehicle with metal wheels connected by metal axles on any part of the block section, its electro-magnet is de-energized, and its armature drops, removing the constraint which kept the signals at safety and allowing them to move to danger. When the train has passed through the block 'I -tJ FIG. 9. — Automatic electric block signal, with rail circuit. section the current is restored and the signals are forced back to show safety. The current used for the track circuit must be of low tension, because of the imperfect insulation, and as a rule the ballast must not be allowed to touch the rails and must be free from iron or other conducting substance. At each rail joint a wire is used to secure electrical continuity, and at the ends of each block section there are insulating joints in the track. Block sections more than about i m. long are commonly divided into two or more circuits, connected together by relays; but usually they are made under i m. in length and often on intra-urban railways very much less, so that many more trains can be passed over the line in a given time than is possible with ordinary block signalling. At points the track circuit is run through a circuit breaker, so that the " opening " of the points sets the signal for the section. The circuit is also led through the rails of the siding so far as they foul the main track. An indicator at each switch gives visual or audible warning of an approaching train. The signals themselves have been devised to work by clock- work, by electricity — obtained, not from the track circuit, but from a power station, or from non-freezing batteries at each post, or from accumulators charged by dynamos situated, say, every 10 m. along the line — and by pneumatic power, either com- pressed atmospheric air laid on from a main or carbonic acid gas stored in a tank at the foot of the posts, each tank furnishing power for several thousand move- ments of the signal arm. A clock- work signal is shown in fig. 10. When an electro-magnet in the rail circuit drops its armature, the mechanism is released and causes the disk to turn and indicate stop. On the restoration of the current the disk makes another quarter ' w n ^ ^ \ // ft ^ ^ FIG. 10. — Signal moved by clockwork (Union). FIG. II. — Enclosed disk signal (Hall). turn and then shows only its edge to the approaching train, indicating " all clear." The enclosed disk signal, commonly called a "banjo" (fig. n), is a circular box about 4 ft. in diameter, with a glass-covered opening, behind which a red disk is shown to indicate stop. The disk, very light, made of cloth stretched over a wire, or of aluminium, is supported on a spindle, which is delicately balanced on a pivot so that the closing of an electro-magnet lifts the disk SIGNATURE 77 away from the window and thus indicates " all clear." On the withdrawal or failure of the current the disk falls by gravity to the " stop " position. A local battery is used, with a relay, the rail circuit not being strong enough to lift the disk. In the electro-pneumatic system a full-size semaphore is used. Com- pressed air, from pumps situated at intervals of 10 to 20 m., is conveyed along the line in an iron pipe, and is supplied to a cylinder at each signal, exactly as in pneumatic interlocking, before described. The rail circuit, when complete, maintains pressure in a cylinder, holding the signal " off." On the entrance of a train or the failure of the current, the air is liberated and the signal arm is carried by gravity to the " stop " position. Automatic signals are sometimes made to stand normally (when no train is in the section) in 'the " stop " position. The local circuit is connected with the rail circuit so that it is closed only when a train is approaching within, say, i m. With the rail circuit, distant signals are controlled, without a line wire, by means of a polarized relay. Each signal, when cleared, changes the polarity of the rail circuit for the next section in its rear, and this, by the polarized relay, closes the local circuit of the distant signal, without affecting the -home signal for that section. Automatic signals are used in America on a few single lines. The signal at A for the line AB is arranged as before described ; and the signal at B, for movements in the opposite direction, is worked by means of a line wire from A, strung on poles. When a section is occupied, signals are set two sections away, so as to provide against the simultaneous entry of two trains. One of the chief causes of anxiety and difficulty in the working of railway traffic is fog, which practically blots out the whole system p of visible signals, so that while the block telegraph re- sixnalliaz mains, the means of communicating the necessary in- structions to the driver are no longer effective. Delay and confusion immediately arise; and in order to secure safety, speed has to be lessened, trains have to be reduced in number, and a system of " fog-signalling " introduced. In England, especially around London, elaborate arrangements have to be made. " Fog- signalling " consists in the employment of audible signals, or de- tonators, to convey to drivers.the information ordinarily imparted by the visible or semaphore signals. As soon as possible after a fog comes on, a man is stationed at the foot of each distant signal, and generally of each home signal also, who by means of detonators, red and green flags and a hand-lamp, conveys information to the driver of every train as to the position of the semaphore arm. A detonator is a small flat metal case about 2 in. in diameter and J in. deep, furnished with two leaden ears or clips which can be easily bent down to grip the head of the rail. The case contains some detonating composition, which readily explodes with a loud report when a wheel passes over it. As soon as a signal arm is raised to " danger," the fogman places upon one of the rails of the track to which the signal applies two detonators, or in the case of a new and improved class of detonator which contains two separate charges in one case, one detonator, and at the same time exhibits a red flag or light to the driver of an approaching train. The engine of a train passing over the detonators explodes them, the noise so made being sufficient to apprise the driver that the signal, though invisible to him, is at danger, and he then should act in the same way as if he had seen the signal. If, however, the signal arm should be lowered to the " all-right " position before a train reaches it, the fogman should immediately remove the detonators and exhibit a green flag or lamp, replacing the detonators as soon as the signal is again raised to danger. As a rule the fogmen are drawn from the ranks of the permanent-way men, who otherwise would be idle. But if, as sometimes happens, a fog continues for several days, great difficulty is experienced in obtaining sufficient men to carry on this important duty without undue prolongation of their hours of work. When this happens, signalmen, shunters, porters, yardsmen and even clerks may have to be called on to take a turn at " fogging." Some companies have adopted mechanical appliances, whereby a man can place a detonator upon a line of rails or remove it while standing at a distance away from the track, thus enabling him to attend to more than one line without danger to himself. The cost of detonators often amounts to a considerable sum; and an apparatus called an econo- mizer has been introduced, whereby the explosion of one detonator removes the second from the rails before the wheels reach it. As it is only necessary for one detonator to explode, the object of placing two on the rails being merely to guard against a miss-fire, consider- able saving can thus be effected. Many attempts have been made to design a mechanical apparatus for conveying to a driver the re- quisite information as to the state of the signals during a fog, and for enabling the fogmen to be dispensed with. Such inventions usually consist of two parts, namely (l) an inclined plane or block or trigger, placed on the permanent way alongside the track or between the rails, and working in connexion with the arm of the signal; and (2) a lever or rod connected with the steam-whistle, or an electric bell or indicator on the foot-plate, and depending from the under-side of the engine in such a position as to come in contact with the apparatus on the ground, when the latter is raised above the level of the rails. Most of the proposed systems only give an indication when the signal is at danger, and are silent when the signal is off. This is contrary to good practice, which requires that a driver should receive a positive indication both when the signal is " off " as well as when it is " on." If this is not done, a driver may, if the signal is " off " and if the fog is thick, be unaware that he has passed the signal, and not know what part of the line he has reached. The absence of a signal at a place where a signal is usually exhibited should invariably be taken to mean danger. Fog signalling machines that depend on the ex- plosion of detonators or cartridges have the drawback that they require recharging after a certain number of explosions, varying with the nature and size of the machine. Even when a satisfactory form of appliance has been discovered, the manner of using it is by no means simple. It is clearly no use placing such an apparatus im- mediately alongside a stop signal, as the driver would receive the intimation too late for him to be able to stop at the required spot. To place devices of this description at or near every stop signal in a large station or busy junction would involve a multiplication of wires or rods which is undesirable. Every such apparatus should certainly be capable of giving an " all-right " signal as well as a " danger signal. It requires very careful maintenance, and should be in regular daily use to ensure its efficiency. The fundamental principles of railway signalling are simple, but the development of the science has called for much study and a large money outlay. On every railway of any consequence the problems of safety, economy and convenience are involved, one with another, and signalling. cannot be perfectly solved. Even so fundamental a duty as that of guarding the safety of life and limb is a relative one when we have to consider whether a certain expenditure is justifiable for a given safety device. Having good discipline and foregoing the advantages of high speed, many a manager has successfully deferred the introduction of signals; others, having to meet severe competition, or, in Great Britain, under the pressure of the government, have been forced to adopt the most complete apparatus at great cost. In large city terminal stations, where additions to the space are out of the question, interlocking is necessary for economy of time and labour, as, indeed, it is in a less degree at smaller stations also; as a measure of safety, however, it is desirable at even the smallest, and the wise manager extends its use as fast as he is financially able. At crossings at grade level of one railway with another, and at drawbridges, interlocked signals with derailing switches obviate the necessity of stopping all the trains, as formerly was required by law everywhere in America, and saving a stop saves money. The block system was introduced primarily for safety, but where trains are frequent it becomes also an element of economy. Without it trains must usually be run at least five minutes apart (many managers deem seven or ten minutes the shortest safe interval for general use), but with it the interval may be reduced to three minutes, or less, according to the shortness of the block sections. With automatic signals trains are safely run at high speed only i^ m. apart, and on urban lines the distance between them may be only a few hundred yards. (B. B. A.; H. M. R.) SIGNATURE (through Fr. from Lat. signatura, signare, to sign, signum, mark, token, sign), a distinguishing sign or mark, especially the name, or something representing the name, of a person used by him as affixed to a document or other writing to show that it has been written by him or made in accordance with his wishes or directions (see AUTOGRAPH, MONOGRAM, &c.). In the early sense of something which "signifies," i.e. marks a condition, quality or meaning, the word was formerly also used widely, but now chiefly in technical applications. In old medical theory, plants and minerals were supposed to be marked by some natural sign or symbol which indicated the particular medicinal use to which they could be put; thus yellow flowers were to be used for jaundice, the " scorpion-grass," the old name of the forget-me-not, was efficacious for the bite of the scorpion; many superstitions were based on the human shape of the roots of the mandrake or mandragora; the bloodstone was taken to be a cure for hemorrhage; this theory was known as the " doctrine of signatures." (See T. J. Pettigrew, Superstitions connected with Medicine or Surgery, 1844.) In printing or book- 78 SIGN-BOARD— SIGNIFICS binding the " signature " is a letter or figure placed at the bottom of the first page of a section of a book, as an assistance to the binder in folding and arranging the sections consecutively; hence it is used of a sheet ready folded. In music it is the term applied to the signs affixed at the beginning of the stave showing the key or tonality and the time or rhythm (see MUSICAL NOTATION). SIGN-BOARD, strictly a board placed or hung before any building to^designate its character. The French enseigne in- dicates its essential connexion with what is known in English as a flag (q.v.), and in France banners not infrequently took the place of sign-boards in the middle ages. Sign-boards, however, are best known in the shape of painted or carved advertisements for shops, inns, &c., they are in fact one of various emblematic methods used from time immemorial for publicly calling atten- tion to the place to which they refer. The ancient Egyptians and Greeks are known to have used signs, and many Roman examples are preserved, among them the widely-recognized bush to in- dicate a tavern, from which is derived the proverb " Good wine needs no bft&r." In some cases, such as the bush, or the three balls of pawnbrokers, certain signs became identified with certain trades, but apart from these the emblems employed by traders — evolving often into trade-marks — may in great part be grouped according to their various origins. Thus, at an early period the cross or other sign of a religious character was used to attract Christians, whereas the sign of the sun or the moon would serve the same purpose for pagans. Later, the adaptation of the coats of arms or badges of noble families became common ; these would be described by the people without consideration of the language of heraldry, and thus such signs as the Red Lion, the Green Dragon, &c., have become familiar. Another class of sign was that which exhibited merely persons employed in the various trades, or objects typical of them, but in large towns where many practised the same trade, and especially, as was often the case, where these congregated mainly in the samj street, such signs did not provide sufficient distinction. Thus a variety of devices came into existence — sometimes the trader used a rebus on his own name (e.g. two cocks for the name of Cox); sometimes he adopted any figure of an animal or other object, or portrait of a well-known person, which he considered likely to attract attention. Finally we have the common associa- tion of two heterogeneous objects, which (apart from those representing a rebus) were in some cases merely a whimsical combination, but in others arose from a popular misconception of the sign itself (e.g. the combination of the " leg and star " may have originated in a representation of the insignia of the garter), or from corruption in popular speech (e.g. the com- bination " goat and compasses " is said by some to be a corrup- tion of " God encompasses ")• Whereas the use of signs was generally optional, publicans were on a different footing from other traders in this respect. As early as the i4th century there was a law in England compelling them to exhibit signs, for in 1393 the prosecution of a publican for not doing so is recorded. In France edicts were directed to the same end in 1567 and 1577. Since the objoct of sign-boards was to attract the public, they were often of an elaborate character. Not only were the signs themselves large and sometimes of great artistic merit (especially in the i6th and i7th centuries, when they reached their greatest vogue) but the posts or metal supports protruding from the houses over the street, from which the signs were swung, were often elaborately worked, and many beautiful examples of wrought-iron supports survive both in England and on the Continent. The signs were a prominent feature of the streets of London at this period. But here and in other large towns they became a danger and a nuisance in the narrow ways. Already in 1669 a royal order had been directed in France against the excessive size of sign-boards and their projection too far over the streets. In Paris in 1761 and in London about 1762-1773 laws were introduced which gradually compelled sign-boards to be removed or fixed flat against the wall. For the most part they only survived in connexion with inns, for which some of the greatest artists of the time painted sign-boards, usually representing the name of the inn. With the gradual abolition of sign-boards the numbering of houses began to be introduced in the i8th century in London. It had been attempted in Paris as early as 1512, and had become almost universal by the close of the i8th century, though not enforced until 1805. It appears to have been first introduced into London early in the i8th century. Pending this development, houses which carried on trade at night (e.g. coffee houses, &c.) had various specific arrange- ments of lights, and these still survive to some extent, as in the case of doctors' dispensaries and chemists' shops. See Jacob Larwood and John Camden Hotten, History of Sign- boards (London, 1866). SIGNIA (mod. Segni), an ancient town of Latium (adiectum), Italy, on a projecting lower summit of the Volscian mountains, above the Via Latina, some 35 m. S.E. of Rome. The modern railway station, 33 m. S.E. of Rome, lies 5 m. S.E. of Signia, 669 ft. above sea level. The modern town (2192 ft.) occupies the lower part of the ancient site. Pop. (1901) 6942. Its founda- tion as a Roman colony is ascribed to Tarquinius Superbus, and new colonists were sent there in 495 B.C. Its position was certainly of great importance: it commands a splendid view, and with Anagnia, which lies opposite to it, guarded the approach to the valley of the Trerus or Tolerus (Sacco) and so the road to the south. It remained faithful to Rome both in the Latin and in the Hannibalic wars, and served as a place of detention for the Carthaginian hostages during the latter. It seems to have re- mained a place of some importance. Like Cora it retained the right of coining in silver. The wonderfully hard, strong cement, made partly of broken pieces of pottery, which served as the lining for Roman water cisterns (opus signinum) owes its name to its invention here (Vitruvius, viii. 7, 14). Its wine, pears and charcoal were famous in Roman times. In 90 B.C. it became a municipium with a senalus and praetores. In the civil war it joined the democratic party, and it was from here that in 82 B.C. Marius marched to Sacriportus (probably marked by the medieval castle of Piombinara, near Segni station, commanding the junction of the Via Labicana and the Via Latina; see T. Ashby, Papers of the British School at Rome, London, 1902, i. 125 sqq.), where he was defeated with loss. After this we hear no more of Signia until, in the middle ages, it became a papal fortress. The city wall, constructed of polygonal blocks of the mountain limestone and ij m. in circumference, is still well preserved and has several gates; the largest, Porta Saracinesca, is roofed by the gradual inclination of the sides until they are close enough to allow of the placing of a lintel. The other gates are mostly narrow posterns covered with flat monolithic lintels, and the careful jointing of the blocks of which some of them are composed may be noted. Their date need not be so early as is generally believed (cf. NORBA) and they are certainly not pre-Roman. A portion of the wall in the modern town has been restored in opus quadratum of tufa in Roman times. Above the modern town, on the highest point, is the church of S. Pietro, occupying the central cella of the ancient Capitolium of Signia (which had three cellae). The walls consist of rectangular blocks of tufa, and the whole rests upon a platform of polygonal masses of limestone (see R. Delbriick, Das Capitolium von Signia, Rome, 1903). An open circular cistern in front of the church lined with rect- angular blocks of tufa may also be noted. (T. As.) SIGNIFICS. The term " Signifies " may be defined as the science of meaning or the study of significance, provided sufficient recognition is given to its practical aspect as a method of mind, one which is involved in all forms of mental activity, including that of logic. In Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1901- 1905) the following definition is given: — " I. Signifies implies a careful distinction between (a) sense or signification, (6) meaning or intention and (c) significance or ideal worth. It will be seen that the reference of the first is mainly verbal (or rather sensal), of the second volitional, and of the third moral (e.g. we speak of some event ' the significance of which cannot be overrated,' and it would be impossible in such a case to substitute the ' sense ' or the ' meaning ' of such event, without serious loss). SIGNIFICS 79 Signifies treats of the relation of the sign in the widest sense to each of these. 2. A proposed method of mental training aiming at the concentra- tion of intellectual activities on that which is implicitly assumed to constitute the primary and ultimate value of every form of study, i.e. what is at present indifferently called its meaning or sense, its import or significance. . . . Signifies as a science would centralise and co-ordinate, interpret, inter-relate and concentrate the efforts to bring out meanings in every form, and in so doing to classify the various applications of the signifying property clearly and distinctly." Since this dictionary was published, however, the subject has undergone further consideration and some development, which necessitate modifications in the definition given. It is clear that stress needs to be laid upon the application of the principles and method involved, not merely, though notably, to language, but to all other types of human function. There is need to insist on the rectification of mental attitude and increase of inter- pretative power which must follow on the adoption of the significal view-point and method, throughout all stages and forms of mental training, and in the demands and contingencies of life. In so far as it deals with linguistic forms, Signifies includes " Semantics," a branch of study which was formally introduced and expounded in 1807 by Michel Breal, the distinguished French philologist, in his Essai de semantique. In 1900 this book was translated into English by Mrs Henry Cust, with a preface by Professor Postgate. M. Breal gives no more precise definition than the following: — " Extraire de la linguistique ce qui en ressort comme aliment pour la reflexion et — je ne crains pas de 1'ajouter — comme regie pour notre propre langage, puisque chacun de nous collabore pour sa part a revolution de la parole humaine, voila ce qui merite d'etre mis en lumiere, voila ce qui j'ai essaye de faire en ce volume." In the Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology Semantics is defined as " the doctrine of historical word-meanings; the systematic discussion of the history and development of changes in the meanings of words." It may thus be regarded as a reform and extension of the etymological method, which applies to contemporary as well as to traditional or historical derivation. As human interests grow in constantly specialized directions, the vocabulary thus enriched is unthinkingly borrowed and re- borrowed on many sides, at first in definite quotation, but soon in unconscious or deliberate adoption. Semantics may thus, for present purposes, be described as the application of Signifies within strictly philological limits; but it does not include the study and classification of the " Meaning " terms themselves, nor the attainment of a clear recognition of their radical import- ance as rendering, well or ill, the expressive value not only of sound and script but also of all fact or occurrence which demands and may arouse profitable attention. The first duty of the Significian is, Uierefore, to deprecate the demand for mere linguistic reform, which is indispensable on its own proper ground, but cannot be considered as the satisfaction of a radical need such as that now suggested. To t>e content with mere reform of articulate expression would be fatal to the prospect of a significantly adequate language; one characterized by a development only to be compared to that of the life and mind of which it is or should be naturally the delicate, flexible, fitting, creative, as also controlling and ordering, Expression. The classified use of the terms of expression-value suggests three main levels or classes of that value — those of Sense, Meaning and Significance. (a) The first of these at the outset would naturally be associated with Sense in its most primitive reference; that is, with the organic response to environment, and with the essentially expressive element in all experience. We ostracize the senseless in speech, and also ask " in what sense " a word is used or a statement may be justified. (6) But " Sense" is not in itself purposive; whereas that is the main character of the word " Meaning," which is properly reserved for the specific sense which it is intended to convey. (c) As including sense and meaning but transcending them in range, and covering the far-reaching consequence, implication, ultimate result or outcome of some event or experience, the term •" Significance " is usefully applied. These are not, of course, the only significal terms in common use, though perhaps sense and significance are on the whole the most consistently employed. We have also signification, pur- port, import, bearing, reference, indication, application, implica- tion, denotation and connotation, the weight, the drift, the tenour, the lie, the trend, the range, the tendency, of given statements. We say that this fact suggests, that one portends, another carries, involves or entails certain consequences, or justifies given inferences. And finally we have the value of all forms of expression; that which makes worth while any assertion or proposition, concept, doctrine or theory; the definition of scientific fact, the use of symbolic method, the construction of mathematical formulae, the playing of an actor's part, or even art itself, like literature in all its forms. The distinctive instead of haphazard use, then, of these and like terms would soon, both as clearing and enriching it, tell for good on our thinking. If we considered that any one of them were senseless, unmeaning, insignificant, we should at once in ordinary usage and in education disavow and disallow it. As it is, accepted idiom may unconsciously either illuminate or con- tradict experience. We speak, for instance, of going through trouble or trial; we never speak of going through well-being. That illuminates. But also we speak of the Inner or Internal as alternative to the spatial — reducing the spatial to the External. The very note of the value to the philosopher of the " Inner " as opposed to the " Outer " experience is that a certain example or analogue of enclosed space — a specified inside — is thus not measurable. That obscures. Such a usage, in fact, implies that, within enclosing limits, space sometimes ceases to exist. Com- ment is surely needless. The most urgent reference and the most promising field for Signifies lie in the direction of education. The normal child, with his inborn exploring, significating and comparing tendencies is so far the natural Significian. At once to enrich and simplify language would for him be a fascinating endeavour. Even his crudeness would often be suggestive. It is for his elders to supply the lacking criticism out of the storehouse of racial experience, acquired knowledge and ordered economy of means; and to educate him also by showing the dangers and drawbacks of uncontrolled linguistic, as other, adventure. Now the evidence that this last has virtually been hitherto left undone and even reversed, is found on careful examination to be overwhelming.1 Unhappily what we have so far called education Ijas, anyhow for centuries past, ignored — indeed in most cases even balked — the instinct to scrutinise and appraise the value of all that exists . or happens within our ken, actual or possible, and fittingly to express this. Concerning the linguistic bearing of Signifies, abundant evidence has been collected, often in quarters where it would least be expected — 1. Of general unconsciousness of confusion, defeat, anti- quation and inadequacy in language. 2. A. Of admission of the fact in given cases, but plea of helplessness to set things right. B. Of protest in sucfe-fases and suggestions for improvement. 3. Of direct or implied denial that the evil exists or is serious, and of prejudice against any attempt at concerted control and direction of the most developed group of languages. 4. Of the loss and danger of now unworthy of .misfitting imagery and of symbolic assertion, observance or rite, once both worthy and fitting. 5. Of the entire lack, in education, of emphasis on the indis- pensable means of healthy mental development, i.e. the removal of linguistic hindrances and the full exploitation and expansion of available resources in language. 6. Of the central importance of acquiring a clear and orderly use of the terms of what we vaguely call " Meaning "; and also of the active modes, by gesture, signal or otherwise, of conveying intention, desire, impression and rational or emotional thought. 1 It would be impossible of course in a short space to prove this contention. But the proof exists, and it is at the service of those who quite reasonably may deny its possible existence. 8o SIGNIFICS 7. Finally and notably, of the wide-spread and all-pervading havoc at present wrought by the persistent neglect, in modern civilization, of the factor on which depends so much of our practi- cal and intellectual welfare and advance. As the value of this evidence is emphatically cumulative, the few and brief examples necessarily torn from their context for which alone room could here be found would only be misleading. A selection, however, from the endless confusions and logical absurdities which are not only tolerated but taught without correction or warning to children may be given. We speak of beginning and end as complementary, and then of " both ends "; but never of both beginnings. We talk of truth when we mean accuracy: of the literal (" it is written ") when we mean the actual (" it is done "). Some of us talk of the mystic and his mysticism, meaning by this, enlightenment, dawn heralding a day; others (more justly) mean by it the mystifying twilight, darkening into night. We talk of the un- knowable when what that is or whether it exists is precisely what we cannot know — the idea presupposes what it denies; we affirm or deny immortality, ignoring its correlative innatality; we talk of solid foundations for life, for mind, for thought, when we mean the starting-points, foci. We speak of an eternal sleep when the very raison d'etre of sleep is to end in awaking — it is not sleep unless it does; we appeal to a root as to an origin, and also figuratively give roots to the locomotive animal. We speak of natural " law " taking no count of the sub-attentive working in the civilized mind of the associations of the legal system (and the law court) with its decreed and enforced, but also revocable or modifiable enactments. Nature, again, is in- differently spoken of as the norm of all order and fitness, the desecration of which is reprobated as the worst form of vice and is even motherly in bountiful provision; but also as a monster of reckless cruelty and tyrannous mockery. Again, we use the word " passion " for the highest activity of desire or craving, while we keep " passive " for its very negation. These instances might be indefinitely multiplied. But it must of course be borne in mind that we are throughout dealing only with the idioms and habits of the English language. Each civilized language must obviously be dealt with on its own merits. The very fact that the significating and interpretative function is the actual, though as yet little recognized and quite unstudied condition of mental advance and human achievement, accounts for such a function being taken for granted and left to take care of itself. This indeed, in pre-civilized ages (since it was then the very condition of safety and practically of survival), it was well able to do. But the innumerable forms of pro- tection, precaution, artificial aid and special facilities which modern civilization implies and provides and to which it is always adding, have entirely and dangerously changed the situation. It has become imperative to realize the fact that through disuse we have partly lost the greatest as the most universal of human prerogatives. Hence arises the special difficulty of clearly showing at this stage that man has now of set purpose to recover and develop on a higher than the primitive plane the sovereign power of unerring and productive interpretation of a world which even to a living, much more to an intelligent, being, is essentially significant. These conditions apply not only to the linguistic but to all forms of human energy and expression, which before all else must be significant in the most active, as the highest, sense and degree. Man has from the outset been organizing his experience; and he is bound correspondingly to organize the expression of that experience in all phases of his purposive activity, but more especially in that of articulate speech and linguistic symbol. This at once introduces the volitional element ; one which has been strangely eliminated from the very function which most of all needs and would repay it. One point must here, however, be emphasised. In attempting to inaugurate any new departure from habitual thinking, history witnesses that the demand at its initial stage for unmistakably clear exposition must be not only unreasonable but futile. This of course must be typically so in the case of an appeal for the vital regeneration of all modes of Expression and especially of Language, by the practical recognition of an ignored but governing factor working at its very inception and source. In fact, for many centuries at least, the leading civilizations of the world have been content to perpetuate modes of speech once entirely fitting but now often grotesquely inappropriate, while also remaining content with casual changes often for the worse and always liable to inconsistency with context. This inevitably makes for the creation of a false standard both of lucidity and style in linguistic expression. Still, though we must be prepared to make an effort in assuming what is virtually a new mental attitude, the effort will assuredly be found fully worth making. For there is here from the very first a special compensation. If, to those whose education has followed the customary lines, nowhere is the initial difficulty of moving in a new direction greater than in the one termed Signifies, nowhere, correspondingly, is the harvest of advantage more immediate, greater, or of wider range and effort. It ought surely to be evident that the hope of such a language; of a speech which shall worthily express human need and gain in its every possible development in the most efficient possible way, depends on the awakening and stimulation of a sense which it is our common and foremost interest to cultivate to the utmost on true and healthy lines. This may be described as the im- mediate and insistent sense of the pregnancy of things, of the actual bearings of experience, of the pressing and cardinal im- portance, as warning or guide, of that experience considered as indicative; a Sense realized as belonging to a world of what for us must always be the Sign of somewhat to be inferred, acted upon, used as a mine of pertinent and productive symbol, and as the normal incitant to profitable action. When this germinal or primal sense — as also the practical starting-point, of language — has become a reality for us, reforms and acquisitions really needed will naturally follow as the expression of such a recovered command of fitness, of boundless capacity and of perfect coherence in all modes of expression. One objection, however, which before this will have suggested itself to the critical reader, is that if we are here really dealing with a function which must claim an importance of the very first rank and affect our whole view of life, practical and theoretical, the need could not have failed long ago to be recognised and acted upon. And indeed it is not easy in a few words to dispose of such an objection and to justify so venturesome an apparent paradox as that with which we are now concerned. But it may be pointed out that the special development of one faculty always entails at least the partial atrophy of another. In a case like this the principle typically applies. For the main human acquirement has been almost entirely one of logical power, subtle analysis, and co-ordination of artificial means. In modern civilization the application of these functions to an enormous growth of invention of every kind has contributed not a little to the loss of the swift and direct sense of point : the sensitiveness as it were of the compass-needle to the direction in which experi- ence was moving. Attention has been forcibly drawn elsewhere; and moreover, as already pointed out, the natural insight of children, which might have saved the situation, has been methodically silenced by a discipline called educative, but mainly suppressive and distortive. The biological history of Man has been, indeed, a long series of transmutations of form to subserve higher functions. In language he has so far failed to accomplish this. There has even in some directions been loss of advantage already gained. While his nature has been plastic and adaptive, language, the most centrally important of his acquirements, has remained relatively rigid, or what is just as calamitous, fortuitously elastic. There have been notable examples — the classical languages— of the converse process. In Greek and Latin, Man admirably con- trolled, enriched, varied, significated his expressions to serve his mental needs. But we forbear ourselves to follow and better this example. All human energies have come under orderly direction and control except the one in which in a true sense they all depend. This fatal omission, for which defective methods SIGN-MANUAL, ROYAL— SIGNORELL1 81 of education are mainly responsible, has disastrously told upon the mental advance of the race. But after all, we have here a comparatively modern neglect and helplessness. Kant, for instance, complained bitterly of the defeating tendency of language in his day, as compared with the intelligent freedom of the vocabulary and idiom of the " classical " Greek, who was always creating expression, moulding it to his needs and finding an equally intelligent response to his efforts, in his listeners and readers — in short, in his public. Students, who are prepared seriously to take up this urgent question of the application of Signifies in education and through- out all human spheres of interest, will soon better any instruction that could be given by the few who so far have tentatively striven to call attention to and bring to bear a practically ignored and unused method. But by the nature of the case they must be prepared to find that accepted language, at least in modern European forms, is far more needlessly defeating than they have supposed possible: that they themselves in fact are continually drawn back, or compelled so to write as to draw back their readers, into what is practically a hotbed of confusion, a prison of senseless formalism and therefore of barren controversy. It can hardly be denied that this state of things is intolerable and demands effectual remedy. The study and systematic and practical adoption of the natural method of Signifies can alone lead to and supply this. Signifies is in fact the natural response to a general sense of need which daily becomes more undeniably evident. It founds no school of thought and advocates no techni- cal specialism. Its immediate and most pressing application is, as already urged, to elementary, secondary and specialised education. In recent generations the healthy sense of discontent and the natural ideals of interpretation and expression have been discouraged instead of fostered by a training which has not only tolerated but perpetuated the existing chaos. Signs, however, are daily increasing that Signifies, as implying the practical recognition of, and emphasising the true line of advance in, a recovered and enhanced power to interpret experience and adequately to express and apply that power, is destined, in the right hands, to become a socially operative factor of the first importance. LITERATURE. — Lady Welby, "Sense, Meaning and Interpretation," in Mind (January and April 1896), Grains of Sense (1897), What is Meaning? (1903); Professor F. Tonnies, " Philosophical Termino- logy " (Welby Prize Essay), Mind (July and October 1899 and January 1900), also article in Jahrbuch, &c., and supplements to Philosophische Terminologie (December 1906) ; Professor G. F. Stout, Manual of Psychology (1898) ; Sir T. Clifford Allbutt's Address on " Words and Things " to the Students' Physical Society of Guy's Hospital (October 1906); Mr W. J. Greenstreet's " Recent Science " articles in the Westminster Gazette (November 15, 1906, and January 10, 1907). (V. W.) SIGN-MANUAL, ROYAL, the autograph signature of the sovereign, by which he expresses his pleasure either by order, commission or warrant. A sign-manual warrant may be either an executive act, e.g. an appointment to an office, or an authority for affixing the Great Seal. It must be countersigned by a principal secretary of state or other responsible minister. A royal order under the sign-manual, as distinct from a sign-manual warrant, authorizes the expenditure of money, e.g. appropriations. There are certain offices to which appointment is made by com- mission under the great seal, e.g. the appointment of an officer in the army or that of a colonial governor. The sign-manual is also used to give power to make and ratify treaties. In certain cases the use of the sign-manual has been dispensed with, and a stamp affixed in lieu thereof, as in the case of George IV., whose bodily infirmity made the act of signing difficult and painful during the last weeks of his life. A special act was passed pro- viding that a stamp might be affixed in lieu of the sign-manual (n Geo. IV. c. 23), but the sovereign had to express his consent to each separate use of the stamp, the stamped document being attested by a confidential servant and several officers of state (Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, 1907, vol. ii. pt. i. P- 59)- SIGNORELLI, LUCA (c. 1442-0. 1524), Italian painter, was born in Cortona — his full name being Luca d'Egidio di Ventura; he has also been called Luta da Cortona. The precise date of his birth is uncertain; but, as he is said to have died at the age of eighty-two, and as he was certainly alive during some part of 1524, the birth-date of 1442 must be nearly correct. He belongs to the Tuscan school, associated with that of Umbria. His first impressions of art seem to be due to Perugia — the style of Bonfigli, Fiorenzo and Pinturicchio. Lazzaro Vasari, the great- grandfather of Giorgio Vasari, the historian of art, was brother to Luca's mother; he got Luca apprenticed to Piero de' Fran- ceschi. In 1472 the young man was painting at Arezzo, and in 1474 at Citta di Castello. He presented to Lorenzo de' Medici a picture which is probably the one named the " School of Pan," discovered some years ago in Florence, and now belonging to the Berlin gallery; it is almost the same subject which he painted also on the wall of the Petrucci palace in Siena — the principal figures being Pan himself, Olympus, Echo, a man reclining on the ground and two listening shepherds. He executed, moreover, various sacred pictures, showing a study of Botticelli and Lippo Lippi. Pope Sixtus IV. commissioned Signorelli to paint some frescoes, now mostly very dim, in the shrine of Loreto— Angels, Doctors of the Church, Evangelists, Apostles, the Incredulity of Thomas and the Conversion of St Paul. He also executed a single fresco in the Sistine Chapel in Rome, the " Acts of Moses " ; another, " Moses and Zipporah," which has been usually ascribed to Signorelli, is now recognized as the work of Perugino. Luca may have stayed in Rome from 1478 to 1484. In the latter year he returned to his native Cortona, which remained from this time his ordinary home. From 1497 he began some professional excursions. In Siena, in the convent of Chiusuri, he painted eight frescoes, forming part of a vast series of the life of St Benedict; they are at present much injured. In the palace of Pandolfo Petrucci he worked upon various classic or mythological subjects, including the " School of Pan " already mentioned. From Siena he went to Orvieto, and here he produced the works which, beyond all others, stamp his greatness in art. These are the frescoes in the chapel of S. Brizio, in the cathedral, which already contained some pictures on the vaulting by Fra Angelico. The works of Signorelli represent the " Last Days of the Mundane Dispensation," with the " Pomp and the Fall of Antichrist," and the " Eternal Destiny of Man," and occupy three vast lunettes, each of them a single picture. In one of them, Anti- christ, after his portents and impious glories, falls headlong from the sky, crashing down into an innumerable crowd of men and women. " Paradise," the " Elect and the Condemned," " Hell," the " Resurrection of the Dead," and the " Destruction of the Reprobate " follow in other compartments. To Angehco's ceiling Signorelli added a section showing figures blowing trumpets, &c.; and in another ceiling he depicted the Madonna, Doctors of the Church, Patriarchs and Martyrs. There is also a great deal of subsidiary work connected with Dante, and with the poets and legends of antiquity. The daring and terrible invention of the great compositions, with their powerful treat- ment of the nude and of the most arduous foreshortenings, and the general mastery over 'complex grouping and distribution, marked a development of art which had never previously been attained. It has been said that Michelangelo felt so strongly the might of Signorelli's delineations that he borrowed, in his own " Last Judgment," some of the figures or combinations which he found at Orvieto; this statement, however, has not been verified by precise instances. The contract for Luca's work is still on record. He undertook on sth April 1499 to complete the ceiling for 200 ducats, and to paint the walls for 600, along with lodging, and in every month two measures of wine and two quarters of corn. Signorelli's first stay in Orvieto lasted not more than two years. In 1 502 he returned to Cortona, and painted a dead Christ, with the Marys and other figures. Two years later he was once more back in Orvieto, and completed the whole of his work in or about that time, i.e. some two years before 1506 — a date famous in the history of the advance of art, when Michel- angelo displayed his cartoon of Pisa. After finishing off at Orvieto, Signorelli was much in Siena. In 1 507 he executed a great altarpiece for S. Medardo at Arcevia SIGONIUS— SIGURD in Umbria — the " Madonna and Child," with the " Massacre of the Innocents " and other episodes. In 1508 Pope Julius II. determined to readorn the camere of the Vatican, and he sum- moned to Rome Signorelli, in company with Perugino, Pinturic- chio and Bazzi (Sodoma). They began operations, but were shortly all superseded to make way for Raphael, and their work was taken down. Luca now returned to Siena, living afterwards for the most part in Cortona. He continued constantly at work, but the performances of his closing years were not of special mark. In 1520 he went with one of his pictures to Arezzo. Here he saw Giorgio Vasari, aged eight, and encouraged his father to second the boy's bent for art. Vasari tells a pretty story how the wellnigh octogenarian master said to him " Impara, parentino " (" You must study, my little kinsman "), and clasped a jasper round his neck as a preservative against nose-bleeding, to which the child was subject. He was partially paralytic when he began a fresco of the " Baptism of Christ " in the chapel of Cardinal Passerini's palace near Cortona, which (or else a " Coronation of the Virgin " at Foiano) is the last picture of his specified. Signorelli stood in great repute not only as a painter but also as a citizen. He entered the magistracy of Cortona as early as 1488, and in 1524 held a leading position among the magistrates of his native place. In or about the year 1524 he died there. Signorelli from an early age paid great attention to anatomy, carrying on his studies in burial grounds. He surpassed all his con- temporaries in showing the structure and mechanism of the nude in immediate action; and he even went beyond nature in experi- ments of this kind, trying hypothetical attitudes and combinations. His drawings in the Louvre demonstrate this and bear a close analogy to the method of Michelangelo. He aimed at powerful truth rather than nobility of form; colour was comparatively neglected, and his chiaroscuro exhibits sharp oppositions of lights and shadows. He had a vast influence over the painters of his own and of succeeding times, but had no pupils or assistants of high mark; one of them was a nephew named Francesco. He was a married man with a family; one of his sons died, seemingly through some sudden casualty, and Luca depicted the corpse with sorrow- ful but steady self-possession. He is described as full of kindliness and amiability, sincere, courteous, easy with his art assistants, of fine manners, living and dressing well; indeed, according to Vasari, he always lived more like a nobleman than a painter. The Torri- giani Gallery in Florence contains a grand life-sized portrait by Signo- relli of a man in a red cap and vest ; this is said to be the likerftocs of the painter himself, and corresponds with Vasari's observation. In the National Gallery, London, are the " Circumcision of Jesus " and three other works. See R. Vischer, Signorelli und die italienische Renaissance (1879); Burlington Fine Arts Club, Exhibition of Work of Signorelli, &c. (1893); M. Crutwell, Luca Signorelli (1899). (W. M. R.) SIGONIUS, CAROLUS [CARLO SIGONIO or SIGONE] (c. 1524- 1584), Italian humanist, was born at Modena. Having studied Greek under the learned Franciscus Portus of Candia, he attended the philosophical schools of Bologna and Pa via, and in 1545 was elected professor of Greek in his native place in succession to Portus. In 1552 he was appointed to a professorship at Venice, which he exchanged for the chair of eloquence at Padua in 1560. To this period of his life belongs the famous quarrel with Rober- telli, due to the publication by Sigonius of a treatise De nominibus Romanorum, in which he corrected several errors in a work of Robertelli on the same subject. The quarrel was patched up by the intervention of Cardinal Seripando (who purposely stopped on his way to the Council of Trent), but broke out again in 1562, when the two rivals found themselves colleagues at Padua. Sigonius, who was of a peaceful disposition, thereupon accepted (in 1 563) a call to Bologna. He died in a country house purchased by him in the neighbourhood of Modena, in August 1 584. The last year of his life was embittered by another literary dispute. In 1583 there was published at Venice what purported to be Cicero's Consolatio, written as a distraction from his grief at the death of his daughter Tullia. Sigonius declared that, if not genuine, it was at least worthy of Cicero; those who held the opposite view (Antonio Riccoboni, Justus Lipsius, and others) asserted that Sigonius himself had written it with the object of deceiving the learned world, a charge which he explicitly denied. The work is now universally regarded as a forgery, whoever may have been the author of it. Sigonius's reputation chiefly rests upon his publications on Greek and Roman antiquities, which may even now be consulted with advantage: Fasti consular es (1550; new ed., Oxford, 1802), with commentary, from the regal period to Tiberius, the first work in which the history of Rome was set forth in chronological order, based upon some fragments of old bronze tablets dug up in 1 547 on the site of the old Forum ; an edition of Livy with the Scholia; De antique jure Roma- norum, Italiae, provinciarum (1560) and De Romanae juris- prudentiae judiciis (1574); De republica Atheniensium (1564) and De Atheniensium et Lacedaemoniorum temporibus (1565), the first well-arranged account of the constitution, history, and chronology of Athens and Sparta, with which may be mentioned a similar work on the religious, political, and military system of the Jews (De republica Ebraeorum) . His history of the kingdom of Italy (De regno Italiae, 1580) from the invasion of the Lombards (568) to the end of the i3th century forms a companion volume to the history of the western empire (De occidentali imperio, 1579) from Diocletian to its destruction. In order to obtain material for these works, Sigonius consulted "all the archives and family chronicles of Italy, and the public and private libraries, and the autograph MS. of his De regno Italiae, containing all the preliminary studies and many docu- ments not used in print, was discovered in the Ambrosian library of Milan. At the request of Gregory XIII. he undertook to write the history of the Christian Church, but did not live to complete the work. The most complete edition of his works is that by P. Argelati (Milan, 1732-1737), which contains his life by L. A. Muraton, the only trustworthy authority for the biographer; see also G. Tira- boschi, Storia delta letteratura italiana, vii. ; Ginguene, Histoire litteraire d'ltalie; J. P. Krebs, Carl Sigonius (1840), including some Latin letters of Sigonius and a complete list of his works in chrono- logical order; Franciosi, Delia vita e delle opere di Carlo Sigonio (Modena, 1872) ; Hessel, De regno Italiae libri XX. von Carlo Sigonio, eine quellenkritische Untersuchung (1900); and J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, ii. (1908), p. 143. SIGOURNEY, LYDIA HUNTLEY (1791-1865), American author, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the ist of September 1791. She was educated in Norwich and Hartford. After conducting a private school for young ladies in Norwich, she conducted a similar school in Hartford from 1814 until 1819, when she was married to Charles Sigourney, a Hartford merchant. She contributed more than two thousand articles to many (nearly 300) periodicals, and wrote more than fifty books. She died in Hartford, on the loth of June 1865. Her books include Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse (1815); Traits of the Aborigines of America (1822), a poem; A Sketch of Connecticut Forty Years Since (1824); Poems (1827); Letters to Young Ladies (1833), one of her best-known books; Sketches (1834); Poetry for Children (1834); Zinzendorf, and Other Poems (1835); Olive Buds (1836); Letters to Mothers (1838), republished in London; Pocahontas, and Other Poems (1841); Pleasant Memories of Pleasant Lands (1842), descriptive of her trip to Europe in 1840; Scenes in My Native Land (1844); Letters to My Pupils (1851); Olive Leaves (1851); The Faded Hope (1852), in memory of her only son, who died when he was nineteen years old; Past Meridian (1854); The Daily Counsellor (1858), poems; Cleanings (1860), selections from her verse; The Man of Uz, and Other Poems (1862); and Letters of Life (1866), giving an account of her career. She was one of the most popular writers of her day, both in America and in England, and was called " the American Hemans." Her writings were characterized by fluency, grace and quiet reflection on nature, domestic and religious life, and philanthropic questions; but they were too often sentimental, didactic and commonplace to have much literary value. Some of her blank verse and pictures of nature suggest Bryant. Among her most successful poems are " Niagara " and " Indian Names." Throughout her life she took an active interest in philanthropic and educational work. SIGURD (Sigurdr) or SIEGFRIED (M. H. G. Stfrif), the hero of the Nibelungenlied, and of a number of Scandinavian poems included in the older Edda, as well as of the prose Volsunga Saga, which is based upon the latter. According to both the SIGUR3SSON— SIGWART German and Scandinavian authorities he was the son of a certain Sigmundr (Siegmund), a king in the Netherlands, or the " land of the Franks." The exploits of this Sigmundr and his elder sons Sinfiotli and Helgi form the subject of the earlier parts of Viilsunga Saga, and Siegmund and Fitela (i.e. Sinfiotli) are also mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf. According to the Scandinavian story Sigmundr was slain in battle before the birth of Sigurd, but the German story makes him survive his son. Sigurd acquired great fame and riches by slaying the dragon Fafnir, but the chief interest of the story centres round his connexion with the court of the Burgundian king Gunnar (Gunther). He married GuSrun (Kriemhild), the sister of that king, and won for him by a stratagem the hand of the Valkyrie Brynhildr, with whom he had himself previously exchanged vows of love. A quarrel arose between Brynhildr and GuOrun, in the course of which the former learnt of the deception which had been practised upon her and this led eventually to the murder of Sigurd. According to the Scandinavian version he was slain by his brother-in-law Guttorm, according to the German version by the knight Hagen. Gunther's brothers were subsequently slain while visiting Atli (Etzel), who married Gu^run after Sigurd's death. According to the German story they were killed at the instigation of Kriemhild in revenge for Siegfried. The Scandinavian version of the story attributes the deed to Atli's lust for gold. The story of Sigurd has given rise to more discussion than any other subject connected with the Teutonic heroic age. Like Achilles he is represented as the perfect embodiment of the ideals of the race, and, as in the case of the Greek hero, it is customary to regard his personality and exploits as mythical. There is no question, however, that the Burgundian king who is said to have been his brother-in-law was an historical person who was slain by the Huns, at the time when the Burgundian kingdom was overthrown by the latter. Sigurd himself is not mentioned by any contemporary writer; but, apart from the dragon incident, there is nothing in the story which affords sufficient justification for regarding his personality as mythical. Opinions, however, vary widely as to the precise proportions of history and fiction which the story contains. The story of Siegfried in Richard Wagner's famous opera-cycle Dcr Ring der Nibelungen is mainly taken from the northern version; but many features, especially the characterization of Hagen, are borrowed from the German story, as is also the episode of Siegfried's murder in the forest. See NIBELUNGENLIED and also R. Heinzel, " Uber die Nibe- lungensage," in Silzungsberichte der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna, 1885); H. Lichtenberger, Le Poeme et la legende des Nibe- lungen (Paris, 1891); B. Symons, " Heldensage " in H. Paul's Grundriss der germ. Philologie, vol. iii. (Strassburg, 1900) ; and R. C. Boer, Unlersuchungen iiber den Ursprung und die Enlwicklung der Nibe- lungensage (Halle, 1906). Also T. Abeling, N ibelungenlied (1907). (F. G. M. B.) SIGUR5SSON, J6N (1811-1879), Icelandic statesman and man of letters, was born in the west of Iceland in 1811. He came of an old family, and received an excellent education. In 1830 he was secretary to the bishop of Iceland, the learned Steingrimr Jonsson. In 1833 he went to the university of Copenhagen and devoted himself to the study of Icelandic history and literature. His name soon became prominent in the learned world, and it may safely be said that most of his historical works and his editions of Icelandic classics have never been surpassed for acute criticism and minute painstaking. Of these we may mention Logsogumannalal og Logmanna 6, Islandi ("Speakers of the Law and Law-men in Iceland"); his edition of Landnama and other sagas in Islendinga Sogur, i.-ii. (Copenhagen, 1843-1847); the large collection of Icelandic laws edited by him and Oddgeir Stephensen; and last, not least, the Diplomatarium Islandicum, which after his death was con- tinued by others. But although he was one of the greatest scholars Iceland has produced, he was still greater as a politician. The Danish rule had, during the centuries following the Reforma- tion, gradually brought Iceland to the verge of economic ruin; the ancient Parliament of the island, \vhich had degenerated to a mere shadow, had been abolished in 1800; all the revenue of Iceland went into the Danish treasury, and only very small sums were spent for the good of the island; but worst of all was the notorious monopoly which gave away the whole trade of Iceland to a single Danish trading company. This monopoly had been abolished in 1787, and the trade had been declared free to all Danish subjects, but practically the old arrangement was continued under disguised forms. Jon SigurBsson began a hard struggle against the Danish government to obtain a reform. In 1854 the trade of Iceland was declared free to all nations. In 1840 the Althing was re-established as an advisory, not as a legislative body. But when Denmark got a free constitution in 1848, which had no legal validity in Iceland, the island felt justified in demanding full home rule. To this the Danish government was vehemently opposed; it convoked an Icelandic National Assembly in 1851, and brought before that body a bill granting Iceland small local liberties, but practically incorpor- ating Iceland in Denmark. This bill was indignantly rejected, and, instigated by Jon Sigur3sson, another was demanded of far more liberal tendencies. The Danish governor-general then dissolved the assembly, but Jon Sigurdsson and all the members with him protested to the king against these unlawful proceedings. The struggle continued with great bitterness on both sides, but gradually the Danish government was forced to grant many important reforms. High schools were established at Reykjavik, and efforts made to better the trade and farming of the country. In 1871 the Danish parliament (Riksdag) passed a law defining the political position of Iceland in the Danish monarchy, which, though never recognized as valid by the Icelanders, became dc facto the base of the political relations of Iceland and Denmark. At last, in 1874, when King Christian IX. visited Iceland at the festival commemorating the millenary of the colonization of Iceland from Norway, he gave to the country a Constitution, with full home rule in all internal matters. An immense victory was gained, entirely due to Jon SigurSsson, whose high personal qualities had rallied all the nation round him. He was a man of fine appearance, with an eloquence and diplomatic gifts such as no others of his countrymen possessed, and his unselfish love of his country made itself felt in almost every branch of Icelandic life. Recognizing the value of an intellectual centre, he made Reykjavik not only the political, but the spiritual capital of Iceland by removing all the chief institutions of learning to that city; he was the soul of many literary and political societies, and the chief editor of the Ny Felagsrit, which has done more than any other Icelandic periodical to promote the cause of civilization and progress in Iceland. After Iceland had got home rule in 1874, the grateful people showered on Jon Sigurftsson all the honours it could bestow. He lived the greater part of his life in Copen- hagen, and died there in 1879; but his body, together with that of his wife, Ingibjorg Einarsdottir, whom he had married in 1845, and who survived him only a few days, was taken to Reykjavik and given a public funeral. On his monument was placed the inscription: " The beloved son of Iceland, her honour, sword, and shield." (S. BL.) SIGWART, CHRISTOPH WILHELM VON (1789-1844), German philosopher, was born at Remmingsheim in Wiirttem- berg, and died in Stuttgart. He became professor of philosophy at Tubingen, and wrote numerous books on the history of philosophy: — Uber den Zusammenhang des Spinozismus mil der Cartesianischen Philosophic (1816); Handbuchzu Vorlesungen Uber die Logik (1818, 3rd ed., 1835); Der Spinozismus (1839); and Geschichte der Philosophic (1844). His son, CHRISTOPH VON SIGWART (1830-1894), after a course of philosophy and theology, became" professor at Blaubeuren (1859), and eventually at Tubingen, in 1865. His principal work, Logik, published in 1873, takes an important place among recent contributions to logical theory. In the preface to the first edition, Sigwart explains that he makes no attempt to appreciate the logical theories of his predecessors; his intention was to construct a theory of logic, complete in itself. It re- presents the results of a long and careful study not only of German but also of English logicians. In 1895 an English translation by SIGYNNAE— SIKHISM Miss H. Dendy was published in London. Chapter v. of the second volume is especially interesting to English thinkers as containing a profound examination of the Induction theories of Bacon, J. S. Mill and Hume. Among his other works are Spinozas neu entdeckter Traktat von Gott, dent Menschen und dessen Gluckseligkeit (1866); Kleine Schriflen (1881); Vorfragen der Ethik (1886). The Kleine Schriflen contains valuable criticisms on Paracelsus and Bruno. SIGYNNAE (2iyvwai, Ztytcyoi), an obscure people of antiquity. They are variously located by ancient authors. According to Herodotus (v. 9), they dwelt beyond the Danube, and their frontiers extended almost as far as the Eneti on the Adriatic. Their horses (or rather, ponies) were small, with shaggy long hair, not strong enough to carry men, but very speedy when driven in harness. The people themselves wore a Medic costume, and, according to their own account, were a colony of the Medes. Strabo (xi. p. 520), who places them near the Caspian, also speaks of their ponies, and attributes to them Persian customs. In Apollonius Rhodius (iv. 320) they inhabit the shores of the Euxine, hot far from the mouth of the Danube. The statement as to their, Medic origin, regarded as incompre- hensible by Herodotus, is doubtfully explained by Rawlinson as indicating that " the Sigynnae retained a better recollection than other European tribes of their migrations westward and Aryan origin " ; R. W. Macan (on Herod, v. 9) suggests that it may be due to a confusion with the Thracian Maedi (MaiSoi). If the last para- graph in Herodotus be genuine, the Ligyes who lived above Massilia called traders Sig_ynnae, while among the Cyprians the word meant " spears." The similarity between Sigynnae and Zigeuner is obvious, and it has been supposed that they were the forefathers of the modern gipsies. According to J. L. Myres, the Sigynnae of Herodotus were " a people widely spread in the Danubic basin in the 5th century B.C.," probably identical with the Sequani, and connected with the iron-working culture of Hallstatt, which produced a narrow-bladed throwing spear, the sigynna spear (see notice of " Anthropological Essays ' in Classical Review, November 1908). SIKH, a member of the Sikh religion in India (see SIKHISM). The word Sikh literally means " learner," " disciple," and was the name given by the first guru Nanak to his followers. The Sikhs are divided into two classes, Sahijdhari and Kesadhari. The former were so named from living at ease and the latter from wearing long hair. Both obey the general injunctions of the Sikh gurus, but the Sahijdhari Sikhs have not accepted the pahul or baptism of Guru Govind Singh, and do not wear the distin- guishing habiliments of the Kesadhari, who are the baptized Sikhs, also called Singhs or lions. Their distinguishing habili- ments are long hair wound round a small dagger and bearing a comb inserted in it, a steel bracelet and short drawers. Neither the Sahijdhari nor the Kesadhari Sikhs may smoke tobacco or drink wine. The prohibition of wine is, however, generally dis- regarded except by very orthodox Sikhs. In the census of 1901, the number of Sikhs in the Punjab and North-Western Provinces was returned as 2,130,987, showing an increase of 13-9% in the decade; but these figures are not altogether reliable owing to the difficulty of distinguishing the Sahijdhari from the Kesadhari Sikhs and both from the Hindus. A man is not born a -Singh, but becomes so by baptism, the water of which is called amrit or nectar. It is possible that one brother may be a Hindu, while another is a true Sikh. The Sikhs are principally drawn from the Arora, Jat and Ramgarhia tribes, but any one may become a Sikh by accepting the Sikh baptism. The Aroras are generally merchants or petty dealers. The Jats are agriculturists variously described as Scythian immigrants and as descendants of Rajputs who immi- grated to the Punjab from central India. They are of a tougher fibre than the Aroras; sturdy and self-reliant, slow to speak but quick to strike. The Ramgarhias are principally mechanics. To the temperament of the Jat, the Arora and the Ramgarhia Sikh add the stimulus of a militant religion. The Sikh is a fighting man, and his best qualities are shown in the army, which is his natural profession. Hardy, brave and slow-witted, obedient to discipline, attached to his officers, he makes the finest soldier of the East. In victory he retains his steadiness, and in defeat he will die at his post rather than yield. In peace time he shows a decided fondness for money, and will go wherever i. Nanak . 2. Angad . 3. Amar Das 4. Ram Das 5. Arjan . . A.D. 1469-1539 1539-1552 1552-1574 i574-!58i 1581-1606 it is to be earned. There are some 30,000 Sikhs in the Indian army, and the sect is cherished by the military authorities, who insist on all recruits taking the pahul or Sikh baptism. Many Sikhs are also to be found in the native regiments of east and central Africa and of Hyderabad in the Deccan, and they compose a great part of the police force in the treaty ports of China. (M.M.) SIKHISM, a religion of India, whose followers (Sikhs) are principally found in the Punjab, United Provinces, Sind, Jammu and Kashmir. Sikhism was founded by Nanak, a Khatri by caste, who was born at Talwandi near Lahore in A.D. 1469, and after travelling and preaching throughout a great part of southern Asia died at Kartarpur in Jullundur in 1539. He was succeeded by nine gurus, great teachers or head priests, whose dates are as follows: — A.D. 6. Har Govind. 1606-1645 7. Har Rai . 1645-1661 8. Har Krishan 1661-1664 9. Teg Bahadur 1664-1675 IO. Govind Singh 1675-1708 Nanak, like Buddha, revolted against a religion overladen with ceremonial and social restrictions, and both rebelled against the tyranny of the priesthood. The tendency of each religion was to quietism, but their separate doctrines were largely in- fluenced by the surroundings of their founders. Buddha lived in the centre of Hindu India and among the many gods of the Brahmans. These he rejected, he knew of nought else, and in his theological system there was found no place for divinity. Nanak was born in the province which then formed the borderland between Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there was one God; but that God was neither Allah nor Ram, but simply God; neither the special god of the Mahommedan, nor of the Hindu, but the God of the universe, of all mankind and of all religions. v Starting from the unity of God, Nanak and his successors rejected the idols and incarnations of the Hindus, and on the ground of the equality of all men rejected also the system of caste. The doctrines of Sikhism as set forth in the Granth (q.v.) are that it prohibits idolatry, hypocrisy, class exclusiveness, the concremation of widows, the immurement of women, the use of wine and other intoxicants, tobacco-smoking, infanticide, slander and pilgrimages to the sacred rivers and tanks of the Hindus; and it inculcates loyalty, gratitude for all favours received, philanthropy, justice, impartiality, truth, honesty and all the moral and domestic virtues upheld by Christianity. Sikhism mainly differs from Christianity in that it inculcates the transmigration of the soul, and adopts a belief in predestination, which is universal in the East. The Sikh religion did not reach this full development at once, nor was the first of the gurus even the first to feel dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. Ideas of revolt and reform of decadent systems are always in the air, it may be for centuries, until some one man bolder than aurus. the rest stands out to give them free expression; and as John the Baptist preceded Jesus Christ, so Nanak was preceded by several reformers, whose writings are incorporated in the Granth itself. The chief of these reformers are Jaidev, Ramanand and Kabir. Jaidev is better known as the author of the Gita- gobind, which was translated by Sir Edwin Arnold, than as a religious reformer; but in the Adi Granth are found two hymns of his in the Prakrit language of the time, in which he represents God as distinct from nature, yet everywhere present. He taught at the end of the i2th century A.D. that the practice of yog, sacrifices and austerities was as nothing in comparison with the repetition of God's name, and he inculcated the worship of God alone, in thought, word and deed. What was worthy of worship, he said, he had worshipped; what was worthy of trust he had trusted; and he had become blended with God, as water blends with water. Jaidev was succeeded by numerous Hindu saints, who per- ceived that the superstitions of the age only led to spiritual blindness. Of these saints Ramanand was one of the most distinguished. He lived at the end of the i4th and beginning of SIKHISM the 1 5th centuries, and during a visit to Benares he renounced some of the social and caste observances of the Hindus, called his disciples the liberated, and freed them from all restrictions in eating and social intercourse. Kabir denounced idolatry and the ritualistic practices of the Hindus. He was born A.D. 1398, and according to the legend was the son of a virgin widow, as the result of a prayer offered for her by Ramanand in ignorance of her status. Thus it will be seen that the doctrines of these early reformers contained the germs of the later Sikh religion. Nanak seems to have been produced by the same cyclic wave of reformation as fourteen years later gave Martin Luther to Europe. He taught, " There is but one God, the Creator, whose name is true, devoid of fear and enmity, immortal, unborn and self-existent, great and bounti- ful." He held that the wearing of religious garb, praying and practising penance to be seen of men, only produced hypocrisy, and that those who went on pilgrimages to sacred streams, though they might cleanse their bodies, only increased their mental impurity. He pointed out that God " before all temples prefers the upright heart and pure," and must be worshipped in spirit and in truth, and not with the idolatrous accessories of incense, sandal-wood and burnt-offerings. He abrogated caste distinctions, and taught in opposition to ancient writings that every man had the eternal right of searching for divine know- ledge and worshipping his Creator. This doctrine of philosophic quietism was common to his successors, until in the time of the sixth guru, Har Govind, it was found necessary to support the separate existence of Sikhism by force of arms, and this led to the militant and political development of the tenth and most power- ful of the gurus, Govind Singh. The Sikhs of to-day, though they all derive primarily from Nanak, are only recognized as Singhs or real Sikhs when they accept the doctrines and practices of Guru Govind Singh. Nanak's successor, Angad, was born in A.D 1 504 and died in 1 55 2. He also was a Khatri, and was chosen by Guru Nanak in preference to his own sons. The legend of his choice is that Nanak w^ h's f°U°wers was going on a journey, when they saw the dead body of a man lying by the wayside. Nanak said, " Ye who trust in me eat of this food." All hesitated save Angad (or own body), who knelt and uncovered the dead, but, behold; the corpse had disappeared, and a dish of sacred food was found in its place. The guru embraced his faith- ful follower, saying that he was as himself, and that his spirit should dwell within him. Thenceforward the Sikhs believe the spirit of Nanak to have been incarnate in each succeeding guru. Little is known of the ministry of Angad except that he committed to writing much of what he had heard about Guru Nanak as well as some devotional observations of his own, which were afterwards incorporated in the Granth. Angad, like his predecessor, postponed the claims of his own sons to the guruship to those of Amar Das, who had been his faithful servant. Amar Das preached the doctrine Amar Das °^ forgiveness and endurance, upheld Guru Nanak's abrogation of caste distinctions, and his precepts were implicitly followed by his successors. He used to place all his Sikhs and visitors in rows and cause them to eat together, not separately, as is the practice of the Hindus. He said: "Let no one be proud of his caste, for this pride of caste resulteth in many sins. He is a Brahman who knoweth Brahma (God). Every one prateth of four castes. All are sprung from the seed of Brahm. The whole world is formed out of one clay, but the Potter hath fashioned it in various forms." It was a maxim of the Sikhs of his time: " If any one treat you ill, bear it. If you bear it three times God himself will fight for you and humble your enemies." Guru Amar Das also discountenanced the practice of suttee, saying: " They are not satis who burn them- selves with the dead. The true sati is she who dieth from the shock of separation from her husband. They also ought to be considered satis who abide in charity and contentment, who serve and, when rising, ever remember their lord." Amar Das was born in A.D. 1509 and died in 1574 after a ministry of twenty- two and a half years. Das< Guru Arjan. The fourth guru, originally called Jetha, was attracted to the third guru by his reputation for sanctity. He became the servant of Amar Das, helped in the public kitchen, shampooed his master, drew water, brought firewood from the forest, and helped in the excavation of a well which Amar Das was constructing at Goindwal. Jetha was of such a mild temper that, even if any one spoke harshly to him, he would endure it and never retaliate. He became known as Ram Das, which means God's slave; and on account of his piety and devo- tion Amar Das gave him his daughter in marriage and made him his successor. Ram Das is amongst the most revered of gurus, but no particular innovation is ascribed to him. He founded, however, the golden temple of Amritsar in A.D. 1577, which has remained ever since the centre of the Sikh religious worship. From this time onward the office of guru became hereditary, but the practice of primogeniture was not followed, each guru selecting the relative who seemed most fitted to succeed him. Ram Das himself, finding his eldest son Prithi Chand worldly and disobedient, and his second unfitted by his too retiring disposition for the duties of guru, appointed his third son, Arjan, to succeed him. When Prithi Chand represented that he ought to have received the turban bound on Guru Arjan 's head in token of succession to his father, Arjan meekly handed it to him, without, however, bestowing on him the guruship. The Sikhs themselves soon revolted against the exactions of Prithi Chand, and prayed Arjan to assert himself else the seed of the True Name would perish. It was Guru Arjan who compiled the Granth or Sikh Bible, out of his own and his predecessors' compositions. On this account he was accused of deposing the deities of his country and substituting for them a new divinity, but he was acquitted by the tolerant Akbar. When Akbar, however, was succeeded by Jahangir the guru aided the latter's son Khusru to escape with a gift of money. On this account his property was confiscated to the state, and he was thrown into rigorous imprisonment and tortured to death. Arjan saw clearly that it was impossible to preserve his sect without force of arms, and one of his last injunctions to his son Har Govind was to sit fully armed on his throne and maintain an army to the best of his ability. This was the turning-point in the history of the Sikhs. Hitherto they had been merely an insignificant religious sect; now, stimulated by persecution, they became a militant and political power, inimical to the Mahommedan rulers of the country. When Har Govind was installed as guru, Bhai Budha, the aged Sikh who performed the ceremony, presented him with a turban and a necklace, and charged him to wear and preserve them as the founder of his religion had done. Guru Har Govind promptly ordered that the articles should be relegated to his treasury, the museum of the period. He said; " My necklace shall be my sword-belt, and my turban shall be adorned with a royal aigrette." He then sent for his bow, quiver, arrows, shield and sword, and arrayed himself in martial style, so that, as the Sikh chronicler states, his splendour shone like the sun. The first four gurus led simple ascetic lives and were regardless of wordly affairs. Guru Arjan, who was in charge of the great Sikh temple at Amritsar, received copious offerings and became a man of wealth and influence, while the sixth guru became a military leader, and was frequently at warfare with the Mogul authorities. Several warriors and wrestlers, hearing of Guru Har Govind's fame, came to him for service. He enrolled as his body- guard fifty-two heroes who burned for the fray. This formed the nucleus of his future army. Five hundred youths then came to him for enlistment from the Manjha, Doab and Malwa districts. These men told him that they had no offering to make to him except their lives; for pay they only required instruction in his religion; and they professed themselves ready to die in his service. The guru gave them each a horse and five weapons of war, and gladly enlisted them in his army. In a short time, besides men who required regular pay, hordes gathered round the guru who were satisfied with two meals a day and a suit of clothes every six months. The fighting spirit of the people 86 SIKHISM was roused and satisfied by the spiritual and military leader. Har Govind was a hunter and eater of flesh, and encouraged his followers to eat meat as giving them strength and daring. It is largely to this practice that the Sikhs owe the superiority of their physique over their surrounding Hindu neighbours. The regal state that the guru adopted and the army that he maintained were duly reported to the emperor Jahangir. In the Autobiography of Jahangir it is stated that the guru was imprisoned in the fortress of Gwalior, with a view to the realization of the fine imposed on his father Guru Arjan, but the Sikhs believe that the guru became a voluntary inmate of the fortress with the object of obtaining seclusion there to pray for the emperor 'who had been advised to that effect by his Hindu astrologers. After a time Jahangir died and was succeeded by Shah Jahan, with whom the guru was constantly at war. On three separate occasions after desperate fighting he defeated the royal troops sent against him. Many legends are told of his military prowess, for which there is no space in this summary. The guru before his death at Kiratpur, on the margin of the Sutlej, instructed his grandson and successor, Guru Har Rai, to retain two thousand two hundred mounted soldiers ever with him as a precautionary measure. Har Rai was charged with friendship for Dara Shikoh, the son of Shah Jahan, and also with preaching a religion distinct from Islam. He was, therefore, summoned to Delhi, but instead of going himself he sent his son Ram Rai and shortly afterwards died. His ministry was mild but won him general respect. The eighth guru was the second son of Har Rai, but he died when a child and too young to leave any mark on Krishaa' history. His elder brother Ram Rai was passed over in his favour and also in favour of the next guru for having allered a line of the Granth to please the emperor Auran^ceb. As the ilirecl line of succession died out with Har Krishan, the guruship harked back at this point to Teg Bahadur, the second son of liar Govind and uncle of Har Rai. Teg Bahadur Baftadun v''as Put to death for refusal to embrace Islam by Aurangzeb in A.D. 1675. It is of him that the legend is told that during his imprisonment in Delhi he was accused by the emperor of looking towards the west in the direction of the imperial zenana. The guru replied, " Emperor Aurangzeb, I was on the top storey of my prison, but I was not looking at thy private apartments or at thy queen's. I was looking in the direction of the Europeans who are coming from beyond the seas to tear down thy purdahs and destroy thine empire." This prophecy became the battle-cry of the Sikhs in the assault on Delhi in 1857. Teg Bahadur was succeeded by the tenth and most powerful guru, his son Govind Singh; and it was under him that what had sprung into existence as a quietist sect of a purely religious nature, and had become a military society for self-protection, developed into a national movement which was to rule the whole of north-western India and to furnish to the British arms their stoutest and most worthy opponents. For some years after his father's execution Govind Singh, then known as Gobind Rai, lived in retirement, brooding over the wrongs of his people and the persecutions of the fanatical Aurangzeb. He felt the necessity for a larger following and a stronger organization, Und following the example of his Mahom- medan enemies used his religion as the basis of political power. Emerging from his retirement he preached the Khalsa, the " pure," and it is by this name his followers are now known. He, like his predecessors, openly attacked all distinctions of caste, and taught the equality of all men who would join him, and he instituted a ceremony of initiation with baptismal holy water by which all might enter the Sikh fraternity. The higher castes murmured, and many of them left him, for he taught that the Brahmanical threads must be broken; but the lower orders rejoiced and flocked in numbers to his standard. These he inspired with military ardour in the hope of social freedom and of national independence. He gave them outward Singh. signs of their faith in the five K's — which will subsequently be explained — he signified the military nature of their calling by the title of " singh " or " lion " and by the wearing of steel, and he strictly prohibited the use of tobacco. The following are the main points of his teaching: Sikhs must have one form of initiation, sprinkling of water by five of the faithful; they should worship the one invisible God and honour the memory of Guru Nanak and his successors; their watchword should be, " Sri wah guru ji ka khalsa, sri wah guru ji ki falah " (Khalsa of God, victory to God!), but they should revere and bow to nought visible save the Granth Sahib, the book of their belief; they should occasionally bathe in the sacred tank of Amritsar; their locks should remain unshorn; and they should name themselves singhs or lions. Arms should dignify their person; they should ever practise their use; and great would be the merit of those who fought in the van, who slew the enemies of their faith, and who despaired not although overpowered by superior numbers. The religious creed of Guru Govind Singh was the same as that of Guru Nanak: the God, the guru and the Granth remained unchanged. But while Nanak had substituted holiness of life for vain ceremonial, Guru Govind Singh demanded in addition brave deeds and zealous devotion to the Sikh cause as proof of faith; and while he retained his predecessors' attitude towards the Hindu gods and worship he preached undying hatred to the persecutors of his religion. During the spiritual reign of Guru Govind Singh the religious was partially eclipsed by the military spirit. The Mahommedans promptly responded to the challenge, for the danger was too serious to be neglected; the Sikh army was dispersed and two of Guru Govind Singh's sons were murdered at Sirhind by the governor of that fortress, and his mother died of grief at the cruel death of her grandchildren. The death of the emperor Aurangzeb brought a temporary lull: the guru assisted Aurangzeb's suc- cessor, Bahadur Shah, and was himself not long after assassinated at Nander in the Deccan. As all the guru's sons predeceased him, and as he was disappointed in his envoy Banda, he left no human successor, but vested the guruship in the Granth Sahib and his sect. No formal alteration has been made in the Sikh religion since Guru Govind Singh gave it his military organization, but certain modifications have taken place as the result of time and contact with Hinduism. After the guru's death the gradual rise of the Sikhs into the ruling power of northern India until they came in collision with the British arms belongs to the secular history of the Punjab (q.v.). The chief ceremony initiated by Guru Govind Singh was the Khanda ka Pahul or baptism by the sword. This baptism may not be conferred until the candidate has reached an age of discrimination and capacity to remember obligations, seven years being fixed as the earliest age, but it is generally deferred until manhood. Five of the initiated must be present, all of whom should be learned in the faith. An Indian sweetmeat is stirred up in water with a two-edged sword and the novice repeats after the officiant the articles of his faith. Some of the water is sprinkled on him five times, and he drinks of it five times from the palms of his hands; he then pronounces the Sikh watchword given above and promises adherence to the new obligations he has contracted. He must from that date wear the five K's and add the word singh to his original name. The five K's are (i) the kes or uncut hair of the whole body, (2) the kachh or short drawers ending above the knee, (3) the kara or iron bangle, (4) the khanda or small steel dagger, (5) the khanga or comb. The five K's and the other esoteric observ- ances of the Sikhs mostly had a utilitarian purpose. When fighting was a part of the Sikh's duty, long hair and iron rings concealed in it protected his head from sword cuts. The kachh or drawers fastened by a waist-band was more convenient and suitable for warriors than the insecurely tied dhoti of the Hindus or the tamba of the Mahommedans. So also the Sikh's physical strength was increased by the use of meat and avoidance of tobacco. Another Sikh ceremony is the kara parshad or com- munion made of butter, flour and sugar, and consecrated with certain ceremonies. The communicants sit round, and the kara Sikh cere- monies. SIKH WARS parshad is then distributed equally to all the faithful present, no matter to what caste they belong. The object of this ceremony is to abolish caste distinctions. There may be said to be three degrees of strictness in the observances of the Sikhs. There may first be mentioned the zealots such as the Akalis, who, though generally Tbe quite illiterate, aim at observing the injunctions of ofto'-Sday. Guru Govind Singh; secondly, the true Sikhs or Singhs who observe his ordinances, such as the prohibi- tions of cutting the hair and the use of tobacco; and, thirdly, those Sikhs who while professing devotion to the tenets of the gurus are almost indistinguishable from ordinary Hindus. These are largely Nanakpanti Sikhs, or followers only of Guru Nanak. The Nanakpanti Sikhs do not wear the hair long, nor use any of the outward signs of the Sikhs, though they reverence the Crantft Schib and above all the memory of their guru. They are distinguished from the Hindus by no outward sign except a slight laxity in the matter of caste observances. Sikhism attained its zenith under the military genius of Ranjit Singh. After the British conquest of the Punjab the military spirit of the Sikhs remained for some time in abeyance. Then came the mutiny, and Sikhs once more were recruited in numbers and saved India for the British crown. Peace returned, and during the next twenty or twenty-five years Sikhism reached its lowest ebb; but since then the demand for Sikhs in the regiments of the Indian army and farther afield has largely revived the faith. The establishment of Singh Sabhas, of Sikh newspapers, and the spread of education have largely tended in the same direction, but the strict ethical code of Sikhism and the number of its obligatory divine services have caused many to fall away from the faith: nor does the austere Sikh ritual appeal to women, who generally prefer Hinduism with its picturesque material worship and the brightness of its innumerable festivals. At the present day the stronghold of Sikhism still remains the great Phulkian states of . Patiala, Nabha and Jind and the surrounding districts of Ludhiana, Lahore, Amritsar, Jullundur and Gujranwala. In these states and districts are recruited the soldiers who form one of the main bulwarks of the British empire in India. For authorities see Cunningham, History of the Sikhs; Sir Lepel Griffin, Maharaja Ranjit Singh (" Rulers of India" series, 1892); Falcon, Handbook on Sikhs; and specially M. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion: Its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors (6 vols.,' 1909), and two lectures before the United Service Institution of India on " The Sikh Religion and its Advantages to the State " and " How the Sikhs became a Militant Race." (M. M.) SIKH WARS, two Indian campaigns fought between the Sikhs and the British, which resulted in the conquest and annexation of the Punjab (see PUNJAB). First Sikh War (1845-46).— The first Sikh War was brought about by the insubordination of the Sikh army, which after the death of Ranjit Singh became uncontrollable and on the nth of December 1845 crossed the Sutlej, and virtually declared war upon the British. The British authorities had foreseen the outbreak, and had massed sufficient troops at Ferozepore, Ludhiana and Umballa to protect the frontier, but not to offer provocation. So complete were the preparations for advance that on the i2th, the day after the Sikhs crossed the Sutlej, Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, marched 16 m. with the Umballa force to Rajpura; on the i3th the governor-general, Sir Henry Hardinge, declared war, and by the i8th the whole army had marched 150 m. to Moodkee, in order to protect Ferozepore from the Sikh attack. Wearied with their long march, the British troops were enjoying a rest, when the news came in that the Sikhs were advancing to battle at four o'clock in the afternoon. The British had some 10,000 men, and the Sikhs are estimated by some authorities as low as 10,000 infantry with 2000 cavalry and 22 guns. The battle opened with an artillery duel, in which the British guns, though inferior in weight, soon silenced the enemy, the 3rd Light Dragoons delivered a brilliant charge, and the infantry drove the enemy from position after position with great slaughter and the loss of seventeen guns. The victory was complete, but the fall of night prevented it from being followed up, and caused some of the native regiments to fire into each other in the confusion. After the battle of Moodkee Sir Henry Hardinge volunteered to serve as1 second in command under Sir Hugh Gough, a step which caused some confusion in the ensuing battle. At 4 A.M. on the 2ist of December the British advanced from Moodkee to attack the Sikh entrenched camp under the command of Lai Singh at Ferozeshah, orders having been sent to Sir John Littler, in command at Ferozepore. to join the main British force. At n A.M. the British were in front of the Sikh position, but Sir John Littler, though on his way, had not yet arrived. Sir Hugh Gough wished to attack while there was plenty of daylight; but Sir Henry Hardinge re- asserted his civil authority as governor-general, and forbade the attack until the junction with Littler was effected. The army then marched on to meet Littler and the battle did not begin until between 3.30 and 4 P.M. The engagement opened with an artillery duel, in which the British again failed to gain the mastery over the Sikhs. The infantry, therefore, advanced to the attack; but the Sikh muskets were as good as the British, and fighting behind entrenchments they were a most formidable foe. Sir John Littler's attack was repulsed, the 6and regiment losing heavily in officers and men, while the sepoys failed to support the European regiments. But the Moodkee force, undaunted, stormed and captured the entrenchment, though the different brigades and regiments lost position and became mixed up together in the darkness. The army then passed the night on the Sikh position, while the Sikhs prowled round keeping up an incessant fire. In the morning the British found that they had captured seventy-three pieces of cannon and were masters of the whole field; but at that moment a fresh Sikh army, under Tej Singh, came up to the assistance of the scattered forces of Lai Singh. The British were exhausted with their sleepless night, the native troops were shaken, and a determined attack by this fresh army might have won the day; but Tej Singh, after a half-hearted attack, which was repulsed, marched away, whether from cowardice, incapacity or treason, and left the British masters of the position. After the battle of Ferozeshah the Sikhs retired behind the Sutlej, but early in January they again raided across the river near Ludhiana, and Sir Harry Smith was detached to protect that city. On the 2ist of January he was approaching Ludhiana when he found the Sikhs under Runjoor Singh in an entrenched position flanking his line of march at Budhowal. Sir Harry Smith passed on without fighting a general action, but suffered considerable loss in men and baggage. After receiving reinforcements Sir Harry again advanced from Ludhiana and attacked the Sikhs at Aliwal on the 28th of January. An attack upon the Sikh left near the village of Aliwal gave Sir Harry the key of the position, and a brilliant charge by the i6th Lancers, which broke a Sikh square, com- pleted their demoralization. The Sikhs fled in confusion, losing sixty-seven guns, and by this battle were expelled from the south side of the Sutlej. Ever since Ferozeshah Sir Hugh Gough had been waiting to receive reinforcements, and on the 7th of February his siege train arrived, while on the following day Sir Harry Smith's force returned to camp. On the loth of February Sir Hugh attacked the Sikhs, who occupied a strong entrenched position in a bend of the Sutlej. After two hours' cannonading, the infantry attack commenced at 9 A.M. The advance of the first brigade was not immediately successful, but the second brigade following on carried the entrenchments. The cavalry then charged down the Sikh lines from right to left and completed the victory. The Sikhs, with the river behind them, suffered terrible carnage, and are computed to have lost 10,000 men and 67 guns. The British losses throughout the campaign were considerably heavier than was usual in Indian warfare; but this was partly due to the fact that the Sikhs were the best natural fighters in India, and partly to the lack of energy of the Hindostani sepoys. After the battle of Sobraon Aliwal. SIKKIM the British advanced to Lahore, where the treaty of Lahore was signed on the nth of March. Second Sikh War (1848-1849). — For two years after the battle of Sobraon the Punjab remained a British protectorate, with Sir Henry Lawrence as resident; but the Sikhs were unconvinced of their military inferiority, the Rani Jindan and her ministers were constantly intriguing to recover their power, and a further trial of strength was inevitable. The outbreak came at Multan, where on the 2oth of April 1848 the troops of the Dewan Mulraj broke out and attacked two British officers, Mr Vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, eventually murdering them. On hearing of the incident, Lieut. Herbert Edwardes, who was Sir Henry Lawrence's assistant in the Derajat, advanced upon Multan with a force of levies drawn from the Pathan tribes of the frontier; but he was not strong enough to do more than keep the enemy in check until Multan was invested by a Bombay column under General Whish. In the meantime Edwardes wished for an immediate British advance upon Multan; but Lord Gough, as he had now become, decided on a cold season campaign, on the ground that, if the Sikh government at Lahore joined in the rising, the British would require all their available strength to suppress it. Multan was invested on the i8th of August by General Whish in conjunction with the Sikh general Shere Singh; but during the course of the siege Shere Singh deserted and joined the rebels, thus turning the rising into a national war. The siege of Multan was temporarily abandoned, but was resumed in November, when Lord Cough's main advance had begun, and Mulraj surrendered on the 22nd of January. In the meantime Lord Gough had collected his army and stores, and on the gth of November crossed the Sutlej. On the 22nd of November there was a cavalry skirmish at Ramnagar, in which General Cureton and Colonel Havelock were killed. For a month after this Lord Gough remained walla ' inactive, waiting to be reinforced by General Whish from Multan; but at last he decided to advance without General Whish, and fought the battle of Chillianwalla on the i3th of January 1849. Lord Gough had intended to encamp for the night; but the Sikh guns opening fire revealed the fact that their army had advanced out of its intrenchments, and Lord Gough decided to seize the opportunity and attack at once. An hour's artillery duel showed that the Sikhs had the advantage both in position and guns, and the infantry advance commenced at three o'clock in the afternoon. The battle resulted in great loss to the European regiments, the 24th losing all its officers in a few minutes, while the total loss in killed and wounded amounted to 2338; but when darkness fell the British were in possession of the whole of the Sikh line. Lord Gough subse- quently retired to the village of Chillianwalla, and the Sikhs returned and carried off their guns. After the battle Lord Gough received an ovation from his troops, but his losses were thought excessive by the public in England and the directors of the East India Company, and Sir Charles Napier was appointed to super- sede him. Before, however, the latter had time to reach India, the crowning victory of Gujrat had been fought and won. After the fall of Multan General Whish marched to join Lord Gough, and the junction of the two armies was effected on the 1 8th of February. In the meantime the Sikhs had withdrawn from their strong intrenchments at Russool, owing to want of provisions, and marched to Gujrat, which Lord Gough considered a favourable position for attacking them. By a series of short marches he prepared the way for his " last and best battle." In this engagement, for the first time in either of the Sikh wars, the British had the superiority in artillery, in addition to a picked force of 24,000 men. The battle began on the morning of the 2ist of February with two and a half hours' artillery fire, which was overwhelmingly in favour of the British. At 11.30 A.M. Lord Gough ordered a general advance covered by the artillery; and an hour and a half later the British were in possession of the town of Gujrat, of the Sikh camp, and of the enemy's artillery and baggage, and the cavalry were in full pursuit on both flanks. In this battle the British only lost 96 killed and 700 wounded, while the Sikh loss was enormous, in addition to 67 guns. This decisive victory ended the war. On the 1 2th of March the Sikh leaders surrendered at discretion, and the Punjab was annexed to British India. See Sir Charles Gough and A. D. Innes, The Sikhs and the Sikh Wars (1897) ; and R. S. Rait. Life and Campaigns of Viscount Cough (1903). SIKKIM, called by Tibetans Dejong (" the rice country "), a protected state of India, situated in the eastern Himalaya, between 27° 5' and 28° 9' N. and between 87° 59' and 88° 56' E. It comprises an area of 2818 sq. m. of what may be briefly described as the catchment basin of the headwaters of the rivers Tista and Rangit. On the S. and S.E., branches of these rivers form the boundary between Sikkim and British India, while on the W., N. and N.E. Sikkim is separated from Nepal, Tibet and Bhutan by the range of lofty mountains which culminate in Kinchinjunga and form a kind of horse-shoe, whence dependent spurs project southwards, gradually contracting and lessening in height until they reach the junction of the Rangit and the Tista. Thus the country is split up into a succession of deep valleys surmounted by open plateaus cut off from one another by high and steep ridges, and lies at a very considerable elevation, rising from 1000 ft. above sea-level at its southern extremity to 16,000 or 18,000 ft. on the north. The main trade-passes into Tibet, such as the Jelep (14,500), Chola (14,550), and Kangra-la (16,000), are not nearly so high as in the western Himalaya, while those into Nepal are less than 12,000 ft. Physical Features. — Small though the country is, a wide variation of climate makes it peculiarly interesting. From a naturalist's point of view it can be divided into three zones. The lowest, stretch- ing from looo to 5000 ft. above sea-level, may be called the tropical zone; thence to 13,000 ft., the upper limit of tree vegetation, the temperate; and above, to the line of perpetual snow, the alpine. Down to about 1880 Sikkim was covered with dense forests, only interrupted where village clearances had bared the slopes for agri- culture, but at the present time this description does not apply below 6000 ft., the upper limit at which maize ripens; for here, owing to increase of population (particularly the immigration of Nepalese settlers), almost every suitable spot has been cleared for cultivation. The exuberance of its flora may be imagined when it is considered that the total flowering plants comprise some 4000 species ; there are more than 200 different kinds of ferns, 400 orchids, 20 bamboos, 30 rhododendrons, 30 to 40 primulas, and many other genera are equally profuse; in fact Sikkim contains types of every flora from the tropics to the poles, and probably no other country of equal or larger extent can present such infinite variety. Butterflies abound and comprise about 600 species, while moths are estimated at 2000. Birds are profusely represented, numbering between 500 and 600. species. Among mammals, the most interesting are the snow leopard (Felis unica), the cat-bear (Aelurus fulgens), the musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) and two species of goat antelope (Nemorhaedus bubalinus and Cemas gpral). Copper and lime are the chief minerals found and worked in Sikkim, but they are of little commercial value at present. Government and Population. — The population is essentially agri- cultural, each family living in a house on its own land : there are no towns or villages, and the only collection of houses, outside the Lachen and Lachung valleys, are the few that have sprung up round country market-places, such as Rhenock, Dikkeling and Gangtok ; but in the above-mentioned valleys the inhabitants, who are Bhutanese in origin and herdsmen in occupation, have large clusters of well-built houses at various altitudes up the valleys, which they occupytin rotation according to the season of the year. The seat of government, or in other words the palace of the raja, was formerly situated at Rubdentze ; but when that place was taken and destroyed by the Gurkhas, a new palace was built at Tumlong, close to the eastern and Tibetan boundary, while a subsidiary summer residence was erected on the other side of the Chola range at Chumbi, in the Am-mochu valley. At the present time the raja and his court remain in the more open country at Gangtok, where the British political officer and a small detachment of native troops are also stationed. The first regular census of Sikkim, in 1901, returned the population at 59,014, showing an apparent increase of nearly twofold in the decade. Of the total, 65% were Hindus and 35% Buddhists. The Lepchas, supposed to be the original inhabitants, numbered only 8000, while no less than 23,000 were immigrants from Nepal. The state religion is Buddhism as practised in Tibet, but is not confined to one particular sect ; while among the heterogeneous popu- lation of Sikkim all manner of religious cults can be found. Educa- tion is at a low ebb, though the monasteries are supposed to maintain schools, and missionary enterprise has established others. The revenue of Sikkim has increased under British guidance from Rs. 20,000 a year to nearly Rs. 1,60,000, derived chiefly from a land and poll tax, excise, and sale of timber; the chief expenditure is on SILA— SILENUS 89 the maintenance of the state, which practically means the raja's family, and on the improvement of communications. The country has a complete system of mountain roads, bridged and open to animal (but not cart) traffic. British trade with Central Tibet is carried over the Jelep route, on the south-eastern border of Sikkim. History. — The earliest inhabitants of Sikkim were the Rong-pa (ravine folk), better known as Lepchas, probably a tribe of Indo- Chinese origin; but when or how they migrated to Sikkim is un- known. The reigning family, however, is Tibetan, and claims descent from one of the Gyalpos or princelings of eastern Chinese Tibet ; their ancestors in course of several generations found their way westwards to Lhasa and Sakya, and thence down the Am-mochu valley ; finally, about the year 1604, Penchoo Namyg6 was born at Gangtok, and in 1641, with the aid of Lha-tsan Lama and two other priests of the Duk-pa or Red-hat sect of Tibet, overcame the Lepcha chiefs, who had been warring among themselves, established a firm government and introduced Buddhist Lamaism as a state religion. His son, Tensung Namyge, very largely extended his kingdom, but much of it was lost in the succeeding reign of Chak-dor Namyg6 (1700-1717), who is credited with having designed the alphabet now in use among the Lepchas. In the beginning of the i8th century Bhutan appropriated a large tract of country on the east. Between 1776 and 1792 Sikkim was constantly at war with the victorious Gurkhas, who were, however, driven out of part of their conquests by the Chinese in 1792 ; but it was not until 1816 that the bulk of what is known to us as Sikkim was restored by the British, after the defeat of the Nepalese by General Ochterlony. In 1839 the site of Darjeeling was ceded by the raja of Sikkim. In 1849 the British resumed the whole of the plains (Tarai) and the outer hills, as punishment for repeated insults and injuries. In 1861 a Britisn force was required to impose a treaty defining good relations. The raja, however, refused to carry out his obligations and defiantly persisted in living in Tibet ; his administra- tion was neglected, his subjects oppressed, and a force of Tibetan soldiers was allowed, and even encouraged, to seize the road and erect a fort within sight of Darjeeling. After months of useless re- monstrance, the government was forced in 1888 to send an expedi- tion, which drove the Tibetans back over the Jelep pass. A con- vention was then concluded with China in 1890, whereby the British protectorate over Sikkim was acknowledged and the boundary of the state defined; to this was added a supplemental agreement relating to trade and domestic matters, which was signed in 1893. Since that time the government has been conducted by the maharaja assisted by a council of seven or eight of his leading subjects, and guided by a resident British officer. Crime, of which there is little, is punished under local laws administered by kazis or petty chiefs. Since 1904 political relations with Sikkim, which had formerly been conducted by the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, have been in the hands of the Viceroy. Rajas of Sikkim (Dejong-Gyalpo) : Penchoo Namgy6 (1641- 1670), Tensung Namgy6 (1670-1700), Chak-dor Namgy£ (1700- 1717), Gyur-m6 Namgy6 (1717-1734), Penchoo Namgy6 (1734- 1780), Tenzing Namgy6 (1780-1790), Cho-phoe Namgy6 (1790- 1861), Sikhyong Namgy6 (1861-1874), Tho-tub Namgy6 (1874), the maharaja, whose son has been educated at Oxford. AUTHORITIES. — Sir J. W. Edgar, Report on a Visit to Sikkim and the Tibetan Frontier in 1873 (Calcutta, 1874); Macaulay, Report on a Mission to Sikkim and the Tibetan Frontier (Calcutta, 1885); The Gazetteer of Sikkim (Calcutta, 1894); Hooker, Himalayan Journals (London, 1854); L. A. Waddell, Lamaism (London, 1895); Among the Himalayas (London, 1898). (A. W. P.) SILA, a mountainous forest district of Calabria, Italy, to the E. of Cosenza, extending for some 37 m. N. to S. and 25 m. E. to W. The name goes back to the Greek period, and then pro- bably belonged to a larger extension of territory than at present. In ancient times these mountains supplied timber to the Greeks for shipbuilding, the forests have given way to pastures to some extent; but a part of them, which belongs to the state, is maintained. Geologically these mountains, which consist of granite, gneiss and mica schist, are the oldest portion of the Italian peninsula; their culminating point is the Botte Donate (6330 ft.), and they are not free of snow until the late spring. They are very rarely explored by travellers. SILANION, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C. He was noted as a portrait-sculptor. Of two of his works, his heads of Plato and of Sappho, we possess what seem to be copies. Both are of simple ideal type, the latter of course not strictly a portrait, since Sappho lived before the age of portraits. The best copy of the Plato is in the Vatican. SILAS (fl. A.D. 50), early Christian prophet and missionary, was the companion of St Paul on the second journey, when he took the place formerly held by Barnabas. The tour included S. Galatia, Troas, Philippi (where he was imprisoned), Thes- salonica'and Beroea, where Silas was left with Timothy, though he afterwards rejoined Paul at Corinth. He is in all probability the Silvanus ' who is associated with Paul in the letters to the Thessalonians, mentioned again in 2 Cor. i. 19, and the bearer and amanuensis of i Peter (see v. 12). It is possible, indeed, that he has an even closer connexion with this letter, and some scholars (e.g. R. Scott in The Pauline Epistles, 1909) are inclined to give him a prominent place among the writers of the New Testament. He was of Jewish birth and probably also a Roman citizen. SILAY, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of Negros, Philippine Islands, on the N.W. coast, about 10 m. N. of Bacolod, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903, after the annexation of Guimbalon and a portion of Eustaquio Lopez) 22,000. There are more than fifty barrios or villages in the town and the largest of these had, in 1903, 3834 inhabitants. The language is Visayan. There is a considerable coasting trade, sugar, brought by a tramway from neighbouring towns, is shipped from here, and the cultivation of sugar-cane is an important in- dustry; Indian corn, tobacco, hemp, cotton and cacao are also grown. SILCHAR, a town of British India, in the Cachar district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, of which it is the headquarters. Pop. (1901) 9256. It is situated on the left bank of the river Barak, with a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 271 m. N. of Chittagong. Silchar is the centre of an important tea industry, and the headquarters of the volunteer corps known as the Surma Valley Light Horse. SILCHESTER, a parish in the north of Hampshire, England, about 10 m. S. of Reading, containing the site of the Romano- British town Calleva Atrebatum. This site has been lately explored (1890-1909) and the whole plan of the ancient town within the walls recovered; unfortunately the excavators had to abandon their task before the suburbs, cemeteries and what- ever else may lie outside the walls have been examined. The results are published in Archaeologia, the official organ of the London Society of Antiquaries (see BRITAIN: Roman). As the excavations proceeded, the areas excavated were covered in again, but the ruins of the town hall, which have been famous since the 1 2th century, still remain. The smaller and movable objects found in the excavations have been deposited by the duke of Wellington, owner of the site of Calleva, in the Reading museum. SILENUS, a primitive Phrygian deity of woods and springs. As the reputed inventor of music he was confounded with Marsyas. He also possessed the gift of prophecy, but, like Proteus, would only impart information on compulsion; when surprised in a drunken sleep, he could be bound with chains of flowers, and forced to prophesy and sing (Virgil, Eel. vi., where he gives an account of the creation of the world; cf. Aelian, Var. hist. iii. 18). In Greek mythology he is the son of Hermes (or Pan) and a nymph. He is the constant companion of Dionysus, whom he was said to have instructed in the cultivation of the vine and the keeping of bees. He fought by his side in the war against the giants and was his companion in his travels and adventures. The story of Silenus was often the subject of Athenian satyric drama. Just as there were supposed to be several Pans and Fauns, so there were many Silenuses, whose father was called Papposilenus (" Daddy Silenus "), represented as completely covered with hair and more animal in appearance. The usual attributes of Silenus were the wine-skin (from which he is inseparable), a crown of ivy, the Bacchic thyrsus, the ass, and sometimes the panther. In art he generally appears as a little pot-bellied old man, with a snub nose and a bald head, riding on an ass and supported by satyrs; or he is depicted lying asleep on his wine-skin, which he sometimes bestrides. A more dignified type is the Vatican statue of Silenus carrying the infant Dionysus, and the marble group from the villa Borghese in the Louvre. See Preller-Robert, Griechische Mythplogie (1894), pp. 729-735; Talfourd Ely, " A Cyprian Terracotta," in the Archaeological Journal (1896); A. Baumeister, Denkmdler des klassischen Alterlums, iii. (1888). 'For the abbreviation, cf. Lucas, Prisca ( = Priscilla), Sopater ( = Sosipater). 9° SILESIA SILESIA, the name of a district in the east of Europe, the greater part of which is included in the German empire and is known as German Silesia. A smaller part, called Austrian Silesia, is included in the empire of Austria-Hungary. German Silesia. German Silesia is bounded by Brandenburg, Posen, Russian Poland, Galicia, Austrian Silesia, Moravia, Bohemia and the kingdom and province of Saxony. Besides the bulk of the old duchy of Silesia, it comprises the countship of Glatz, a fragment of the Neumark, and part of Upper Lusatia, taken from the kingdom of Saxony in 1815. The province, which has an area of 15,576 sq. m. and is the largest in Prussia, is divided into three governmental districts, those of Liegnitz and Breslau comprising lower Silesia, and of Oppeln taking in the greater part of moun- tainous Silesia. Physiographically Silesia is roughly divided into a flat and a hilly portion by the so-called Silesian Langental, which begins on the south-east near the river Malapane, and extends across the province in a west-by-north direction to the Black Elster, following in part the valley of the Oder. The south-east part of the province, to the east of the Oder and south of the Malapane, consists of a hilly outpost of the Carpathians, the Tarnowitz plateau, with a mean elevation of about 1000 ft. To the west of the Oder the land rises gradually from the Langental towards the southern boundary of the province, which is formed by the central part of the Sudetic system, including the Glatz Mountains and the Riesengebirge (Schneekoppe, 5260 ft.). Among the loftier elevations in advance of this southern barrier the most conspicuous is the Zobten (2356 ft.). To the north and north-east of the Oder the province belongs almost entirely to the great North-German plain, though a hilly ridge, rarely attaining a height of 1000 ft., may be traced from east to west, asserting itself most definitely in the Katzengebirge. Nearly the whole ofSilesia lies within the basin of the Oder, which flows through it from south-east to north-west, dividing the province into two approximately equal parts. The Vistula touches the province on the south-east, and receives a few small tributaries from it, while on the west the Spree and Black Elster belong to the system of the Elbe. The Iser rises among the mountains on the south. Among the chief feeders of the Oder are the Malapane, the Glatzer Neisse, the Katzbach and the Bartsch ; the Bober and Queiss flow through Silesia, but join the Oder beyond the frontier. The only lake of any extent is the Schlawa See, 7 m. long, on the north frontier; and the only navigable canal, the Klodnitz canal, in the mining district of upper Silesia. There is a considerable difference in the climate of Lower and Upper Silesia; some of the villages in the Riesengebirge have the lowest mean temperature of any inhabited place in Prussia (below 40° F.). Of the total area of the province 56% is occupied by arable land, 10-2 % by pasture and meadow, and nearly 29 % by forests. The soil along the foot of the mountains is generally good, and the district between Ratibor and Liegnitz, where 70 to 80% of the surface is under the plough, is reckoned one of the most fertile in Germany. The parts of lower Silesia adjoining Brandenburg, and also the district to the east of the Oder, are sandy and comparatively unproductive. The different cereals are all grown with success, wheat and rye sometimes in quantity enough for exportation. Flax is still a frequent crop in the hilly districts, and sugar-beets are raised over large areas. Tobacco, oil-seeds, chicory and hops may also be specified, while a little wine, of an inferior quality, is produced near Griinberg. Mulberry trees for silk-culture have been introduced and thrive fairly. Large estates are the rule in Silesia, where about a third of the land is in the hands of owners possessing at least 250 acres, while properties of 50,000 to 100,000 acres are common. The districts of Oppeln and Liegnitz are among the most richly wooded parts of Prussia. The merino sheep was introduced by Frederick the Great, and since then the Silesian breed has been greatly improved. The woods and mountains harbour large quantities of game, such as red deer, roedeer, wild boars and hares. The fishery includes salmon in the Oder, trout in the mountain streams, and carp in the small lakes or ponds with which the province is sprinkled. The great wealth of Silesia, however, lies underground, in the shape of large stores of coal and other minerals, which have been worked ever since the I2th century. The coal measures of Upper Silesia, in the south-east part of the province, are among the most extensive in continental Europe, and there is another large field near Waldenburg in the south-west. The output in 1905 exceeded 34 million tons, valued at £12,500,000 sterling, and equal to more than a quarter of the entire yield of Germany. The district of Oppeln also contains a great quantity of iron, the production in 1905 amounting to 862,000 tons. The deposits of zinc in the vicinity of Beuthen arc perhaps the richest in the world, and produce ^two- thirds of the zinc ore of Germany (609.000 tons). The remaining mineral products include lead, from which a considerable quantity of silver is extracted, copper, cobalt, arsenic, the rarer metal cadmium, alum, brown coal, marble, and a few of the commoner precious stones, jaspers, agates and amethysts. The province contains scarcely any salt or brine springs, but there are well-known mineral springs at Warmbrunn, Salzbrunn and several other places. A busy manufacturing activity has long been united with the underground industries of Silesia, and the province in this respect is hardly excelled by any other part of Prussia. On the plateau of Tarnowitz the working and smelting of metals is the predominant industry, and in the neighbourhood of Beuthen, Konigshiitte and Gleiwitz there is an almost endless succession of iron-works, zinc- foundries, machine-shops and the like. At the foot of the Riesenge- birge, and along the southern mountain line generally, the textile industries prevail. Weaving has been practised in Silesia, on a large scale, since the I4th century; and Silesian linen still maintains its reputation, though the conditions of production have greatly changed. Cotton and woollen goods of all kinds are also made in large quantities, and among the otherindustrial products are beetroot sugar, spirits, chemicals, tobacco, starch, paper, pottery, and " Bohemian glass." Lace, somewhat resembling that of Brussels, is made by the women of the mountainous districts. The trade of Silesia is scarcely so extensive as might be expected from its im- portant industrial activity. On the east it is hampered by the stringent regulations of the Russian frontier, and the great waterway of the Oder, though in process of being regulated, is sometimes too low in summer for navigation. The extension of the railway system has, however, had its usual effect in fostering commerce, and the mineral and manufactured products of the province are freely exported. At the census of 1905 the population of Silesia was 4,942,611, of whom 2,120,361 were Protestants, 2,765,394 Catholics and 46,845 Jews. The density is 317 per sq. m., but the average is of course very greatly exceeded in the industrial districts such as Beuthen. Three-fourths of the inhabitants and territory are German, but to the east of the Oder the Poles, more than i. ,000,000 in number, form the bulk of the population, while there are about 1 5,500 Czechs in the south part of the province and 25,000 Wends near Liegnitz. The Roman Catholics, most of whom are under the ecclesiastical sway of the prince bishop of Breslau, are predominant in Upper Silesia and Glatz; the Protestants prevail in Lower Silesia, to the west of the Oder, and in Lusatia. The nobility is very numerous in Silesia, chiefly in the Polish districts. The educational institutions of the province are headed by the university of Breslau. In 1900 the percentage of illiterate recruits, in spite of the large Polish-speaking contingent, was only 0-05. The capital and seat of the provincial diet is Breslau (q.v.), which is also by far the largest and most important town. The towns next in point of size are Gorlitz, Liegnitz, Konigshiitte, Beuthen, Schweidnitz, Neisse and Glogau. The province sends thirty-five members to the Reichstag and sixty-five to the Prussian chamber of deputies. The government divisions of Breslau and Oppeln together form the district of the 6th army corps with its headquarters at Breslau, while Liegnitz belongs to that of the 5th army corps, the headquarters of which are at Posen. Glogau, Glatz and Neisse are fortresses. History. — The beginnings of Silesian history do not reach back beyond the roth century A.D., at which time the district was occupied by clans of Slavonic nationality, one of which derived its name from the mountain Zlenz (mod. Zobtenburg), near Breslau, and thus gave rise to the present appellation of the whole province. The etymology of place-names suggests that the original population was Celtic, but this conjecture cannot be verified in any historical records. About the year 1000 the Silesian clans were incorporated in the kingdom of Poland, whose rulers held their ground with difficulty against continuous attacks by the kings of Bohemia, but maintained themselves successfully against occasional raids from Germany. The decisive factor in the separation of Silesia from Poland was furnished by a partition of the Polish crown's territories in 1138. Silesia was henceforth constituted as a separate principality, and in 1201 its political severance from Poland became complete. A yet more important result of the partition of ir38 was the transference of Silesia to the German nation. The independent dynasty which was then established was drawn under the influence of the German king, Frederick Barbarossa, and two princes who in 1163 divided the sovereignty among themselves as dukes of Upper and Lower Silesia inaugurated the policy SILESIA 91 of inviting German colonists to their vacant domains. More extensive immigrations followed, in the course of which the whole of Silesia was covered with German settlements. The numerous townships which then sprang up acquired rights of self-govern- ment according to German law, Breslau being refounded about 1 250 as a German town, and a feudal organization was introduced among the landholding nobility. By the end of the i3th century Silesia had virtually become a German land. This ethnical transformation was accompanied by a great rise in material prosperity. Large areas of forest or swamp were reclaimed for agriculture; the great Silesian industries of mining and weaving were called into existence, and Breslau grew to be a leading centre of exchange for the wares of East and West. The growing resources of the Silesian duchies are exempli- fied by the strength of the army with which Henry II., duke of Lower Silesia, broke the force of the Mongol invasion at the battle of Liegnitz (1241), and by the glamour at the court of the Minnesinger, Henry IV. (i 266-1 290). This prosperity, however, was checked by a growing tendency among the Silesian dynasties to make partitions of their territories at each new succession. Thus by the end of the i4th century the country had been split up into 18 principalities: Breslau, Brieg, Glogau, Jauer, Liegnitz, Miinsterberg, Ols, Schweidnitz and Steinau in Lower Silesia; Beuthen, Falkenberg, Kosel, Neisse, Oppeln, Ratibor, Strehlitz, Teschen and Troppau in the upper district. The petty rulers of these sections wasted their strength with internecine quarrels and proved quite incompetent to check the lawlessness of their feudal vassals. Save under the vigorous rule of some dukes of Lower Silesia, such as Henry I. and Bolko I., and the above- named Henry II. and IV., who succeeded in reuniting most of the principalities under their sway, the country fell into a state of growing anarchy. Unable to institute an effective national government, and unwilling to attach themselves again to Poland, the Silesian princes began about 1290 to seek the protection of the German dynasty then ruling in Bohemia. The intervention of these kings resulted in the establishment of their suzerainty over the whole of Silesia and the appropriation of several of its petty states as crown domains. The earliest of these Bohemian overlords, King John and the emperor Charles IV., fully justified their intrusion by the vigorous way in which they restored order and regularized the administration; in particular, the cities at this time attained a high degree of material prosperity and political importance. Under later rulers the connexion with Bohemia brought the Silesians no benefit, but involved them in the destructive Hussite wars. At the outbreak of this conflict in 1420 they gave ready support to their king Sigismund against the Bohemian rebels, whom they regarded as dangerous to their German nationality, but by this act they exposed themselves to a series of invasions (1425-1435) by which the country was severely devastated. In consequence of these raids the German element of population in Upper Silesia permanently lost ground ; and a complete restitution of the Slavonic nationality seemed imminent on the appointment of the Hussite, George Podiebrad, to the Bohemian kingship in 1457. Though most of the Silesian dynasts seemed ready to acquiesce, the burghers of Breslau fiercely repudiated the new suzerain, and before he could enforce his claims to homage he was ousted by the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus, who was readily recognized as overlord (1469). Matthias enforced his authority by the vigorous use of his mercenaries and by wholesale confiscations of the lands of turbu- lent nobles. By instituting a permanent diet of Silesian princes and estates to co-operate with his vicegerent, he took an important step towards the abolition of particularism and the establishment of an effective central government. In spite of these reforms the Silesians, who felt severely the financial exactions of Matthias, began to resent the control of the Bohemian crown. Profiting by the feebleness of Matthias' successor Vladislav, they extorted concessions which secured to them a practical autonomy. These privileges still remained to them at the outset of the religious Reformation, which the Silesians, in spite of their Catholic zeal during the Hussite wars, accepted readily and carried out with singularly little opposition from within or without. But a drastic revolution in their government was imposed upon them by the German king, Ferdinand I., who had been prevented from interference during his early reign by his wars with the Turks, and who showed little disposition to check the Reformation in Silesia by forcible means, but subse- quently reasserted the control of the Bohemian crown by a series of important enactments. He abolished all privileges which were not secured by charter and imposed a more rigidly centralized scheme of government in which the activities of the provincial diet were restricted to some judicial and financial functions, and their freedom in matters of foreign policy was withdrawn altogether. Henceforth, too, annexations of territory were frequently carried out by the Bohemian crown on the extinction of Silesian dynasties, and the surviving princes showed an increasing reluctance to the exercise of their authority. Accordingly the Silesian estates never again chose to exercise initiative save on rare occasions, and fiom 1550 Silesia passed almost completely under foreign administration. An uneventful period followed under the rule of the house of Habsburg, which united the kingship of Bohemia with the archduchy of Austria and the imperial crown. But this respite from trouble was ended by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), which brought Silesia to the verge of ruin. Dis- quieted by some forcible attempts on Rudolph II. 's part to suppress Protestantism in certain parts of the country, and mistrusting a formal guarantee of religious liberty which wa.s given to them in 1609, the Silesians joined hands with the Bohemian insurgents and renounced their allegiance to their Austrian ruler. Their defection, which was terminated by a capitulation in 1621, was not punished severely, but in spite of their attempt to maintain neutrality henceforth they were quite unable to secure peace. Silesia remained a principal objective of the various contending armies and was occupied almost continuously by a succession of ill-disciplined mercenary forces whose depredations and exactions, accentuated at times by religious fanaticism, reduced the country to a state of helpless misery. Three-quarters of the population are estimated to have lost their lives, and commerce and industry were brought to a standstill. Recovery from these disasters was retarded by the permanent diversion of trade to new centres like Leipzig and St Petersburg, and by a state of unsettlement due to the govern- ment's disregard of its guarantees to its Protestant subjects. A greater measure of religious liberty was secured for the Silesians by the representatives of King Charles XII. of Sweden on their behalf, and effective measures were taken by the emperor Charles VI. to stimulate commercial intercourse between Silesia and Austria. Nevertheless in the earlier part of the i8th century the condition of the country still remained unsatisfactory. An important epoch in the history of Silesia is marked by the year 1740, when the dominion of Austria was exchanged for that of Prussia. Availing himself of a testamentary union made in 1537 between the duke of Liegnitz and the elector of Brandenburg, and of an attempt by the elector Frederick William to call it into force in spite of its annulment by Ferdinand I. in 1546, Frederick II. of Prussia raised a claim to the former duchies of .Liegnitz, Brieg, Jagerndorf and Wohlau. The empress Maria Theresa, who was at this time involved with other enemies, was unable to prevent the occupation of Lower Silesia by Frederick and in 1 741 ceded that province to him. In the following year Frederick renewed his attack and extorted from Austria the whole of Silesia except the districts of Troppau, Teschen and Jagerndorf, the present province of Austrian Silesia. Though constrained by the general dangers of her position to make terms with Prussia, Maria Theresa long cherished the hope of recovering a possession which she, unlike her predecessors, valued highly and held by a far better title than did her opponent. A second war which Frederick began in 1744 in anticipation of a counter-attack from her only served to strengthen his hold upon his recent conquest; but in the famous Seven Years' War (g.ii.) of 1756-63 the Austrian empress, aided by France and Russia, almost effected her purpose. Silesia was repeatedly overrun by SILESIAN WARS— SILICA Austrian and Russian troops, and Frederick's ultimate expulsion seemed only a question of time. Yet the Prussian king recovered his lost ground by gigantic efforts and eventually retained his Silesian territory undiminished. The annexation by Frederick was followed by a complete reorganization in which the obsolete powers of the local dynasts were abolished and Silesia became a mere province of the highly centralized Prussian state. Owing to the lack of a corporate Silesian consciousness and the feebleness of their local institutions, the people soon became reconciled to their change of rulers. Moreover Frederick, who had proved by his wars the importance which he attached to Silesia, was indefatigable in times of peace in his attempts to justify his usurpation. Making yearly visits to the country, and further keeping himself in touch with it by means of a special " minister of Silesia," he was enabled to effect numerous political reforms, chief of which were the strict enforce- ment of religious toleration and the restriction of oppressive seignorial rights. By liberal endowments and minute but judicious regulations he brought about a rapid development of Silesian industries; in particular he revived the mining and weaving operations which at present constitute the country's chief source of wealth. After its incorporation with Prussia Silesia ceases to have an independent political history. During the Napoleonic wars it was partly occupied by French troops (1806-1813), and at the begin- ning of the War of Liberation it was the chief scene of operations between the French and the allied armies. In 1815 it was enlarged by a portion of Lusatia, which had become detached from Silesia as far back as the nth century and since then had been annexed to the kingdom of Saxony. During the rest of the igth century its peace has been interrupted from time to time by riots of discontented weavers. But the general record of recent times has been fone of industrial development and prosperity hardly inferior to that of any other part of Germany. See C. Griinhagen, Geschichte Schlesiens (2 vols., Gotha, 1884- 1886), and Schlesien unter Friedrich dent Grossen (2 vols., Gotha, 1890-1892) ; M. Morgenbesser, Geschichte von Schlesien (Berlin, 1892) ; Knotel, Geschichte Oberschlesiens (Kattowitz, 1906); H. Grotefend, Stammtafeln der schlesischen Fiirsten bis 1740 (Breslau, 1889); F. Rachfahl, Die Organisation der Gesamlstaatsverwaltung Schlesiens vor dem dreissigjdhrigen Kriege (Leipzig, 1894); H. Fechner, Geschichte des schlesischen Berg- und Huttenwesens 1741-1806 (Berlin, 1903) ; see also the Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Geschichte und Altertum Schlesiens (Breslau, 1855 sqq.), and Oberschlesische Heimat, Zeit- schrift des ober schlesischen Geschichtsvereins (Oppeln, 1905 sqq.). Austrian Silesia. Austrian Silesia (Ger. dsterreichisch-Schlesien) is a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Galicia, S. by Hungary and Moravia, W. and N. by Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 1987 sq. m. and is the smallest province of Austria. Silesia is divided by a projecting limb of Moravia into two small parts of territory, of which the western part is flanked by the Sudetic mountains, namely the Altvater Gebirge; while the eastern part is flanked by the Carpathians, namely the Jablunka Gebirge with their highest peak the Lissa Hora (4346 ft.). A great pro- portion of the surface of Silesia is occupied by the offshoots of these ranges. The province is traversed by the Vistula, which rises in the Carpathians within eastern Silesia, and by the Oder, with its affluents the Oppa and the Olsa. Owing to its mountain- ous character, and its slopes towards the N. and N.E., Silesia has a somewhat severe climate for its latitude, the mean annual temperature being 50° F., while the annual rainfall varies from 20 to 30 in. Of the total area 49-4% is arable land, 34-2% is covered by forests, 6-2% by pasturages, while meadows occupy 5-8% and gardens 1-3 %. The soil cannot, as a rule, be termed rich, although some parts are fertile and produce cereals, vegetables, beetroot and fruit. In the mountainous region dairy-farming is carried on after the Alpine fashion and the breeding of sheep is improving. Large herds of geese and pigeons are reared, while hunting and fishing constitute also important resources. The mineral wealth of Silesia is great and consists in coal, iron-ore, marble and slate. It possesses several mineral springs, of which the best known are the alkaline springs at Karlsbrunn. Like its adjoining provinces, Silesia boasts of a great and varied industrial activity, chiefly represented by the metallurgic and textile industries in all their branches. The cloth and woollen industries are concentrated at Bielitz, Jagerndorf and Engelsberg; linen is manufactured at Freiwaldau Freudenthal and Bennisch; cotton goods at Friedek. The iron industry is con- centrated at Trzinietz, near Teschen, and various industrial and agricultural machines are manufactured at Troppau, Jagerndorf, Ustron and Bielitz. The organs manufactured at Jagerndorf enjoy a good reputation. Other important branches of industry are chemicals at Hruschau and Petrowitz; sugar refineries, milling, brewing and liqueurs. In 1900 the population numbered 680,422, which corresponds to 342 inhabitants per sq. m. The Germans formed 44-69% of the population, 33-21% were Poles and 22-05% Czechs and Slavs. According to religion, 84-73 were Roman Catholics, 14% Protestants and the remainder were Jews. The local diet is composed of 3 1 members, and Silesia sends 1 2 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes Silesia is divided into 9 districts and 3 towns with autonomous munici- palities: Troppau, the capital, Bielitz and Friedek. Other principal towns are: Teschen, Polnisch-Ostrau, Jagerndorf, Karwin, Freudenthal, Freiwaldau and Bennisch. The actual duchy is only a very small part, which was left to Austria after the Seven Years' War, from its former province of the same name. It formed, with Moravia, a single province until 1849, when it was created a separate duchy. See F. Slama, Osterreichisch-Schlesien (Prague, 1887); and A. Peter, Das Herzogtum Schlesien (Vienna, 1884). SILESIAN WARS, the name given to the contests between Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia. The first (1740- 1742) and second (1744-1745) wars formed a part of the great European struggle called the War of the Austrian Succession (q.v.), and the third war (1756-1762) similarly a part of the Seven Years' War (q.v.). SILHOUETTE, 1JTIENNE DE (1700-1767), controller-general of France, was born at Limoges on the 5th of July 1709. He travelled extensively while still a young man and drew attention to himself by the publication of English translations, historical writings, and studies on the financial system of England. Suc- cessively councillor to the parlement of Metz, secretary to the duke of Orleans, member of the commission on delimitation of Franco-British interests in Acadia (1749), and royal commis- sioner in the Indies Company, he was named controller-general through the influence of the marquess de Pompadour on the 4th of March 1759. The court at first reposed a blind confidence in him, but soon perceived not only that he was not a financier but also that he was bent on attacking privilege by levying a land-tax on the estates of the nobles and by reducing the pensions. A storm of opposition gathered and broke: a thousand cartoons and jokes were directed against the unfortunate minister who seemed to be resorting to one financial embarrassment in order to escape another; and in allusion to the sacrifices which he demanded of the nobles, even the conversion of their table plate into money, silhouette became the popular word for a figure reduced to simplest form. The word was eventually (1835) admitted to the dictionary by the French academy. Silhouette was forced out of the ministry on the 2ist of November 1759 and withdrew to Brie-sur-Marne, where during the remainder of his life he sought refuge from scorn and sarcasm in religious devotion. He died on the 2oth of January 1 767. Silhouette left several translations from the English and the Spanish, accounts of travel, and dull historical and philosophical writings, a list of which is given in Querard, France litter aire, ix. 138. A Testament politi^ue, published under his name in 1772, is apochry- phal. See J. P. Clement and A. Lemoine, M. de Silhouette (Pans, 1872). SILICA, in chemistry, the name ordinarily given to amorphous silicon dioxide, Si02. This chemical compound is widely and most abundantly distributed in nature, both in the free state and in combination with metallic oxides. Free silica constitutes the greater part of sand and sandy rocks; when fairly pure it occurs in the large crystals which we know as quartz (q.v.}, and which, when coloured, form the gem-stones amethyst, cairngorm, cats'-eye and jasper. Tridymite (q.v.) is a rarer form, crystallo- graphically different from quartz. Amorphous forms also occur: chalcedony (q.v.), and its coloured modifications agate, carnelian, SILICON 93 onyx and sard, together with opal (qq.v.) are examples. Amorph- ous silica can be obtained from a silicate (a compound of silica and a metallic oxide) by fusing the finely powdered mineral with sodium carbonate, decomposing the sodium silicate thus formed with hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness to convert the colloidal silicic acid into insoluble silica, and removing the soluble chlorides by washing with hot water. On drying, the silica is obtained as a soft white amorphous powder, insoluble in water and in all acids except hydrofluoric; it dissolves in hot solutions of the caustic alkalis and to a less extent in alkali carbonates. It melts at a high temperature, and in the electric furnace it may be distilled, the vapours condensing to a bluish- white powder. By heating a solution of sodium silicate in a glass vessel the glass is attacked (an acid silicate being formed) and silica separates at ordinary temperatures in a hydrated amorphous form, at higher temperatures but below 180° as tridymite, and above 180° as quartz. Silicates. — These compounds are to be regarded as salts of silicic acid, or combinations of silicon dioxide and metallic basic oxides; they are of great importance since they constitute the commonest rock-forming and many other minerals, and occur in every petro- graphical species. The parent acid, silicic acid, was obtained by T. Graham by dialysing a solution of hydrochloric acid to which sodium silicate had been added; a colloidal silicic acid being re- tained in the dialyser. This solution may be concentrated until it contains about 14 % of silica by open boiling, and this solution on evaporation in a vacuum gives a transparent mass of metasilicic acid, H2SiOs. The solution is a tasteless liquid having a slight acid reaction; it gradually changes to a clear transparent jelly, which afterwards shrinks on drying. This coagulation is brought about very quickly by sodium carbonate, and may be retarded by hydro- chloric acid or by a solution of a caustic alkali. Several hydrated forms have been obtained, e.g. 2SiO2-H2O, SSiCVHjO, 4SiO2-H2O, 8SiO2-H2O; these are very unstable, the first two losing water on ex- posure whilst the others absorb water. The natural silicates may be regarded as falling into 5 classes, viz. orthosilicates, derived from Si(OH)4; metasilicates, from SiO(OH)2; disilicates, from Si2O3(OH)2; trisilicates, from Si2Oe(OH)2; and basic silicates. These acids may be regarded as derived by the partial dehydration of the ortho-acid. Another classification is given in METALLURGY ; a list of mineral silicates is given in MINERALOGY, and for the synthetical production of these compounds see also PETROLOGY. SILICON [symbol Si, atomic weight 28-3 (0 = i6)], a non- metallic chemical element. It is not found in the uncombined condition, but in combination with other elements it is, with perhaps the exception of oxygen, the most widely distributed and abundant of all the elements. It is found in the form of oxide (silica), either anhydrous or hydrated as quartz, flint, sand, chalcedony, tridymite, opal, &c., but occurs chiefly in the form of silicates of aluminium, magnesium, iron, and the alkali and alkaline earth metals, forming the chief constituent of various clays, soils and rocks. It has also been found as a constituent of various parts of plants and has been recognized in the stars. The element exists in two forms, one amorphous, the other crystalline. The older methods used for the preparation of the amorphous form, namely the decomposition of silicon halides or silicofluorides by the alkali metals, or of silica by magnesium, do not give good results, since the silicon obtained is always contaminated with various impurities, but a pure variety may be prepared according to E. Vigouroux (Ann. Mm. phys., 1897, (7) 12, p. 1 53) by heating silica with magnesium in the presence of magnesia, or by heating silica with aluminium. The crystalline form may be prepared by heating potassium silicofluoride with sodium or aluminium (F. Wohler, Ann., 1856, 97, p. 266; 1857, 102, p. 382); by heating silica with magnesium in the presence of zinc (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 186); and by the reduc- tion of silica in the presence of carbon and iron (H. N. Warren, Chem. News, 1888, 57, p. 54; 1893, 67, p. 136). Another crystalline form, differing from the former by its solubility in hydrofluoric acid, was prepared by H. Moissan and F. Siemens (Comples rendus, 1904, 138, p. 1299). A somewhat impure silicon (containing 90-98% of the element) is made by the Carborundum Company of Niagara Falls (United States Patents 745122 and 842273, 1908) by heating coke and sand in an electric furnace. The product is a crystalline solid of specific gravity 2-34, and melts at about 1430° C. See also German Patent 108817 f°r the production of crystallized silicon from silica and carborundum. Amorphous silicon is a brown coloured powder, the crystalline variety being grey, but it presents somewhat different appear- ances according to the method used for its preparation. The specific gravity of the amorphous form is 2-35 (Vigouroux), that of the crystalline variety varying, according to the method of preparation, from 2-004 to 2-493. The specific heat varies with the temperature, from 0-136 at -39° C. to 0-2029 at 232° C. Silicon distils readily at the temperature of the electric furnace. It is attacked rapidly by fluorine at ordinary temperature, and by chlorine when heated in a current of the gas. It undergoes a slight superficial oxidation when heated in oxygen. It combines directly with many metals on heating, whilst others merely dissolve it. When heated with sodium and potassium, appar- ently no action takes place, but if heated with lithium it forms a lithium silicide, Li6Si2(H. Moissan, Complex rendus, 1902, 134, p. 1083). It decomposes ammonia at a red heat, liberating hydrogen and yielding a compound containing silicon and nitro- gen. It reduces many non-metallic oxides. It is only soluble in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acid, or in solutions of the caustic alkalis, in the latter case yielding hydrogen and a silicate: Si-f-2KHO+H2O = K2SiO3+2H2. On fusion with alkaline car- bonates and hydroxides it undergoes oxidation to silica which dissolves on the excess of alkali yielding an alkaline silicate. Silicon hydride, SiHj, is obtained in an impure condition, as a spontaneously inflammable gas, by decomposing magnesium silicide with hydrochloric acid, or by the direct union of silicon and hydrogen in the electric arc. In the pure state it may be prepared by decom- posing ethyl silicoformate in the presence of sodium (C. Fnedel and A. Ladenburg, Comptes rendus, 1867,64, pp. 359, 1267) ;4Si(OC2H 5)3 = SiH4+3Si(OC2H6)4. When pure, it is a colourless gas which is not spontaneously inflammable at ordinary temperature and pressure, but a slight increase of temperature or decrease of pressure sets up decomposition. It is almost insoluble in water. It burns when brought into contact with chlorine, forming silicon chloride and hydrochloric acid. It decomposes solutions of silver nitrate and copper sulphate. A second hydride of silicon, of composition Si2Hs, was prepared by H. Moissan and S. Smiles (Comptes rendus, 1902, pp. 569, 1549) from the products obtained in the action of hydrochloric acid on magnesium silicide. These are passed through a vessel surrounded by a freezing mixture and on fractionating the product the hydride distils over as a colourless liquid which boils at 52° C. It is also obtained by the decomposition of lithium silicide with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Its vapour is spontaneously inflammable when exposed to air. It behaves as a reducing agent. For a possible hydride (Si2H3)n see J. Ogier, Ann. chim. phys., 1880, (5), 20, p. 5. Only one oxide of silicon, namely the dioxide or silica, is known (see SILICA). Silicon fluoride, SiF<, is formed when silicon is brought into contact with fluorine (Moissan) ; or by decomposing a mixture of acid potas- sium fluoride and silica, or of calcium fluoride and silica with concen- trated sulphuric acid. It is a colourless, strongly fuming gas which has a suffocating smell. It is decomposed with great violence when heated in contact with either sodium or potassium. It combines directly with ammonia to form the compound SiF<-2NH3, and is absorbed by dry boric acid and by many metallic oxides. Water decomposes it into silicofluoric acid and silicic acid: 3SiF4-t-3H2O=2H2SiF6+ r^SiOj. With potassium hydroxide it yields potassium silicofluoride, whilst with sodium hydroxide, sodium fluoride is produced: 3SiF4 = 4KHO=SiO2-f-2K2SiF6-|-2H2O; SiF4+4NaOH = SiO2+4NaF-|- 2H2O. It combines directly with Acetone and with various amines. Silicon fluoroform, SiHFs, was obtained by O. Ruff and Curt Albert (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 53) by decomposing titanium fluoride with silicon chloroform in sealed vessels at 100-120° C. It is a colourless gas which may be condensed to a liquid boiling at -80-2° C. On solidification it melts at about -IIO C. The gas is very unstable, decomposing slowly, even at ordinary temperatures, into hydrogen, silicon fluoride and silicon: 4SiHF3=2H2+3SiF4+Si. It burns with a pale-blue flame forming silicon fluoride, silicofluoric acid and silicic acid. It is decomposed readily by water, sodium hydroxide, alcohol and ether: 2SiHFa +4H2O = H4Si04 +H2SiF6-f 2H2 ; SiHF3+3NaOH-fH2O = HC2H6SiCl3(-r-MgBrPh) — » Ph.C2H6.SiCl2(+MgBrC3H7)->Ph-C2H6.C3H7.SiCl Silicon Tetramethyl, Si(CH3)4 (tetramethyl silicane), and silicon tetraethyl, StCCjHjU are both liquids. The latter reacts with chlorine to give silicon nonyl-chloride Si(C2Hf,)3-C2H4Cl, which condenses with potassium acetate to give the acetic ester of silicon nonyl alcohol from which the alcohol (a camphor-smelling liquid) may be obtained by hydrolysis. Triethyl silicol, (C2H6)3Si-OH, is a true alcohol, obtained by condensing zinc ethyl with silicic ester the resulting substance of composition, (C2H6)3-SiOC2H6, with acetyl chloride yielding a chloro-compound (C2H6)3SiCl, which with aqueous ammonia yields the alcohol. Silicon tetraphenyl, Si(C6H6)4, a solid melting at 231° C., is obtained by the action of chlorobenzene on silicon tetrachlonde in the presence of sodium. Silica-oxalic acid, (biO-OH)2, obtained by decomposing silicon hexachloride with ice- cold water, is an unstable solid which is readily decomposed by the inorganic bases, with evolution of hydrogen and production of a silicate. Silicomesoxalic acid, HO-OSiSi(OH)2-SiO-OH, formed by the action of moist air on silicon octochloride at o° C., is very unstable, and hot water decomposes it with evolution of hydrogen and forma- tion of silicic acid (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 1114). Silico- benzmc acid, C6H6-SiO-OH, results from the action of dilute aqueous ammonia on phenyl silicon chloride (obtained from mercury diphenyl and silicon tetrachloride). It is a colourless solid which melts at 92 C. For silicon derivatives of the amines see Michaelis, Ber., 1896, so, p. 710; on asymmetric silicon and the resolution of " M M MM IOO 0, M ,4 •H-sislHs.H H§,l MM M H (•- t O -T O O* s OOOOOO'OO''OO'-'(NOO MO^'OO S 00 8, M ttMt*OlO»t«MO« ^^^ &° M i M a Sit 8 MNOOOOOOwQO O^^OO « «JJ ||i i M M Ml 1 O O O w tt O too O N O O t Q 2K««g » « ">8St:c- •o •a "§^ nghai did lude Cas epbant C oo O^Ooot OoOOO OOO'l'O •t- _i ^^ JJB s Mo1"1001 *° *° NO ^o *° 10 ft s2* g t 10 o oo »ooo to M too M 10 w »o o O M O O Oi IOOO ON to «*) Oi w t cc 0 OO gl| M "^Mlovo " "° "«^-° s o o. fit 1 ?IH? |ll| f||s| & l«l M iq 8^>S M 1 !|!!l!^l *||B 32Q.032 oo li! PQbH woOOwO OOOO too OO CO •e i M r-"4 OO «O 'O ^ s ttO-twtO gO «)Oi^.M •r 01*0 8 M 00 ^ M 1 •> t* 10 £CO 0 B 1 M OOtO«QO O^ WNO^O 0 •o ? to • 1 pT Q M"O" ci"o" t " t to 10 10 O O t O> t M 15 S ° 0 o o* 00 OO w tOO fO O>OO tO t t^ O1 fOOO 10 cf M" >o to" cf ' • « • Q~oo~ 10 o> M t» O W t in i O 10 M .3 iia for Five 00 08 00 M w O wO O O M 00 O OOO O M OO *S O«O 00 f^ « M M IOO W fO oo r^oo (OOMM .t .»o .ooOO-o (OO^MtO'O'ON " •t'**)^ OOO MO »OM « Ifi 1 g <•? "j^s 2 | 3 • 00 M OOO O^O M (^ 0 0 tO g- 1 it OO «0 |3| 3 "s "s ^-^J^-^ v--, ^ ^ 9 00 o S jii IB! 1 J. ||5 i = ll lls 8 2? | 8 il '£§§ HI v-3 ' ' •§'"',§ D. * fn 0 B ^9 — w n ' " C B " -O fl - ,rt 3 rt c ^*"O ** tJ *3 C *c 5 u • • *S •Oa^-r^ S ^"(5 P3 *O ^**-*3 en p^c/lOn-iO Total in Ba Price per Ib Maximum a Between 1840 and 1850, after the opening of trade with China, large quantities of silk were sent from the northern port of Shanghai, and afterwards also from the southern port of Canton. The export became important just at the time when disease in Europe had lessened the production on the continent. This increased production of medium silk, and the growing demand for fine sorts, induced many of the cocoon-growers in the Levant to sell their cocoons to Europeans, who reeled them in Italian fashion under the name of " Patent Brutia," thus producing a very fine valuable silk. In 1857 commenced the exportation of Japan silk, which became so fierce a competitor with Bengal silk as gradually to displace it in favour; and the native silk reeled in Bengal has almost ceased to be made, only the best European filatures, produced under the supervision of skilled Europeans, now coming forward. China and Japan, both of which contribute so largely to the supplies that appear in European and American statistics, only export their excess growth, silk-weaving being carried on and native silk worn to an enormous extent in both countries. The other Asiatic exporting countries also maintain native silk manufactures which absorb no inconsiderable proportion of their raw material. Since about 1880 the silk production of the world (including only exports from the East) has more than doubled, the variations owing to partial failures from some countries being more than compensated by increase from others. The supplies available for European and American consump- tion have been carefully tabulated by the Lyons Chamber of Commerce, as shown by the table. While the tables indicate the fluctuations of supply they show generally .that Asiatic countries, in addition to supplying the neces- sities for their home trade, export to Europe and America about three- fifths of the whole of the silk consumed in Western manufactures. Up to the year 1860 the bulk of the silks from the East was shipped to London, but subsequently, owing to the importance of continental demands, a large portion of the supplies has been unshipped at Genoa and Marseilles (especially the finer reeled silks from Japan and Canton), which are sold in the Milan and Lyons markets. Those for American consumption are sent direct by the Pacific route via San Francisco. Table II. shows the official annual returns of silk imports into Great Britain from 1880 to 1908. TABLE II. — Imports of Silk into Great Britain. Years. Raw Silk. Knubs or Husks of Silk and Waste. Thrown Silk. Silk (including Lace, &c.) Manufacture. 1880 3,673,949 55,002 203,567 13,329,935 1884 4,522,702 67,239 323,947 10,984,073 1888 3,065,77i 83,466 559,289 10,466,537 1892 ,503-283 46,392 502,777 11,412,263 1896 ,697,668 62,923 572,599 16,923,176 1900 ,4i3,32o 60,720 664,641 14,767,610 1901 ,332,480 48,162 624,859 13,708,645 1902 ,252,848 55,782 802,964 14,320,541 1903 ,109,930 66,782 662,677 13,493,961 1904 ,337,579 71,450 769,297 13,585,462 1905 ,160,265 72,055 878,850 13,010,766 1906 ,036,258 66,348 924,007 13,069,588 1907 ,195,366 66,299 938,112 12,862,834 1908 ,110,481 64,669 809,610 11,907,661 The power loom, owing to the improvement in its mechanism, has gained a distinct precedence and materially increased its producing power. In the development of silk manufacture the hand loom has taken a very secondary position. In order to form a relative idea of the importance of the various countries engaged in silk manufacture, a tabulation of the number of looms employed in each country would prove an inadequate guide, owing to the variations from time to time of the fabrics woven, as also to the difficulty in obtaining trustworthy statistics of the number in active operation. The production and consumption of raw material shown in Table III. was prepared by Messrs Chabrieres, Morel & Co. of Lyons, Marseilles and Milan, and issued in 1905. America takes a premier position in consumption of the raw material. The development and expansion of silk manufarture, owing to the importance and extent of the home market, coupled with high protective tariffs, has been enormous. In 1867 the im- port of raw material amounted to 491,983 ft. In 1905 a record was reached of 17,812,133 ft. During the decade of 1898 to 1908 the consumption has gone on steadily from about ip million ft in the first five years to an average of 15 million ft in the second half of the decade. France comes a good second in importance with a SILK consumption of 9 to 10 million ft annually. Lyons is the head- quarters of the trade, principally in the production of dress fabrics, plain and figured, and other light and heavier fabrics. St Etienne and St Chamond are important centres for the ribbon trade. There TABLE III. — Production and Consumption of Raw Material. PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION. Average of Seasons Same Average of 1903-1904, 1904- Years 1902-1903, 1905, 1905-1906. 1904. Europe — • 1,276,000 9,519,400 Italy . . . 9,233,400 2,I25,2OO Switzerland . . 99,000 3,509,000 Spain 176,000 402,600 Austria Hungary 360,800 323.400 | I,7O7,20O Russia and Caucasus 893,200 2,796,200 Bulgaria, Servia and Roumania 343.200 37.400 Greece and Crete 138,600 44,000 Salonica and Adrianople . 574,200 66.OOO Germany Nil. 6,261,200 Great Britain .... Nil. 1,559.800 America — United States .... Nil. 13,481,600 Asia — Brutia 1,207,800 66,000 Syria 1,100,000 242,000 Persia . . . (Exports) 556,600 (no estimates) Turkestan . 600,600 ,, China .... 8,960,600 ii Canton, China . 4,661,800 H Japan .... 11,136,400 India .... 563,200 770,000 Tonquin and Annam . 22,000 (no estimates) Africa — Nil. 44.0,000 ,/>y^ Morocco Nil. *TT^ . 154,000 Algeria, Tunis .... Nil. I43,OOO Various countries Nil. I2I.OOO Total ft ... 42,226,800 43,445,000 N.B. — The difference in the totals is owing to the figures being based on the production in seasons, and that of consumption upon calendar years. are also important manufactures of silk at Calais, Paris, Nimes, Tours, Avignon and Roubaix. Germany follows France with a consumption for the various fabrics of over six million ft annually. The principal seat of the trade in that country is at Crefeld, nearly one-half of the production of the empire being manu- factured there. Velvet is the special feature of the industry, about one-half of the looms being devoted to this textile, the remainder being devoted to union satins, pure broad silk goods and ribbons. Other principal centres of the silk trade in Rhenish Prussia are Viersen, Barmen, Elberfeld and Muhlheim. The province of Saxony has also important manufactures of lace and glove fabrics. Third on the list of con- tinental producers is Switzerland; Zurich takes the lead with broad goods (failles, armures, satins, serges, &c.), and Basel rivals St Etienne in the ribbon trade. Russia, by a prohibitive tariff on manufactured silks of other countries, has since 1890 developed and fostered a trade which consumes annually about 3 million ft of raw material for its home industry. This has also stimulated silk culture in the Caucasus, from which province it draws about one-third of its supplies. A special feature of its manufactures consists of gold and silver tissues and brocades for sacerdotal use. Moscow is one of the principal seats for the weaving of these fabrics. Italy, the early home of the silk trade in Europe, the land of the gorgeous velvets of Genoa and the damasks and brocades of medieval Sicily, Venice and Florence, now takes only a sixth place, the centre of greatest activity being at Como; but Genoa still makes velvets, and the brocades of Venice are not a thing of the past. Austria and England follow on the list of important silk manu- factures. The former has found its principal de- velopment in Vienna and the immediate neighbourhood. By special grants from the Hungarian government silk-reeling has been fostered and encouraged. In 1885 the production of raw silk was about 300,000 ft, while in 1905 it reached 750,000 ft, an annual production which is still maintained. In the United Kingdom all the silk industries (those depending on spun silk alone excepted) have been declining since the French Treaty of 1860 came into operation. This cannot be gauged by the xxv. 4 a decrease in imports of raw material from the fact before mentioned that formerly London was the centre of distribution for Eastern silk, which is now disembarked at other European ports for continental consumption. The shrinkage is the more noticeable in the throwing branch of the industry. Many of the mills formerly in operation in Derby, Nottingham, Congleton and Macclesfield have been closed owing to the importation of foreign thrown silks from Italy and France, where a lower rate of wages is paid to the operatives em- Eloyed in this branch. In like manner the manufacture of silk ibrics in the districts of Manchester, Middleton, Macclesfield, London (Spitalfields) and Nottingham (for silk lace) has decreased proportionately. Against this we must set off a decided increase in the manufacture of mixed goods, carried on principally in Scotland, Yorkshire and Lancashire. The remarkable development of the comparatively new trade in spun silk goes far to compensate for the loss of the older trade of net silk, and has enabled the exports of silk manufactures from Great Britain to be at least maintained and to show some signs of ex- pansion. Silk spinning has chiefly developed in the Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire textiles centres. Its ex- pansion and importance may be seen from the fact that the imports of waste, knubs, &c., which in 1860 was 1506 cwts., reached in 1905 a record of 72,055 cwts. But it is highly significant that while the exports of British silk manufactures have not decreased, the imports in the meantime have shown a marked expansion. Although the use of silk goods has unquestionably increased since the middle of the igth century, the expansion of native productions has not kept pace with that growth. (R. SN.) The Spinning of" Silk Waste." The term silk waste includes all kinds of raw silk which may be unwindable, and therefore unsuited to the throwing process. Before the introduction of machinery applicable to the spinning of silk waste, the refuse from cocoon reeling, and also from silk winding, which is now used in producing spun silk fabrics, hosiery, &c., was nearly all destroyed as being useless, with the exception of that which could be hand-combed and spun by means of the distaff and spinning wheel, a method which is still practised by some of the peasantry in India and other Eastern countries. The supply of waste silk is drawn from the following sources: (i) The silkworm, when commencing to spin, emits a dull, lustre- less and uneven thread with which it suspends itself to the twigs and leaves of the tree upon which it has been feeding, or to the straws provided for it by attendants in the worm-rearing establishments: this first thread is unreelable, and, moreover, is often mixed with straw, leaves and twigs. (2) The outside layers of the true cocoon are too coarse and uneven for reeling; TABLE IV. — Silk Goods exported from the United Kingdom. Year. Raw Silk. Knubs, Husks, Silk Waste and Noils. Thrown and Spun Silk. Silk Manufactures. British. Foreign and Colonial. British. Foreign and Colonial. ft. cwts. £ ft. £ £ 1860 3.153.993 1,506 826,107 426,866 1,587,303 224,366 1865 3.!37.292 1,212 767,058 306,701 1,404,381 166,936 1870 2,644,402 4,167 I.I54.364 39.771 1,450,397 166,297 1875 2,55MI7 1,779 880,923 87,924 1,734,519 328,426 1880 947.165 9.241 683,591 7,553 2,030,659 259,023 1884 377,349 6,538 612,951 50,559 2,175.410 644.722 1888 167,086 7,438 388,828 63,192 2,664,244 727.673 1892 164,150 7,397 322,894 32,574 ,655.310 730,316 1896 142,034 5,053 265,142 74,140 .423,174 725,123 1900 192,616 5-691 425.647 35,858 ,637,915 919,011 1901 244,566 5,370 294,3" 48,666 ,429.381 1,021,637 1902 152,463 6,160 237,718 95,862 ,393.314 1,071,633 1903 178,458 9,740 256,341 81,707 ,436,734 1,038,634 1904 186,174 9,148 218,881 43,938 ,604,554 1,241,242 1905 188,246 13,524 298,299 53,825 ,693.314 1,142,217 1906 92,124 3,243 323.873 57,143 ,858,634 1,094,657 1907 80,645 5,007 401,336 47,404 2,009,613 i ,490,066 1908 42,898 6,571 101,316 43,714 1,244,546 1.427.974 and as the worm completes its task of spinning, the thread becomes finer and weaker, so both the extreme outside and inside layers are put aside as waste. (3) Pierced cocoons — i.e. those from which the moth of the silkworm has emerged — and damaged cocoons. (4) During the process of reeling from the cocoon the silk often breaks; and both in finding a true and io6 SILK reelable thread, and in joining the ends, there is unavoidable waste. (5) Raw silk skeins are often re-reeled; and in this process part has to be discarded: this being known to the trade as gum-waste. The same term — gum-waste — is applied to " waste " made in the various processes of silk throwing; but manufacturers using threads known technically as organzines and trams call the surplus " manufacturer's waste." Finally we have the uncultivated varieties of silks known as " wild silks," the chief of which is tussur. The different qualities of " waste," of which there are many, vary in colour from a rich yellow to a creamy white; the chief producing countries being China, Japan, India, Italy, France and the countries in the Near East; and the best-known qualities are: steam wastes, from Canton; knubs, from China and from Italy and other Western countries; frisons, from various sources; wadding and blaze, Shanghai; china, Hangchow; and Nankin buttons; Indian and Szechuen wastes; punjum, the most lustrous of wastes; China curlies; Japan wastes, known by such terms as kikai, ostue, &c.; French, Swiss, Italian, China, Piedmont, Milan, &c. There are yellow wastes from Italy, and many more far too numerous to mention. A silk " throwster " receives his silk in skein form, the thread of which consists of a number of silk fibres wound together to make a certain diameter or size, the separate fibre having actually been spun by the worm, and this fibre may measure anything from 500 to 1000 yds. in length. The silk-waste spinner receives his silk in quite a different form: merely the raw material, packed in bales of various sizes and weights, the contents being a much-tangled mass of all lengths of fibre mixed with much foreign matter, such as ends of straws, twigs, leaves, worms and chrysalis. It is the spinner's business to straighten out these fibres, with the aid of machinery, and then to so join them that they become a thread, which is known as spun silk. There are two distinct kinds of spun silk — one called " schappe " and the other " spun silk " or " discharged spun silk." All silk produced by the worm is composed of two substances — fibroin, the true thread, and sericin, which is a hard, gummy coating of the " fibroin." Before the silk can be manipulated by machinery to any advantage, the gum coating must be removed, really dissolved and washed away — and according to the method used in achieving this operation the result is either a " schappe " or a " discharged yarn." The former, " schapping," is the French, Italian and Swiss method, from which the silk when finished is neither so bright nor so good in colour as the " discharged silk "; but it is very clean and level, and for some purposes absolutely essential, as, for instance, in velvet manufacture. Schapping. — The method is as follows: If waste silk is piled in a heap in a damp, warm place, and kept moist and warm, the gum will in a few days' time begin to ferment and loosen, and can then be washed off, leaving the true thread soft and supple ; but the smell caused by the fermentation is so offensive that it cannot be practised in or near towns. Therefore schappe spinners place their degumming plant in the hills, near or on a stream of pure water. The waste silk is put into large kilns and covered with hot water (temperature 170° F.). These are then hermetically closed, and left for a few hours for the gum to ferment and loosen. When thoroughly softened — the time occupied depending on the heat of the water and nature of the silk — the contents of the kiln are taken out and placed into vats of hot water, and allowed to soak there for some time. Thence the silk is taken to a washing machine, and the loosened gum thoroughly washed away. The silk is then partly dried in a hydro-extractor, and afterwards put in rooms heated by steam-pipes, where the drying is completed. " Discharging " is the method generally used by the English, and results in a silk having brilliance and purity of colour. In this process the silk waste is put into strong, open-meshed cotton bags, made to hold (in accordance with the wish of individual spinners) from I Ib to 5 ft in weight. When about 100 ft of silk has been bagged, the whole is placed in a large wooden tub and covered with boiling water in which 12 to 20 ft of white curd soap has previously been dissolved. In this the silk is boiled from one to two hours', than taken out and put through a hydro-extractor to remove the dirty gummy solution. Afterwards it is put into another tub of soapy liquor, and boiled from one to one and a half hours. It is then once more hydro-extracted, and finally taken to a stove and dried. " Discharged silk " must be entirely free from gum when finished, where " schappe " contains a percentage of gum — some- times as much as 20%. From this stage both classes of silk receive much the same treat- ment, differing widely in detail in different mills and districts. Conditioning. — The " degummed silk," after it is dried, is allowed to absorb a certain amount of moisture, and thus it becomes soft and pliable to the touch, and properly conditioned for working by machinery. Beating. — When the waste contains any large percentage of worm or chrysalis, it is taken to a " cocoon beater, a machine which has a large revolving disk on which the silk is put, and while revolving slowly is beaten by a leather whip or flail, which loosens the silk and knocks out the wormy matter. After the beating, the silk presents a more loose appearance, but is still tangled and mixed in length of fibre. The object of the spinner at this point is to straighten out the tangles and lumps, and to lay the fibres parallel : the first machine to assist in this process being known as an opening machine, and the second as a filling engine. Opening and Filling. — The silk to be opened is placed on a latticed sheet or feeder, and thus slowly conveyed to a series of rollers or porcupines (rollers set with rows of projecting steel pins), which hold the silk firmly while presenting it to the action of a large receiving drum, covered with a sheet of vulcanized rubber, set all over with fine steel teeth. As the drum revolves at a good speed, the silk is drawn by the steel teeth through the porcupines into the drum in more or less straight and parallel fibres. When the teeth are full the machine is stopped, and the silk stripped off the drum, then presenting a sheet-like appearance technically known as a " lap." The lap is taken to the filling engine, which is similar in construction and appearance to the opener as far as the feeding arrangements are concerned, but the drum, in place of being entirely covered with fine steel teeth, is spaced at intervals of from 5 to 10 in. with rows of coarser straight teeth, each row set parallel with the axle of the machine. The silk drawn by the rows of teeth on the drum through the porcupine rollers (or porcupine sheets in some cases) covers the whole of the drum, hooked at certain intervals round the teeth; and when a sufficient weight is on the machine, it is stopped, and an attendant cuts, with a knife, the silk along the back of each row of teeth, thus leaving a fringe of silk hooked on the pins or teeth. This fringe of silk is placed by the attendant between two hinged boards, and whilst held firmly in these boards (called book-boards) is pulled off the machine, and is called a " strip "; the part which has been hooked round the teeth is called the " face," and the other portion the " tail." By these means the silk has been opened, straightened and then cut into a certain length, the fibres now being fairly laid parallel and ready for the next operation, known as silk dressing. Silk Dressing. — This is the process equivalent to combing in the wool industry. Its purpose is to sort out the different lengths of fibre, and to clear such fibres of their nibs and noils. There are two well-known principles of dressing: one known as " flat frame," giving good result with discharged silk, and the other known as " circular frame " dressing, suitable for schappes. The flat dressing frame is a box or frame holding a certain number of book-boards from the filling engine, which boards when full of silk are screwed tightly together in the frame. The frame is capable of being raised into contact with travelling combs, affixed to an endless belt placed round two metal rollers about 6 ft. apart. The attendant allows the silk to enter gradually into close contact with the combs, which comb through the silk in exactly the same manner as a lady combs her tresses. In a circular frame the silk is clamped between boards, and these are fixed on a large drum. This drum revolves slowly, and in its revolution conveys the fringes of silk past two quickly running smaller combing drums. These combing drums being covered with fine steel teeth penetrate their combs through the fringes of silk depending from the large drum, thus combing through the silk. In each machine the object is the same. First the filled silk is placed into a holding receptacle, clamped fast, and presented to combing teeth. These teeth retain a certain proportion of shorter fibre and rough places and tangled portions of silk, which are taken off the combs in a book-board or wrapped round a stick and again presented to the combs. This fibre again yields combings which will also be combed, and so on for five or six times until the combings are too short, and are taken from the machine and known as noils. The productions from these several combings are known as " drafts " and are of different lengths: the product of the filled silk first placed in the dressing frame being the longest fibre and of course the most valuable. The flat frame is the most gentle in its usage of the silk, but is most costly in labour; whilst the circular frame, being more severe in its action, is not suitable for the thoroughly degummed silks, but on the other hand is best for silks containing much wormy matter, because the silk hanging down into the combing teeth is thoroughly cleansed of such foreign matter, which is deposited under the machine. This method also has the advantage of being cheaper in cost of labour. Recently a new machine has been invented giving the same results as circular frame: the silk depends from boxes into combs, and at the same time has the gentle action of the flat frame. The cost of the operations is as cheap as the circular frame, therefore the machine combines the advantages of each of its predecessors. SILL, E. R.— SILL 107 ils. — The noils resulting from the dressing operations are some- times combed, the comb used being similar to those used in the cotton trade. The resulting sliver is used by silk spinners who make a speciality of spinning short fibres, and the exhaust noils are bought by those who spin them up into " noil yarns " on the same principle as wool. The yarns are chiefly used by manufacturers of powder bags. The noils are also in great demand for mixing with wool to make fancy effects in wool cloths for the dress goods trade. Drafts. — The drafts from the dressing frame are valued in accord- ance with their length of fibre, the longest being known as A or 1st drafts and so on : — 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. D Shorts. or as quality A B Each draft may be worked into a quality of its own, and by such means the most level yarns are obtained. But occasionally one or more draf cs are mixed together, when price is the determining factor. Processes peculiar to Silk Spinning Industry.-^-The foregoing pro- cesses are all peculiar to the silk waste trade, no other fibre having to fo through such processes, nor needing such machinery. In the rst stages of the spun-silk industry, the silk was dressed before boiling the gum out; the resulting drafts were cut into lengths of one or two inches. The silk was then boiled and afterwards beaten, scutched, carded, drawn, spun, folded, &c., in exactly the same way as fine cotton. Short fibre silks are still put through cards and treated like cotton; but the value of silk is in its lustre, elasticity and strength, which characteristics are obtained by keeping fibres as long as possible. Therefore, when gill drawing machinery was invented, the cutting of silk into short fibres ceased, and long silks are now prepared for spinning on what is known as " long spinning process." Following the process of dressing, the drafts have to go through a series of machines known as preparing machines: the object being to piece up the lengths of fibre, and to prepare the silk for spinning. Preparing or Drawing Machinery. — A faller or gill drawing machine consists of a long feeding sheet which conveys silk to a pair of rollers (back rollers). These rollers present the silk to a set of fallers (steel bars into which are fixed fine steel pins), which carry forward the silk to another pair of rollers, which draw the silk through the pins of the fallers and present it to the rollers in a continuous way, thus forming a ribbon of silkcalled a " sliver." Thefallers are travelled forwards by means of screws, and when at the end of the screw are dropped automatically into the thread of a receiving screw fixed below, which carries the fallers back to their starting point to be risen by cams into the top pair of screws thus to repeat their journey. Silk Spreader. — This is the first of the series of drawing machines. The drafts from the dressing frame are made into little parcels of a few ounces in weight, and given to the spreader, who opens out the silk and spreads it thinly and evenly on to the feeding sheet, placing a small portion of the sijk only on the sheet. Another portion is opened out and placed tail end to the first portion ; and these opera- tions are repeated until the requisite weight is spread. During this time the silk has been conveyed through the fallers and into a large receiving drum about 3 ft. in diameter, the silk being wrapped thinly and evenly all round the circumference of the drum. When the agreed-on weight is on the drum, the silk is drawn across the face of the drum parallel with its axle, and pulled off in form of a sheet, and is called a lap. This lap is thin, but presents the fibres of silk now joined and overlapped in a continuous form, the length measured by the circumference of the drum. This lap is sometimes re-spread to make it more even, and at other times taken to a drawing machine which delivers in a sliver form. This sliver is taken through a series of four other drawing machines called " four head drawing box." Eight or more slivers are put behind the first drawing head, con- veyed through the fallers and made into one sliver in front of the machine. This sliver is put up behind the second drawing; eight or more ends together run through the second head again into one sliver; and so on through the third and fourth heads of drawing. All these doublings of the sliver and re-drawing are for the purpose of getting each fibre to lie parallel and to make the sliver of an equal weight over every yard of its length. From the last head of drawing the sliver is taken to a machine known as a gill rover. This is a drawing machine fitted with fallers through which the sliver is drawn, but the end from the front roller is wound on to a bobbin. The machine is fitted with 20 to 40 of these bobbins placed side by side, and its product is known as " slubbing roving," it being now a soft, thick thread of silk, measuring usually either 840 or 1260 yds. to I fb weight. Hitherto all the drawing has been by rollers and fallers, but in the next machine the drawing is done by rollers only. Dandy Roving Frame. — This is a frame built with forty or more spindles. Two or three slubbing rovings are put up behind the machine opposite each spindle; each end is guided separately into back rollers and thence between smaller rollers, known as carrier rollers, to the front rollers. The back rollers revolve slowly, the front rollers quickly, thus drawing the rovings out into a thinner size or count. The product is wound on to the bobbin by means of flyer and spindle, and is known as dandied or fine roving, and is then ready for the spinning frame. Spinning. — The spinning is done by exactly the same methods as cotton or worsted, viz. either mules, ring frames, cap or flyer 'rames, the choice of machine being determined by the size or count of yarn intended to be produced. Twisting and Doubling.— -If a 2-fold or 3-fold yarn is needed, then two or more ends of the spun thread are wound together and after- wards conveyed to the twisting frame for the purpose of putting the needed twist in the yarn necessary for weaving or other require- ments. This process is exactly the same as in the cotton or worsted industry, ring or flyer frames being used as desired. Weft Yarns. — These are taken straight from the spinning frame, wound on to a long paper tube and so delivered to the manufacturer ready to place in the loom shuttle. Folded Yarns are hairy after being spun and folded, and in addition sometimes contain nibs and rough places. The fibre and nibs have to be cleaned off by means of a gassing machine so constructed that the end of silk (silk yarn) is frictioned to throw off the nibs, and at the same time is run very rapidly through a gas flame a sufficient number of times to burn off the hairy and fibrous matter without injuring the main thread. The yarn is now ready for reeling into skeins or for warping, both of which operations are common to all the textile yarns. It may be washed or dyed just as required, either in hank or in warp. Growth of Industry and Uses of Spun Silk.— As will have been gathered, spun silk is pure silk just as much as that used by the throwster. The spinning industry has not decreased in England. The number of mills has decreased, but machinery now runs so much more quickly than formerly that more yarn is being spun on fewer spindles. The American spinning industry shows little signs of expansion in spite of a protective tariff of some 35 %. The conti- nental spinners have largely increased, but are developing into huge syndicates, all working on the schappe principle. The three chief syndicates, one each in Italy, France and Switzerland, work very much together, practically ruling the prices for yarns and raw materials. Spun silks are used largely for silk linings, hosieries, sewing threads, elastic webbing, lace, plush and many other purposes, such as mufflers, dress goods and blouse silks; also for mixing with other fibres in form of stripes in the weaving of various fabrics, or to be used in what are known as mixed goods, i.e. a warp of silk and weft of some other fibre or weft of silk and a warp of cotton or other fibre. The article known as tussur spun is prepared in exactly the same manner as other spun silks, but its chief use is to make an imitation of sealskin known commercially as silk seal. (A. MEL.) SILL, EDWARD ROWLAND (1841-1887), American poet and educationist, was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 29th of April 1841. He graduated at Yale in 1861, as class poet; engaged in business in California; entered the Harvard Divinity School in 1867, but soon left it for a position on the staff of the New York Evening Mail; and after teaching at Wadsworth and Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio (1868-1871), became principal of the Oak- land High School, California. He was professor of English literature at the university of California in 1874-1882. His health was failing, and he returned to Cuyahoga Falls in 1883. He devoted himself to literary work, abundant and largely anonymous, until his death in Cleveland, Ohio, on the 27th of February 1887. Much of his poetry was contributed to the Atlantic Monthly, the Century Magazine, and the Overland Monthly. Many of his graceful prose essays appeared in " The Contributors' Club," and others appeared in the main body of the Atlantic. Among his works are a translation of Rau's Mozart (1868); The Hermitage and Other Poems (1868); The Venus of Milo and Other Poems (1883), a farewell tribute to his California friends; Poems (1887); The Hermitage and Later Poems (1889); Hermione and Other Poems (1900); The Prose of Edward Rowland Sill (1900) ; Poems (1902). He was a modest and charming man, a graceful essayist, a sure critic. His contribu- tion to American poetry is small but of fine quality. His best poems, such as The Venus of Milo, The Fool's Prayer and Opportunity, gave him a high place among the minor poets of America, which might have been higher but for his early death. See A Memorial volume privately printed by his friends in 1887; and " Biographical Sketch " in The Poetical Works of Edward Rowland Sill (Boston, 1906), edited by William Belmont Parker with Mrs Sill's assistance. SILL (O.Eng. syl, Mid. E. sylle, selle; the word appears in led. syll, svill, Swed. syll, and Dan. syld, and in German, as Schwelle; Skeat refers to the Teutonic root swal-, swell, the word meaning the rise or swell formed by a beam at a threshold; the Lat. solea, from which comes Fr. seuil, gives Eng. " sole," also sometimes used for " sill "), the horizontal base of a door or window-frame. A technical distinction is made between the inner or wooden base io8 SILL of the window-frame and the stone base on which it rests — the latter being called the sill of the window, and the former that of its frame. This term is not restricted to the bases of apertures; the lower horizontal part of a framed partition is called its sill. The term is sometimes incorrectly written " cill." (See MASONRY.) SILL, in geology, an intrusive mass of igneous rock which consolidated beneath the surface and has a large horizontal extent in comparison with its thickness. In the north-eastern counties of England there is a great mass of this kind known as the Whin Sill. The term " whin " is used in many parts of England and Scotland to designate hard, tough, dark coloured rocks often of igneous origin, and the Whin Sill is a mass of dolerite or, more strictly, quartz-diabase. Its most striking character is the great distance over which it can be traced. It starts not far north of Kirkby Stephen (Co. Durham) and follows a northerly course, describing a great curve with its convexity towards the west, till it ends on the sea-shore at Bamborough, not far south of Berwick-on-Tweed. The length of the outcrop is about 80 m., but in places it is covered with superficial deposits or may be actually discontinuous. Near Haltwhistle, however, it is visible for about 20 m., and as it lies among softer rocks (limestones and shales), it weathers out on a bold craggy ridge or escarpment. When it crosses the streams the resistant character of the igneous rock is indicated by waterfalls or " forces," e.g. High Force in Teesdale. The thickness varies from 20 to 150 ft., but averages 90 ft. In some places the Whin Sill splits up into two or more smaller sills which may unite, or one of them may die out and disappear, and often small attendant sills, resembling the main mass in petrographical character, appear in association with it. It is difficult to estimate the area over which it extends, as it dips downwards from its outcrop and is no longer visible, but we may conjecture that it spreads over no less than 4000 sq. m. underground. The rocks in which it lies belong to the Carboniferous Lime- stone series, and the Sill is probably one of the manifestations of the volcanic activity which occurred during the later part of the carboniferous period. Many similar sills, often of large size, though none so great as the Whin Sill, are found in the Scottish coalfields. There are few lavas or ash beds at or above the horizons on which these intrusive rocks lie, and hence it has been concluded that towards the close of that volcanic episode in British geological history the molten magmas which were impelled upwards towards the surface found a place of rest usually within the sedimentary rocks, and rarely flowed out as lavas on the sea- bottom (the intrusive succeeding the effusive phase of volcanic action). In the Carboniferous rocks the Whin Sill lies almost like an interstratified bed, following the same horizon for many miles and hardly varying more in thickness than the sedimentary bands which accompany it. This, however, is true only on a large scale, for where the junctions are well exposed the igneous rock frequently breaks across the layers of stratification, and sometimes it departs quite suddenly from one horizon and passes to another, where again for a time it continues its apparently regular course. Its intrusive character is also shown by the emission of small veins, never very persistent, cutting the sediments above or below it. In addition, it bakes and hardens the adjacent rocks, both below and above, and this proves that the superjacent beds had already been deposited and the molten diabase forced its way along the bedding planes, as natural lines of weakness. The amount of contact alteration is not usually great, but the sandstones are hardened to quartzites, the shales become brittle and splintery, and in the impure limestones many new calc-silicates are produced. The Whin Sill consists of a dark-green granular diabase, in which quartz or micropegmatite appears as the last product of crystallization. It is not usually vesicular and is not porphyritic, though exceptions may occasionally be noted. At both the upper and the under surface the diabase becomes much finer grained, and the finest intrusive veinlets which enter the surrounding rocks may even show remains of a glassy base. These phenomena are due to the rapid cooling where the magma was in contact with the sediments. No ash beds accompany the Whin Sill, but there are certain dikes which occur near it and probably belong to the same set of injections. In many places the diabase is quarried as a road-mending stone. The great Palisade trap of the Hudson river, which is an almost exact parallel to the Whin Sill, is an enormous sheet of igneous rock exposed among the Triassic beds of New Jersey and New York. • It has an outcrop which is about 100 m. long; its thickness is said to be in places 800 ft., though usually not above 200 to 300 ft. Like the Whin Sill the rock is a quartz-diabase occasionally passing into olivine-diabase, especially near its edges. The Palisade diabase is compact, non-vesicular and non-porphyritic as a rule. It follows the bedding planes of the sedimentary rocks into which it was injected, but breaks across them locally and produces a considerable amount of contact alteration. In New Jersey, however, there is also an ex- tensive development of effusive rocks which are olivine-basalts, and by their slaggy surfaces, the attendant ash-beds and their strictly conformable mode of occurrence, show that they were true lavas poured out at the surface. There can be little doubt that they belong to the same, period as the Palisade trap, and they are consequently later than the Whin Sill. These great sheets of igneous rock intruded into cold and nearly horizontal strata must have solidified very gradually. Their edges are fine grained owing to their having been rapidly chilled, and the whole mass is usually divided by joints into vertical columns, which are narrower and more numerous at top and base and broader in the centre. Where exposed by denudation the rocks, owing to this system of jointing, tend to present a nearly vertical, mural escarpment which seems to consist of polygonal pillars. The name " Palisade trap " expresses this type of scenery, so characteristic of intrusive sills, and very fine examples of it may be seen on the banks of the Hudson river. In Britain it is no less clearly shown, as by the Sill at Stirling on which Wallace's Monument is placed; and by the well-known escarpment of Salisbury Crags which fronts the town of Edinburgh. In the Tertiary volcanic district of the West of Scotland and North Ireland, including Skye, Mull and Antrim, innumerable sills occur. Perhaps the best known is the Sciur of Eigg, which forms a high ridge terminating in a vertical cliff or Sciur in the island of Eigg, one of the inner Hebrides. At one time it was supposed to be a lava-flow, but A. Harker has maintained that it is of intrusive origin. This Sill occupies only a small area as compared with those above described. Its length is about two and a half miles and its breadth about a quarter of a mile. On the east side it terminates in a great cliff from 300 to 400 ft. high, rising from a steep slope below. This cliff is beautifully columnar, and shows also a horizontal banding, simulat- ing bedding. The back of the intrusive sheet is a long ridge sloping downwards to the west. The rock of which the Sciur of Eigg consists is a velvety black pitchstone, containing large shining crystals of felspar; it is dull or cryptocrystalline in places, but its glassy char- acter is one of its most remarkable peculiarities. In the Tertiary volcanic series of Scotland and Ireland intrusive sheets build up a great part of the geological succession. They are for the most part olivine-basalts and dolerites, and while some of them are nearly horizontal, others are inclined. Among the lavas of the basaltic plateaus there is great. abundance of sills, which are so numerous, so thin and so nearly concordant to the bedding of the effusive rocks that there is great difficulty in distinguishing them. As a rule, however, they are more perfectly columnar, more coarsely crystalline and less vesicular than the igneous rocks which consoli- dated at the surface. These sills are harder and more resistant t/fian the tuffs and vesicular lavas, and on the hill slopes their presence is often indicated by small vertical steps, while on the cliff faces their columnar jointing is often very conspicuous. On modern volcanoes intrusive sheets are seldom visible except where erosion has cut deep valleys into the mountains and exposed their interior structure. This is the case, for example, in Ireland, Teneriffe, Somma and Etna and in the volcanic islands of the West Indies. In their origin the deep-seated injections escape notice; many of them in fact belong to a period when superficial forms of volcanic action have ceased and the orifices of the craters have been obstructed by ashes or plugged by hard crystalline rock. But in the volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands the craters are filled at times with liquid basalt which suddenly escapes, without the appearance of any lava at the surface. The molten rock, in such a catf, must have found a passage underground, following some bedding plane or fissure, and giving rise to a dike or sill among the older lavas or in the sediment- ary rocks beneath. Many of the great sills, however, may have been connected with no actual volcanoes, and may represent great supplies of igneous magma which rose from beneath but never actually reached the earth's surface. The connexion between sills and dikes is very close ; both of them are of subterranean consolidation, but the dikes occupy vertical or highly inclined fissures, while the sills have a marked tendency to a horizontal position. Accordingly we find that sills are most common in stratified rocks, igneous or sedimentary. Very frequently sills give rise to dikes, and in other cases dikes spread out in a horizontal direction and become sills. It is often of considerable importance to SILLIMAN— SILURIAN 109 distinguish between sills and lavas, but this may be by no means easy. The Sciur of Eigg is a good example of the difficulty in iden- tifying intrusive masses. Lavas indicate that volcanic action was going on contemporaneously with the deposit of the beds among which they occur. Sills, on the other hand, show only that at some subsequent period there was liquid magma working its way to the surface. (J. S. F.) SILLIMAN, BENJAMIN (1779-1864), American chemist and geologist, was born on the 8th of August 1779 at Trumbull (then called North Stratford), Connecticut. Entering Yale College in 1792, he graduated in 1796, became tutor in 1799, and in 1802 was appointed professor of chemistry and mineralogy, a position which he retained till 1853, when by his own desire he retired as professor emeritus. Not only was he a popular and successful teacher of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in the college for half a century, but he also did much to improve and extend its educational resources, especially in regard to its mineralogical collections, the Trumbull Gallery of Pictures, the Medical Institution and the Sheffield Scientific School. Outside Yale he was well known as one of the few men who could hold the attention of a popular audience with a scientific lecture, and on account of his clear and interesting style, as well as of the un- wonted splendour of his illustrative experiments, his services were in great request not only in the northern and eastern states but also in those of the south. His original investigations were neither numerous nor important, and his name is best known to scientific men as the founder, and from 1818 to 1838 the sole editor, of the American Journal of Science and Arts — often called Silliman's Journal, — one of the foremost American scientific serials. In 1810 he published A Journal of Travels in England, Holland and Scotland, in which he described a visit to Europe undertaken in 1805 in preparation for the duties of his chair. He paid a second visit in 1851, of which he also issued an account, and among his other publications were Elements of Chemistry (1830), and editions of W. Henry's Chemistry with notes (1808), and of R. BakewelFs Geology (1827). He died at New Haven on the 24th of November 1864. His son, BENJAMIN SILLIMAN (1816-1885), chemist and mineralogist, was born at New Haven on the 4th of December 1816. After graduating at Yale in 1837 he became assistant to his father, and in 1847 was appointed professor in the school of applied chemistry, which was largely due to his efforts and formed the nucleus of the subsequent Sheffield Scientific School. In 1849 he was appointed professor of medical chemistry and toxicology in the Medical College at Louisville, Kentucky, but relinquished that office in 1854 to succeed his father in the chair of chemistry at Yale. The duties of this professorship, so far as they related to the Academic College, he gave up in 1870, but he retained his connexion with the Medical College till his death, which happened at New Haven on the i4th of January 1885. Much of his time, especially during the last twenty years of his life, was absorbed in making examinations of mines and preparing expert reports on technical processes of chemical manufacture; but he was also able to do a certain amount of original work, publishing papers on the chemistry of various minerals, on meteorites, on photo- graphy with the electric arc, the illuminating powers of gas, &c. A course of lectures given by him on agricultural chemistry in the winter of 1845-1846 at New Orleans is believed to have been the first of its kind in the United States. In 1846 he published First Principles of Chemistry and in 1858 First Principles of Physics or Natural Philosophy, both of which had a large circula- tion. In 1853 he edited a large quarto illustrated volume, The World of Science, Art and Industry, which was followed in 1854 by The Progress of Science and Mechanism. In 1874, when the tooth anniversary of Priestley's preparation of oxygen was celebrated as the " Centennial of Chemistry " at Northumberland, Pa., where Priestley died, he delivered an historical address on " American Contributions to Chemistry," which contains a full list, with their works, of American chemists up to that date. From 1838 to 1845 he was associated with his father in the editorship of the American Journal of Science, and from 1845 to the end of his life his name appeared on the title page as one of the editors in chief. SILLIMANITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of aluminium silicate, A^SiOs. It has the same percentage chemical composi- tion as cyanite (q.v.) and andalusite (q.v.), but differs from these in crystalline form and physical characters. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and has the form of long, slender needles without terminal planes, which are often aggregated together to form fibrous and compact masses; hence the name fibrolile, which is often employed for this species. The name sillimanite is after Benjamin Silliman the elder. There is a perfect cleavage in one direction parallel to the length of the needles. The colour is greyish-white or brownish, and the lustre vitreous. The hardness is 65 and the specific gravity 3-23. Sillimanite is a characteristic mineral of gneisses and crystalline schists, and it is sometimes a product of contact-metamorphism. It has been observed at many localities; e.g. in Bohemia (the Faserkiesel of Lindacker, 1792), with corundum in the Carnatic (fibrolite of comte de Bournon, 1802), Chester in Connecticut (sillimanite of G. T. Bowen, 1824), Monroe in New York (" mon- rolite"), Bamle near Brevik in Norway ("bamlite"). Pre- historic implements made of compact sillimanite are found in western Europe, and have a certain resemblance to jade imple- ments. (L. J. S.) SILLY, weakly foolish, stupid. This is the current sense of a word which has much changed its meaning. The O.E. scdig (usually ges&lig) meant prosperous, happy, and was formed from sal, time, season, hence happiness, cf. Icel. scda, bliss; Ger. selig, blessed, happy, &c., probably also allied to Lat. sahus, whole, safe. The development of meaning is happy, blessed, innocent or simple, thence helpless, weak, and so foolish. The old provincial and Scottish word for a caul (q.v.) was " silly- how," i.e. " lucky cap." The development of meaning of " simple," literally " onefold " (Lat. simplex), plain, artless, hence unlearned, foolish, is somewhat parallel. A special meaning of " simple," in the sense of medicinal herbs, is due to the supposition that each herb had its own particular or simple medicinal value. SILURES, a powerful and warlike tribe in ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouth, Brecon and Glamorgan. They made a fierce resistance to the Roman conquest about A.D. 48, but a legionary fortress (Isca Silurum, Caerleon) was planted in their midst and by A.D. 78 they were overcome. Their town Venta Silurum (Caerwent, 6 m. W. of Chepstow) became a Romanized town, not unlike Silchester, but smaller. Its massive Roman walls still survive, and recent excavations have revealed a town hall and market square, a temple, baths, amphitheatre, and many comfortable houses with mosaics, &c. An inscription shows that under the Roman Empire it was the chef-lieu of the Silures, whose ordo or county council provided for the local government of the district. (F. J. H.) SILURIAN, in geology, a series of strata which is here under- stood to include those Palaeozoic rocks which lie above the Ordovician and below the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone, viz. the Llandoverian (Valentian of C. Lap worth), Wenlockian and Ludlovian groups of Great Britain with their foreign equiva- lents. A word of caution is necessary, however, for in the early history of British stratigraphy the exact delimitation of " Silurian" was the subject of a great controversy, and the term has been used with such varying significance in geological literature, that considerable confusion may arise unless the numerous inter- pretations of the title are understood. The name " Silurian " was first introduced by Sir R. I. Murchison in 1835 for a series of rocks on the border counties of England and Wales — a region formerly inhabited by the Silures. Murchison's Silurian em- braced not only the rock groups indicated above, but others below them that were much older, even such as are now classed as Cambrian. About the same time A. Sedgwick proposed the term Cambrian for a great succession of rocks which includes much of Murchison's Silurian system in its upper part; hence arose that controversy which left so lasting a mark on British geology. In 1850 A. d'Orbigny suggested the name " Murchi- sonian " for what is here retained as the Silurian system. As a solution of the difficulties of nomenclature, Professor C. Lapworth in 1879 proposed the term Ordovician systems (q.v.) no SILURIAN for those rocks which had been the Lower Silurian of Murchison and the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick. An approximate cor- relation of the usages of the title " Silurian" is here given in tabulated form: — R. I. Murchison. A. Sedgwick. C. Lapworth. American. A. ilu Lapparent. E. Renevier. Silurian. o . • (Upper Silurian of some authors.) u r ian. Silurian. Silurian (Salopian). Niagaran (S. D. Dana). Ontaric or Silur (Emmons, &c.] 1844. Bohemien (2nd ed. Traite Gothlandien (3rd-5th ed.). Ordovician. 12 (/r e V 3 (Lower Silurian in d rt o c C 'SO e cr of some authors.) 3 S -S g IH J S •^ 5 u 3 • c cfl 1 1 c r" LIJ y rt C °V m 15 T3 .Q O c/1 S o g Cambrian. d a d d Upper. •c ** .2 'C Middle. Lower. JJ 9 jj E C] u U U The Silurian rocks are almost wholly of marine origin and in- clude all the usual phases of sedimentation; shales and mudstones, marls and limestones, sandstones and grits are all represented in Great Britain and in most other countries where the Silurian is known. The majority of the rocks were deposited in the com- paratively shallow waters of epicontinental seas, the graptolitic shales and sponge-bearing cherts being perhaps the representa- tives of the deeper waters. Locally, glauconitic limestones and ironstones (Clinton beds) indicate special conditions; while the isolation and desiccation of certain marine areas (New York) towards the close of the period gave rise to beds of red sandstone, red marls, gypsum and rock salt. The hydraulic limestone (Water Lime) of New York was probably a brackish-water forma- tion. In Sweden and elsewhere some of the limestones and shales are distinctly bituminous. Distribution. — In the preceding Ordovician period several well- marked marine provinces are indicated by the fossil contents of the rocks. At the beginning of Silurian time a general transgression of the sea — which had commenced at the close of the Ordovician — was in progress in the N. hemisphere (Europe and the Appalachian region). This culminated at the time when the Wenlock -beds and their equivalents (Niagaran and Oesel beds) were forming at the bottom of a great periarctic sea or shallow ocean. It is thus found that the same general characters prevail in the Silurian of Britain, N. America, Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Russian Poland (Podolia, Kielce, Galicia), the Arctic regions, New Siberia (Kotelny), Olenk district, Waigatsch, N. Zembla, Tunguska, Greenland, Grinnell Land and China. The Bohemian region, comprising central Bohemia, Thuringia, Fichtelgebirge, Salzburg, Pyrenees, Languedoc, Catalonia, South Spain, Elba and Sardinia, alone retained some of its marked individuality. Later in the period a gradual withdrawal of the sea set in over the N. hemisphere, affecting the British area (except Devon), the left of the Rhine, Norway and the Baltic region, N. Russia, Siberia and the Ural region, Spitzbergen, Greenland and the W. states of N. America. Thus the later Silurian conditions heralded those of the succeeding Devonian and Old Red Sandstone, and there is generally a gradual passage from one set of rocks to the other (Downtonian of Great Britain). The Silurian rocks may occur in close continuity with the upper Ordovician, as in S. Europe; or, as in the typical region, the Llandovery beds may rest unconformably upon older rocks; in N. America also there is a marked uncon- formity on this horizon. A large part of N. America was apparently land during part of Silurian time; the lower members are found in the E. alone, while the Cayaguan division is found to extend farther E. than the middle or Niagaran division, but not so far W. The falls of Niagara owe their existence to the presence of the hard Lockport and Guelph beds resting upon the softer Rochester shales. Most of the essential information as to the distribution of Silurian rocks will be found in a condensed form in the accompanying table and map; but attention may here be drawn to the upper Silurian (Ludlovian) limestone of Cornwallis Island, the mid-Silurian lime- stone of Grinnell Land and the lower Silurian limestone of New Siberia. Limestones of lower and middle Silurian age are found also in Timan, Tunguska and elsewhere in N. Russia. Rocks of thi? system in S. America have been only superficially studied; they occur in the lower regions of the Amazon, where they bear some resemblance to the Medina and Clinton stages of N. America, and in Bolivia and Peru. Little is known of the Silurian rocks recorded from N. Africa. Silurian Life.— Our know- ledge of the life of this period is limited to the inhabitants of the seas and of the brackish waters of certain districts. The remains of marine organisms are abundant and varied. Grap- tolites flourished as in the pre- ceding period, but the forms characteristic of the Ordovician gave place early in the Silurian to the single-axis type (Mono- graptidae) which prevailed until the close of the period (Rast- rites, Monograptus, Retiolites and Cyrtograptus). As in the Ordovician rocks, the grapto- lites have been largely em- ployed as zonal indicators. Trilobites were important; the genera Calymene, Phacops and Encrinurus attained their maxi- mum development ; Proetus, Bronteus, Cyphaspis, Arethusina may be mentioned from among many other genera. The ostracods Leperditia and Bey- richia are very abundant locally. A feature of great interest is the first appearance of the remarkable Eurypterid crustacean Eurypterus, which occasionally reached the length of over a yard, and of the limulids, Neolimulus and Hemiaspis. The cephalopods were the predominant molluscs, especially Orthoceras and various abbrevi- ated or coiled orthoceras-hke forms (Cyrtoceras, Phragmoceras, Trochoceras, Ascoceras); there was also a Nautilus, and an early form of goniatite has been recorded. Gasteropods include the genera Platyceras, Murchisonia and Bellerophon; the pteropod Tentaculites is very abundant in certain beds. The pelecypods were not very important (Cypricardinia, Cardiola interrupta, C. cornucopiae).' Next to the cephalopods in importance were the brachiopods : in thfe lower Silurian pentamerus-like forms still continued (P. Knighlii, Silurian Period Suggested distribution of Land & Water After dc Lippkrcm P. oblongus), but the spire-bearing forms soon began to increase (Spirifer, Whitfieldia, Meristina, A try pa). Other genera include Rhynchonella, Chonetes, Terebratula, Strophomena, Stricklandinia. The bryozoa, especially the bulky rock-building forms, were less in evidence than in the Ordovician. The echinoderms were well represented by the crinoids (Cyathocrinus , Crotalocrinus , Taxocrinus), some of which are found in a state of beautiful preservation at Dudley in England, Lockport (New York), Waldron (Indiana) in N. America and also in Gothland in the Baltic. Cystids were abundant, but less so than in the Ordovician ; blastoids made their first appear- ance. Corals, mostly tabulate forms, flourished in great abundance in the clearer waters and frequently formed reefs (Favosites goth- landica, Halysites catenularia, Alveolites, Heliolites) ; tetracorallian forms include Stauria, Cyathophyllum, Cystiphyllum, Acervularia, Omphyma and the remarkable Goniophyllum. Sponges were repre- sented by Astylospongia, Aulocopium, &c. The peculiar genera SILVA in A pproximate Correlation of Silurian Rocks. Graptolite Zones (Britain). England and Wales. Scotland. Scandinavian. Baltic Region. Bohemia. Western Europe. 1 w North America (New York). d S3 £J New Brunswick. < Australia. Monograplus leintwardin- Downton and Downtonian and Upper Cardiola beds and upper Eurypterus beds. Stage E2 of J. Barrande. Manlius limestone. J3 rt • „• ensis. Ludlow groups. Raeberry Castle Cephalopod or Gothland lime- Limestones a | Rondout Water Lime. _.- i | •3 *s? Af. bohtmicus. M. Nilssoni, beds. stone. Red sandstone. Lower cephalopod limestone. Upper Oesel dolomite with cephalopods. d 4 .a Cobleskill limestone. Salina beds of Onondaga with :AYAGU/ 1 g group. group. the Ilimal; of Shansi. New Soul Tasmania j merits Kr< Crinoid and coral and S3 1 rock salt '& S c *"• g o "5 limestone. limestones. it and E ° 2 d"=<£ li d gypsum. c o *£ 1 ° S o *- Lower Cardiola a S • • •s a is •- shales and Megn- rt^ g B O. s |= a * lomus limestones. & '3 "z _a I*3 M. testis. Wenlock and Riccarton, Blair, Cyrtograptus shales and lower Lower Oesel beds: Crinoid limestones. il J "3 Guelph dolomite. O 6 • 4 Cyrtograptus Linnarssoni. Woolhope groups. and Straiten beds. brachiopod and coral limestone with sandstone. dolomite and marl. n II J 1 Lockport limestone. <£ il d •**! o ... Cyrtograptus Murchisoni. "* d s a Rochester •j J i •1 n Ex sj o shales. H d 2 rt « tt •3 s tl c • 1 Clinton beds. o JS d 11 as 11 d d u s'B Rattrites Tarannon, Queensberry Raslrites shales Pentamcrus Stage EI of II 1 J d o -1 *O =" "a -3 maximus. Llandovery, and beds. and Strickland- inia marls. beds. J. Barrande. Graptolite a ei ,r. Medina sandstone. g 1 rt 1 II •I M. spinigerus. May Hill Birkhill shales shales S "rt2 •< 3 d CA • *fl o.tij> groups. and with O "S 4* Oneida • t3 "O II "S ^**" M. gregarius. Graptolitic beds diabase .y.§ conglomerate. > 7T * iji of the at the base. ^;T £ ^ 13 « *rt ii Diplograptus vcsiculosus. Girvan area. O S £.2 n Shawangunk grit. 0 1 * a •ft o 0 E Diplograptus « acuminatus. Receptaculites and Ischadites occur in the Silurian. Foraminifera and radiolaria also left their remains in the rocks. The most highly organized animals of the Silurian period were the fishes which had already made their appearance in the Ordovician rocks of Colorado and Russia. The Silurian fish include selachians (Onchus, Tkyestis), and the occurrence of remains of the obscure backboned ostra- coderms (placoderms) is particularly worthy of notice (Pteraspis, Cephalaspis, Tremataspis, Cyathaspis, Thelodus, Lanarkia, Euker- aspis). Scorpions (Palaesphonus) have been found in Lanark, Gothland and New York. Plant remains are very fully repre- sented; land plants have been recorded from the Harz and Keller- wald (H. Potonie, 1901), and large silicified stems — up to 2 ft. in diameter — perhaps representing a gigantic seaweed (Nematophycus) , have been found in Wales and in Canada. Pachytheca is a small spherical body often associated with Nematophycus. Girvanella is another obscure algal plant. As a natural result of the open character of the great Silurian periarctic sea referred to above, there are many points of resemblance between the fauna of the several regions of the N. hemisphere; this has been specially noticed in the community not only of genera but of species between Britain, Sweden and the interior of N. America (Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois). Goniophyttum pyramidale is common to Iowa and Gothland; A try pa reticularis , Orthoceras annulatum and not a few others are common to Europe and N. America. An extremely interesting circumstance is the admixture of a periarctic and Bohemian fauna in the Australasian region. In a general sense the Silurian period was one of comparative quiescence as regards crustal disturbances, and a relative sinking of the land was followed by a relative elevation affecting wide areas in the N. hemisphere. Local oscillations, such as those taking part in the formation of the Salina beds, &c., were naturally taking place, but the folding of the Scandinavian mountains and in the N. highlands of Scotland continued throughout the period accompanied by a great amount of thrusting. Volcanic activity was quite subordinate in Silurian times; flows of diabase occurred at the commencement of the period in Bohemia, and evidence of minor basaltic flows and tuffs is found at Tortworth in Gloucestershire and at a few localities in N. America. For further information, see articles on the CAMBRIAN, ORDOVICIAN, LLANDOVERY, WENLOCK, LUDLOW Systems and Groups. (J. A. H.) SILVA, ANTONIO JOS6 DA (1705-1739), Portuguese drama- tist, known as " the Jew," was born at Rio de Janeiro, but came to Portugal at the age of eight. His parents, Joao Mendes da Silva and Lourenga Coutinho, were descended from Portuguese Jews who had emigrated to Brazil to escape the Inquisition, but in 1702 that tribunal began to persecute the Marranos in Rio, and in October 1712 Lourenca Coutinho fell a victim. Her husband and children accompanied her to Portugal, where she figured among the " reconciled " in the auto-da-fe of the gth of July 1713, after undergoing the torment only. Her husband, having then acquired a fixed domicile in Lisbon, settled down to advocacy with success, and he was able to send Antonio to the university of Coimbra, where he matriculated in the faculty of law. In 1726 Antonio was suddenly imprisoned along with his mother on the 8th of August; on the i6th he suffered the first interrogation, and on the 23rd of September he was put to the torment, with the result that three weeks later he could not sign his name. He confessed to having followed the practices of the Mosaic law, and this saved his life. He went through the great auto-da-fe held on the 23rd of October in the presence of King John V. and his court, abjured his errors, and was set at liberty. His mother was only released from prison in October 1729, after she had undergone torture and figured as a penitent in another auto-da-ft. Meanwhile Antonio had gone back to Coimbra, and finishing his course in 1728-1729 he returned to Lisbon and became associated with his father as an advocate. He found an ignorant and corrupt society ruled by an immoral yet fanatical monarch, who wasted millions on unprofitable buildings though the country was almost without roads and the people had become the most backward in Europe. As his plays show, the spectacle struck Antonio's observation, but he had to criticize with caution. He produced his first play or opera in 1733, and the next year he married a cousin, D. Leonor Maria de Carvalho, whose parents had been burnt by the Inquisition, while she herself had gone through an auto-da-fe in Spain and been exiled on account of her religion. A daughter was born to them in 1734, but the years of their happiness and of Silva's dramatic career were few, for on the 5th of October 1737 husband and wife were both imprisoned on the charge of " judaizing." A slave of theirs had denounced them to the Holy Office, and though the details of the accusation against them seem trivial and even contradictory, Antonio was condemned to death. On the i8th of October he was beheaded and his body burnt in an auto-da-ft; 112 SILVANUS— SILVER that same day one of his popular operettas was given at a Lisbon theatre. His dramatic works, which were produced at the Bairro Alto theatre between 1733 and 1738, include the following comedies, all played by marionettes: — D. Quixote (1733), Esopaida (1734), Os Encantos de Medea (1735), Amphitriao (May 1736), Labyrintho de Creta (November 1736), Guerras do Alecrim e Mangerona (carnival of 1737), As Variedades de Proteo (May 1737) and Precipicio de Faetonte (1738). Slight as these sketches are, they show considerable dramatic talent and an Aristophanic wit. The characters are well drawn and the dialogue full of comic strength, the scenes knit together and the plot skilfully worked out. Moreover Silva possessed a knowledge of stagecraft, and, if he had lived, he might have emanci- pated the drama in Portugal from its dependence on foreign writers; but the triple licence of the Palace, the Ordinary and the Inquisition, which a play required, crippled spontaneity and freedom. Even so, he showed some boldness in exposing types of the prevailing charla- tanism and follies, though his liberty of speech is far less than that of Gil Vicente (q.v.). His comedies give a truthful and interesting picture of 1 8th century society, especially his best comedy, the Alecrim e Mangerona, in which he treats of the fidalgo pobre, a type fixed by Gil Vicente and Francisco Manoel de Mello (?.».). His works bear the title "operas" because, though written mainly in prose, they contain songs which Silva introduced in imitation of the true operas which then held the fancy of the public. He was also a lyric poet of real merit, combining correctness of form with a pretty inspiration and real feeling. His plays were published in the first two volumes of a collection entitled TJieatro comico portuguez, which went through at least five editions in the 1 8th century, while the Alecrim e Mange- rona appeared separately in some seven editions. This comedy and the D. Quixote have been reprinted in a critical edition with a life of Silva by Dr Mendes dos Remedies (Coimbra, 1905). Ferdinand Denis, in his Chefs-d'oeuvre du theatre portugais (pp. 365-496, Paris, 1823), prints liberal extracts, with a French translation, from the Vida de D. Quixote, and F. Wolf likewise gives selections from Silva's various compositions. Silva is the subject also of several laudatory poems and dramas, one or two of which were composed by Brazilian compatriots. See Dr Theophilo Braga, Historia do theatre portuguez; a baixa comedia e a opera (Oporto, 1871); F. Wolf, Dom Antonio Jose da Silva (Vienna, 1860); Ernest David, Les Operas dujuif Antonio Jose da Silva, 1705-1739 (Paris, 1880); Oliveira Lima, Aspectos de litteratura colonial Brazileira (Leipzig, 1896); Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. xi. p. 341 ; G. A. Kohnt, " Bibliography of Works relating to Antonio Jos6 da Silva and Bibliography of Don Antonio's Compositions " in the Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. No. 4, p. 181 ; idem, " Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America," ib. p. 135; M. Griinwald, "Jose da Silva" in Monatsschrift (1880), xxix. P- 241. (E. PR.) SILVANUS (Lat. siliia, wood), a deity or spirit of Italian woodland; not, however, of the wholly wild woodland, but of that which borders the clearings in a country not entirely re- claimed. Thus he is partly wild and partly civilized, and reflects the experience of the earliest settlers in Italy, whose descendants took him with them to the farthest limits of the empire, even to Britain, where we have many votive inscriptions to him, always as the friendly deity dwelling outside the new clearing, benevolent towards the settler in a strange land. This leading characteristic of Silvanus is shown clearly in Roman literature: Horace writes of the " horridi dumeta Silvani " (Odes, iii. 29) but he also calls him " tutor finium " (Epod. ii. 22) while for Virgil he is " arvorum pecorisque deus " (Aen. viii. 600). A writer on land measure- ment (Script, gromatici, i. 302) tells us that each holding had three Silvani — domesticus (of the holding itself), agrestis (of the wilder pasture-land) and orientalis (of the boundaries). It is plain that in him the Italians had a very useful deity, and in all these capacities he became extremely popular, as the extraordinary number of his inscriptions shows. Unlike Mars, from whom he was probably in origin an offshoot (cf. the Mars Silvanus of Cato, De re rustica, 141; see MARS), he never made his way into the towns, but is almost the only Roman deity who from first to last retained the same perfectly intelligible rustic character. His double nature as deity of woodland and cultivated land is seen well in the artistic representations of him; he carries a young tree in one hand, a pruning-hook in the other. See Wissowa, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1904, p. 78 foil.). (W. W. F.*) SILVER (symbol Ag, from the Latin argentum, atomic weight 107-88 (O=i6)), a metallic chemical element, known from the earliest times and of great importance as a " noble " metal for articles of value — coinage, ornamentation and jewelry. Etymologically the word " silver " probably refers to the shining appearance or brightness of the metal. The Latin argentum is cognate with the Greek apyvpos, silver, which in turn is derived from dp76s, shining. The Hebrew Keseph is connected with a root meaning " to be pale." The alchemists named it Luna or Diana, and denoted it by the crescent moon; the first name has survived in lunar caustic, silver nitrate. Silver is widely diffused throughout nature, occurring in minute amount in sea-water, and in the mineral kingdom as the free metal, as an amalgam with mercury and as alloys with gold, platinum, copper and other metals. Native silver is occasionally met with in metalliferous veins, where it has been formed by the alteration of silver-bearing minerals. It crystallizes in the cubic system, but the crystals are usually distorted and indistinctly developed: twisted wire-like forms are much more common. The best crystallized specimens have been obtained from Kongsberg in Norway, large masses, weighing as much as 5 cwts., having been found. It is also found in other silver mines, especially those of Mexico, Peru and Chile; in the Lake Superior copper mining region it occurs in association with native copper. The element is a constituent of many mineral sulphides, some of which are of sufficiently frequent occurrence to rank as ores of silver. Of these the more important are noticed under Metallurgy; here we may notice the rarer minerals. Silver sulphide, Ag2S, occurs naturally as the orthorhombic acanthite, and the cubic argentite; the telluride, Ag2Te, named hessite, assumes cubic forms; other tellurides containing silver ar.e petzite, (Ag,Au)2Te, and sylvanite, AuAgTe4. In association with antimonious and arsenious sulphides, silver sulphide forms many important minerals, which sometimes present dimorphous forms, reflecting the dimorphism of silver sulphide; moreover, the corresponding arsenious and antimonious compounds are frequently isomorphous. This is illustrated by the hexagonal pyrargyrite 3Ag2S-Sb2S3, and proustite, 3Ag2S-As2S3, and the monoclinic pyrostilpnite, isomeric with pyrargyrite, and xantho- conite, isomeric with proustite. Other pairs of isomorphous argentiferous minerals are: the cubic polybasite, 9Ag2S-Sb2S3, and pearceite, 9Ag2S-As2S3; and the germanium minerals argyrodite, 4Ag2S-GeS2, and canfieldite, 4Ag2S-(Sn,Ge)S2. Physical Properties. — In appearance silver presents a pure white colour with a perfect metallic lustre. It is the most malleable and ductile of all metals with the exception of gold: one gramme can be drawn out into a wire 180 metres long, and the leaf can be beaten out to a thickness of 0-00025 mm.; traces of arsenic, antimony, bismuth and lead, however, make it brittle. In hardness it is superior to gold, but inferior to copper. Its specific gravity, according to G. Rose, lies between 10-514 and 10-619 at 14°; an average value is 10-57. Its specific heat is 0-05701 (Regnault) or 0-0559 (Bunsen); its coefficient of linear expansion is 0-00001921. Its thermal conductivity is, according to Wiedemann and Franz, superior to that of other metals, being in the ratio of 100 : 74 as compared with copper and 100 : 54 with gold; it is the most perfect conductor of electricity, standing to copper in the ratio 100:75, and to gold 100:73. Silver melts at about 1000° C.; recent determinations give 960-7° (Heycock and Neville) and 962° (Becquerel); at higher temperatures it volatilizes with the formation of a pale blue vapour (Stas). Its vapour density has been determined at 2000°, and corresponds to a monatomic molecule. When molten, silver occludes the oxygen of the atmosphere, absorbing 20 times its own volume of the gas; the oxygen, however, is not permanently retained, for on cooling it is expelled with great violence; this phenomenon is known as the " spitting " of silver. It is prevented by preserving the molten metal from contact with air by covering the surface with non-oxidizing agents, or by traces of copper, bismuth or zinc. Chemical Properties. — Silver is not oxidized by oxygen, but resembles mercury in being oxidized by ozone. It has no action on water. It is readily soluble in dilute nitric acid, nitric oxide and silver nitrate being formed; it also dissolves in hot, strong sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide being evolved. Hydrochloric acid forms a surface film of silver chloride; hydriodic acid readily dissolves it, while hydrofluoric acid is without action. Sulphuretted hydrogen is decomposed with the formation of a black coating of silver sulphide; this is the explanation of the black tarnish seen when silver is exposed to the fumes of coal gas, and other sulphuretted compounds, such as occur in eggs. The so-called " oxidized " silver is a copper-silver alloy coated superficially with a layer of the sulphides by immersion in sodium sulphide or otherwise. Silver combines with the free halogens on heating and also with sulphur. Molecular silver is a grey powder obtained by leaving metallic zinc in contact with silver chloride which has been precipitated in the cold and washed till nearly free from acid. The powder is separated from the zinc, washed with hydrochloric acid, dried in the air, and then gently heated to 150°. It assumes a metallic lustre on burnishing or heating to redness. It receives application in synthetic organic chemistry by virtue of its power to remove the halogen atoms from alkyl haloids, and so effect the combination of the two alkyl residues. Colloidal silver is the name given by Carey Lea to the precipitates obtained by adding reducing solutions, such as ferrous sulphate, tartrates, citrates, tannin, &c., or to silver solutions. They dissolve in water to form solutions, which do not penetrate parchment membranes, hence the name colloidal. Many other methods of preparing these substances are known. Bredig's process consists in passing an electric arc between silver electrodes under water, when a brown solution is obtained. Production. — The economic questions which attend the production of silver and the influence which gold and silver exercise on prices are treated in the articles MONEY and BI- METALLISM; the reader is referred to the former article for the history of silver production and to the topographical headings for the production of specific countries. Since the middle of the 1 9th century the annual production has increased: the following table gives the average annual production in 1000 oz. over certain periods: — SILVER 1841-1850. 1851-1860. 1861-1865. 1866-1870. 1871-1875. 1876-1880. 1881-1885. 1886-1890. 1891-1895. 25,090 28,792 35,402 43,052 63,318 78,777 87,272 110,356 158,942 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905- 1906. 1907. 1908. 180,093 174.851 164,560 170,128 182,262 189,830 165,640 184,894 203,186 Over two-thirds of the world's supply is derived from Mexico and the United States. The Mexican mines first sent supplies to Europe in the i6th century, and during the period 1781-1800 yielded two- thirds of the world's production. Although the production has de- creased relatively, yet it has increased enormously absolutely; in 1900, it was 55,804,420 oz., being second to the United States; in 1905 it was 73,838,066 oz., establishing a record for any single country. The United States came into prominence in about 1860, and the discovery of the famous Comstock lode in Nevada led to an enormous increase in the production. The production of this lode declined in 1876, but the total production of this country was in- creased by discoveries in Colorado (Leadville) and Nevada (Eureka) ; and in more recent years silver-producing areas in other states (Montana, Utah, Idaho) have been exploited. In 1860 the pro- duction was 116,019 oz., which increased to 1,546,920 in 1861; in 1872 it was 22,254,002 oz. ; in 1888, 45,792,682; in 1890, 54,516,300 oz.; in 1900, 57,647,000; and in 1905, 58,918,839 oz. S. America has furnished European supplies since the discovery of the Potosi mines of Peru in 1533; Bolivia and Chile are also notable producers. Of European producers, Germany, Spain and Austria are the most important; Greece, Italy, France, Turkey and Russia occupy secondary positions. The German mines were worked in the loth century; at the beginning of the l6th century the production was over 400,000 oz. annually ; this dropped in the following century to about one-half; it then recovered, and in recent times has enor- mously increased, attaining 12,535,238 oz. in 1905. The mines of Spain, neglected late in the I5th century on the advent of supplies from America, came into note in 1827; the output has since greatly increased, amounting to 3,774,989 oz. in 1905. Austria-Hungary was producing twice as much as Germany, and about one-half of the total European production, in the i6th century; the yield diminished in the ensuing century, to be subsequently increased. The output was about 1,800,000 pz. in 1905. The total European supply was about 17,000,000 oz. in 1900 and about 18,600,000 oz. in 1905. Of other countries we may notice Canada, which produced 4,468,225 oz. in 1900 and 5,974,875 oz. in 1905, and Japan, which produced about 670,000 oz. in 1880 and 3,215,000 oz. in 1905. Australia came into notice chiefly by reason of the discoveries at Broken Hill, New South Wales; these mines producing 36,608 oz. in 1885, 1,016,269 in 1886, and 7,727,877 oz. in 1890. The total Australasian production in 1900 was 14,063,244 oz. and 14,362,639 oz. in 1905. Metallurgy. From the metallurgical point of view, silver ores may be classified as real silver ores and argentiferous ores. The former consist of silver minerals and gangue (vein matter, country-rock). The leading silver minerals are native silver; argentite or silver glance, Ag2S, usually containing small amounts of lead, copper and tin; dyscrasite or antimonial silver, AgzSb to Ag^Sb, an isomorphous mixture of silver and antimony; proustite or light red silver ore, AgsAsSs; pyrargyrite or dark red silver ore, AgsSbSs; stephanite, Ag6SbS4; miargyrite, AgSbS2-, stromeyerite, CuAgS; polybasite, 9(Cu2S,Ag2S) • (Sb2S3, As2S3) ; cerargyrite or horn silver, AgCl; bromite or bromargyrite, AgBr; embolite, Ag(Cl,Br); iodite or iodargyrite, Agl. Metalli- ferous products containing silver arise in many operations; the chief products which may yield silver economically are copper and lead mattes, burnt argentiferous pyrites and certain drosses and scums. Argentiferous ores consist of silver-bearing base-metal minerals and gangue. Lead and copper ores, carrying silver in some form or other, are the leading representatives. The silver is extracted from the gangue with the base metal, usually by smelting, and the two are then separated by special processes (see LEAD). Milling, i.e. amalgamation and lixiviation, is cheaper than smelting, but the yield in silver is lower. Often it is more profitable to smelt real silver ores with argentiferous ores than to mill them, the greater cost being more than balanced by the increased yield. Milling is practised mainly in isolated localities near the mine producing the ore. As any given region is opened up by rail- ways, cheapening transportation, milling is apt to give way to smelt- ing. Thus on the American continent, which produces the bulk of the world's silver, milling is still prominent in S. America and Mexico, while in the United States it has to a considerable extent been replaced by smelting. Amalgamation is based on the property of quicksilver to extract the silver from finely-pulverized ore and collect it in the form of an amalgam. When the rock has been separated from the amalgam by a washing operation, the quicksilver is recovered by distillation in an iron retort, and the remaining crude retort- silver melted into bars and shipped to a refinery, which removes the impurities, the leading one of which is copper. A silver ore is either free-milling or refractory, that is, the silver mineral is readily amalgamated or it is not. In free-milling ore the silver is present either in the native state, or as chloride or as simple sulphide. Complex silver minerals (sulph-arsenides and anti- monides) which are difficult to amalgamate must be made amenable to quicksilver, and the simplest way of doing this is to convert the silver into chloride. This is imperfectly accom- plished, in the wet way, by cupric and cuprous chloride solutions, but completely so, in the dry way, by roasting with salt (chlorid- izing roasting). According as a preliminary chloridizing roast has or has not been given, the process is classed as roast-amalga- mation or raw-amalgamation. The leading raw-amalgamation processes are the Patio and Washoe; then follow the Cazo, Fondon and Krohnke; of the roast-amalgamation processes, the European Barrel or Freiberg, the Reese River and the Francke-Tina arc the most important. The Patio process, sometimes named the Amencan-heap-arnalga- mation process, which is carried out principally in Mexico, aims at SILVER amalgamating the silver in the open in a circular enclosure termed a torta, the floor of which is generally built of flagstones. In order to facilitate the decomposition of the silver-mineral, salt and magistral, i.e. cupriferous pyrites roasted to convert the copper into soluble sulphate, which is the active agent, are worked into the wet pulp spread out on the floor. The amalgamation proceeds very slowly, as the sole extraneous heat is that of the sun. According to Laur (" Mfitallurgie de 1'argent au Mexico," Ann. des mines, series 6, vol. xx.), at Guanaxuato, Mexico, 92-79 % of the total silver recovered was extracted after 12 days, 97-55% after 25 days, 99-1 % after 28 days and 1 00% after 33 days. The loss of quicksilver in the process is large, owing to the formation of calomel which is not saved. The yield in silver is low unless the ores are exceptionally free-milling; the bullion produced is high-grade, as refractory silver minerals are hardly attacked. The process is suited to easy ores and a region where the climate is warm and dry, and horse- or mule-power, labour and quicksilver are cheaper than fuel and water. The Washoe process of pan-amalgamation, named from the Washoe district in the United States, is the leading raw-amalgamation process of the United States, where it was introduced in 1861 by A. B. Paul. It consists in wet-stamping coarsely crushed ore, settling the sands and slimes produced, and grinding and amalgamating them in steam-heated iron pans with or without the use of chemicals (salt and copper sulphate). The ores may contain a larger proportion of sulphides and complex silver minerals than with the Patio process and still give a satisfactory extraction. They are crushed to egg-size in a rock-breaker, and pulverized to pass a 4O-mesh sieve in a Cali- fornia stamp-mill, which treats in 24 hours about 3 tons per stamp. A lo-stamp mill is fed by one rock-breaker, and discharges the liquid pulp into 10-15 wo°den settling tanks, 9 by 5 by 8 ft., the settled contents of which are shovelled out and charged into the pans. The pan in general use is the combination pan. It has a flat cast-iron bottom, 5 feet in diameter, and wooden sides about 30 inches high, the lower parts of which are lined with cast-iron. In the centre is a hollow cone, through which passes the driving shaft, geared from below. This turns the grinding apparatus (driver with " muller "), which can be raised and lowered. The speed is 60-90 revolutions per minute. To the bottom and muller are attached grinding plates (shoes and dies), which are replaced when worn; and to the sides three wings to deflect the moving pulp towards the centre, and thus establish the necessary pulp current. The lower side of the bottom has also a steam-chest. A lo-stamp mill has 4-6 pans, which receive 2-ton charges. In working, the muller is raised i in., the pan charged with water and then with ore; the muller is then lowered, salt and blue vitriol added, and the charge ground for 3-4 hours. The pulp is heated with live steam to about 90° C., and kept at that temperature by exhaust steam in the bottom-chest. After grinding, the muller is raised and quicksilver added, and the silver up to 81-04 % then amalgamated in 4 hours. In amalgamating without the use of chemicals, finely divided iron, worn from the shoes and dies in the stamp-mill and the pan, de- composes cerargyrite and argentite, and the liberated silver is taken up by the quicksilver; the process is hastened by adding salt. When salt and copper sulphate are added to the charge, they form sodium sulphate and cupric chloride, both of which are readily soluble in water. Cupric chloride acts upon argentite (Ag2S-f- CuCl2=2AgCl+CuS), proustite (4Ag3AsS3+4CuCl2=8AgCl + 2Ag2S+4CuS+2As2S3), pyrargyrite (2Ag3SbS3+3CuCl2=6AgCl + 3CuS+Sb2S3), and is also reduced to cuprous chloride by metallic iron. This salt, insoluble in water but soluble in brine, also acts upon argentite (Ag2S+Cu2C<2=2AgCl+CuS+Cu) and pyrargyrite (2Ag3SbS3+Cu2Cl2 = 2AgCl+Ag2S-t-2Ag+2CuS+Sb2S3), and would give with silver sulphide in the presence of quicksilver, the Patio- reaction; metallic silver, cupric sulphide, and mercurous chloride (2Ag2S+Cu2Cl2+2Hg=4Ag+2CuS+Hg2Cl2), but the iron decom- poses the quicksilver salt, setting free the quicksilver. The amalgamation is rapid. Thus Austin found that at the Charleston mills, Arizona, 92-13% of the total silver recovered was extracted after I hour, 94-10% after 2 hours, 95-92% after 3 hours, and 100 % after 4^ hours. The loss in quicksilver is small, as there is no chemical loss inherent in the process; the yield is relatively high, but the bullion is liable to be low-grade, on account of copper being precipitated and amalgamated. When the charge has been worked, the contents of the pan are discharged into a settler, in which the amalgam is separated from the sands. It has the same general construction as the pan. It is 8 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. deep. The bottom, slightly conical, has a groove near the circumference to catch the amalgam, which is withdrawn through a discharge-spout into a bowl. In the sides at different levels are three discharge-holes for water and sand. The muller reaches to within 3 in. of the bottom and makes 12-15 revolutions per minute. In settling, the pulp is diluted by a small stream of water, and the thinned pulp drawn off, first through the top discharge- hole and then through the other two, the bottom one being about 8 in. above the amalgam. Settling takes about half the time required to work a charge in the pan, hence one settler serves two pans. The amalgam is dipped out from the bowl into a canvas bag (the strainer), to separate the excess of the quicksilver from the pasty amalgam, which is then retorted and melted. The cost of treating a ton of ore in the western part of the United States is from $3 to $7. At some works treating ores containing sulphides which do not yield their silver to quicksilver, concentration apparatus (see ORE-DRESSING) is inserted between the stamps and the settling tanks to remove the sulphides, which are worked by themselves; at other works they are recovered from the sands after these have left the settlers. In order to do away with the handling of the wet pulp, and to obtain a higher extraction, M. P. Boss has modified the ordinary plant by making the pulp flowing from the stamps pass through a grinding pan, then through a series of amalgamating pans followed by a row of settlers. A 2O-stamp mill is served by 12 men in 24 hours. The Washoe process is independent of the climate, but it requires cheap power and an abundance of water. In the Cazo, Caldron or Hot process the pulverized silver ore is boiled in a copper-bottomed wooden vat, first with brine until the silver has been reduced by the copper, and then with quicksilver. The Fondon is an improvement on the Cazo. Bars of copper drawn over the bottom by mules or water-power (like the stone drags in the arrastra) grind off fine particles of copper, which hasten the reduction of the silver and diminish the formation of calomel. In the Krohnke process introduced by B. Krohnke into Copiapo, Chile, in 1860, the silver mineral of the pulverized ore is decomposed in a revolving barrel by a hot solution of cuprous chloride in brine in the presence of zinc or lead and quicksilver (see B. Krohnke, Methode zur Entsilberung von Erzen, Stuttgart, 1900). Chloridizing Roasting. — In a chloridizing roast chlorine produces its effect as nascent chlorine or gaseous hydrochloric acid. The leading reagents are salt (NaCl), sulphur trioxide (SOa, produced in the roasting), and steam (H20). The decom- position of salt is expressed by 2NaCl+2SO3 = Na2SO4+ SO2+ C12. In the presence of water-vapour the following reaction takes place: 2NaCl+SO3+H2O = Na2SO4+2HCl. As some water- vapour is always present, hydrochloric acid will invariably be formed with the chlorine. The roasting is carried on in hand and mechanical reverberatory furnaces, and occasionally in muffle-furnaces. A chloridation of over 90% silver is the rule. The European Barrel or Freiberg process consists in roasting the ground ore with salt which converts the silver sulphide into chloride. The mass, along with certain proportions of water, scrap-iron and mercury, is then placed in barrels, which are made to rotate so that the several ingredients are thoroughly mixed. The salt solution dissolves a small proportion of chloride, which in this form is quickly reduced by the iron to the metallic state. This solution and pre- cipitation is continuous, and the metal formed unites with the mercury to form a semi-fluid amalgam. The amalgam is pressed in linen bags to eliminate a quantity of relatively silver-free liquid mercury (which is utilized as such in subsequent operations), and the remaining solid amalgam is subjected to distillation from iron re- torts. This process was perfected at Freiberg, Saxony, but aban- doned there in 1856. In the United States it was used quite ex- tensively in Colorado and Nevada, but has now been given up. The main reasons for this are the length of time required to finish a charge, on account of the absence of any extraneous source of heat, and the great care with which operations have to be carried out in order to obtain satisfactory results. The Reese River or pan-amalgamation process consists in dry- stamping crushed dried ore and dried salt (separately or together), charging them into a roasting furnace, and amalgamating the chlori- dized ore in an iron pan. The general arrangement and construction of a mill resemble those of the Washoe process. The apparatus for drying ore and salt varies greatly, drying-floors, dry-kilns and con- tinuous mechanical reverberatory furnaces with stationary and re- volving hearths being used. The general construction of the pan is the same as in the Washoe process; the management, however, differs. The steam-chest is not used to such an extent, as the bottom would be prematurely corroded; less water is used, as the pulp would become too thin on account of the soluble salts (sodium chloride, sulphate, &c.) going into solution; and the roasted ore is not ground, as the hot brine readily dissolves the silver chloride from the porous ore, and thus brings it into intimate contact with iron and quicksilver. Chemical reagents are sometimes added — lime or sulphuric acid, to neutralize an excess of acid or alkali; copper sulphate, to form cuprous chloride with sodium chloride; and iron and zinc, to make the galvanic action more energetic and reduce the consumption of iron. The rest of the apparatus (settler, retort, crucible, furnace) is the same as with the Washoe process. The Reese River process costs from half as much again to twice as much as the Washoe process. The Francke-Tina process, named from Francke, German consul at Bolivia, and tina, the wooden vat in which the process is carried out, was developed in Bolivia for the treatment of refractory ores rich in zinc blende and tetrahedrite (fahl-ore). The ore is given only a partial chloridizing roast, on account of the great loss in silver that would be caused by the formation of zinc chloride. The large amount of soluble sulphates of iron and copper formed in the roast is made to act upon salt charged in a copper-bottomed amalgamating pan ; the chlorides formed finish in the wet way the imperfect chloridation obtained in the furnace. SILVER Lixiviation. — Ores suited for amalgamation can, as a rule, be successfully leached. In leaching, the silver ore is subjected to the action of solvents, which dissolve the silver; from the solution the silver is precipitated and converted into a marketable product. The leading solvents are aqueous solutions of thiosulphates, un- systematically but generally termed hyposulphites. Sodium chloride, characteristic of the Augustin process in which the ores, after a chloridizing roast, were extracted with brine, and the silver pre- cipitated by copper, has almost wholly fallen into disuse; and potassium cyanide, which has become a very important solvent for finely divided gold, is rarely used in leaching silver ores. The use of sodium hyposulphite as solvent, and sodium sulphide as precipitant, was proposed in 1846 by Hauch and in 1850 by Percy, and put into practice in 1858 by Patera (Patera process) ; calcium hyposulphite with calcium polysulphide was first used by Kiss in 1860 (Kiss process, now obsolete) ; sodium hyposulphite with calcium poly- sulphide was adopted about 1880 by O. Hofmann (Hofmann process) ; finally, sodium hyposulphite with cuprous hyposulphite was first applied by Russell in 1884, who included in his process the acidula- tion of the first wash-water (to neutralize any harmful alkaline reaction), and the separation of lead with sodium carbonate from the silver solution previous to precipitating with sodium sulphide (see C. A. Stetefeldt, The Lixiviation of Silver Ores with Hyposulphite Solutions, &c., New York, 1888). In all processes the silver ore is finely crushed, usually by rolls, as, because making few fines, they leave the ore in the best condition for leaching. As a rule the ore is subjected to a preliminary chloridizing roast, though occasionally it may be leached raw. The vats in common use are circular wooden tanks, 16-20 ft. in diameter and 8-9 ft. deep if the leached ore is to be removed by sluicing, 5 ft. if by shovelling. They have a false bottom, with cloth or gravel filters. The basis of the following outline is the Patera process. The ore, supposed to have been salt-roasted, is charged loosely into the leaching vat and treated with water (to which sulphuric acid or copper sulphate may have been added), to remove soluble salts, which might later on be precipitated with the silver (base-metal chlorides), or overcharge the solution (sodium chloride and sulphate), or interfere with the solvent power (sodium sulphate). The vat is filled with water from above or below, in- and out-flow are then so regulated as to keep the ore covered with water. Any silver dissolved by the first wash-water is recovered by a separate treatment. After the wash- water has been drained off, the ore is ready for the silver solvent. This is a solution containing up to 2 % of sodium hyposulphite, of which one part dissolves 0-485 part silver chloride, equivalent to 0-365 part metallic silver, to form double hyposulphites. Silver arsenate and antimoniate are also readily soluble, metallic silver slightly so, silver sulphide not at all. (In the Russell-process double salts: 4Na2S2O:!-3Cu2S2O3, and SNasSsOs-^CujSjOa the metallic silver and silver sulphide are readily soluble ; thus it supplements that of " . After the silver has been dissolved by percolation, the last of the solvent still in contact with the ore is replaced by a second wash- water. The silver solution, collected in a circular precipitating vat (10 ft. in diameter and 10 ft. deep), is treated with sodium sulphide (or calcium polysulphide), unless sodium carbonate was first added to throw down any lead, present in the ore as sulphate, that had gone into solution. Silver sulphide falls out as a black mud, with about 50 % silver, and the solvent will be regenerated. If the sodium cuprous hyposulphite was used as a solvent in addition to the simple sodium hyposulphite, cuprous sulphide will be precipitated with the silver sulphide, and the precipitate will be of lower grade. At some works the silver is precipitated with sodium sulphide, and the liquor, after having been separated from the silver sulphide, is treated with calcium polysulphide, that by the precipi- tation of calcium sulphate the accumulation of sodium sulphate may be prevented. The precipitated silver (copper) sulphide is filtered, dried, and usually shipped to silver-lead works to be refined; some- times it is converted into metallic silver at the works. The solution, freed from silver, is used again as solvent. Lixiviation has many advantages over amalgamation. It permits coarser crushing of the ore, the cost of plant is lower, the power required is nominal, the cost of chemicals is lower than that of quicksilver, less water is necessary, and the extraction is often higher, as silver arsenate and antimoniate are readily soluble, while they are not decomposed in amalgamation. On the other hand, silver and silver sulphide are readily amalga- mated ; and while they are not dissolved in the Patera process, they are in the Russell process. Mention may be made of the Ziervogel process, introduced at Hettstadt in 1841 for the purpose of extracting silver from copper mattes. In principle it consists in oxidizing silver sulphide to the sulphate which is soluble in water, the silver being then precipitable by metallic copper. This process when carefully carried out, especi- ally as to the details of the roasting process whereby the silver sulphide is oxidized, yields 92 % of the silver originally present. Electrolytic Methods. — Crude silver generally contains small amounts of copper, gold, bismuth, lead and other metals. To eliminate these impurities, electrolytic methods have been devised; of these that of Moebius is the most important and will be described in detail. Under his earlier patent of 1884, cast crude silver anode plates, about $ in. thick, and thin rolled silver cathodes, were suspended in a s%, slightly acid, solution of silver nitrate contained in tarred wooden tanks. The deposit from this solution even with low current- densities is pulverulent and non-coherent, and therefore during electrolysis wooden scrapers are automatically and intermittently Dassed over the surface of the cathode to detach the loose silver, which falls into cloth trays at the bottom of the tanks. These trays are removed at intervals, and the silver washed and cast into bars, which should contain over 99-9% of pure metal. The relatively electro-negative character of silver ensures that with moderate current densities no metal (other than precious metals) will be deposited with it ; hence, while the solution is pure a current-density of 30 amperes per sq. ft. of cathode may be used, but as copper accumulates in it, the current-density must be diminished to (say) 15 to 20 amperes per sq. ft., and a little extra nitric acid must be added, in order to prevent the co-deposition of copper. A pressure of I -5 volt usually suffices when the space between the electrodes is 2 in. The tanks were arranged in groups of seven on the multiple system. Of the metals present in the anode, practically all, except gold, pass into solution, but, under the right conditions, only silver should deposit. The whole of the gold is recovered as anode slime in cloth bags surrounding the anodes. Practical results with a large plant indicate an expenditure of 1-23 electrical horse-power hours per 100 oz. (Troy) of refined silver. In later installations, under the 1895 patent, the anodes are placed horizontally on a porous tray resting within the solution above an endless silver band revolving, also horizontally, over rollers placed near the ends of a long shallow tank. The revolving band forms the cathode, and at one end makes a rubbing contact with a travelling belt placed at an angle so that the crystals of silver detached thereby from the cathode are con- veyed by it from the solution and deposited outside. Alloy scrap containing chiefly copper with, say 5 or 6% of gold, and other metals, and up to 40 or 50% of silver, is often treated electrolytically. Obviously, with modifications, the Moebius process, could be applied. Other systems have been devised. Borchers uses the alloy, granulated, in an anode chamber separated from the cathode cell by a porous partition through which the current, but not electrolyte, can pass freely. The anode residue is collected in the- angular bottom of the tank, the electrolyte passes from the anode chamber to a series of tanks in which the more electro-negative constituents (silver, &c.) are chemically separated, and thence to the cathode chamber, where the copper is deposited electrolytically, thence it passes again to the anode chamber and so completes the cycle. In one form of the apparatus a rotating cathode is used. Dietzel has described (Zeitschrift fiir Elektrochem., 1899, vol. vi. p. 81) the working of his, somewhat similar, process at Pforzheim, where about 130 m of the alloy was being treated by it daily in 1899. The alloy is cast into anode plates about f in. thick, and placed in the anode chamber beneath the cathode cell, and separated from it by linen cloth. In the upper compartment are two large revolving horizontal cathode cylinders. Acidified copper nitrate solution is run into this cell, copper is deposited, and the more or less spent solution then passes through the linen partition, and, taking up metal from the anodes by electrolytic solution, is run out of the trough through a series of vessels filled with copper by which the silver is precipitated by simple exchange; after acidification the resulting silver-free copper solution is returned to the cathode cell for the deposition of the copper, the solution being employed again and again until too impure for use. Chemically Pure Silver. — Even the best " fine " silver of commerce contains a few thousandth-parts of copper or other base metal. To produce perfectly pure metal the usual method is to first prepare pure chloride and then to reduce the chloride to metal. This may be effected by mixing the dry chloride with one-fifth of its weight of pure quicklime or one-third of its weight of dry sodium carbonate, and fusing the mixture in a fire-clay crucible at a bright red heat. In either case we obtain a regulus of silver lying under a fused slag of chloride. The fused metal is best granulated by pouring it into a mass of cold water. A convenient wet method for small quantities is to boil the recently precipitated chloride (which must have been produced and washed in the cold) with caustic soda and just enough sugar to reduce the silver oxide (Ag2O) transitorily produced. The silver in this case is obtained as a yellowish grey heavy powder, which is easily washed by decantation; but it tends to retain unreduced chloride, which can be removed only by fusion with carbonate of soda. Stas in his stoichiometric determinations employed the following process as yielding a metal which comes nearer ideal purity. Slightly cupriferous silver is made into dry nitrate and the latter fused to u6 SILVER reduce any platinum nitrate that may be present to metal. The fused mass is dissolved in dilute ammonia and diluted to about fifty times the_ weight of the silver it contains. The filtered (blue) solution is now mixed with an excess of solution of ammonium sulphite, and allowed to stand. After twenty-four hours about one-half of the silver has separated out in crystals; from the mother-liquor the rest comes down promptly on application of a water-bath heat. The rationale of the process is that the sulphite hardly acts upon the dis- solved oxide of silver, but it reduces some of the cupric oxide to cuprous oxide, which reduces its equivalent of silver oxide to silver and reforming cupric oxide which passes through the same cycle. Alloys of Silver. — Silver readily alloys with many metals, and the admixture generally differs in physical properties from the pure metal. Thus arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin or zinc render the metal brittle, so that it fractures under a die or rolling mill; copper, on the other hand, increases its hardness, makes it tougher and more readily fusible. Consequently copper-silver alloys receive extensive application for coinage and jewelry. The composition of the alloy is stated in terms of its " fineness," the proportion of silver in 1000 parts of alloy. Generally copper-silver alloys separate into two layers of different composition on fusion; an exception is the alloy AgsCuz, investigated by A. I. F. Levol, corresponding to a fineness of 719, which remained perfectly homogeneous. The extent to which the properties of -silver are modified by addition of copper depends on the fineness of the alloy produced. The addition of even three parts of copper to one of silver does not quite obliterate the whiteness of the noble metal. According to Kamarsch, the relative abrasion suffered by silver coins of the degrees of fineness named is as follows: — Fineness .... 312 750 900 993 Abrasion .... I 2-3 3-9 9-5 The same observer established the following relation between fine- ness p and specific gravity of alloys containing from 375 to 875 of silver per 1000: — sp. gr. =0-001647 £+8-833. The fusing points of all copper-silver alloys lies below that of pure copper; that of British standard silver is lower than even that of pure silver. Compounds of Silver. Silver forms one perfectly characterized oxide, Ag2O, from which is derived a series of stable salts, and probably several less perfectly known ones. Argentic or silver oxide, Ag2O, is obtained as a dark brown precipitate by adding potash to a solution of a silver salt; on drying at 6o°-8o° it becomes almost black. It is also obtained by digesting freshly precipitated silver chloride with potash. It is sparingly soluble in water (one part in 3000) ; and the moist oxide frequently behaves as the hydroxide, AgOH, i.e. it converts alkyl haloids into alcohols. It begins to decompose into silver and oxygen at 250°. Silver peroxide, AgO, appears under certain conditions as minute octahedra when a solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed, or as an amorphous crust in the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid between silver electrodes. It readily decomposes into silver and oxygen. It dissolves in ammonia with the liberation of nitrogen and the formation of silver oxide, Ag2O; and in sulphuric acid forming a fairly stable dark green liquid which, on dilution, gives off oxygen and forms silver sulphate. It is doubtful whether the pure compound has been obtained. The compound obtained from silver nitrate always contains nitrogen; it appears to have the constant composition AgyNOn, and has been named silver peroxynitrate. Similarly the sulphate yields 5Ag2O2, 2Ag2SO7, silver peroxysulphate, and the fluoride the peroxyfluorides Agi6F3Oi6, Ag7FO8. The sesquioxide, Ag4Oa, is supposed to be formed when silver peroxide is treated with ammonia (Watson, Jour. Ghent. Soc., 1906, 89, p. 578). Sillier chloride, AgCl, constitutes the mineral cerargyrite. or horn silver ; mixed with clay it is the butter-milk ore of the German miners. Early names for it are Lac argenti and Luna cornea, the first referring to its form when freshly precipitated, the latter to its ap- pearance after fusion. It is readily obtained as a white curdy precipitate by adding a solution of a chloride to a soluble silver salt. It is almost insoluble in water, soluble in 50,000 parts of nitric acid, and more soluble in strong hydrochloric acid and solutions of alkaline chlorides. It readily dissolves in ammonia, the solution, on evapora- tion, yielding rhombic crystals of 2AgCl-3NHs; it also dissolves in sodium thiosulphate and potassium cyanide solutions. On exposure to light it rapidly darkens, a behaviour utilized in photography (q.v,). Abney and Baker have shown that the pure dry chloride does not blacken when exposed in a vacuous tube to light, and that the blackening is due to absorption of oxygen accompanied by a loss of chlorine. Hydrogen peroxide is also formed. It melts at about 460° to a clear yellow liquid, which, on cooling, solidifies to a trans- lucent resinous mass. It is reduced to metallic silver by certain metals — zinc, iron, &c. — in the presence of water, by fusion with alkaline carbonates or cyanides, by heating in a current of hydrogen, or by digestion with strong potash solution, or with potassium carbonate and grape sugar. Silver bromide, AgBr, constitutes the mineral bromargyrite or bromyrite, found in Mexico and Chile. It is obtained as a yellowish white precipitate by mixing solutions of a bromide and a silver salt. It is very slightly soluble in nitric acid, and less soluble in ammonia than the chloride. It melts at 427°, and darkens on exposure to air. The minerals embolite, mega- bromite and microbromite, occurring in Chile, are variable mixtures of the chloride and bromide. Silver iodide. Agl, occurs in nature as the mineral iodargyrite or iodyrite, forming hexagonal crystals, or yellowish green plates. It is obtained as a light yellow powder by dissolving the metal in hydriodic acid, or by precipitating a silver salt with a soluble iodide. It is very slightly soluble in acids and ammonia, and almost insoluble in alkaline chlorides ; potassium iodide, however, dissolves it to form Agl-KI. Silver iodide is dimorphous; at ordinary temperatures the stable form is hexa- gonal; on heating to about 138° the colour changes from deep yellow to yellowish-white with the formation of cubic crystals. Silver fluoride, AgF, is obtained as quadratic octahedra, with one molecule of water, by dissolving the oxide or carbonate in hydrofluoric acid. It is deliquescent, and dissolves in half its weight of water to form a strongly alkaline liquid. It is not decomposed by sunlight. It melts at 435 and, on cooling, forms a yellow transparent mass. In addition to the salts described above there exist sub-salts. Silver nitrate, AgNO3, one of the most important silver salts, is obtained by dissolving the metal in moderately dilute nitric acid; on evaporation it separates in the anhydrous form as colourless triclinic plates. It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. It stains the skin and hair black: an ethereal solution having been employed as a dye for the hair. Mixed with gum arable it forms a marking ink for linen. It fuses at 218°; and when cast in quill-like moulds, it constitutes the lunar caustic of medicine, principally used as a cauterizing agent. Silver sulphide, Ag2S, constitutes the mineral argentite or silver glance, and may be obtained by heating silver with sulphur, or by precipitating a silver salt with sulphuretted hydrogen. Thus ob- tained it is a brownish solid, which readily fuses and resolidifies to a soft leaden-grey mass. It forms with silver nitrate the yellowish green solid, Ag2S-AgNO3, and with silver sulphate the orange-red powder, Ag2S-Ag2SO4. Silver sulphate, Ag2SO<, is obtained as white crystals, sparingly soluble in water, by dissolving the metal in strong sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide being evolved, or by adding strong sulphuric acid to a solution of the nitrate. It combines with ammonia to form the readily soluble 2NH3-Ag2SO<. Silver selenide, Ag2Se, resembles the sulphide. It occurs in the minerals naumannite, PbSe-Ag2Se, and eukairite, Ag2Se-Cu2Se. The telluride, AgjTe, occurs in nature as the mineral hessite. Fulminating silver is an extremely explosive black powder, first obtained in 1788 by Berthelot, who acted with ammonia on silver oxide (prepared by adding lime water to a silver solution). When dry it explodes even on touching with a feather. It appears to be silver nitride Ag3N, but it usually contains free silver and sometimes hydrogen. It is to be distinguished from silver fulminate (see FULMINIC ACID). The nitride AgN3, silver azoimide (q.v.), is also highly explosive. See J. Percy, Metallurgy of Silver and Gold (London, 1880), part i. ; T. Egleston, The Metallurgy of Silver, Gold and Mercury (New York, 1887-1890), part i.; M. Eissler, The Metallurgy of Silver (London, 1891); H. F. Collins, The Metallurgy of Lead and Silver (London, njoo), part ii.; H. O. Hofman, Hydrometallurgy of Silver (1907); C. Schnabel, Metallurgy, translated by H. Louis, 2nd ed. vol. i. (i9°5)- Medicinal Use. Two salts of silver are used in the British pharmacopoeia, (i) Argenti nilras (United States and British pharmacopoeia), lunar caustic, incompatible with alkalis, chlorides, acids, except nitric and acetic, potassium iodide and arsenical solutions. From the nitrate are made (a) argenti nitras indurata, toughened caustic, containing 19 parts of silver nitrate and one of potassium nitrate fused together into cylindrical rods; (b) Argenti nitras mitigalus, mitigated caustic, in which i part of silver nitrate and 2 parts of potassium nitrate are fused together into rods or cones. (2) Argenti oxidum, incompatible with chlorides, organic substances, phenol, creosote, &c., with which it forms explosive compounds. Therapeutics. — Externally the nitrate has a caustic action, de- stroying the superficial tissues and separating the part acted on as a slough. Its action is limited. It may be employed to destroy warts or small growths, to reduce exuberant granulations or it may be applied to bites. In granular lids and various forms of ophthalmia solutions of silver nitrate (2 grs. to I fl. oz.) are employed. A I % solution is also used as a prophylactic for ophthalmia neonatorum. The effects of the nitrate being both astringent and stimulating as well as bactericidal, solutions of it are used to paint indolent ulcers, and in chronic pharyngitis or laryngitis. Salts of silver are most useful as an injection in subacute and chronic gonorrhoea, either the nitrate (i to 5% solution) being employed, or protargol, which is a proteid compound containing 8 % of silver nitrate, is used in I % solution; they also benefit in leucorrhoea. In pruritus of the SILVERFISH— SILVESTER (POPES) vulva and anus a weak solution of silver nitrate will relieve the itching, and strong solutions painted round the base of a boil at the beginning will abort its formation. Internally the nitrate has been used in the treatment of gastric ulcer, in ulcerative conditions of the intestine and in chronic dysentery. For the intestinal conditions it must either be given in a keratin-coated pill or injected high up into the rectum. The oxide has been given in epilepsy and chorea. Nitrate of silver is eliminated from the system very slowly and the objection to its employment continuously as a drug is that it is deposited in the tissues causing argyria, chronic silver poisoning, of which the most prominent symptom is dark slate-blue colour of the lips, cheeks, gums and later of the skin. Taken in large doses nitrate of silver is a powerful poison, causing violent abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea with the develop- ment of gastro-enteritis. In some cases nervous symptoms and delirium supervene. The treatment consists in the use of solutions of common salt, followed by copious draughts of milk or white of egg and water or soap in water, in order to dilute the poison and protect the mucous membranes of the oesophagus and stomach from its action. SILVERFISH, a small active insect, so-called from the silvery glitter of the scales covering the body. It is less than half an inch long and is found in damp corners or amongst books and papers in houses. Although accredited with destroying paper and linen, it probably feeds only on farinaceous or saccharine substances. Scientifically it is known as Lepisma saccharina and belongs to the sub-order Thysanura of the order Aptera. SILVERIUS, pope from June 536 to March 537, successor of Pope Agapetus I., was a legitimate son of Pope Hormisdas, born before his father entered the priesthood. He was conse- crated on the 8th of June 536, having purchased his elevation from the Gothic king Theodotus. Six months afterwards (Dec. 9) he was one of those who admitted Belisarius into the city. He opposed the restoration of the patriarch Anthimus, whom Agapetus had deposed, and thus brought upon himself the hatred of Theodora, who desired to see Vigilius made pope. He was deposed accordingly by Belisarius in March 537 on a charge of treasonable correspondence with the Goths, and degraded to the rank of monk. He went to Constantinople, and Justinian, who entertained his complaint, sent him back to Rome, but Vigilius was ultimately able to banish his rival to Pandataria, where the rest of his life was spent in obscurity. The date of his death is unknown. SILVES, a city of S. Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly the province of Algarve); on the right bank of the river Silves at the head of its estuary, and 30 m. W.N.W. of Faro. Pop. (1900) 9687. Silves is surrounded by Moorish walls and domin- ated by a Moorish castle. It has a fine Gothic church. It has manufactures of corks and soap; and exports corn, vegetables and fruits. Large numbers of pigs are bred, and fishing is carried on in the river and at sea. Alphonso III. (1210-1248) wrested Silves from the Moors. SILVESTER, the name of three popes. SILVESTER I., bishop of Rome from January 314 to December 335, succeeded Melchiades and was followed by Marcus. The accounts of his papacy preserved in the Liber pontificalis are little else than a record of the gifts said to have been conferred on the Roman church by Constantine the Great. He was represented at the council of Nice. The story of his having baptized Constantine is pure fiction, as almost contemporary evidence shows the emperor to have received this rite near Nicomedia at the hands of Eusebius, bishop of that city. Accord- ing to Dollinger, the entire legend, with all its details of the leprosy and the proposed bath of blood, cannot have been com- posed later than the close of the sth century (cf. Duchesne, the Liber pontificalis, i. 109). The so-called Donation of Constantine was long ago shown to be spurious, but the document is of very considerable antiquity and, in Dollinger's opinion, was forged in Rome between 752 and 777. It was certainly known to Pope Adrian in 778, and was inserted in the false decretals towards the middle of the next century. SILVESTER II., pope from 999 till ,1003, and previously famous, under his Christian name of Gerbert, first as a teacher and afterwards as archbishop successively of Reims and Ravenna, was an Aquitanian by birth, and was educated at the abbey of St Gerold in Aurillac. Here he seems to have had Gerald for his 117 abbot and Raymond for his instructor, both of whom were among the most trusted correspondents of his later life. From Aurillac, while yet a young man (adolescens) , he was taken to the Spanish march by " Borrell, duke of Hither Spain," prosecut- ing his studies. Borrell entrusted him to the care of a Bishop Hatto, under whose instruction Gerbert made great progress in mathematics. In this duke we may certainly recognize Borel, who, according to the Spanish chroniclers, was count of Barcelona from 967 to 993, while the bishop may probably be identified with Hatto, bishop of Vich or Ausona from about 060 to 971 or 972. In company with his two patrons Gerbert visited Rome, where the pope, hearing of his proficiency in music and astronomy, induced him to remain in Italy, and introduced him to the emperor Otto I. A papal diploma, still extant, shows that Count Borel and Bishop Octo or Otho of Ausona were at Rome in January 971, and, as all the other indications point to a corresponding year, enables us to fix the chronology of Gerbert's later life. When brought before the emperor, Gerbert admitted his skill in all branches of the quadrivium, but lamented his comparative ignorance of logic. Eager to supply this deficiency he followed Lothair's ambassador Germanus, archdeacon of Reims, to that city, for the sake of studying under so famous a dialectician in the episcopal schools which were rising into reputation under Archbishop Adalbero (960-989). So promising a scholar soon attracted the attention of Adalbero himself, and Gerbert was speedily invited to exchange his position of learner for that of teacher. At Reims he seems to have studied and lectured for many years, having amongst his pupils Hugh Capet's son Robert, afterwards king of France, and Richer, to whose history we owe almost every detail of his master's early life. According to this writer Gerbert's fame began to spread over Gaul, Germany and Italy, till it roused the envy of Otric of Saxony, in whom we may recognize Octricus of Magdeburg, the favourite scholar of Otto I., and, in earlier days, the instructor of St Adalbert, the apostle of the Bohemians. Otric, suspecting that Gerbert erred in his classification of the sciences, sent one of his own pupils to Reims to take notes of his lectures, and, finding his suspicions correct, accused him of his error before Otto II. The emperor, to whom Gerbert was well known, appointed a time for the two philosophers to argue before him; and Richer has left a long account of this dialectical tournament at Ravenna, which lasted out a whole day and was only terminated at the imperial bidding. The date of this controversy seems to have been about Christmas 980, and it was probably followed by Otric's death, on the ist of October 981. It must have been about this time that Gerbert received the great abbey of Bobbio from the emperor. That it was Otto II., and not, as formerly supposed, Otto I., who gave him this benefice, seems evident from a diploma quoted by Mabillon (Annales, iv. 121). Richer, however, makes no mention of this event; and it is only from allusions in Gerbert's letters that we learn how the new abbot's attempts to enforce his dues waked a spirit of discontent which at last drove him in November 983 to take refuge with his old patron Adalbero. It was to no purpose that he appealed to the emperor and empress for restitu- tion or redress; and it was perhaps the hope of extorting his reappointment to Bobbio, as a reward for his services to the imperial cause, that changed the studious scholar of Reims into the wily secretary of Adalbero. Otto II. died in December 983, leaving the empire to his infant heir Otto III. Lothair, king of the west Franks, claimed the guardianship, and attempted to make use of his position to serve his own purposes in Lorraine, which would in all probability have been lost to the empire but for the efforts of Adalbero and Gerbert. Gerbert's policy is to be identified with that of his metropolitan, and was strongly influenced by gratitude for the benefits that he had received from the first two Ottos. According to M. Olleris's arrangement of the letters, Gerbert was at Mantua and Rome in 985. Then followed the death of Lothair (2nd of March 986) and of Louis V., the last Carolingian king, in May 987. Later on in the same year Adalbero crowned n8 SILVESTER (POPES) Hugh Capet (ist June) and his son Robert (25th December). Such was the power of Adalbero and Gerbert in those days that it was said their influence alone sufficed to make and unmake kings. The archbishop died on the 23rd of January 989, having, according to his secretary's account, designated Gerbert his successor. Notwithstanding this, the influence of the empress Theophana, mother of Otto III., secured the appointment for Arnulf , a bastard son of Lothair. The new prelate took the oath of fealty to Hugh Capet and persuaded Gerbert to remain with him. When Charles of Lorraine, Arnulf's uncle, and the son of Louis IV. D'Outremer, surprised Reims in the autumn of the same year, Gerbert fell into his hands and for a time continued to serve Arnulf, who had gone over to his uncle's side. He had, however, returned to his allegiance to the house of Capet before the fall of Laon placed both Arnulf and Charles at the mercy of the French king (March 991). Then followed the council of St Basle, near Reims, at which Arnulf confessed his treason and was degraded from his office (i7th June 991). In return for his services Gerbert was elected to succeed the deposed bishop. The episcopate of the new metropolitan was marked by a vigour and activity that were felt not merely in his own diocese, but as far as Tours, Orleans and Paris. Meanwhile the friends of Arnulf appealed to Rome, and a papal legate was sent to investigate the question. As yet Hugh Capet maintained the cause of his nominee and forbade the prelates of his kingdom to be present at the council of Mouzon, near Sedan (June 2, 995). Notwithstanding this prohibition Gerbert appeared in his own behalf. Council seems to have followed council, but with uncertain results. At last Hugh Capet died in 996, and, shortly after, his son Robert married Bertha, the widow of Odo, count of Blois. The pope condemned this marriage as adulterous; and Abbo of Fleury, who visited Rome shortly after Gregory V.'s accession, is said to have procured the restoration of Arnulf at the new pontiff's demand. We may surmise that Gerbert left France towards the end of 995, as he was present at Otto III.'s coronation at Rome on the 2ist of May 996. Somewhat later he became Otto's instructor in arithmetic, and had been appointed archbishop of Ravenna before May 998. Early in the next year he was elected pope (April 999), and took the title of Silvester II. In this capacity Gerbert showed the same energy that had characterized his former life. He is generally credited with having fostered the splendid vision of a restored empire that now began to fill the imagination of the young emperor, who is said to have confirmed the papal claims to eight counties in the Ancona march. Writing in the name of the desolate church at Jerusalem he sounded the first trumpet-call of the crusades, though almost a century was to pass away before his note was repeated by Peter the Hermit and Urban II.1 Nor did Silvester II. confine himself to plans on a large scale. He is also found confirming his old rival Amulf in the see of Reims; summoning Adalbero or Azelmus of Laon to Rome to answer for his crimes; judging between the archbishop of Mainz and the bishop of Hildesheim; besieging the revolted town of Cesena; flinging the count of Angouleme into prison for an offence against a bishop; confirming the privileges of Fulda abbey; granting charters to bishoprics far away on the Spanish mark; and, on the eastern borders of the empire, erecting Prague as the seat of an archbishopric for the Slavs. More remarkable than all his other acts is his letter to St Stephen, king of Hungary, to whom he sent a golden crown, and whose king- dom he accepted as a fief of the Holy See. It must, however, be remarked that the genuineness of this letter, in which Gerbert to some extent foreshadows the temporal claims of Hildebrand and Innocent III., has been hotly contested, and that the original document has long been lost. All Gerbert's dreams for the advancement of church and empire were cut short by the death of Otto III., on the 4th of February 1002; and this event was followed a year later by the death of the pope himself, which took place on the 1 2th of May 1003. His body was buried in the church 1 This letter, even if spurious as now suspected, is found in the I ith-century Leiden MS., and is therefore anterior to the first crusade. of St John Lateran, where his tomb and inscription are still to be seen. A few words must be devoted to Silvester II. as regards his attitude to the Church of Rome and the learning of his age. He has left us two detailed accounts of the proceedings of the council of St Basle; and, despite his reticence, it is impossible to doubt that he was the moving spirit in Arnulf's deposition. On the whole it may be said that his position in this question as to the rights of the papal see over foreign metropolitans resembled that of his great predecessor Hincmar, to whose authority he constantly appeals. But he is rather the practised debater who will admit his opponent's principles for the moment when he sees his way to moulding them to his own purposes, than the philosophical statesman who has formulated a theory from whose terms he will not move. Roughly sketched, his argument is as follows. Rome is indeed to be honoured as the mother of the churches; nor would Gerbert oppose her judgments except in two cases — (i) where she enjoins something that is contrary to the decrees of a universal council, such as that of Nice, or (2) where, after having been once appealed to in a matter of ecclesiastical discipline and having refused to give a plain and speedy decision, she should, at a later date, attempt to call in question the provisions of the metropolitan synod called to remedy the effects of her negligence. The decisions of a Gregory or a Leo the Great, of a Gelasius or an Innocent, prelates of holy life and unequalled wisdom, are accepted by the universal church; for, coming from such men, they cannot but be good. But who could recognize in the cruel and lustful popes of later days — in John XII. or Boniface VII., " monsters, as they were, of more than human iniquity " — anything else than " Anti- christ sitting in the temple of God and showing himself as God "? Gerbert proceeds to argue that the church councils admitted the right of metropolitan synods to depose unworthy bishops, but contends that, even if an appeal to Rome were necessary, that appeal had been made a year before without effect. This last clause prepares us to find him shifting his position still farther at the council of Causey, where he advances the proposition that John XV. was represented at St Basle by his legate Seguin, archbishop of Sens, and that, owing to this, the decrees of the latter council had received the papal sanction. Far firmer is the tone of his later letter to the same archbishop, where he contends from historical evidence that the papal judgment is not infallible, and encourages his brother prelate not to fear excommunication in a righteous cause, for it is not in the power even of the successor of Peter " to separate an innocent priest from the love of Christ." Besides being the most distinguished statesman, Gerbert was also the most accomplished scholar of his age. But in this aspect he is rather to be regarded as the diligent expositor of other men's views than as an original thinker. Except as regards philosophical and religious speculation, his writings show a range of interest and knowledge quite unparalleled in that generation. His pupil Richer has left us a detailed account of his system of teaching at Reims. So far as the triviuin is concerned, his text-books were Victorinus's translation of Porphyry's Isagoge, Aristotle's Categories, and Cicero's Topics with Manlius's Commentaries. From dialectics he urged his pupils to the study of rhetoric; but, recognizing the necessity of a large vocabulary, he accustomed them to read the Latin poets with care. Virgil, Statius, Terence, Juvenal, Horace, Persius and Lucan are specially named as entering into a course of training which was rendered more stimulating by a free use of open discussion. More remarkable still were his methods of teaching the quadrivium. To assist his lectures on astronomy he constructed elaborate globes of the terrestrial and celestial spheres, on which the course of the planets was marked; for facilitating arithmetical and perhaps geometrical processes he constructed an abacus with twenty-seven divisions and a thousand counters of horn. A younger contemporary speaks of his having made a wonderful clock or sun-dial at Magdeburg ; and we know from his letters that Gerbert was accustomed to ex- change his globes for MSS. of those classical authors that his own library did not contain. More extraordinary still was his knowledge of music — an accomplishment which seems to have been his earliest recommendation to Otto I. Probably he was beyond his age in this science, for we read of Garamnus, his first tutor at Reims, whom he attempted to ground in this subject: " Artis dimcultate victus, a musica rejectus est." Gerbert's letters contain more than one allusion to organs which he seems to have constructed, and William of Malmesbury has preserved an account of a wonderful musical instrument still to be seen in his days at Reims, which, so far as the English chronicler's words can be made out, seems to refer to an organ worked by steam. The same historian tells us that Gerbert borrowed from the Arabs (Saraceni) the abacus with ciphers (see NUMERALS). Perhaps Gerbert's chief claim to the remembrance of posterity is to be found in the care and expense with which he gathered together MSS. of the classical writers. His love for literature was a passion. In the turmoil of his later life he looked back with regret to his student days; and " for all his troubles philosophy was his only cure." Everywhere — at Rome, at Treves, at Moutier-en-Der, at Gerona in Spain, at Barcelona — he had friends or agents to procure him copies of the great Latin writers for Bpbbio or Reims. To the abbot of Tours he writes that he is " labouring assiduously to form a library," and " throughout Italy, Germany and Lorraine (Belgica) SILVESTRE— SILVESTRINES 119 is spending vast sums of money in the acquisition of MSS." It is noteworthy, however, that Gerbert never writes for a copy of one of the Christian fathers, his aim being, seemingly, to preserve the fragments of a fast-perishing secular Latin literature. Despite his residence on the Spanish mark, he shows no token of a knowledge of Arabic, a fact which is perhaps sufficient to overthrow the statement of Adhemar as to his having studied at Cordova. There is hardly a trace to be found in his writings ot any acquaintance with Greek. So remarkable a character as that of Gerbert left its mark on the age, and fables soon began to cluster round his name. Towards the end of the llth century Cardinal Benno, the opponent of Hilde- brand, is said to have made him the first of a long line of magician popes. Ordericus Vitalis improves this legend by details of an inter- view with the devil, who prophesied Gerbert's threefold elevation in the famous line that Gerbert's contemporaries attributed to the pope himself : Transit in R. Gerbertus in R. post papa vigens R. A few years later William of Malmesbury adds a love adyenture at Cordova, a compact with the devil, the story of a speaking statue that foretold Gerbert's death at Jerusalem— a prophecy fulfilled, somewhat as in the case of Henry IV. of England, by his dying in the Jerusalem church of Rome — and that imaginative story of the statue with the legend " Strike here," which, after having found its way into the Gesta Romanorum, has of late been revived in the Earthly Paradise. Gerbert's extant works may be divided into five classes, (a) A collection of letters, some 230 in number. These are to be found for the most part in an nth-century MS. at Leiden. Other important MSS. are those of the Barberini Library at Rome (late l6th century), of Middlehill (tyth century), and of St Peter's abbey, Salzburg. With the letters may be grouped the papal decrees of Gerbert when Silvester II. (6) The Acta concilii Remensis ad Sanctum Basolum, a detailed account of the proceedings and discourses at the great council of St Basle; a shorter account of his apologetic speeches at the councils of Mouzon and Causey; and drafts of the decrees of two or three other councils or imperial constitutions promulgated when he was archbishop of Ravenna or pope. The important works on the three above-mentioned councils are to be found in the nth- century Leiden MS. just alluded to. (c) Gerbert's theological works comprise a Sermo de information? episcoporum and a treatise en- titled De corpore et sanguine Domini, both ot very doubtful authen- ticity, (d) Of his philosophical works we only have one, Libellus de rationali et ratione uti, written at the request of Otto III. and pre- served in an nth-century MS. at Paris, (e) His mathematical works consist of a Regula de abaco computi, of which a 12th-century MS. is to be found at the Vatican ; and a Libellus de numerorum divisione (llth- and 12th-century MSS. at Rome, Montpellier and Paris), dedicated to his friend and correspondent Constantine of Fleury. A long treatise on geometry, attributed to Gerbert, is of somewhat doubtful authenticity. To these may be added a very short dis- quisition on the same subject addressed to Adalbold, and a similar one, on one of his own spheres, addressed to Constantine, abbot of Micy. All the writings of Gerbert are collected in the edition of A. Olleris (Clermont, 1867). (T. A. A.) SILVESTER III. When Boniface IX. was driven from Rome early in January 1044, John, bishop of Sabina, was elected in his stead and took the title of Silvester III. Within three months Boniface returned and expelled his rival. Nearly three years later (December 1046) the council of Sutri deprived him of his bishopric and priesthood. He was then sent to a monastery, where he seems to have died. SILVESTRE, PAUL ARMAND (1837-1901), French poet and conteur, was born in Paris on the i8th of April 1837. He studied at the Ecole polytechnique with the intention of entering the army, but in 1870 he entered the department of finance. He had a successful official career, was decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1886, and in 1892 was made inspector of fine arts. Armand Silvestre made his entry into literature as a poet, and was reckoned among the Parnassians. His volumes of verse include: Rimes neuves et vieilles (1866), to which George Sand wrote a preface; Les Renaissances (1870); La Chanson des heures (1878); Le Chemin des etoiles (1885), &c. The poet was also a contributor to Gil Bias and other Parisian journals, distinguishing himself by the licence he permitted himself. To these " absences " from poetry, as Henri Chantavoine calls them, belong the seven volumes of La Vie pour rire (1881-1883), Conies pantagrueliques et galants (1884), Le Lime des joyeusetes (1884), Gauloiseries nouvelles (1888), &c. For the stage he wrote in many different manners: Sapho (1881), a drama; Henry VIII (1883), with Leonce Detroyat, music by Saint-Saens; and the Drames sacres (1893), religious pictures after i4th- and 15th- century Italian painters, with music by Gounod. An account ol his varied and somewhat incongruous production is hardly com- plete without mention of his art criticism. Le Nu au Salon (1888-1892), in five volumes, with numerous illustrations, was followed by other volumes of the same type. He died at/Toulouse on the i gth of February 1901. SILVESTRE DE SACY, ANTOINE ISAAC, BARON (1758-1838), French orientalist, was born in Paris on the 2ist of September 1758. His father was a Parisian notary named Silvestre, and the additional name of de Sacy was taken by the younger son after a fashion then common with the Paris bourgeoisie. From the age of seven years, when he lost his father, he was educated in the closest seclusion by his mother. In 1781 he was appointed councillor in the cour des monnaies, and was advanced in 1791 to be a commissary-general in the same department. De Sacy had successively acquired all the Semitic languages, and as a civil servant he found time to make himself a great name as an orientalist. He began successfully to decipher the Pahlavi inscriptions of the Sassanian kings (I787-I79I).1 In 1792 he retired from the public service, and lived in close seclusion in a cottage near Paris till in 1795 he became professor of Arabic in the newly founded school of living Eastern languages. The interval was in part devoted to the study of the religion of the Druses, which was the subject of his last and unfinished work, the Expose de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838). Since the death of Johann Jakob Reiske Arabic learning had been in a backward state. In the Grammaire arabe (2 vols., isted. 1810, 2nd ed. 1831) and the Chrestomathie arabe (3 vols., 1806), together with its supplement, the Anthologie grammatical (1829), De Sacy supplied admirable text-books, and earned the gratitude of later Arabic students. In 1806 he added the duties of Persian pro- fessor to his old chair, and from this time onwards his life was one of increasing honour and success, broken only by a brief period of retreat during the Hundred Days. He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions from 1832 onwards; in 1808 he had entered the corps legislatif; he was made a baron in 1813; and in 1832, when quite an old man, be became a peer of France and was regular in the duties of the chamber. In 1815 he became rector of the university of Paris, and after the second restoration he was active on the commission of public instruction. With Abel Remusat he was joint founder of the Societe asiatique, and was inspector of oriental types at the royal printing press. De Sacy died on the 2ist of February 1838. Among his other works are his edition of Hariri (1822, 2nd edition by Reinaud, 1847, 1855), with a selected Arabic commentary, and of the Alfiya (1833), and his Calila et Dimna (1816), — the Arabic version of that famous collection of Buddhist animal tales which has been in various forms one of the most popular books of the world. A version of Abd-Allatif, Relation arabe sur I'Egypte, and essays on the history of the law of property in Egypt since the Arab conquest (1805-1818). To biblical criticism he contributed a memoir on the Samaritan Arabic of the Pentateuch (Mem. Acad. des Inscr. vol. xlix.), and editions of the Arabic and Syriac New Testaments for the British and Foreign Bible Society. Of the brilliant teachers who went out from his lecture-room may be mentioned Professor Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer (1801-1888), who contributed elabor- ate notes and corrections to the Grammaire arabe (Kleinere Schriften, vol. i., 1885). SILVESTRINES, or SYLVESTRINES, an order of monks under the Benedictine rule, founded 1231 by St Silvester Gozzolini. He was born at Osimo near Ancona and held a canonry there. About 1227 he resigned it to lead an austere eremitical life. Disciples came to him, and in 1231 he built a monastery at Montefano. The rule was the Benedictine, but as regards poverty in external things, far stricter than the Benedictine. The order was approved in 1247 by Innocent IV., and at Silvester's death in 1 267 there were eleven Silvestrine monasteries. At a later date there were 56, mostly in Umbria, Tuscany and the March of Ancona. In 1907 there were nine Silvestrine houses, one in Rome, and about 60 choir monks. Since 1855 they 1 A communication to Eichhorn on the Paris MS. of the Syro- Hexaplar version of IV. Kings formed the basis of a paper in the latter's Repertorium, vol. vii. (1780). This was de Sacy's literary debut. It was followed by text and translation of the letters of the Samaritans to Jos. Scaliger (ibid. vol. xiii., 1783) and by a series of essays on Arabian and Persian history in the Recueil of the Academy of Inscriptions and in the Notices et extraits. I2O SIMANCAS— SIMCOE have had a house and a mission in Ceylon. The order has no history. The habit is blue. See Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1718), vi. c. 21; Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), i. § 30; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2). (E. C. B.) SIMANCAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Valladolid; 8 m. S.W. of Valladolid, on the road to Zamora and the right bank of the river Pisuerga. Pop. (1900) 1129. Simancas is a town of great antiquity, the Roman Septimanca, with a citadel dating from the Moorish occupation in the 9th century, a fine bridge of seventeen arches, and many remains of old walls. In 934 it was the scene of a bloody battle between the Moors and Christians. The citadel is now the Archive General del Reino, to which the national archives of Spain were removed by order of Philip II. in 1 563. Their transference thither was first suggested to Charles V. by Cardinal Ximenes or Cisneros (d. 1517). The extensive alterations were made by three celebrated 16th-century architects, Juan de Herrera, Alonso Berruguete and Juan Gomez de Mora; the arrangement of the papers was en- trusted to Diego de Ayala. They occupy forty-six rooms, and are arranged in upwards of 80,000 bundles (33,000,000 documents), including important private as well as state papers. The archives of the Indies were transferred in 1784 to the Lonja of Seville ( Partisan (1835); Mellichampe (1836); Katherine Walton, or the Rebel of Dorchester (1851); and others — describe social life at Charleston, and the action covers the whole period, with portraits of the political and military leaders of the time. Of border tales the. list includes Guy Rivers, a Tale of Georgia (1834); Richard Hurdis (1838); Border Beagles (1840); Beauchampe (1842); Helen Halsey (1845); The Golden Christmas (1852); and Charlemont (1856). The historical romances are The Yemassee (1835), dealing largely with Indian character and nature; Pelayo (1838); Count Julien (1845); The Damsel of Darien (1845); The Lily and the Totem; Vasconselos (1857), which he wrote under the assumed name of " Frank Cooper " ; and The Cassique of Kiawah (1860). Other novels are Carl Werner (1838); Confession of the Blind Heart (1842); The Wigwam and the Cabin, a collection of short tales (1845-1846); Castle Dismal (1845); and Marie de Berniere (1853). Simms's other writings comprise a History of S. Carolina (Charleston, 1840); South Carolina in the Revolution (Charleston, 1853); A Geography of South Carolina (1843); lives of Francis Marion (New York, 1844); Capt. John Smith (1846); The Chevalier Bayard (1848) and Nathanael Green (1849); The Ghost of my Husband (1866); and War Poetry of the South — an edited volume — -(1867). Simms was also a frequent contributor to the magazines and literary papers, six of which he founded and conducted. In the discussion on slavery he upheld the views of the pro-slavery party. He edited the seven dramas doubt- fully ascribed to Shakespeare, with notes and an introduction to 124 SIMNEL, LAMBERT— SIMON, SIR J. each play. Simms' works in 10 vols. were published at New York in 1882; his Poems (2 vols., New York) in 1853. See his biography (Boston, 1892), by Professor William P. Trent. A bibliographical List of the Separate Writings oj W. G. Simms of South Carolina (New York, 1906) was compiled by O. Wegelin. SIMNEL, LAMBERT (fl. 1477-1534). English impostor, was probably the son of a tradesman at Oxford. He was about ten years old in 1487, and was described as a handsome youth of intelligence and good manners. In 1486, the year following the accession of Henry VII., rumours were disseminated by the adherents of the Yorkist dynasty that the two sons of Edward IV., who had been murdered in the Tower of London, were still alive. A young Oxford priest, Richard Symonds by name, conceived the project of putting forward the boy Simnel to impersonate one of these princes as a claimant for the crown, with the idea of thereby procuring for himself the archbishopric of Canterbury. He set about instructing the youth in the arts and graces appropriate to his pretended birth; but meanwhile a report having gained currency that the young earl of Warwick, son of Edward IV.'s brother George, duke of Clarence, had died in the Tower, Symonds decided that the impersonation of this latter prince would be a more easily credible deception. It is probable that Symonds acted throughout with the connivance of the Yorkist leaders, and especially of John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln, himself a nephew of Edward IV., who had been named heir to the crown by Richard III. The Yorkists had many adherents in Ireland, and thither Lambert Simnel was taken by Symonds early in 1487; and, gaining the support of the earl of Kildare, the archbishop of Dublin, the lord chancellor and a powerful following, who were, or pretended to be, con- vinced that the boy was the earl of Warwick escaped from the Tower, Simnel was crowned as King Edward VI. in the cathedral in Dublin on the 24th of May 1487. Messages asking for help were sent to Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., to Sir Thomas Broughton and other Yorkist leaders. On the 2nd of February 1487 Henry VII. held a- council at Sheen to concert measures for dealing with the conspiracy. Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Edward IV., was imprisoned in the convent of Bermondsey; and the real earl of Warwick was taken from the Tower and shown in public in the streets of London. But although Lincoln is said to have conversed with Warwick on this occasion, he fled abroad immediately after the council at Sheen, where he was present. In Flanders, Lincoln joined Lord Lovell, who had headed an unsuccessful Yorkist rising in 1486, and in May 1487 the two lords proceeded to Dublin, where they landed a few days before the coronation of Lambert Simnel. They were accompanied by 2000 German soldiers under Martin Schwartz, procured by Margaret of Burgundy to support the enterprise, Margaret having recognized Simnel as her nephew. This force, together with some ill-armed Irish levies commanded by Sir Thomas Fitzgerald, landed in Lancashire on the 4th of June. King Henry was at Coventry when the news of the landing reached him, and immediately marched to Nottingham, where his army was strengthened by the addition of 6000 men. The invaders met with little encouragement from the populace, who were not well disposed towards a monarch whom it was sought to impose upon them by the aid of Irish and German mercenaries. Making for the fortress of Newark, Lincoln and Sir Thomas Broughton, at the head of their motley forces, and accompanied by Simnel, attacked the royal army near the village of Stoke-on-Trent on the i6th of June 1487. After a fierce and stubborn struggle in which the Germans behaved with great valour, the Royalists were completely victorious, though they left 2000 men on the field; Lincoln, Schwartz and Fitzgerald with 4000 of their followers were killed, and Lovell and Broughton disappeared never to be heard of again. The priest Symonds, and Simnel were taken prisoners. The former was consigned to a dungeon for the rest of his life; but Henry VII., recognizing that the youthful pretender had been a tool in the hands of others and was in himself harmless, pardoned Lambert Simnel and took him into his own service in the menial capacity of scullion. He was later promoted to- be royal falconer and is said to have afterwards become a servant in the household of Sir Thomas Lovell. The date of Simnel's death is unknown, but he is known to have been still living in the year 1534. See Rolls of Parliament. VI. : Francis Bacon, History of Henry VII., with notes by J. R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1881); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885-1890); James Gairdner, Henry VII. (London, 1889) and Letters and Papers illus- trative of the reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII. (" Rolls " series, 2 vols., London, 1861-1863): The Political History of England, vol. v., by H. A. L. Fisher (London, 1906) ; and W. Busch, England under the Tudors (1895). For a contemporary account of Simnel's imposture, see Polydore Vergil, Anglicae historiae, to which all the later narratives are indebted. (R. J. M.) SIMOCATTA,1 THEOPHYLACT, Byzantine historian, a native of Egypt, flourished at Constantinople during the reign of Heraclius (610-640), under whom he held the office of imperial secretary. He is best known as the author of a history, in eight books, of the reign of the emperor Maurice (582-602), for which period he is the best and oldest authority. The work describes the wars with the Persians, the Avars and Slavs, and the emperor's tragic end. " His want of judgment renders him diffuse in trifles and concise in the most interesting facts " (Gibbon), but his general trustworthiness is admitted. The history contains an introduction in the form of a dialogue between History and Philosophy. Photius (cod. 65) while admit- ting a certain amount of gracefulness in the language, blames the author's excessive use of figurative and allegorical expressions and moral sentiments. While the vocabulary contains many strange and affected words, the grammar and syntax are on the whole correct (ed. pr. by J. Pontanus, 1609; best edition by C. de Boor, 1887, with a valuable Index Graecitatis). Simocatta was also the author of Physical Problems('Airoplai QvaiKal} in dialogue form, dealing with the nature of animals and especially of man (ed. J. Ideler in Physici et medici Graeci minores, i. 1841); and of a- collection of 85 letters (moral, rustic, erotic), the supposed writers of which are either fictitious or well-known personages (Antisthenes to Pericles, Socrates to Plato, Socrates to Alcibiades). The best edition is by R. Hercher in Epistolographi Graeci (1873). The letters were translated into Latin (1509) by Copernicus (re- printed 1873 by F. Hipler in Spicilegium Gopernicanum). See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (1897). SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692), English medallist and modeller, was born in Yorkshire in 1622. He was originally intended for the church, but turned his attention to art, and, after studying in Holland, proceeded to Sweden, where he was employed by Queen Christina, in whose train he travelled to Paris. He returned to England before the outbreak of the Civil War, and attained celebrity by his medals and portraits modelled in wax. During the Commonwealth he executed many medals of leading parliamentarians, and at the Restoration he was patronized by Charles II., from whom he received a hundred guineas for his portrait designed as a medal for the proposed order of the Royal Oak. Having incurred the displeasure of the duke of .York, he lost the favour of the court, and died in obscurity in 1692. Among the more interesting of his medals are those of the 2nd earl of Dunfermline, the 2nd earl of Lauderdale and the ist earl of Loudon; that of the duke of Albemarle, and many other fine medals, were modelled by Abraham Simon and chased by his brother Thomas Simon (q.v.). SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816-1904), English surgeon and sanitary reformer, was born in London on the icth of October 1816. His father, Louis Michael Simon,was for many years a leading member of the London Stock Exchange. Both his grandfathers were French emigrants, who carried on business in London and Bath respectively. His father died at almost ninety-eight, and his mother at nearly ninety-five years of age. Simon was educated at a preparatory school in Pentonville, spent seven years at Dr Burney's school in Greenwich, and then ten months with a German Pfarrer in Rhenish Prussia. His father intended him for surgery, and he began the study of medicine on ist October 33> when he was a few days short of seventeen. He was an apprentice of Joseph Henry Green, the distinguished surgeon at St Thomas's, well known for his friendship for Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whose literary executor Green became. He became 1 Other forms of the name are Simocattos, Simocatos, Simocates. SIMON, J. F. a demonstrator of anatomy, and was assistant surgeon to King's College Hospital for several years; and in the autumn of 1847 he was appointed surgeon and lecturer on pathology at his old school, St Thomas's, where, with progressive changes, he con- tinued to remain an officer. His life was divided between two great pursuits — the career of a surgeon, and the mastery and solution of many of the great problems of sanitary science and reform. In the spring of 1844 he gained the first Astley Cooper prize by a physiological essay on the thymus gland, and the following year was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1847 he gave his first lecture at St Thomas's Hospital, on the " Aims and Philosophic Method of Pathological Research," followed a little later by lectures on general pathology in relation to the principles of diagnosis, and the treatment of disease. These lectures were of great importance at the time, and of the utmost value in directing energy into new and profitable channels of work. Simon published many clinical surgical lectures of the greatest importance, and contributed a masterly article on " Inflammation " to Holmes's System of Surgery, which has become a classic of its kind. It was, however, on his appoint- ment in 1848 as medical officer of health to the City of London, and afterwards to the government, that Simon's great abilities found scope for congenial exercise. He stimulated and guided the development of sanitary science, until it reached in England the highest degree of excellence, and gave an example to the civilized world. It is impossible to overestimate the value of Sir John Simon's work, or the importance of his influence in the furtherance of the public health and the prevention of disease, and in inculcating right methods of medical government. In 1878, after filling other offices in the Royal College of Surgeons, he became its president, and in 1887 was created K.C.B. It was largely due to his advocacy that the new St Thomas's Hospital was rebuilt on its present site after it was compelled to leave its old habitation near London Bridge. As a surgeon, Simon's work came second to his interest in sanitary science, but he claimed priority over Cock in the operation of perineal puncture of the urethra in cases of retention from stricture. He died on the 23rd of July 1904. (W. MAcC). SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814-1896), French statesman and philosopher, was born at Lorient on the 27th of December 1814. His father was a linen-draper from Lorraine, who abjured Protestantism before his second marriage, of which Jules Simon was the son, with a Catholic Breton. The family name was Suisse, which Simon dropped in favour of his third prenomen. By dint of considerable sacrifice he was able to attend a seminary at Vannes, and was for a short time usher in a school before, in 1833, he became a student at the Ecole Normale in Paris. There he came in contact with Victor Cousin, who sent him to Caen and then to Versailles to teach philosophy. He helped Cousin, without receiving any recognition, in his translations from Plato, and in 1839 became his deputy in the chair of philosophy at the Sorbonne, with the meagre salary of 83 francs per month. He also lectured on the history of philosophy at the Ecole Normale. At this period he edited the works of Malebranche (2 vols., 1842), of Descartes (1842), Bossuet (1842) and of Arnauld (1843), and in 1844-1845 appeared the two volumes of his Histoire de I'ecole d' Alexandrie. He became a regular contributor to the Revue des deux mondes, and in 1847, with Amedee Jacques and Emile Saisset, founded the Liberle de penser, with the intention of throwing off the yoke of Cousin, but he retired when Jacques allowed the insertion of an article advocating the principles of collectivism, with which he was at no time in sympathy. In 1848 he represented the C6tes-du- Nord in the National Assembly, and next year entered the Council of State, but was retired on account of his republican opinions. His refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the govern- ment of Louis Napoleon after the coup d'etat was followed by his dismissal from his professorship, and he devoted himself to philosophical and political writings of a popular order. Le Devoir (1853), which was translated into modern Greek and Swedish, was followed by La Religion naturelle (1856, Eng. trans., 1887), La Liberte de conscience (1857), La Liberte politique 125 (1859), La Liberte civile (1859), L'Ouvriere (1861), L'Ecole (1864), Le Travail (i866),L'Ouvrierdehuitans (1867) and others. In 1863 he was returned to the Corps Legislatif for the 8th circonscription of the Seine, and supported " les Cinq " in their opposition to the government. He became minister of instruc- tion in the government of National Defence on the sth of September 1870. After the capitulation of Paris in January 1871 he was sent down to Bordeaux to prevent the resistance of Gambetta to the peace. But at Bordeaux Gambetta, who had issued a proclamation excluding from the elections officials under the Empire, was all powerful. He affected to dispute Jules Simon's credentials, and issued orders for his arrest. Meanwhile Simon had found means of communication with Paris, and on the 6th of February was reinforced by Eugene Pelletan, E. Arago and Garnier-Pages. Gambetta resigned, and the ministry of the Interior, though nominally given to Arago to avoid the appearance of a personal issue, was really in Simon's hands. Defeated in the department of the Seine, he sat for the Marne in the National Assembly, and resumed the portfolio of Education in the first cabinet of M.Thiers's presidency. He advocated free primary education yet sought to conciliate the clergy by all the means in his power; but no concessions removed the hostility of Mgr. Dupanloup, who presided over the commission appointed to consider his 'draft of an elementary education bill. The reforms he was actually able to carry out were concerned with secondary education. He encouraged the study of living languages; and limited the attention given to the making of Latin verse; he also encouraged independent methods at the Ecole Normale, and set up a school at Rome where members of the French school of Athens should spend some time. He retained office until a week before the fall of Thiers in 1873. He was regarded by the monarchical right as one of the most dangerous obstacles in the way of a restoration, which he did as much as any man (except perhaps the comte de Chambord himself) to prevent, but by the extreme left he was distrusted for his moderate views, and Gambetta never forgave his victory at Bordeaux. In 1875 he became a member of the French Academy and a life senator, and in 1876, on the resigna- tion of M. Dufaure, was summoned to form a cabinet. He replaced anti-republican functionaries in the civil service by republicans, and held his own until the 3rd of May 1877, when he adopted a motion carried by a large majority in the Chamber inviting the cabinet to use all means for the repression of clerical agitation. His clerical enemies then induced Marshal MacMahon to take advantage of a vote on the press law carried in Jules Simon's absence from the Chamber to write him a letter regretting that he no longer preserved his influence in the Chamber, and thus practically demanding his resignation. His resignation in response to this act of the president, known as the " Seize Mai," which he might have resisted by an appeal to the Chamber, proved his ruin, and he never again held office. He justified his action by his fear of providing an opportunity for a coup d'etat on the part of the marshal. The rejection (1880) of article 7 of Ferry's Education Act, by which the profession of teaching would have been forbidden to members of non-authorized congregations, was due to his intervention. He was in fact the chief of the left centre opposed to the radicalism of Jules Grevy and Gambetta. He was director of the Gaulois from 1879 to 1 88 1 , and his influence in the country among moderate republicans was retained by his articles in the Matin from 1882 onwards, in the Journal des Debats, which he joined in 1886, and in the Temps from 1890. He left accounts of some of the events in which he had participated in Souvenirs du 4 septembre (1874), Le Gouvernement de M. Thiers (2 vols., 1878), in Mtmoires des autres (1889), Nouveaux memoires des autres (1891) and Les Verniers memoires des autres (1897), while his sketch of Victor Cousin (1887) was a further contribution to con- temporary history. For his personal history the Premiers memoires (1900) and Le Soir de ma journte (1902), edited by his son Gustave Simon, may be supplemented by Ldon SechS's Figures bretonnes, Jules Simon, sa vie, son ceuvre (new ed., 1898), and G. Picot, Jules Simon: notice historique . . . (1897); also by many references to periodical literature and collected essays in Hugo P. Thieme's Guide Ubliographique de la lilt, franc,, de 1800 a 1906 (1907). 126 SIMON MAGUS SIMON MAGUS ("Simon the Magician"; Gr. na-yos, a wizard), a character who appears in the New Testament and also in the works of the Christian Fathers. In Acts viii. 5-24 he is portrayed as a famous sorcerer in Samaria who had been converted to Christianity by Philip. His personality has been the subject of considerable discussion. The conclusions to •which the present writer has been led are mainly as follows: (i) that all we know of the original Simon Magus is contained in Acts; (2) that from very early times he has been confused, with another Simon; (3) that the idea that Simon Magus is merely a distortion of St Paul is absurd. As regards the story of Acts viii. 5-24, it will suffice to make a few remarks. First it is interesting to note that Simon Magus was Ads. older than Christianity. The first missionary enterprise _ of the nascent Church brought it into contact with a magician who had for a long time amazed the people of Samaria with his sorceries (v. 1 1). This person gave himself out to be " some great one," but the popular voice defined his claims by saying this man is that power of God which is called Great." Such a voice of the people cannot be imagined in Judaea, but Samaria was more open than Judaea to the influence of Greek ideas. Readers of Philo are familiar with the half-philosophical and half-mythological mode of thought by which the " powers of God " are substantialized into independent personalities. There were powers of all sorts powers of help and salvation and also powers of punishment (Philo i' 431). It was through these powers that the incorporeal world of thought was framed, which served as the archetype of this world of appearance. The various powers are sometimes summed up under the two heads of 0aai\tK^ and chpyeriKi,, which correspond to the two names xfcpios and 0«5s. Which of them — if it is lawful at all to argue from Alexandria to Samaria — is to be identified with the one called " great " we have no means of deciding. Not- withstanding his own success as a magician Simon Magus was amazed in his turn at the superior power of Christianity. But he did not understand that this power was spoilt by self-seeking, and his offer of money to the Apostles, to enable him to confer the gift of the Holy Ghost, has branded his name for ever through the use of the word "simony" (q.v.). He was, however, a baptized Christian, and accepted with meekness the rebuke of Peter. The last that we hear of him is his humble entreaty to the Apostles to pray for him. Had the writer of Acts known anything of his subsequent adventures, he might certainly have been expected to give some hint of them. There is no reason for identifying the Simon Magus of Acts with the Simon, also a magician, who was a friend of Felix, and employed by him to tempt Drusilla away from her husband Azizus, the king of the Emesi. The name Simon was common, and so was the claim to magical powers. But the Simon of Josephus (Ant. xx. 7, § 2) is expressly declared to have been a Jew and a native of Cyprus. The Apostolic Fathers say nothing about Simon Magus, but with Justin Martyr we get startling developments. In his First Justin. Apology, written in A.D. 138 or 139, he tells us that one Simon, a Samaritan, from a village called Gitta or Gittae (see Ency. Bibl. iv. col. 4538), performed such miracles by magic acts in Rome during the reign of Claudius, that he was regarded as a god and honoured with a statue " in the river Tiber, between the two bridges, having an inscription in Latin as follows : SIMONI DEO ^ANCTO." " And almost all the Samaritans," he goes on to say, and a few among the other nations, acknowledge and adore him as the first God. And one Helen, who went about with him they assert to be God, above all rule and authority and power " ^CI . I'.pll . I. 21 ) , Such is the testimony of Justin; what is it worth? In iV7d. during the pontificate of Gregory XIII., a stone was dug up in the island of the Tiber bearing the inscription— " Semoni Sango Deo bacrum Sex. Pompeius " (see SEMO SANCUS). This discovery has led many to suspect that Justin Martyr has somehow been hoaxed Ihe stone is not the only one of its kind, and it is a serious charge to bring against Justin to suppose him guilty of so silly a confusion as this. But Justin Martyr was decidedly weak in history, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that he may have confused the Simon of Acts with a heretical leader of the same name who lived much nearer to his own time, especially as this other Simon also had a great reputation for magic. A full century must have elapsed between the conversion of Simon Magus to Christianity and the earliest date possible (which is the one that we have adopted) for the composition of Justin Martyr's First Apology. That work is assigned by Schmiedel and others to about A.D. 152. Justin Martyr could not have been mistaken as to the fact that the bulk of his countrymen were followers of a religious leader named Simon whose disciple Menander he seems to speak of as an elder con- temporary of his own. But having a mind void of historical per- spective he identified this Simon with Simon Magus. When once this identification has been made by Justin it was taken for granted by almost all subsequent writers. The tempta- tion to trace all heresy to one who had been condemned by Peter was too strong for the Fathers.1 Dr George Salmon brought light into darkness by distinguishing between Simon of Gitta and the original Simon Magus. What has not perhaps been so clearly perceived is the consequence that all that is told about Helen refers to the later Simon. With Hegesippus, who wrote during the episcopate of Eleutherus (A.D. 176-189), as with Justin, Simon heads the list of heretics, but there is no identification of him with Simon at that time, who before had had her stand in a brothel, they 'say brought into being by him " (Apol. i. was the first thought that was ^.uu&,,t „„.„ uc,lls uy lllm \n.vw. ,. *• 1-3)- Justin goes on to speak, as from personal knowledge, of the feats of magic performed by Menander, another Samaritan and a disciple of Simon's, who persuaded his followers that they would never die. After Menander Justin proceeds to speak of Marcion, who was still teaching at the time. The followers of Simon Magus, of Menander and of Marcion, he says, were all called Christians, but so also Epicureans and Stoics were alike called philosophers. He had himself composed a treatise against all the heresies that there had been, which he was willing to present to the imperial family (Apol. i. 26. 4-8). As Justin was himself a Samaritan it is natural that his fellow-countrymen should bulk largely in his eyes. Accordingly we find him reverting to Simon and Menander in a later passage of the same Apology, where he repeats that in the royal city of Rome, in the time of Claudius Caesar, Simon so astonished " the holy Senate " and the Roman people that he was worshipped as a god and honoured with a statue (Apol. i- 56), which Justin petitions to have taken down. In the Second Apology also there is a passage which seems mutilated or mis- placed, in which he declares himself to have " despised the impious and misleading teaching of the Simonians in his own nation " (Apol. ii. 15. i). In the Dialogue (349 c, ch. 120) he prides himself °u A '"depend6006 and love of truth which he had displayed in the Apology. " For," he says, " in writing to Caesar, I showed no regard even for any of my own nation, but said that they were deceived by trusting in a magician of their own race, Simon, whom — «-*»w»v, *ij nv 4^j\,in.j>in,ai,iwii \ji linn wiLii oirnon Magus; indeed, the context plainly excludes it (Eus. H.E. iv. 22). During the same episcopate Irenaeus was appointed bishop of Lyons. In his work Agatnst Heresies (i. 16) we hear for the first time of opposition on the part of Simon to the Apostles after his pretended conversion. His magic, we are told, pro- lrenaeus- cured him the honour of a statue from the emperor Claudius. He was glorified by many as God, and he taught that it was he who appeared among the Jews as the Son, in Samaria as the Father and among other nations as the Holy Spirit. He was indeed the highest power, the Father, who is above all, but he consented to be called by whatever name men chose to give him. Irenaeus then goes on to tell how at Tyre Simon rescued Helen from prostitution, and took her about with him, saying that she was the first thought of his mind, the mother of all things, by whom in the beginning he had conceived the idea of making angels and arch-angels. For that this Thought (Ivvoio) recognizing her father's will, had leapt forth from him, and de- scended to lower regions, and generated the angelic powers by whom this world was made. But after she had done so she was detained by them through ill-will, since they did not wish to be thought the offspring of any other being. For, as for himself, they knew nothing at all about him. But his Thought had been detained by the angelic powers which had been sent forth from her, and had been subjected by them to every indignity, so that she might not return on high to her own father, insomuch that she was even enclosed in a human body, and for age after age transmigrated into different female forms, as though from one vessel into another. For she had been also in that Helen who was the cause of the Trojan War. But while she passed from body to body, and consequently suffered perpetual indignity, she had at the last been prostituted in a brothel; she was " the lost sheep." Wherefore he himself had come to free her from her bonds, and to confer salvation upon men through knowledge of himself. For as the angels were mismanaging the world, owing to their individual lust for rule, he had come to set things straight, and had descended under a changed form, likening himself to the Principalities and Powers through whom he passed, so that among men he appeared as a man, thtmgh he was not a man, and was thought to have suffered in Judaea, though he had not suffered. But the prophets had delivered their prophecies under the inspiration of the world-creating angels : wherefore those who had their hope in him and in Helen minded them no more, and, as being free, did what they pleased; for men were saved according to his grace, but not according to just works. For works were not just by nature, but only by convention, in accordance with the enactments of the world-creating Angels, who by precepts of this kind sought to bring men into slavery. Wherefore he promised that the world should be dissolved, and that those who were his should be freed from the dominion of the world-creators. Irenaeus con- cludes his account by saying that this Antinomian teaching had its logical consequence in his followers, who lived licentious lives and practised every kind of magic. They also, he adds, worshipped 1 Clement of Alexandria (Strom, vii. § 107) alone seems to have an inkling that there was something wrong. He puts Simon after Marcion, and yet refers in the same breath to his acceptance of Peter's preaching. SIMON MAGUS 127 images of Simon under the form of Zeus, and of Helen under that of Athena. They were called Simoniani, and were the introducers of "knowledge falsely so called." In the next chapter Irenaeus speaks of Menander, who was also a Samaritan, as the successor of Simon, and as having, like him, attained to the highest pitch of magic. His doctrine is represented as being the same as that of Simon, only that it was he this time who was the saviour of the world. It is evident that the Samaritans were not to be outdone by the Jews, that Mount Gerizim was once more being set up against Jerusalem, and that a bold bid was being made by the hated Samaritans for a world-wide religion, which should embrace Pagans as well as Christians. But before such an amalgam of paganism and Christianity could be propounded, it is evident that Christianity must have been for some little time before the world, and that the system cannot possibly be traced back to Simon Magus. Is it not this early struggle between Jewish and Samaritan universalism, involving as it did a struggle of religion against magic, that is really symbolized under the wild traditions of the contest between Peter and Simon?1 Tertullian is fond of alluding to Simon Magus. He says that he offered money for the Holy Spirit (De fuga, 12; De anima, 34), that Tertullian ne was curse^ by the Apostles and expelled from the faith (De idol. 9), that he consoled himself for the loss of the Spirit by the purchase of Helen of Tyre (De an. 34), that he was honoured at Rome with a statue bearing the inscription " Sancti Dei " (Apol. 13), that the Simonianae magiae disciplina had been condemned by Peter (De praescr. 33), and that in his own day (he died in A.D. 220) the followers of Simon professed to raise the souls of prophets from the dead (De anima, 57). In a list of heretics Marcion, Valentine and Apelles are followed by Hebion and Simon, whom we may take as standing respectively for Jewish and Samaritan types of Christian heresy (De praescr. lo). But the important passage is the account of his doctrine in De anima, 34, which is evidently derived from the same source as that of Irenaeus. The pseudo-Tertullian in the short treatise Against all Heresies lets us know that the being whom the Most High God came down to seek was Wisdom. This is important as bearing upon the connexion between Simon and Valentinus. In the Clementine Homilies (ii. 25) it is said that Simon called Helen ao(j>ia. We now come to the important testimony of Hippplytus (c. A.D. 218-222). In his Refutatio omnium haeresium he gives the same „. . account as Irenaeus with certain slight differences, which ppoy- indicate a common source rather than direct borrowing. The word used for the Thought of the first Father, which in Justin is IVVOLO., and which the translator of Irenaeus renders by conceptio and Tertullian by injectio, is in Hippolytus iirlvoitL. We are told that Simon allegorized the wooden horse and " Helen with the lamp,"2 and applied them to himself and his tTrivoia. Upon the story of " the lost sheep " Hippolytus comments as follows. " But the liar was enamoured of this wench, whose name was Helen, and had bought her and had her to wife, and it was out of respect for his disciples that he invented this fairy-tale" (Ref. O. H. vi. 19). To this he adds a scathing indictment against the licentiousness of the Simonians.3 Hippolytus speaks in language similar to that of Irenaeus about the variety of magic arts practised by the Simonians, and also of their having images of Simon and Helen under the forms of Zeus and Athena. But here he has a significant addition. " But if any one, on seeing the images either of Simon or Helen, shall call them by those names, he is cast out, as showing ignorance of the mysteries." From this it is evident that the Simonians did not allow that they worshipped their founders. Lipsius conjectured that the supposed worship of Simon and Helen was really that of Hercules-Melkart and Selene-Astarte. Baur before him made Simon =zfe^, the Sun. In the Clementine Recognitions Helen is called Luna (ii. 8, 9), and in the Homilies she is mystically connected with the lunar month (Horn. ii. 23). Hippolytus, like the rest, identified Simon of Gitta (Sijuw 6 TiTTrjcos, vi. 7) with Simon Magus. Reduced to despair, he says, by the curse laid upon him by Peter, he embarked on the career that has been described, " Until he came to Rome also and fell foul of the Apostles. Peter withstood him on many occasions. At last he came (here some words are missing) and began to teach sitting under a plane tree. When he was on the point of bein^ shown up, he said, in order to gain time, that if he were buried alive he would rise again on the third day. So he bade that a tomb should be dug by his disciples and that he should be buried in it. Now they did what they were ordered, but he remained there until now: for he was not the Christ." Prefixed to this account of Simon, which, except in its dramatic close, so nearly tallies with that of Irenaeus, is a description of a book of which he was the author. It is quoted under the title of The Declaration (vi. 14, 18) or The Great Declaration (vi. ii). The The account given by Irenaeus should be compared with what is said of Simon Magus in the Clementine Homilies, ii. 22, where the rivalry between Jews and Samaritans becomes evident (cf. Re- cognitions, i. 57). 2 On this see Epiph. xxi. 3. 3 Hippolytus says the free love doctrine was held by them in its frankest form. longest extract from it is in vi. 1 8, but others occur here and there,4 and, where not explicitly quoted, it still underlies the statements of Hippolytus. It is written in a mystical and pretentious style, but the philosophy of it, if allowance be made for the allegorical method of the time, is by no means to be despised. As Hippolytus himself in more than one place (iv. 51, vi. 20) points out, it is an earlier form of the Valentinian doctrine, but there are things in it which remind us of the Stoic physics, and much use is made of the Aristotelian distinction between kvipytia. and Mi>a/us. Starting from the assertion of Moses that God is "a devouring fire " (Deut. iy. 24), Simon combined therewith the philosophy of Heraclitus which made fire the first principle of all things. This first principle he denominated a " power without end " (Wvtz/us dircpacros), and he declared it to dwell in the sons of men, beings born of flesh and blood. But fire was not the simple thing that the many imagined, and Simon distinguished between its hidden and its manifest qualities, maintaining, like Locke, that the former were the cause of the latter. Like the Stoics he conceived of it as an intelligent being. From this ungenerated being sprang the generated world of which we know, whereof there were six roots, having each its inner and its outer side, and arranged in pairs (6s and icfliijutjcris = d^p and v&up. These six roots are also called six powers. Commingled with them all was the great power, the " power without end." This was that " which stands, which stood and yet shall stand." It existed potentially in every child of man, and might be developed in each to its own immensity. The small might become great, the point be enlarged to infinity (iv. 51, v. 9, yi. 14). This indivisible point which existed in the body, and of which none but the spiritual knew, was the Kingdom of Heaven, and the grain of mustard-seed (v. 9). But it rested with us to develop it, and it is this responsibility which is referred to in the words — " that we may not be condemned with the world " (i Cor. xi. 32). For if the image of the Standing One were not actualized in us, it would not survive the death of the body. " The axe, " he said, " is nigh to the roots of the tree.. Every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is cut down and cast into the fire " (cf. Matt. iii. 10). The whole book is a queer mixture of Hellenism and Hebraism, in which the same method of allegory is applied to Homer and Hesiod as to Moses. There is a physiological interpretation of the Garden of Eden. The five books of Moses are made to represent the five senses. There is a mystical passage on the unity of all things, sug- gestive of " the hymn the Brahman sings." Its language seems to throw light on the story about Helen. " This," he says, " is one power, divided between above and below, self-generating, self- increasing, self-seeking, self-finding, being its own mother, its own father, its own sister, its own spouse, its own daughter, its own son, mother, father, an abstract unity, being the root of all things " (Hipp. Ref. 0. H. vi. 17). That a learned man like Hippolytus should refer a work which contains quotations from the Epistles and Gospels to Simon Magus, who was probably older than Jesus Christ, shows the extent to which men can be blinded by religious bigotry. Next in order comes Origen, who was ordained priest in A.D. 231 (Eus. H. E. vi. 23, 26). The most interesting point in his evidence relates to the decline of the Samaritan attempt to establish _ a world religion. After speaking of Dositheus the Samari- tan, who persuaded some of his countrymen that he was the Christ prophesied by Moses, he goes on to say: " Also Simon the Samaritan, a magician, wished to filch away some by his magic. And at the time indeed he succeeded in his deception, but now I suppose it is not possible to find 30 Simonians altogether in the world; and perhaps I have put the number higher than it really is. But in Palestine there are very few, and in the rest of the world, in which he wished to spread his own glory, his name is nowhere mentioned. If it is, this is due to the Acts of the Apostles. It is the Christians who say what is said about him, and it has become plain as daylight (17 kv&pytia. f^aprvptirrtv) that Simon was nothing divine " (Origen, Conl. Cels. i. 57). Origen also mentions that some of the sect were called Heleniani (v. 62). The treatise of the pseudo-Cyprian De Rebaptismaie is assigned by some to about A.D. 260. The writer says that on the strength of the words of John, that " we were to be baptized with the Holy Ghost and with fire," the Simonians maintained that the orthodox baptism was a mere form, and that they had the real baptism, for, as soon as their neophytes went down into the water, a fire appeared on it. The writer does not dispute the fact, but is at a loss what to make of it. Was it a bit of jugglery, or a natural phenomenon, or a piece of self-deception, or an effect of magic? In advocacy of this baptism, we are told, there was com- posed by the same heretics a book which was inscribed the Preaching of Paul. Arnobius (early in the 3rd century) introduces us to a new phase of the Simon-legend. " They had seen," he says, " the car of Simon Magus blown away by the mouth of Peter and vanish at Arnoblu, the name of Christ. They had seen, I say, him who trusted in false gods and was betrayed by those gods in their fear, brought headlong down by his own weight, lie with broken legs, and afterwards be carried to Brunda and, exhausted by suffering and « E.g. iv. 51, v.g, vi. 9, 1 1, 14, 17. Pseudo- Cyprian. 128 SIMON MAGUS shame, fling himself down once more from the gable of a lofty roof.' The immediate sequel shows that belief in this story was confined to Christians. Eusebius (about A.D. 264-340) follows Justin Martyr and Irenaeus but he adds the statement, which is not derived from them, thai Eusebius f"eter opposed Simon at Rome under the reign of Claudius From Origen's statement one might have thought thai the Simonians would have dwindled out altogether by the time ol Eusebius. But they were still extant in his time, and there is no sect of whom he speaks in such unmeasured terms of vituperation.1 Eusebius's account of Menander (iii. 26) is also based upon Justin and Irenaeus. St Cyril of Jerusalem (A.D. 346) in the sixth of his Catechetica, Lectures prefaces his history of the Manichees by a brief account o! Cyril. earlier heresies. Simon Magus, he says, was the father of all heresy. After being cast out by the Apostles he came to Rome where, having joined to himself a profligate woman of the name of Helen, he gave out that it was he who appeared as the father on Mt. Sinai, and afterwards, not in the flesh, but in appearance (SoK^uti) as Jesus Christ, and, finally, as the Holy Ghost, according to the promise of Christ. His success at Rome was so great that the emperor Claudius erected a statue to him with the inscription Simoni Deo Sanclo. The triumph of Simon Magus was terminated on the arrival of Peter and Paul at Rome. Simon Magus had given out that he was going to be translated to heaven, and was actually careering through the air in a chariot drawn by demons when Peter and Paul knelt down and prayed, and their prayers brought him to earth a mangled corpse. Such is the form assumed by the legend of Simon Magus about the middle of the 4th century. It is interesting to note in it the first introduction of Paul on the scene, at least by name. The reader who is not familiar with the eccentricities of the Tubingen school will doubtless be surprised to learn that the Paul who thus quietly slips in at the close of the drama was himself all along the disguised villain of the plot, the very Simon Magus whom he comes to assist Peter in destroying (see below). Epiphanius (c. A.D. 367) is a writer who has nothing but his learning to recommend him. It seems that there were some Simonians Epl- st'" *n existence in his day, but he speaks of them as phaaius almost extinct. Gitta, he says, had sunk from a town into a village. He makes no mention of the Great De- claration, but as in several places he makes Simon speak in the first person, the inference is that he is quoting from it, though perhaps not verbatim. Take, for instance, the following passage: " But in each heaven I changed my form," says he, " in accordance with the form of those who were in each heaven, that I might escape the notice of my angelic powers and come down to the Thought, who is none other than her who is also called Prounikos and Holy Ghost, through whom I created the angels, while the angels created the world and men " (56 C, D). And again, " And on her account," he says, " did I come down; for this is that which is written in the Gospel ' the lost sheep ' " (58 A). Epiphanius further charges Simon with having tried to wrest the words of St, Paul about the armour of God (Eph. vi. 14-16) into agreement with his own identification of the " ennoia " with Athena. He tells us also that he gave barbaric names to the " principalities and powers," and that he was the beginning of the Gnostics. The Law, according to him, was not of God, but of "the sinister power."* The same was the case with the prophets, and it was death to believe in the Old Testament. Epiphanius clearly has before him the same written source as Hippolytus, which we know to have been the Great Declaration. The story of Helen is thus definitely shown to belong to the second Simon, and not at all to the first. Dr Salmon pointed out that Simon was known as a writer to the author of the Clementine Recognitions (ii. 38), and towards the close of the 4th century we find St Jerome quoting from him as such.3 Two points must by this time have become clear: (i) that our knowledge of the original Simon Magus is confined to what we are told in the Acts, and (2) that from the earliest times he has been confused with another Simon. The initial error of Justin was echoed by every subsequent writer, with the one exception of Hegesippus, who had perhaps not read him. There were, of course, obvious reasons for the confusion. Both Simons were Samaritans, both were magicians, and the second Simon claimed for himself what was claimed for the earlier Simon by the people, namely, that he was the great power of God. But, if the end in view with the Fathers had been the attainment of truth, instead of the branding of heretics, they could not possibly have accepted the Great Declaration, which contains, as we have seen, the story of Helen, with its references to the Gospels, as the work of Simon 1See H.E. ii. I, 13, 14, ii!. 26, iv. ii, 22. 1 58 D, xxi. 4, rfjs dpiiTTtpas &W&IKWS. 1 Comm. on Matt. xxiv. 5 — Ego sum sermo Dei, ego sum speciosus, ego paracletus, ego omnipotens, ego omnia Dei. The Tiiblagea theory. Magus. As regards the third point, the difficulty is to make clear to the ordinary mind why it should be treated at all. But as Schmiedel champions the Tubingen view in the Encyclopaedia Biblica, it cannot be overlooked. Among the sources of the Simon-legend we have omitted the pseudo-Clementine literature and a number of Apocryphal Martyria, Passiones and Actus. It is necessary to treat them separately in connexion with the Tubingen view, which repre- sents Paul as the original Simon. That view is based on these works of fiction, of uncertain date and authorship, which seem to have been worked over by several hands in the interest of diverse forms of belief. The romance of Clement of Rome exists at present in two forms, in Greek under the name of the Clementine Homilies and in a Latin translation by Rufinus, which is known as the Recognitions (see CLEMENTINE LITERA- TURE). It is contended that the common source of these docu- ments may be as early as the ist century, and must have consisted in a polemic against Paul, emanating from the Jewish side of Christianity. Paul being thus identified with Simon, it was argued that Simon's visit- to Rome had no other basis than Paul's presence there, and, further, that the tradition of Peter's residence in Rome rests on the assumed necessity of his resisting the arch-enemy of Judaism there as elsewhere. Thus the idea of Peter at Rome really originated with the Ebionites, but it was afterwards taken up by the Catholic Church, and then Paul was associated with Peter in opposition to Simon, who had originally been himself. Now it must be conceded at once that the Clementine Homilies are marked by hostility to Paul. Prefixed to them is a supposed letter from Peter to James, in which Peter is made to write as follows: — " For some of the converts from the Gentiles have rejected the preaching through me in accordance with the law, having accepted a certain lawless and babbling doctrine of the enemy (TOV kxSpou MPUTTOV). And this some people have attempted while I am still alive, by various interpretations to transform my words, unto the overthrow of the law; as though I also thought thus, but did not preach it openly: which be far from me! For to do so is to act against the law of God as spoken through Moses, the eternal duration of which is borne witness to by our Lord. Since He said thus — ' Heaven and earth shall pass away: one jot or one tittle shall not pass away from the law ' (cf. Matt. v. 18). Now this He said that all might be fulfilled. But they, professing somehow to know my mind, attempt to expound the words they heard from me more wisely than I who spoke them, telling those who are instructed by them that this is my meaning, which I never thought of. But if they venture on such falsehoods while I am still alive, how much more when I am gone will those who come after me dare to do so!" It would be futile to maintain that that passage is not aimed at Paul. It does not identify Paul with Simon Magus, but it serves to reveal an animus which would render the identification easy. In the zyth Homily the identification is effected. Simon is there made to maintain that he has a better knowledge of the mind of Jesus than the^disciples, who had seen and conversed with Him in person. His reason for this strange assertion is that visions are superior to waking reality, as divine is superior to human (xvii. 5, 14). Peter has much to say in reply to this, but the passage which mainly concerns us is as follows: — " But can any one be educated for teaching by vision ? And if you shall say, ' It is possible," why did the Teacher remain and converse with waking men for a whole year? And how can we believe you even as to the fact that he appeared to you? And how can he have appeared to you seeing that your sentiments are opposed to his teaching? But if you were seen and taught by him for a single hour, and so became an apostle, then preach his words, expound his meaning, love his apostles, fight not with me who had converse with him. For it is against a solid rock, the foundation-stone of the Church, that you have opposed yourself in opposing me. If you were not an adversary, you would not be slandering me and 'eviling the preaching that is given through me, in order that, as I leard myself in person from the Lord, when I speak I may not be selieved, as though forsooth it were I who was condemned and I who was reprobate.4 Or, if you call me 'condemned' (Kartyvuiaiikvov, Gal. ii. ii), you are accusing God who revealed the Christ to me, and are inveighing against Him who called me blessed on the ground of the revelation. But if indeed you truly wish to work along with 1 Reading with Schmiedel Afocfpou 8>ros (from I Cor. ix. 27) n place of SIMON MAGUS 129 the truth, learn first from us what we learnt from Him, and when you have become a disciple of truth, become our fellow-workman." Here we have the advantage, rare in ecclesiastical history, of hearing the other side. The above is unmistakably the voice of those early Christians who hated Paul, or at all events an echo of that voice. But how late an echo it would be hazardous to decide. Schmiedel asks, " How should Paul ever come to be in the 2nd, or, as far as the pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recognitions are concerned, even in the 3rd or 4th century, the object of so fanatical a hatred? It is a psychological im- possibility." Yet the love and hatred aroused by strong char- acters is not confined to their life-time. There is not the slightest reason why there should not have been people in the 3rd or 4th century who would have been glad to lampoon Paul. The introduction of Pauline features, however, into the representation of Simon Magus is merely incidental. The portrait as a whole is not in the least like Paul, and could not even have been intended for a caricature of him. There are other features in the portrait which remind us strongly of Marcion. For the first thing which we learn from the Homilies about Simon's opinions is that he denied that God was just (ii. 14). By " God " he meant the Creator. But he undertakes to prove from Scripture that there is a higher God, who really possesses the perfections which are falsely ascribed to the lower (iii. 10, 38). On these grounds Peter complains that, when he was setting out for the Gentiles to convert them from their worship of many gods upon earth, the Evil Power (17 Kcrna) had sent Simon before him to make them believe that there were many gods in heaven. Peter throughout is repre- sented as defending the povapxla. of God against Simon's attacks on it (e.g. iii. 3, 9, 59). If we knew more, we might detect other historical characters concealed under the mask of Simon. Just as whatever Plato approves is put into the mouth of Socrates, so whatever the author of the Homilies condemns is put into the mouth of Simon Magus. But while thus seeking for hidden meanings, are we not in danger of missing what lies on the surface, namely, that the Simon Magus of the Clementine romance is a portrait of Simon of Gitta, after he had been confused with the Simon of Acts? The mention of Helen in the Clementines stamps them as later than the Great Declaration, in which, to all appear- ance, her story originates. Indeed, the Clementine romance may most fitly be regarded as an answer to the Great Declaration, the answer of Jewish Gnosticism to the more Hellenized Gnosti- cism of Samaria. Let us look at the Homilies in this light, and see how far what they have to tell us about Simon accords with conclusions which we have already reached. Simon, we are informed, was a Samaritan, and a native of Gitta, a village situated at a] distance of 6 trxoivoi. (about 4 m.) from the „ city. The name of his father was Antonius, that of his "'**• mother Rachel. He studied Greek literature in Alexandria, and, having in addition to this great power in magic, was so puffed up by his attainments that he wished to be considered a highest power, higher even than the God who created the world.1 And some- times he " darkly hinted " that he himself was Christ, calling himself the Standing One. Which name he used to indicate that he would stand for ever, and had no cause in him for bodily decay. He did not believe that the God who created the world was the highest, nor that the dead would rise. He denied Jerusalem, and introduced Mount Gerizim in its stead. In place of the real Christ of the Christians he proclaimed himself; and the Law he allegorized in accordance with his own preconceptions. He did indeed preach righteousness and judgment to come: but this was merely a bait for the unwary. So far we have had nothing that is inconsistent with Simon of Gitta, and little but yvhat we are already familiar with in connexion either with him or his disciple Menander. But in what follows the identification of this Simon with the Simon of Acts has led the novelist to give play to his fancy. It may be well to premise that in the view of the writer of the Homilies, " All things are double one against another." " As first night, then day, and first ignorance, then knowledge (-yvCxris), and first sickness, then healing, so the things of error come first in life, and then the truth supervenes upon them, as the physician upon the sickness." (Horn. ii. 33). In this way every good thing has its evil forerunner. ' According to the Homilies, the manner of his entering on his career of impiety was as follows. There was one John, a Hemero- 1 Supplying, with Schmiedel, XXV. 5 baptist, who was the forerunner of our Lord Jesus in accordance with the law of parity ; 2 and as the Lord had twelve Apostles, bearing the number of the twelve solar months, so had he thirty leading men, making up the monthly tale of the moon. One of these thirty leading men was a woman called Helen. Now, as a woman is only half a man, in this way the number thirty was left incomplete, as it is in the moon's course. Of these thirty disciples of John the first and most renowned was Simon. But on the death of the master he was away in Egypt for the practice of magic, and one Dositheus, by spreading a false report of Simon's death, succeeded in installing himself as head of the sect. Simon on coming back thought it better to dissemble, and, pretending friendship for Dosi- theus, accepted the second place. Soon, however, he began to hint to the thirty that Dositheus was not as well acquainted as he might be with the doctrines of the school. Dositheus was so enraged at these suggestions, which were calculated to undermine his position as the Standing One, that he struck at Simon with his staff. But the staff went clean through the body of Simon as though it had been vapour. Whereat Dositheus was so amazed that he said to him, " Art thou the Standing One? And am I to worship thee? " When Simon said, " I am," Dositheus, knowing that he himself was not, fell down and worshipped him. Then he retired into the number of the twenty-nine leaders, and not long afterwards died. The above is doubtless pure fiction. But Dositheus the Samaritan is a real person. He is mentioned by Hegesippus as the founder of a sect (Eus. H.E. iv. 22), and spoken of by the pseudo-Tertullian as a heretic from Judaism, not from Christianity, " who first dared to reject the prophets as not having spoken in the Holy Ghost." After this we return to the comparatively solid ground of Simon of Gitta. For the narrative goes on to say that Simon took Helen about with him, saying that she had come down into the world from the highest heavens, and was mistress, inasmuch as she was the all- mother being and wisdom. It was for her sake, he said, that the Greeks and Barbarians fought, deluding themselves with an image of truth, for the real being was then present with the First God.3 By such specious allegories and Grecian fables Simon deceived many, while at the same time he astounded them by his magic. A de- scription is given of how he made a familiar spirit for himself by conjuring the soul out of a boy and keeping his image in his bedroom, and many instances of his feats of magic are given. The Samaritans were evidently strong in magic. In all the accounts given us of Simon of Gitta magic is a marked feature, as also in the case of his pupil Menander. We cannot, therefore, agree with Dr Salmon's remark that the only reason why Justin attributed magic to Simon of Gitta was because of his identifying him with Simon Magus. Rather Simon Magus and his sorceries would have been forgotten had not his reputation been reinforced in the popular mind by that of his successor. Whether Simon of Gitta ever exhibited his skill in Rome we have no means of determining, but at all events the compound Simon, resulting from the fusion of him with his predecessor, is brought to Rome by popular legend, and represented as enjoying great influence with Nero. One of his feats at Rome is to have himself beheaded and to rise again on the third day. It was really a ram that was beheaded, but he contrived by his magic to make people think that it was himself. The Clementines leave room for this development. In the Epistle of Clement to James prefixed to the Homilies Peter is spoken of as the light of the West, and as having met with a violent death in Rome; and in Homilies i. 16, Peter invites Clement to share his travels and listen to the words of truth which he is about to preach from town to town, " even unto Rome itself." It would be superfluous to criticize the Tubingen view under a form in which it has already been abandoned. We may, therefore, confine our attention to the latest exposition of it by Schmiedel in the Ency. Biblica. In the narrative of Acts Schmiedel finds much to surprise him. He thinks, for instance, that verse 10 of chapter viii. must be interpolated, and that in the process irpotTtix0" was borrowed from verse ii. But there is no inconsistency between the two verses. Verse 10 merely states that the people gave heed to the magician, verse ii adds why. Ah1 the complicated speculations about a redactor which follow are swept away by the simple assumption that the text is sound. With Schmiedel's contention that there are passages in the Clementines which are aimed at Paul, we entirely agree. But this interesting discovery so dazzled the eyes of Baur and his followers that after it they saw Paul everywhere. In the Clemen- tines Simon by his magic imposes his own personal appearance upon Faustus, the father of Clement. This he does for his own ends, but Peter seeing his opportunity adroitly makes Faustus go to Antioch, and in the person of Simon make a public 2 KO.TO. T&V TTJS irvfvylas \6yov, ii. 23. 3 As to the phantasmal nature of Helen see Plat. Rep. 586 c ; Sext. Emp. Adv. math. vii. 180; cf. Hdt. ii. 112-117. We have only the evidence of this passage for Simon having adopted the notion. 5 130 SIMON, RICHARD recantation of his aspersions on Peter, giving as a reason that he had been soundly scourged by angels during the preceding night. Now here, we are told, there is a malicious allusion to the " messenger of Satan to buffet me " of 2 Cor. xii. 6. We do not think that this conjecture will commend itself to the unpreju- diced, especially in view of the fact that scourging by angels is a well-known piece of supernatural machinery (cf. 2 Mace. iii. 26; Eus. H.E. v. 28, § 12; Tert. De idol. 15). Yet Schmiedel speaks of this as " a well ascertained case in which an utter- ance of Paul regarding himself is spitefully twisted to his dis- credit." There is more plausibility in connecting Simon's assumed knowledge of things above the heavens (Recog. ii. 65) with St Paul's claim to have been " caught up even to the third heaven " (2 Cor. xii. 2). But the passage is much more appropriate to Simon of Gitta. From the height in which he claimed to dwell even the third heaven would have seemed quite the lower regions. The question of meat offered to idols was a burning one, in every sense of the term, long after Paul's day. We need not, therefore, see a reference to the Apostle's laxity on this crucial point in the story (Horn. iv. 4, vii. 3) that Simon Magus had entertained the people of Antioch on a sacri- ficial ox, and so subjected them to the evil influence of demons. The non-necessity of martyrdom is mentioned as a feature of early Gnosticism.1 The miracles which St Paul claims for himself in 2 Cor. xii. 12, Rom. xv. 19, must doubtless have led to his being regarded as a magician by those who did not accept him as divinely commissioned; but, as we have seen throughout, magic was the salient feature about the Samaritan Messiah, who is the real enemy aimed at in the Clementine literature. The opening of doors of their own accord no more connects Simon Magus with Paul than with Peter. We need not, therefore, see in Recog. ii. 9 a reference to Acts xvi. 26. As to the use of bad language, people in the 2nd century were glad to avail themselves of such missiles as ^«u5a7r6crToXot, which had been manufactured for them in the ist (Horn. xvi. 21; 2 Cor. xi. 13). That the homo quidam inimicus of the Recognitions (i. 70) is intended for Paul is plain, but then, as Schmiedel points out in a note, he is not identified with Simon. " Even the style of Paul," Schmiedel assures us, " is plainly imitated in a mocking way." The reference is to the recantation in Horn. xx. 19, which is like the rest of the treatise and quite unlike Paul, but Schmiedel's familiarity with Paul's writings enables him to collect phrases therefrom which occur also in the Homilies. When the Tubingen School turn their attention to the Apocry- phal Acts and Martyrdoms, the image of Paul still obsesses their mental gaze. There is indeed one passage which may plausibly be adduced in favour of their contention. In the Martyrdom of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul (ch. 45), Paul is made to put this question — " If then circumcision is a good thing, why did you, Simon, deliver up circumcised men and compel them to be condemned and put to death? " We must let the Tubingen School have this passage for what it is worth, only remarking that it was not on the ground of circumcision that Paul persecuted the Church, and that it is impossible to extract history out of these fictions. We certainly cannot subscribe to the conjecture of Lipsius that " the story of the seeming beheading of Simon has at its root malicious mis- representations of the beheading of Paul." The climax of absurdity seems to be reached when we are informed that the story of Simon offering money to the Apostles for the gift of the Holy Ghost arose out of Jewish-Christian scandal about Paul's " collection for the Saints " (i Cor. xvi. i). Yet Schmiedel follows Lipsius " in his latest treatment of the subject " in recognizing "a Samaritan 76^5 named Simon as historical." But the part which he played in history is thus taken away from him. He was there, it seems, but he did not do what he is said to have done. Only the author of Acts, wishing to obviate the reproach against Paul of offering money to the Apostles, attributed the like conduct to Simon. 1 Pseudo-Tertullian says of Basilides, " Martyria negat esse facienda." In conclusion, there are of course some grounds for the Tubin- gen view, but they are wholly inadequate to bear the structure that has been raised upon them. St Paul was a hard hitter, and Jewish Christians, who still clung to James and Peter as the only true pillars of the Church, are not likely to have cherished any love for his memory. This is enough to account for the hostility displayed against St Paul in the Clementines. But to push the equation of St Paul with Simon Magus further than we are forced to by the facts of the case is to lose sight of the real character of the Clementines as the counterblast of Jewish to Samaritan Gnosticism and to obscure the greatness of Simon of Gitta, who was really the father of all heresy, a character which has been erroneously attributed to Simon Magus. LITERATURE. — Harnack, Lehr. d. Dogmengesch., 2nd ed., 204-209, 264-270; Salmon in Diet. Chr. Biog. iv. 68 1 ; Hort, Notes Intro- ductory to the Study of the Clem. Recog. (1902); Bigg in Stud. Bib. (1890), 2, 157-193; Headlam in Hastings' Diet, of the Bible; P. W. Schmiedel in Encyc. Bibl. (Si. G. S.) SIMON, RICHARD (1638-1712), French biblical critic, was born at Dieppe on the i3th of May 1638. His early studies were carried on at the college of the Fathers of the Oratory in that city. He was soon, by the kindness of a friend, enabled to enter upon the study of theology at Paris, where he early dis- played a taste for Hebrew and other Oriental languages. At the end of his theological course he was sent, according to custom, to teach philosophy at Juilly, where there was one of the colleges of the Oratory. But he was soon recalled to Paris, and employed in the congenial labour of preparing a catalogue of the Oriental books in the library1 of the Oratory. His first publication was his Fides Ecclesiae orienlalis, seu Gabrielis Metropolitan Philadelphiensis opuscula, cum interpretation Latina, cum notis (Paris, 1671), the object of which was to demonstrate that the belief of the Greek Church regarding the Eucharist was the same as that of the Church of Rome. Simon entered the priesthood in 1670, and the same year wrote a pamphlet in defence of the Jews of Metz, who had been accused of having murdered a Christian child. It was shortly before this time that there were sown the seeds of that enmity with the Port Royalists which filled Simon's after life with many bitter troubles. Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694) had written a work on the Perpetuity of the Faith, the first volume of which treated of the Eucharist. The criticisms of Simon excited lasting indignation among Arnauld's friends and admirers. Another matter was the cause of inciting against him the ill-will of the monks of the Benedictine order. In support of a friend who was engaged in a lawsuit with the Benedictine monks of Fecamp, Simon composed a strongly-worded memorandum. The monks were greatly exasperated, and made loud complaints to the new general of the Oratory. The charge of Jesuitism was also brought against Simon, apparently on no other ground than that his friend's brother was an eminent member of that order. The commotion in ecclesiastical circles was great, and Simon's removal not only from Paris but from France was seriously considered. A mission to Rome was proposed to him, but he saw. through the design, and, after a short delay dictated by prudential motives, declined the proposal. He was engaged at the time in superintending the printing of his Histoire critique du Vieux Testament. He had hoped, through the influence of Pe're la Chaise, the king's confessor, and the due de Montausier, to be allowed to dedicate the work to Louis XIV., but, as the king was absent in Flanders at the time, the volume could not be published until he had accepted the dedication, though it had passed the censorship of the Sorbonne, and the chancellor of the Oratory had given his imprimatur. The printer of the book, in order to promote the sale, had caused the titles of the various chapters to be printed separately, and to be put in circulation. These, or possibly a copy of the work itself, had happened to come into the hands of the Port Royalists. It seems that, with a view to injure the sale of the work, which it was well known in theological circles had been long in preparation by Simon, the Messieurs de Port Royal had undertaken a translation into French of the Prolegomena to Walton's Polyglott. To counteract this proceeding Simon announced his intention of publishing SIMON, THOMAS— SIMON OF ST QUENTIN an annotated edition of the Prolegomena, and actually added to the Critical History a translation of the last four chapters of that work, which had formed no part of his original plan. Simon's announcement prevented the appearance of the pro- jected translation, but his enemies were all the more irritated. They had now obtained the opportunity which they had long been seeking. The freedom with which Simon expressed himself on various topics, and especially those chapters in which he declared that Moses could not be the author of much in the writings attributed to him, especially aroused their opposition. The powerful influence of Bossuet, at that time tutor to the dauphin, was invoked; the chancellor Michael le Tellier lent his assistance; a decree of the council of state was obtained, and after a series of paltry intrigues the whole impression, consisting of 1300 copies, was seized by the police and destroyed, and the animosity of his colleagues in the Oratory rose to so great a height against Simon that he was declared to be no longer a member of their body. Full of bitterness and disgust, Simon retired in 1679 to the curacy of Bolleville, to which he had been lately appointed by the vicar-general of the abbey of Fecamp. The work thus confiscated in France it was proposed to republish in Holland. Simon, however, at first opposed this, in hopes of overcoming the opposition of Bossuet by making certain changes in the parts objected to. The negotiations with Bossuet lasted a considerable time, but finally failed, and the Critical History appeared, with Simon's name on the title page, in the year 1685, from the press of Reenier Leers in Rotterdam. An imperfect edition had previously been published at Amster- dam by Daniel Elzevir, based upon a MS. transcription of one of the copies of the original work which had escaped destruction and had been sent to England, and from which a Latin and an English translation were afterwards made. The edition of Leers was a reproduction of the work as first printed, with a new preface, notes, and those other writings which had appeared for and against the work up to that date. The work consists of three books. The first deals with questions of Biblical criticism, properly so called, such as the text of the Hebrew Bible and the changes which it has undergone down to the present day, the authorship of the Mosaic writings and of other books of the Bible, with an exposition of Simon's peculiar theory of the existence during the whole extent of Jewish history of recorders or annalists of the events of each period, whose writings were pre- served in the public archives, and the institution of which he assigns to Moses. The second book gives an account of the principal trans- lations, ancient and modern, of the Old Testament, and the third contains an examination of the principal commentators. He had, with the exception of the theory above mentioned, contributed nothing really new on the subject of Old Testament criticism, for previous critics as L. Cappel, Johannes Morinus (1591-1659) and others had established many points of importance, and the value of Simon's work consisted chiefly in bringing together and presenting at one view the results of Old Testament criticism. The work encountered strong opposition, and that not only from the Church of Rome. The Protestants felt their stronghold — an infallible Bible — assailed by the doubts which Simon raised against the integrity of the Hebrew text. J. le Clerc (" Clericus ") in his work Sentimens de quelques theologiens de Hollande, controverted the views of Simon, and was answered by the latter in a tone of considerable asperity in his Reponse aux Sentimens de quelques theologiens de Hollande, over the signature " Pierre Ambrun, " it being a marked peculiarity of Simon rarely to give his own name. The remaining works of Simon may be briefly noticed. In 1689 appeared his Histoire critique du texte du Nouveau Testament, consisting of thirty-three chapters, in which he discusses the origin and character of the various books, with a consideration of the objections brought against them by the Jews and others, the quotations from the Old Testament in the New, the inspiration of the New Testament (with a refutation of the opinions of Spinoza), the Greek dialect in which they are written (against C. Salmasius), the Greek MSS. known at the time, especially Codex D (Canta- brigiensis), &c. This was followed in 1690 by his Histoire critique des versions du Nouveau Testament, where he gives an account of the various translations, both ancient and modern, and discusses the manner in which many difficult passages of the New Testament have been rendered in the various vefsions. In 1693 was published what in some respects is the most valuable of all his writings, viz. Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs du Nouveau Testament depuis le commencement du Christianisme jusques a notre temps. This work exhibits immense reading, and the information it contains is still valuable to the student. The last work of Simon that we need mention is his Nouvelles Observations sur le texte et les versions du Nouveau Testament (Paris, 1695), which contains supplementary observations upon the subjects of the text and translations of the New Testament. As a controversialist Simon displayed a bitterness which tended only to aggravate the unpleasantness of controversy. He was entirely a man of intellect, free from all tendency to senti- mentality, and with a strong vein of sarcasm and satire in his disposition. He died at Dieppe on the nth of April 171231 the age of seventy-four. The principal authorities for the life of Simon are the life or " eloge ' by his grand-nephew De la Martiniere in vol. i. of the Leltres choisies (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1730); K. H. Graf's article in the first vol. of the Beitr. zu d. theol. Wissensch., &c. (Jena, 1851) ; E. W. E. Reuss's article, revised by E. Nestle, in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 1906) ; Richard Simon et son Vieux Testament, by A. Bernus (Lausanne, 1869); H. Margival, Essai sur Richard Simon et la critique biblique au XVII' siecle (1900). For the biblio- graphy, see, in addition to the various editions of Simon's works, the very complete and accurate account of A. Bernus, Notice biblio- graphique sur Richard Simon (Basel, 1882). SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665), English medallist, was born, according to Vertue, in Yorkshire about 1623. He studied engraving under Nicholas Briot, and about 1635 received a post in connexion with the Mint. In 1645 he. was appointed by the parliament joint chief engraver along with Edward Wade, and, having executed the great seal of the Commonwealth and dies for the coinage, he was promoted to be chief engraver to the mint and seals. He produced several fine portrait medals of Cromwell, one of which is copied from a miniature by Cooper. After the Restoration he was appointed engraver of the king's seals. On the occasion of his contest with the brotheis Roettiers, who were employed by the mint in 1662, Simon produced his celebrated crown of Charles II., on the margin of which he engraved a petition to the king. This is usually considered his masterpiece. He is believed to have died of the plague in London in 1665. A volume of The Medals, Coins, Great Seals and other Works of Thomas Simon, engraved and described by George Vertue, was published in 1753- SIMON BEN YOHAI (2nd century A.D.), a Galilean Rabbi, one of the most eminent disciples of Aqiba (q.v.). His mastei was executed by Hadrian, and Simon's anti-Roman sentiments led to his own condemnation by Varus c. 161 A.D. (according to Graetz). He escaped this doom and dwelt for some years in a cavern. Emerging from concealment, Simon settled in Tiberias and in other Galilean cities. He acquired a reputation as a worker of miracles, and on this ground was sent to Rome as an envoy, where (legend tells) he exorcised from the emperor's daughter a demon who had obligingly entered the lady to enable Simon to effect his miracle. This Rabbi bore a large part in the fixation of law, and his decisions are frequently quoted. To him were attributed the important legal homilies called Sifre and Mekhilta (see MIDRASH), and above all the Zohar, the Bible of the Kabbalah (q.v.). This latter ascription is altogether unfounded, the real author of this mystical commentary on the Pentateuch being Moses of Leon (q.v.). The fullest account of Simon's teachings is to be found in W. Bacher's Agada der Tannaiten, ii. pp. 70-149. (I. A.) SIMON OF ST QUENTIN (ft. 1247), Dominican mission- traveller and diplomatist. He accompanied, and wrote the history of, the Dominican embassy [under Friar Ascelin or Anselm, which Pope Innocent IV. sent in 1247 to the Mongols of Armenia and Persia. Simon's history, in its original form, is lost; but large sections of it have been preserved in Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum historiale, where nineteen chapters are expressly said to be ex libello fratris Simonis, or entitled /rater Simon. The embassy of Ascelin and Simon, who were ac- companied by Andrew of Longjumeau, proceeded to the camp of Baiju or Ra.chuNoyan (i.e. " General " Baiju, Noyan signify- ing a commander of 10,000) at Sitiens in Armenia, lying between the Aras river and Lake Gokcha, fifty-nine days' journey from Acre. The papal letters were translated into Persian, and thence into Mongol, and so presented to Baiju; but the Tatars were greatly irritated by the haughtiness of the Dominicans, 132 SIMONIDES OF AMORGOS— SIMON'S TOWN who implied that the pope was superior even to the Great Khan, and offered no presents, refused the customary reverences before Baiju, declined to go on to the imperial court, and made un- seasonable attempts to convert their hosts. The Prankish visitors were accordingly lodged and treated with contempt: for nine weeks (June and July 1247) all answer to their letters was refused. Thrice Baiju even ordered their death. At last, on the 25th of July 1247, they were dismissed with the Noyan's reply, dated the aoth of July. This reply complained of the high words of the Latin envoys, and commanded the pope to come in person and submit to the Master of all the Earth (the Mongol emperor). The mission thus ended in complete failure; but, except for Carpini's (q.v.), it was the earliest Catholic embassy which reached any Mongol court, and its information must have been valuable. It performed something at least of what should have been (but apparently was not) done by Lawrence (Lourenfo) of Portugal, who was commissioned as papal envoy to the Mongols of the south-west at the same time that Carpini was accredited to those of the north (1245). See Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, book xxxii. (some- times quoted as xxxi.), chaps. 26-29, 32> 34> 4°~52' (cf- PP- 453 A- 454 B in the Venice edition of 1591); besides these, several other chapters of the Spec. hist, probably contain material derived from Simon, e.g. bk. xxxi. (otherwise xxx.), chaps. 3, 4, 7, 8, 13, 32; and bk. xxx. (otherwise xxix.), chaps. 69, 71, 74-75, 78, 80. See also d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, ii. 200-201, 221-233; iii. 79 (edition of 1852) ; Fontana, Monumenta Dominicana, p. 52 (Rome, 1675) ; Luke Wadding, Annales Minorum, iii. 116-118; E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, vol. i., notes 455, 494 (London, 1888); M. A. P. d'Avezac's Introduction to Carpini, pp. 404-405, 433-434, 464-465, of vol. iv. of the Paris Geog. Soc.'s RecueU de Voyages, &c. (Paris, 1839); W. W. Rockhill, Rubruck, pp. xxiv-xxv (London, Hakluyt Soc., 1900); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 277, and Carpini and Rubruquis, 269-270. (C. R. B.) SIMONIDES (or SEMONIDES) OF AMORGOS, Greek iambic poet, flourished in the middle of the 7th century B.C. He was a native of Samos, and derived his surname from having founded a colony in the neighbouring island of Amorgos. According to Suidas, besides two books of iambics, he wrote elegies, one of them a poem on the early history of the Samians. The elegy included in the fragments (85) of Simonides of Ceos is more probably by Simonides of Amorgos. We possess about thirty fragments of his iambic poems, written in clear and vigorous Ionic, with much force and no little harmony of versification. With Simonides, as with Archilochus, the iambic is still the vehicle of bitter satire, interchanging with melancholy, but in Simonides the satire is rather general than individual. His " Pedigree of Women " may have been suggested by the beast fable, as we find it in Hesiod and Archilochus, and as it recurs a century later in Phocylides; it is clear at least that Simonides knew the works of the former. Simonides derives the dirty woman from a hog, the cunning from a fox, the fussy from a dog, the apathetic from earth, the capricious from sea-water, the stubborn from an ass, the incontinent from a weasel, the proud from a high-bred mare, the worst and ugliest from an ape, and the good woman from a bee. The remainder of the poem (96-118) is undoubtedly spurious. There is much beauty and feeling in Simonides's description of the good woman. See Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; separate editions by F. T. Welcker (1835), and especially by P. Malusa (1900), with exhaustive introduction, bibliography and commentary. SIMONIDES OF CEOS (c. 556-469 B.C.), Greek lyric poet, was born at lulis in the island of Ceos. During his youth he taught poetry and music in his native island, and composed paeans for the festivals of Apollo. Finding little scope for his abilities at home, he went to live at Athens, at the court of Hipparchus, the patron of literature. After the murder of Hipparchus (514), Simonides withdrew to Thessaly, where he enjoyed the protection and patronage of the Scopadae and Aleuadae (two celebrated Thessalian families). An interesting story is told of the termination of his relations with the Scopadae. On a certain occasion he was reproached by Scopas for having allotted too much space to the Dioscuri in an ode celebrating the victory of his patron in a chariot-race. Scopas refused to pay all the fee and told Simonides to apply to the Dioscuri for the remainder. The incident took place at a banquet. Shortly afterwards, Simonides was told that two young men wished to speak to him; after he had left the banqueting room, the roof fell in and crushed Scopas and his guests (Cicero, De oratore, ii. 86). There seems no doubt that some disaster overtook the Scopadae, which resulted in the extinction of the family. After the battle of Marathon Simonides returned to Athens, but soon left for Sicily at the invitation of Hiero, at whose court he spent the rest of his life. His reputation as a man of learning is shown by the tradition that he introduced the distinction between the long and short vowels (e, i\, o, co), afterwards adopted in the Ionic alphabet which came into general use during the archonship of Eucleides (403). He was also the inventor of a system of mnemonics (Quintilian xi. 2, ii). So unbounded was his popularity that he was a power even in the political world; we are told that he reconciled Thero and Hiero on the eve of a battle between their opposing armies. He was the intimate friend of Themistocles and Pausanias the Spartan, and his poems on the war of libera- tion against Persia no doubt gave a powerful impulse to the national patriotism. For his poems he could command almost any price: later writers, from Aristophanes onwards, accuse him of avarice, probably not without some reason. To Hiero's queen, who asked him whether it was better to be born rich or a genius, he replied " Rich, for genius is ever found at the gates of the rich." Again, when someone asked him to write a lauda- tory poem for which he offered profuse thanks, but no money, Simonides replied that he kept two coffers, one for thanks, the other for money; that, when he opened them, he found the former empty and useless, and the latter full. Of his poetry we possess two or three short elegies (Fr. 85 seems from its style and versification to belong to Simonides of Amorgos, or at least not to be the work of our poet), several epigrams and about ninety fragments of lyric poetry. The epigrams written in the usual dialect of elegy, Ionic with an epic colouring, were in- tended partly for public and partly for private monuments. There is strength and sublimity in the former, with a simplicity that is almost statuesque, and a complete mastery over the rhythm and forms of elegiac expression. Those on the heroes of Marathon and Thermopylae are the most celebrated. In the private epigrams there is more warmth of colour and feeling, but few of them rest on any better authority than that of the Palatine anthology. One interesting and undoubtedly genuine epigram of this class is upon Archedice, the daughter of Hippias the Peisistratid, who, " albeit her father and husband and brother and children were all princes, was not lifted up in soul to pride." The lyric fragments vary much in character and length : one is from a poem on Artemisium, cele- brating those who fell at Thermopylae, with which he gained the victory over Aeschylus; another is an ode in honour of Scopas (commented on in Plato, Protagoras, 339 b) ; the rest are from odes on victors in the games, hyporchemes, dirges, hymns to the gods and other varieties. The poem on Thermopylae is reverent and sublime, breathing an exalted patriotism and a lofty national pride ; the others are full of tender pathos and deep feeling, combined with a genial worldliness. For Simonides requires no standard of lofty unswerving rectitude. " It is hard," he says (Fr. 5), " to become a truly good man, perfect as a square in hands and feet and mind, fashioned without blame. Whosoever is bad, and not too wicked, knowing justice, the benefactor of cities, is a sound man. I for one will find no fault with him, for the race of fools is infinite. ... I praise and love all men who do no sin willingly; but with necessity even the gods do not contend." Virtue, he tells us elsewhere in language that recalls Hesiod, is set on a high and difficult hill (Fr. 58) ; let us seek after pleasure, for " all things come to one dread Charybdis, both great virtues and wealth " (Fr. 38). Yet Simonides is far from being a hedonist ; his morality, no less than his art, is pervaded by that virtue for which Ceos was renowned — awpoavvq or self-restraint. His most celebrated fragment is a dirge, in which Danae, adrift with the infant Perseus on the sea in a dark and stormy night, takes comfort from the peaceful slumber of her babe. Simonides here illustrates his own saying that ' poetry is vocal painting, as painting is silent poetry." Of the many English translations of this poem, one of the best is that by J. A. Symonds in Studies on the Greek Poets. Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; standard edition by F. G. Schneidewin (1835) and of the Danae alone by H. L. Ahrens (1853). Other authorities are given in the exhaustive treatise of E. Cesati, Simonide di Ceo (1882) ; see also W. Schroter, De Simonidis Cei melici sermons (1906). SIMON'S TOWN, a town and station of the British navy in the Cape province, South Africa, in 34° 15' S., 18° 30' E., on the SIMONY shores of Simon's Bay, an inlet on the west side of False Bay. It is 225 m. S. of Cape Town by rail and 17 m. N. of Cape Point (the Cape of Good Hope). Apart from the naval station the town (pop. 1904, 6642) is an educational and residential centre, enjoying an excellent climate with a mean minimum temperature of 57° and a mean maximum of 70° F. Owing to the influence of the Mozambique current the temperature of the water in the bay is 10° to 12° F. higher than that of Table Bay, hence Simon's Town and other places along the shores of False Bay are favourite bathing resorts. The naval establishment is the headquarters of the East India and Cape Squadron. In 1900 the yard covered about 13 acres, exclusive of the victualling establishment and naval hospital, and was provided with a small camber, slipways for torpedo-boats and small vessels, together with various dockyard buildings, storehouses, coal stores, &c., but had no dry dock or deep-water wharf. Under the Naval Works Loan Act of 1899 £2,500,000 was provided for the construction of ad- ditional docks east of the original naval yard. These works were begun in 1900 and completed in 1910. They consist of a tidal basin 28 acres in extent, with a depth of 30 ft. at low-water spring tides, enclosed by a breakwater on the eastern and northern sides and a similar projecting arm or pier on the west. The entrance to the basin faces north-westerly, and is 300 ft. in width. South of the basin is a large reclaimed area forming the site of the new dockyard. Opening from the basin is a dry dock, 750 ft. in length on blocks, with an entrance 95 ft. wide and having 30 ft. over the sill at low- water spring tides. The foundation stone of the dry dock was laid in November 1906 by the earl of Selborne, after whom it is named, and the dock was opened in November 1910 by the duke of Connaught. The Selborne dock can be subdivided by an intermediate caisson in such a manner as to form two docks, respectively 400 ft. and 320 ft. in length, or 470 ft. and 250 ft. in length on blocks, as may be re- quired, or the full length of 750 ft. can be made available. The dockyard buildings include extensive shops for the chief engineer's and chief constructor's departments, the pumping-engine house, working sheds, &c., while ample space is reserved for additional docks and buildings. Berthing accommodation is provided in the basin alongside the wharf walls which surround it. The walls available for this purpose have a total length of 2585 ft. lineal, are constructed of interlocked concrete block work, with an available depth of water of 30 ft. at low water, and are furnished with powerful shear-legs and cranes for the use of vessels alongside. Extensive sheds for the storage of coal are provided. The whole of the dockyard area (35 acres), including the enclosing breakwater and pier, was formed by reclamation from the sea ; and the total area of the new works, including the tidal basin, is 63 acres. False Bay, which corresponds on the south to Table Bay on the north side of Table Mountain, is a spacious inlet which has an average depth of from 15 to 20 fathoms, and is completely sheltered on all sides except towards the south. Here a whole fleet of the largest vessels can ride at anchor. Defensive works protect the entrance to the bay. Simon'srTown dates from the close of the i7th century, the town and bay being named after Simon van der Stell, governor of the Cape in 1670-1699. It was at Simon's Town that the first British landing in Cape Colony was made by General Sir James Craig in 1795- About 1810 the bay was selected as the base for the South African squadron, Table Bay being abandoned for that purpose in consequence of its exposed position. SIMONY, an offence, defined below, against the law of the church. The name is taken from Simon Magus (q.v.). In the canon law the word bears a more extended meaning than in English law. " Simony according to the canonists," says Ayliffe in his Parergon, " is defined to be a deliberate act or a premeditated will and desire of selling such things as are spiritual, or of anything annexed unto spirituals, by giving something of a temporal nature for the purchase thereof; or in other terms it is defined to be a commutation of a thing spiritual or annexed unto spirituals by giving something that is temporal." An example of the offence occurs as early as the 3rd century in the purchase of the bishopric of Carthage by a wealthy matron for her servant, if the note to Gibbon (vol. ii. p. 457) is to be believed. The offence was prohibited by many councils, both in the East and in the West, from the 4th century onwards. In the Corpus juris canonici the Decretum (pt. ii. cause i. quest. 3) and the Decretals (bk. v. tit. 3) deal with the subject. The offender, whether simoniacus (one who had bought his orders) or simoniace promotus (one who had bought his promotion), was liable to deprivation of his benefice and deposition from orders if a secular priest, — to confinement in a stricter monastery if a regular. No distinction seems to have been drawn between the sale of an immediate and of a reversionary interest. The innocent simoniace promotus was, apart from dispensation, liable to the same penalties as though he were guilty. Certain matters were simoniacal by the canon law which would not be so regarded in English law, e.g. the sale of tithes, the taking of a fee for confession, absolution, marriage or burial, the concealment of one in mortal sin or the reconcilement of an impenitent for the sake of gain, and the doing homage for spiritualities. So grave was the crime of simony considered that even infamous persons could accuse of it. English provincial and legatine constitutions continually assailed simony. Thus one of the heads in Lyndewode (bk. v.) is, " Ne quis ecclesiam nomine dotalitatis transferal vel pro praesentatione aliquid accipiat." In spite of all the provisions of the canon law it is well established that simony was deeply rooted in the medieval church. Dante places persons guilty of simony in the third bolgia of the eighth circle of the Inferno: — " O Simon mago, O miseri seguaci, Che le cose di Dio che di bontate Deono esser spose, voi rapaci Per oro e per argento adulterate." — Inf. xix. I. The popes themselves were 'notorious offenders. In the canto just cited Pope Nicholas III. is made by the poet the mouth- piece of the simoniacs. He is supposed to mistake the poet for Boniface VIII., whose simoniacal practices, as well as those of Clement V., are again alluded to in Par. xxx. 147. At a later period there was an open and continuous sale of spiritual offices by the Roman curia which contemporary writers attacked in the spirit of Dante. A pasquinade against Alexander VI. begins with the lines — " Vendit Alexander claves, altaria, Christum. Emerat ille prius; vendere jure potest." Machiavelli calls luxury, simony and cruelty the three dear friends and handmaids of the same pope.1 The colloquy of Erasmus De sacerdotiis captandis bears witness to the same state of things. And, best proof of all, numerous decisions as to what is or is not simony are to be found in the reported decisions of the Roman rota.2 That part of the papal revenue which consisted of first-fruits (primitiae or annates) and tenths (decimae) must have been theoretically simoniacal in its origin. In England this revenue was annexed to the crown by Henry VIII. and restored to the church by Queen Anne (see QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY). For the purposes of English law simony is defined by Blackstone as the corrupt presentation of any person to an ecclesiastical benefice for money, gift or reward. The offence is one of purely ecclesiastical cognizance, and not punishable by the criminal law. The penalty is forfeiture by the offender of any advantage from the simoniacal transaction, of his patronage by the patron, of his benefice by the presentee; and now by the Benefices Act 1892, a person guilty of simony is guilty of an offence for which he may be proceeded against under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892. An innocent clerk is under no dis- ability, as he might be by the canon law. Simony may be committed in three ways — in promotion to orders, in presentation to a benefice, and in resignation of a benefice. The common law (with which the canon law is incorporated, as far as it is not contrary to the common or statute law or the prerogative of the crown) has been considerably modified by statute. Where no statute applies to the case, the doctrines of the canon law may still be of authority. Both Edward VI. and Elizabeth promulgated advertisements against simony. The Act of 31 Eliz. c. 6 was intended to reach the corrupt patron as well as the corrupt clerk, the ecclesiastical censures apart from the statute not extending to the case of a patron. _ The first part of the act deals with the penalties for election or resignation of officers of churches, colleges, schools, hospitals, halls and societies for reward. The second part of the act provides that if any person or persons, bodies politic and corporate, for any sum of money, reward, -gift, profit or benefit, directly or indirectly, or for or by reason of any promise, agreement, grant, bond, covenant or other assurances, of or for any sum of money, &c., directly or indirectly present or collate any person to any benefice with cure of souls, dignity, prebend or living ecclesiastical, or give or bestow the same for or in respect of 1 See Roscoe, Life of Leo X., vol. i. p. 463. z Compare the fine distinctions drawn by the casuists and attacked by Pascal in the twelfth of the Provincial Letters. 134 SIMOOM— SIMPLICI US any such corrupt cause or consideration, every such presentation, collation, gift and bestowing, and every admission, institution, investiture and induction shall be void, frustrate and of none effect in law; and it shall be lawful for the queen to present, collate unto, or give and bestow every such benefice, dignity, prebend and living ecclesiastical for that one time or turn only; and all and every person or persons, bodies politic and corporate, that shall give or take any such sum of money, &c., directly or indirectly, or that shall take or make any such promise, &c., shall forfeit and lose the double value of one year's profit of every such benefice, &c., and the person so corruptly taking, procuring, seeking or accepting any such benefice, &c., shall be adjudged a disabled person in law to have or enjoy the same benefice, &c. Admission, institution, installation or induction of any person to a benefice, &c., for any sum of money, &c., renders the offender liable to the penalty already mentioned. But in this case the presentation reverts to the patron and not to the crown. The penalty for corrupt resigning or exchanging of a benefice with cure of souls is that the giver as well as the taker shall lose double the value of the sum so given or taken, half the sum to go to the crown and half to a common informer. The penalty for taking money, &c., to procure ordination or to give orders or licence to preach is a fine of £40; the party so corruptly ordained forfeits £10; acceptance of any benefice within seven years after such corrupt entering into the ministry makes such benefice merely void, and the patron may present as on a vacancy; the penalties are divided as in the last case. The act is cumulative only, and does not take away or restrain any punishment prescribed by ecclesiastical law. The Act of I Will. & M. sess. I, c. 16, guards the rights of an innocent successor in certain cases. It enacts that after the death of a person simoniacally presented the offence or contract of simony shall not be alleged or pleaded to the prejudice of any other patron innocent of simony, or of his clerk by him presented, unless the person simoniac or simoniacally presented was convicted of such offence at common law or in some ecclesiastical court in the lifetime of the person simoniac or simoniacally presented. The act also declares the validity of leases made by a simoniac or simoniacally- presented person, if bonafide and for valuable consideration to a lessee ignorant of the simony. By the Simony Act 1713 if any person shall for money, reward, gift, profit or advantage, or for any promise, agreement, grant, bond, covenant, or other assurance for any money, &c., take, procure or accept the next avoidance of or pre- sentation to any benefice, dignity, prebend or living ecclesiastical, and shall be presented or collated thereupon, such presentation or collation and every admission, institution, investiture and induction upon the same shall be utterly void; and such agreement shall be deemed a simoniacal contract, and the queen may present for that one turn only; and the person so_ corruptly taking, &c., shall be adjudged disabled to have and enjoy the same benefice, &c., and shall be subject to any punishment limited by ecclesiastical law. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840, § 42, provides that no spiritual person may sell or assign any patronage or presentation belonging to him by virtue of any dignity or spiritual office held by him; such sale or assignment is null and void. This selection has been construed to take away the old archbishop's " option, " i.e. the right to present to a benefice in a newly appointed bishop's patronage at the option of the archbishop. By canon 40 of the canons of 1603 an oath against simony was to be administered to every person admitted to any spiritual or ecclesiastical function, dignity or benefice. By the Clerical Subscription Act 1865 a de- claration was substituted for the oath, and a new canon incorporating the alteration was ratified by the crown in 1866. By the canon law all resignation bonds were simoniacal, and in 1826 the House of Lords held that all resignation bonds, general or special, were illegal. Special bonds have since, however, been to a limited extent sanctioned by law. The Clerical Resignation Bonds Act 1828 makes a written promise to resign valid if made in favour of some particular nominee or one of two nominees, subject to the conditions that, where there are two nominees, each of them must be either by blood or marriage an uncle, son, grandson, brother, nephew or grand-nephew of the patron, that the writing be deposited with the registrar of the diocese open to public inspection, and that the resignation be followed by presentation within six months of the person for whose benefit the bond is made. The Benefices Act 1898 substitutes and makes obligatory on every person about to be instituted to a benefice a simpler and more stringent form of declaration against simony. The declaration is to the effect that the clergyman has" not received the presentation in consideration of any sum of money, reward, gift, profit or benefit directly or indirectly given or promised by him or any one for him to any one; that he has not made any promise of resignation other than that allowed by the Clerical Resignation Bonds Act 1828; that he has not for any money or benefit procured the avoidance of the benefice ; and that he has not been party to any agreement invalidated by sec. 3 sub-sec. 3 of the act which invalidates any agreement for the exercise of a right of patronage in favour or on the nomination of any particular person, and any agreement on the transfer of a right of patronage (a) for the retransfer of the right, or (b) for postponing payment of any part of the consideration for the transfer until a vacancy or for more than three months, or (c) for payment of interest until a vacancy or for more than three months, or (d) for any payment in respect of the date at which a vacancy occurs, or («) for the resignation of a benefice in favour of any person. Cases of simony have come before the courts in which clergy of the highest rank have been implicated. In 1695, in the case of Lucy v. The Bishop of St David s, the bishop was deprived for simony. The queen's bench refused a prohibition (l Lord Raymond's Rep. 447). In 1841 the dean of York was deprived by the archbishop for simony, but in this case the queen's bench granted a prohibition on the ground of informality in the proceedings (In Re the Dean of York, 2 Q.B.R. i). The general result of the law previous to the Benefices Act 1898, as gathered from the statutes and decisions, may be exhibited as follows: (i) it was not simony for a layman or spiritual person not purchasing for himself to purchase, while the church was full, as advowson or next presenta- tion, however immediate the prospect of a vacancy; (2) it was not simony for a spiritual person to purchase for himself a life or any greater estate in an advowson, and to present himself thereto ; (3) it was not simony to exchange benefices under an agreement that no payment was to be made for dilapidations on either side; (4) it was not simony to make certain assignments of patronage under the Church Building and New Parishes Acts (9 & 10 Viet. c. 88, 32 & 33 Viet. c. 94) ; (5) it was simony for any person to purchase the next presentation while the church was vacant ; (6) it was simony for a spiritual person to purchase for himself the next presentation, though the church be full ; (7) it was simony for any person to purchase the next presentation, or in the case of purchase of an advowson the next presentation by the purchaser would be simoniacal if there was any arrangement for causing a vacancy to be made ; (8) it was simony for the purchaser of an advowson while the church was vacant to present on the next presentation; (9) it was simony to exchange otherwise than simpliciter-, no compensation in money might be made to the person receiving the less valuable benefice. The law on the subject of simony was long regarded as unsatisfactory by the authorities of the church. In 1879 a royal commission reported on the law and existing practice as to the sale, exchange and resignation of benefices. Many endeavours were made in parliament to give effect to the recommendations of the commission, but it was not until 1 898 that any important change was made in the law. The Benefices Act of that year absolutely invalidates any transfer of a right of patronage unless (a) it is registered in the diocesan registry, (b) unless more than twelve months have elapsed since the last in- stitution or admission to the benefice, and (c) unless " it transfers the whole interest of the transferor in the right " with certain re- servations; in other words, the act abolished the sale of next presentations, but it expressly reserved from its operation (a) a transmission on marriage, death or bankruptcy or otherwise by operation of law, or (6) a transfer on the appointment of a new trustee where no beneficial interest passes. It also substituted another form of declaration for that required under the Clerical Subscription Act 1865 (see above). It abolished the sale by auction of an advowson in gross, and empowered a bishop to refuse to in- stitute or admit a presentee to a benefice on a number of specified grounds: among others, on the ground of possible corrupt pre- sentation through a year not having elapsed since the last transfer of the right of patronage, and constituted a new court to hear appeals against a bishop's refusal to institute. This court consists of a judge of the Supreme Court, who shall decide all questions of law and of fact, and of the archbishop, who gives judgment. In Scotland simony is an offence both by civil and ecclesiastical law. The rules are generally those of the canon law. There are few decisions of Scottish courts on the subject. By the Act of 1584, c. 5, ministers, readers and others guilty of simony provided to benefices were to be deprived. An Act of Assembly of 1753 declares pactions simoniacal whereby a minister or probationer before presentation and as a means of obtaining it bargains not to raise a process of augmentation of stipend or demand reparation or enlarge- ment of his manse or glebe after induction. SIMOOM, or SAMUM, the name usually given in Algeria, Syria and Arabia to dust and sand-laden desert winds of the sirocco type. See SIROCCO and KHAMSIN. SIMPLICIUS, pope from 468 to 483. During his pontificate the Western Empire was overthrown, and Italy passed into the hands of the barbarian king Odoacer. In the East, the usurpation of Basiliscus (475-476), who supported the mono- physites, gave rise to many ecclesiastical troubles, which were a source of grave anxiety to the pope. The emperor Zeno, who had procured the banishment of Basiliscus, endeavoured to compound with the monophysite party; and the bishop of Constantinople, who had previously fought on the pope's side for the council of Chalcedon, abandoned Simplicius and sub- scribed to the henoticon, the conciliatory document promulgated in 482 by the emperor. Simplicius died on the 2nd of March 483, but without settling the monophysite question. SIMPLICIUS, a native of Cilicia, a disciple of Ammonius and of Damascius, was one of the last of the Neoplatonists. When, SIMPLON PASS— SIMPSON, T. in A.D. 529, the school of philosophy at Athens was disendowed and the teaching of philosophy forbidden, the scholars Damascius, Simplicius, Priscianus and four others resolved in 531 or 532 to seek the protection of Chosroes, king of Persia, but, though they received a hearty welcome, they found themselves unable to endure a continued residence amongst barbarians. Before two years had elapsed they returned to Greece, Chosroes, in his treaty of peace concluded with Justinian in 533, expressly stipulating that the seven philosophers should be allowed " to return to their own homes, and to live henceforward in the enjoyment of liberty of conscience " (Agathias ii. 30, 31). After his return from Persia Simplicius wrote commentaries upon Aristotle's De coelo, Physica, De anima and Categoriae, which, with a commentary upon the Enchiridion of Epictetus, have survived. Simplicius is not an original thinker, but his remarks are thoughtful and intelligent and his learning is prodigious. To the student of Greek philosophy his commentaries are in- valuable, as they contain many fragments of the older philo- sophers as well as of his immediate predecessors. (See NEO- PLATONISM.) See J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, ix. 529 seq., who praises very highly Simplicius's commentary on the Enchiridion ; Ch. A. Brandis's article in Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Biography; E. Zeller, D. Phil. d. Gr. III. ii. 851 seq., also Ch. A. Brandis, " Uber d. griech. Ausleger d..Aristot. Organons, " in Abh. Berl. Akad. (1833); C. G. Zumpt, " Cber d. Bestand d. phil. Schulen in Athen," ibid. (1842); Chaignet, Histoire de la psychologie des Grecs, v. 357; Zahlfleisch, Die Polemik des S. SIMPLON PASS, a pass over the Alps. Not known early save as a purely local route, the Simplon Pass rose into importance when Napoleon caused the carriage road to be built across it between 1800 and 1807, though it suffered a new eclipse on the opening of the Mont Cenis (1871) and St Gotthard railways (1882). The Simplon tunnel was opened in 1006. The pass proper starts from Brieg (Swiss canton of the Valais), which is in the upper Rhone valley and 905 m. by rail from Lausanne, past St Maurice and Sion. From Brieg it is about 14 m. up to the pass (6592 ft.), close to which is the hospice (first mentioned in 1235) in the charge of Austin Canons from the Great St Bernard. The road descends past the Swiss village of Simplon, and passes through the wonderful rock defile of Gondo before entering Italy at Iselle (28 m. from Brieg). Here the road joins the railway line through the tunnel, which is 125 m. in length, and 2313 ft. high, being thus both the longest and the lowest tunnel through the Alps. From Iselle it is about 1 1 m. by rail to Domo d'Ossola, whence the Toce or Tosa valley is followed to the Lago Maggiore (23 m.). The new line runs along the W. shore of the Lago Maggiore past Baveno, Stresa and Arona, and so on to Milan. (W. A. B. C.) SIMPSON, SIR JAMES YOUNG (1811-1870), Scottish physician, was born at Bathgate, Linlithgow, Scotland, on the 7th of June 1811. His father was a baker in that town, and James was the youngest of a family of seven. At the age of fourteen he entered the university of Edinburgh as a student in the arts classes. Two years later he began his medical studies. At the age of nineteen he obtained the licence of the College of Surgeons, and two years afterwards took the degree of doctor of medicine. Dr John Thomson (i 765-1846) , who then occupied the chair of pathology in the university, impressed with Simpson's graduation thesis, " On Death from Inflammation," offered him his assistantship. The offer was accepted, and during the session 1837-1838 he acted as interim lecturer on pathology during the illness of the professor. The following winter he delivered his first course of lectures on obstetric medicine in the extra-academical school. In February 1840 he was elected to the professorship of medicine and midwifery in the university. Towards the end of 1846 he was present at an operation per- formed by Robert Liston on a patient rendered unconscious by the inhalation of sulphuric ether. The success of the proceeding was so marked that Simpson immediately began to use it in midwifery practice. He continued, however, to search for other substances having similar effects, and in March 1847 he read a paper on chloroform to the Medico- Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh, in which he fully detailed the history of the use of anaesthetics from the earliest times, but especially dwelt upon the advantages of chloroform over ether. He advocated its use, not only for the prevention of pain in surgical operations, but also for the relief of pain in obstetrical practice, and his un- compromising advocacy of its use in the latter class of cases gave rise to one of the angriest and most widespread contro- versies of the time. In 1847 he was appointed a physician to the queen in Scotland. In 1859 he advocated the use of acu- pressure in place of ligatures for arresting the bleeding of cut arteries, but of more importance were his improvements in the methods of gynaecological diagnosis and obstetrics. His contributions to the literature of his profession were very numer- ous, embracing Obstetric Memoirs and Contributions (2 vols.), Homoeopathy, Acupressure, Selected Obstetrical Works, An- aesthesia and Hospilalism and Clinical Lectures on the Diseases of Women. He also took an active interest in archaeology, and two volumes of his Archaeological Essays, edited by Dr J.'Stuart, were published at Edinburgh in 1873. Simpson, who had been created a baronet in 1866, died in Edinburgh on the 6th of May 1870, and was accorded a public funeral; his statue in bronze now stands in West Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh. See John Duns, Memoir of J. Y. Simpson (1873); E. B. Simpson, Sir James Simpson (1896) ; and H. L. Gordon, Sir J. Y. Simpson and Chloroform (1897). SIMPSON, MATTHEW (1811-1884), American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Cadiz, Ohio, on the 2ist of June 1811. He studied medicine in 1830-1833 and began to practise, and in 1833 was licensed as a preacher of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was pastor of the Liberty Street Church of Pittsburg in 1835, and of a church at Williams- port (now Monongahela) in 1836. In 1837 he was ordained elder and was appointed professor of natural science in Allegheny College, Meadville, in which Madison College had been merged in 1833; and in 1838 he was elected professor and immediately afterwards president of the newly established Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Indiana, to which he went in 1839; this position he held until 1848. He was editor of the Western Christian Advocate, which he made a strong temperance and anti-slavery organ, from 1848 to 1852. He was elected a bishop in May 1852, and in 1857, with Dr McClintock, visited Great Britain as a delegate to the British Wesleyan Conference, and travelled in the Holy Land. He was an intimate and trusted friend of President Lincoln, who considered his advice of great value, and at whose grave in Springfield he spoke the last words. He addressed the Garfield Memorial Meeting at Exeter Hall, London, on the 24th of September 1881. He died on the i8th of June 1884 in Philadelphia. He published A Hundred Years of Methodism (1876); a Cyclopedia of Methodism (1878); Lectures on Preashing (1879), delivered before the Theological Department of Yale College; and a volume of his Sermons (1885) was edited by George R. Crooks, whose Life of Bishop Matthew Simpson (New York, 1890) should be consulted. SIMPSON, THOMAS (1710-1761), English mathematician, was born at Market Bosworth in Leicestershire on the 2oth of August 1710. His father was a stuff weaver, and, intending to bring his son up to his own business, took little care of the boy's education. Young Simpson was so eager for knowledge that he neglected his weaving, and in consequence of a quarrel was forced to leave his father's house. He settled for a short time at Nuneaton at the house of a Mrs Swinfield, whom he afterwards married, where he met a pedlar who practised fortune- telling. Simpson was induced to cast nativities himself, and soon became the oracle of the neighbourhood; but he became con- vinced of -the imposture of astrology, and he abandoned this calling. After a residence of two or three years at Derby, where be worked as a weaver during the day and taught pupils in the evenings, he went to London. The number of his pupils in- creased; his abilities became more widely known; and he was enabled to publish by subscription his Treatise of Fluxions in 1737. This treatise abounded with errors of the press, and contained several obscurities and defects incidental to the author's want of experience and the disadvantages under which 136 SIMROCK— SIMSON, M. E. VON he laboured. His next publications were A Treatise on the Nature and Laws of Chance (1740); Essays on Several Curious and Useful Subjects in Speculative and Mixed Mathematicks (1740); The Dsctrine of Annuities and Reversions deduced from General and Evident Principles (1742) ; and Mathematical Disserta- tions on a Variety of Physical and Analytical Subjects (1743). Soon after the publication of his Essays he was chosen a member of the Royal Academy at Stockholm; in 1743 he was appointed professor of mathematics in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and in 1745 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1745 he published A Treatise of Algebra, with an appendix containing the construction of geometrical problems, and in 1747 the Elements of Plane Geometry. The latter book, unlike many others with the same title, is not an edition of Euclid's Elements, but an independent treatise, and the solutions of problems contained in it (and in the appendix to the Algebra as well) are in general exceedingly ingenious. In his 'Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical, with the Construction and Application of Logarithms, which appeared in 1748, there is a tolerably uniform use of contractions for the words sine, tangent, &c., prefixed to the symbol of the angle. The Doctrine and Application of Fluxions (1750) was more comprehensive than his earlier work on the same subject and was so different that he wished it to be considered as a new book and not as a second edition of the former. In 1752 appeared Select Exercises for Young Proficients in the Mathematicks, and in 1757 his Miscellaneous Tracts on Some Curious and Very Interesting Subjects in Mechanics, Physical Astronomy and Speculative Mathematics, the last and perhaps the greatest of all his works. From the year 1735 he had been a frequent contributor to the Ladies' Diary, an annual publication partly devoted to the solution of mathematical problems, and from 1754 till 1760 inclusive he was the editor of it. He died at Market Bosworth on the i4th of May 1761. See Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815). SIMROCK, KARL JOSEPH (1802-1876), German poet and man of letters, was born on the 28th of August 1802 at Bonn, where his father was a music publisher. He studied law at the universities of Bonn and Berlin, and in 1823 entered the Prussian civil service, from which he was expelled in 1830 for writing a poem in praise of the French July revolution. Afterwards he was admitted as lecturer at the university of Bonn, where in 1850 he was made a professor of Old German literature; and in which city he died on the i8th of July 1876. Simrock estab- lished his reputation by his excellent modern rendering of the Nibelungenlied (1827), and of the poems of Walther von der Vogelweide (1833). Among other works translated by him into modern German were the Arme Heinrich of Hartmann von Aue (1830), the Parzival and Titurel of Wolfram von Eschenbach (1842), the Tristan of Gottfried of Strassburg (1855). and the Heldenbuch (1843-1849), which he supplemented with independent poems. Before the publication of this work he had shown an original poetical faculty in Wieland der Schmied (1835) ; and in 1844 he issued a volume of Gedichte in which there are many good lyrics, romances and ballads. In 1850 appeared Lauda Sion, and in 1857 the Deutsche Sionsharfe, collections of Old German sacred poetry. Of his republications the most popular and the most valuable were the Deutschen Volksbucher, of which fifty- five were printed between 1839 and 1867. His best contribution to scholarship was his Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie (1853-1855). At an early stage of his career Simrock took a high place among students of Shakespeare by his Quellen des Shakespeare in Novellen, Mdrchen und Sagen (1831); and afterwards he translated Shake- speare's poems and a considerable number of his dramas. The large number of editions through which Simrock's translations from the Middle High German have passed (the Nibelungenlied more than forty) bear witness to their popularity. An edition of his Ausgewahlle Werke in 12 vols. has been published by G. Klee (1907). See N. Hocker, Karl Simrock, sein Leben und seine Werke (1877); H. Duntzer, " Erinnerungen an Karl Simrock," in Monatsschrift fur Westdeutschland (1877), a°d E. Schroder's article in Allg. deutsche Biographie. SIMS, GEORGE ROBERT (1847- ), English journalist and dramatic author, was born on the 2nd of September 1847. He was educated at Hanwell College and at Bonn, and com- menced journalism in 1874 as successor to Tom Hood on Fun. His first play, Crutch and Toothpick, was produced at the Royalty Theatre in April 1879, and was followed by a number of plays of which he was author or part-author. After long runs at west end houses, many of these became stock pieces in suburban and provincial theatres. His most famous melodramas were: The Lights 'of London (Princess's theatre, September 1881), which ran for nearly a year; In the Ranks (Adelphi, Oct. 1883), written with H. Pettit, which ran for 457 nights; Harbour Lights (1885), which ran for 513 nights; Two Little Vagabonds (Princess's Theatre, 1896-1897). He was part-author with Cecil Raleigh of the burlesque opera, Little Christopher Columbus (1893), and among his -musical plays were Blue-eyed Susan (Prince of Wales's, 1892) and The Dandy Fifth (Birmingham, 1898). His early volumes of light verse were very popular, notably The Dagonet Ballads (1882), reprinted from the Referee. How the Poor Live (1883) and his articles on the housing of the poor in the Daily News helped to arouse public opinion on the subject, which was dealt with in the act of 1885. SIMSBURY, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., traversed by the Farmington river and about 10 m. N.W. of Hartford. Pop. (1910) 2537. Area about 38 sq. m. The township is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford and by the Central New England railways, which meet at Simsbury village. Among the manufactures are fuses, cigars and paper. A tract along the Tunxus (now Farmington) river, called Massacoe or Saco by the Indians, was ceded to whites in 1648, and there were settlers here from Windsor as early as 1664. In 1670 the township was incorporated as Simsbury. In 1675, during King Philip's War, Simsbury was abandoned; and in 1676 it was burnt and pillaged by the Indians; but it was resettled in the following year. Steel seems to have been made here from native iron in 1727, and in 1739 the General Court of Connecticut granted to three citizens of Simsbury a fifteen years' monopoly of making steel in the colony. Owing to the pine forests pitch and tar were important manufactures in early times. From the N. of Simsbury the township of Granby (pop. 1910, 1383) was set off in 1 786. In this part of the township a copper mine was worked between 1705 and 1745, and smelting and refining works were built in 1721. In 1773 the mine was leased by the General Court and was fitted up as a public gaol and workhouse (called Newgate Prison), the prisoners being employed in mining. Some Tories were imprisoned here after 1780; many of them escaped in May 1781. The prison was rebuilt in 1790 and was used until 1827. The W. of Simsbury was set off in 1806 as Canton (pop. in 1900, 2678). See N. A. Phelps, History of Simsbury, Granby and Canton from 1642 to 1845 (Hartford, 1845). SIMSON, MARTIN EDUARD VON (1810-1899), German jurist and politician, was born at Konigsberg, in Prussia, on the loth of November 1810, of Jewish parentage. After the usual course at the gymnasium of his native town, he entered its university in 1826 as a student of jurisprudence, and specially of Roman law. He continued his studies at Berlin and Bonn, and, having graduated doctor juris, attended lectures at the Ecole de Droit in Paris. Returning to Konigsberg in 1831 he established himself as a Privatdozent in Roman law, becoming two years later extraordinary, and in 1836 ordinary, professor in that faculty at the university. Like many other distinguished German jurists, pari passu with his professorial activity, Simson followed the judicial branch of the legal profession, and, passing rapidly through the subordinate stages of auscultator and assessor, became adviser (Rath) to the Landgericht in 1846. In this year he stood for the representation of Konigsberg in the National Assembly at Frankfort-on-Main, and on his election was immediately appointed secretary, and in the course of the same year became successively its vice-president and president. In his capacity of president he appeared, on 3rd April 1849, in Berlin at the head of a deputation of the Frankfort parliament to announce to King Frederick William IV. his election as German Emperor by the representatives of the people. The king, either apprehensive of a rupture with Austria, or fearing detriment to the prerogatives of the Prussian crown should he SIMSON, R.— SIN 137 accept this dignity at the hands of a democracy, refused the offer. Simson, bitterly disappointed at the outcome of his mission, resigned his seat in the Frankfort parliament, but in the summer of the same year was elected deputy for Konigsberg in the popular chamber of the Prussian Landtag. Here he soon made his mark as one of the best orators in that assembly. A member of the short-lived Erfurt parliament of 1850, he was again summoned to the presidential chair. On the dissolution of the Erfurt assembly, Simson retired from politics, and for the next few years devoted himself ex- clusively to his academical and judicial duties. It was not until 1859 that he re-entered public life, when he was elected deputy for Konigsberg in the lower chamber of the Prussian Landtag, of which he was president in 1860 and 1861. In the first of these years he attained high judicial office as president of the court of appeal at Frankfort on the Oder. In 1867, having been elected a member of the constituent assembly of the North German Federation, he again occupied the presidential chair, as he did also in the first regular Diet and the Zoll-parliament which succeeded it. On i8th December 1870 Simson arrived at the head of a deputation in the German headquarters at Versailles to offer the imperial crown to the king of Prussia in the name of the newly-elected Reichstag. The conditions under which Prussia might justly aspire to the hegemony in Germany at last appeared to have been accomplished, no obstacles, as in 1849, were in the way of the acceptance of the crown by the leading sovereign of the confederation, and on i8th January 1871 King William of Prussia was proclaimed with all pomp German Emperor in the Salle des Glaces at Versailles. Simson continued as president of the Reichstag until 1874, when he retired from the chair, and in 1877 resigned his seat in the Diet, but at Bis- marck's urging, accepted the presidency of the supreme court of justice (Reichsgericht), and this high office he filled with great distinction until his final retirement from public life in 1891. In 1888 the emperor Frederick bestowed upon Simson the order of the Black Eagle. His political career coincides with the era of German struggles towards unity. As a politician he was one of the leaders of modern Liberalism, and though always loyal when appeals were made to patriotism, such as government demands for the army, he remained obdurate on constitutional questions; and he resolutely opposed the reactionary policy of the Prussian Con- servatives. On his retirement from the presidency of the Reichsgericht, he left Leipzig and made his home in Berlin, where he died on the 2nd of May 1899. His Life was written by his son, Bernard von Simson, under the title Eduard von Simson, Erinnerungen aus seinem Leben (1900). (P. A. A.) SIMSON, ROBERT (1687-1768), Scottish mathematician, the eldest son of John Simson of Kirktonhill in Ayrshire, was born on the I4th of October 1687. He was intended for the church, but the bent of his mind was towards mathematics, and, when a prospect opened of his succeeding to the mathematical chair at the university of Glasgow, he proceeded to London for further study. After a year in London he returned to Glasgow, and in 1711 was appointed by the university to the professorship of mathematics, an office which he retained until 1761. He died on the ist of October 1768. Simson's contributions to mathematical knowledge took the form of critical editions and commentaries on the works of the ancient geometers. The first of his published writings is a paper in the Philosophical Transactions (1723, vol. xl. p. 330) on Euclid's Porisms (q.v.). Then followed Sectionum conicarum libri V. (Edinburgh, 1735), a second edition of which, with additions, appeared in 1750. The first three books of this treatise were trans- lated into English, and several time_s printed as The Elements of the Conic Sections, In 1749 was published Apollonii Pergaei locorum planorum libri II., a restoration of Apollonius's lost treatise, founded on the lemmas given in the seventh book of Pappus's Mathematical Collection. In 1756 appeared, both in Latin and in English, the first edition of his Euclid's Elements. This work, which contained only the first six and the eleventh and twelfth books, and to which in its English version he added the Data in 1762, was for long the standard text of Euclid in England. After his death restorations of Apollonius's treatise De sectione determinant and of Euclid's treatise De porismatibus were printed for private circulation in 1776 at the expense of Earl Stanhope, in a volume with the title Roberti Simson opera quaedam reliqua. The volume contains also dissertations on Logarithms and on the Limits of Quantities and Ratios, and a few problems illustrative of the ancient geometrical analysis. See W. Trail, Life and Writings of Robert Simson (1812); C. Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815). SIMSON, WILLIAM (1800-1847), Scottish portrait, landscape and subject painter, was born at Dundee in 1800. He studied under Andrew Wilson at the Trustees' Academy, Edinburgh, and his early pictures — landscape and marine subjects — found a ready sale. He next turned his attention to figure painting, producing in 1829 the " Twelfth of August," which was followed in 1830 by " Sportsmen Regaling " and a " Highland Deer- stalker." In the latter year he was elected a member of the Scottish Academy; and, having acquired some means by portrait-painting, he spent three years in Italy, and on his return in 1838 settled in London, where he exhibited his " Camaldolese monk showing Relics," his " Cimabue and Giotto," his " Dutch Family," and his " Columbus and his Child " at the Convent of Santa Maria la Rabida. He died in London on the 2gth of August 1847. Simson is greatest as a landscapist; his " Solway Moss — Sunset," exhibited in the Royal Scottish Academy of 1831 and now in the National Gallery, Edinburgh, ranks as one of the finest examples of the early Scottish school of landscape. His elder brother George (1791-1862), portrait-painter, was also a member of the Royal Scottish Academy, and his younger brother David (d. 1874) practised as a landscape-painter. SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Silnde), a general term for wickedness or a wicked act. As psychology recognizes a distinction of pleasure and pain, and metaphysics of good and evil, so morality assumes the difference between right and wrong in action, good and bad in character; but the distinction in psychology and metaphysics applies to what is, the difference in morality is based on a judgment of what is by what ought to be. When the act or the character does not correspond with the standard, this want of correspondence may in different relations be variously described. In relation to human society, and the rules it imposes on its members, action that ought not to be done is crime; a habit which is injurious to a man's own moral nature, especially if it involves evil physical consequences, is described as vice. If man is thought of as under the authority of God, any transgression of or want of conformity to the law of God is defined as sin. Crime is a legal, vice a moral, and sin a religious term. Sin may be distinguished from guilt as follows: guilt is the liability to penalty, that is, to the suffering conceived not as the natural consequence, but as the expression of the divine displeasure, which sin as a breach of divine law involves. Sin is a term applied not only to actions, but also to dispositions and motives. In the theological phrase original sin it means the inherited tendency to do wrong. There have been two great controversies in the Christian Church on this question, the Augustinian-Pelagian and the Calvinistic-Arminian, one in the sth century and the other in the 1 7th. Pelagius declared the capacity of every man to become virtuous by his own efforts, and summoned the members of the Church in Rome to enter on the way of perfection in monasticism. His friend Caelestius was in 412 charged with and excom- municated for heresy because he regarded Adam as well as all his descendants as naturally mortal, denied the racial consequences of Adam's fall, asserted the entire innocence of the new-born, recognized sinless men before the coming of Christ. Pelagius him- self desired to avoid controversy, and with mental reservations denied these statements of his friend; but he did not escape suspicion, and his condemnation in 418 was the signal for a literary polemic, which lasted ten years, and in which Julian of Eklanum was the most brilliant but reckless combatant on the side of Pelagius. In the East the freedom of the will was so insisted on, that one may regard Greek theology as essentially Pelagian. In the West there was unanimity only on three points: the necessity of baptism for the remission of sins, the inheritance of sin as a result of Adam's fall, and the indispensableness of the divine grace in the attainment of goodness. Pelagius insisted that 138 SIN— SINAI sin was an act, not a state, an abuse of the freedom of the will, and that each man was responsible and liable to punishment only for his own acts. This extreme individualism he qualified only in two respects, he admitted a principle of imitation, the influence of bad example, habit and customs, may be inherited and com- municated. Divine grace is not necessary for human virtue. It is granted only according to act, and merits as the law in enlightening, warning or promising reward. To this Augustine opposed the view that Adam's sin is, as its penalty, transmitted to all his descendants, both as guilt and as weakness. The trans- mission is not by imitation, but by propagation. The essence and mode of operation of original sin is concupiscence, which, as of the devil, subjects man in his natural state to the devil's dominion. Even infants are involved in Adam's condemnation. Sin is a necessity in each individual, and there is a total corruption of man's nature, physically as well as morally. Into the details of the controversy it is not necessary to go any further. While the authority of Augustine received lip-homage, the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church became more Pelagian, and in the Tridentine decrees and still more in the ethics of the Jesuits, in spite of the opposition of Jansenism, Pelagianism at last triumphed. The Reformation restored the teaching of Augustine; in Calvinism especially the sovereignty of the divine and the impotence of the human will were emphasized; and against this exaggeration Arminianism was a protest. Of the five articles of the Remonstrance of 1610 only two now concern us: the possibility of resisting the grace which is indispensable to salvation, and the possibility of falling away from grace even after 'conversion. The Arminian system was an attempt to modify the Calvinistic theory in a moral interest, so as to main- tain human responsibility, good and ill desert; but to this moral interest the system sacrificed the religious interest in the sufficiency and the sovereignty of divine grace. Its adherents necessarily laid emphasis on human freedom. As regards original sin they taught that the inclinations to evil inherited from Adam are not themselves blameworthy, and only consent to them involves real guilt. It is not just, however, to Arminian- ism to identify it with Pelagianism, as it does strive to make clear man's need of divine grace to overcome sin and reach holiness. In the Evangelical Revival of the i8th century Arminianism was represented by Wesley, and Calvinism by Whitefield. SIN, the name of the moon-god in Babylonia and Assyria, also known as Nannar, the " illuminer." The two chief seats of his worship were Ur in the S., and Harran considerably to the N., but the cult at an early period spread to other centres, and temples to the moon-god are found in all the large cities of Babylonia and Assyria. He is commonly designated as En-zu, i.e. " lord of wisdom," and this attribute clings to him throughout all periods. During the period (c. 2600-2400 B.C.) that Ur exercised a large measure of supremacy over the Euphrates valley, Sin was naturally regarded as the head of the pantheon. It is to this period that we must trace such designations of the god as " father of the gods," " chief of the gods," " creator of all things," and the like. We are justified in supposing that the cult of the moon-god was brought into Babylonia by the Semitic nomads from Arabia. The moon-god is par excellence the god of nomadic peoples, their guide and protector at night when, during a great part of the year, they undertake their wanderings, just as the sun-god is the chief god of an agricultural people. The cult once introduced would tend to persevere, and the develop- ment of astrological science culminating in a calendar and in a system of interpretation of the movements and occurrences in the starry heavens would be an important factor in maintaining the position of Sin in the pantheon. The name of Sin's chief sanctuary at Ur was E-gish-shir-gal, " house of the great light "; that at Harran was known as E-khul-khul, " house of joys." On seal-cylinders he is represented as an old man with flowing beard, with the crescent as his symbol. In the astral-theological system he is represented by the number 30, and the planet Venus as his daughter by the number 15. The number 30 stands obviously in connexion with the thirty days as the average extent of his course until he stands again in conjunction with the sun. The " wisdom " personified by the moon-god is likewi&e an expression of the science of astrology in which the observation of the moon's phases is so important a factor. The tendency to centralize the powers of the universe leads to the establishment of the doctrine of a triad consisting of Sin, Shamash and Ishtar (q.v.), personifying the moon, sun and the earth as the life- force. (M. JA.) SINAI, i. The Biblical Mount Sinai. In judging of the points of controversy connected with Sinai we are brought face to face with the question of the historicity of the Hebrew records involved. Though new attempts to fix the stations of the wilderness wandering appear every year, critics have long agreed that the number of forty for the years of wandering and for the stations are round numbers, and that the details are not based on historical tradition of the Mosaic age. This does not exclude the possibility that the names of some or all of the stations belong to real places and are based on more or less careful research on the part of the writers who record them. As regards the Moun- tain of the Law in particular, if the record of Exod. xix. seq. is strictly historical, we must seek a locality where 600,000 fighting men, or some two million souls in all, could encamp and remain for some time, finding pasture and drink for their cattle, and where there was a mountain (with a wilderness at its foot) rising so sharply that its base could be fenced in, while yet it was easily ascended, and its summit could be seen by a great multitude below. In the valley there must have been a flowing stream. The peninsula of Sinai does not furnish any locality where so great a host could meet under the conditions specified, and accordingly many investigators give up the statistics of the number of Hebrews and seek a place that fulfils the other con- ditions. But when we consider that the various records em- bodied in the Pentateuch were composed long after the time of Moses, and that the authors in all probability never saw Sinai, and had no exact topographical tradition to fall back on, but could picture to themselves the scene of the events they recorded only by the aid of imagination, the topographical method of identifying the Mountain of the Law becomes very questionable. The Pentateuchal writers are not at one even about the name of the mountain. It used to be thought that Horeb was the name of the mountain mass as a whole, or of its southern part, while Sinai was the Mountain of the Law proper, but it has been shown by Dillmann that the Elohist and Deuteronomy always use the name Horeb for the same mountain which the Jahvist and the Priestly Code call Sinai. The Elohist belonged to Northern Israel, but Judges v. 5 shows that even in Northern Israel the other name Sinai was not unknown. And it might be shown, though that cannot be done here, that the several accounts vary not only as regards the name but in topographical details. Thus all that can be taken as historically fixed is that after leaving Goshen the Hebrews abode for some time near a mountain called Sinai or Horeb, and that this mountain or range was held to be holy as a seat of the Deity (Exod. ii. i; i Kings xix.). Where, then, was this mountain? The Midianites, of whom according to one source Jethro was priest, probably always lived E. of the Gulf of 'Akaba; yet we can hardly follow Beke in seeking Sinai beyond that gulf, but must rather think of some point in the so-called peninsula of Sinai, which lies between the Gulfs of 'Akaba and Suez, bounded on the N. by the Wilderness e'-TIh, which slopes gently towards the Mediterranean. To the south of this wilderness rises the Jebel el-Tlh, a mass composed mainly of Nubian sandstone and cretaceous limestone, which attains in fantastic forms an altitude of some 3000 ft.; its ridges converge towards the S. and are cut off by great valleys from the mass now known as Mount Sinai. The latter is composed of primitive rocks — granite, porphyry, diorite, gneiss, &c. The sandstones of Jebel el-Tih are rich in minerals; inscriptions of Amenophis III. and Thothmes III. found on the spot show that the ancient Egyptians got turquoise at Serablt al-Khadem; and at Maghara, where inscriptions occur bearing the names of kings from Semerkhet and Khufu down to Rameses II. These mines were worked by criminals and prisoners of war, and the SINAI 139 waste products of copper foundries indicate that the peninsula was once better wooded than now, of which indeed we have express testimony of post- Christian date. At present the dominant feature is bare walls of rock, especially in the primitive formations; the steep and jagged summits have a striking effect, which is increased by the various colours of the rock and the clearness of the atmosphere. The deep-cut valleys are filled by rushing torrents after rain, but soon dry up again. In the S. the centre of the main mountain mass is Mount Catherine (8540 ft.), Omm Shomar to the S.E. being little lower; this peak and N. of it Mount Serbal (6750 ft.), which rises more immediately from the plain, dominate the Ka'ah, a waste expanse of sand strewn with pebbles, which occupies the S.W. margin of the peninsula.. In the Ka'ah is the village of Tur, and at the S. promontory (Ras Mohammed) is the little hamlet of Sherm. The Sinai group as a whole is called by the Arabs Jebel al-Tur; the name Sina in Arabic comes only from books. The area of the peninsula is about 11,200 sq. m.; the population is four to five thousand souls, chiefly Bedouins of various tribes, whose common name, derived from Tur, is Towara. They have sheep and goats, with which they retire in summer to the higher lands, where there is good pasture ground, and where springs are comparatively common. On the chalk and sandstone water is scarcer than among the primitive rocks, and often brackish. Though the rocks are bare, there is always vegetation in the dales, especially acacias and tamarisks; from the latter (T. mannifera) manna is still derived in quantities that vary with the rainfall. On the hills grow aromatic plants, especially Thymaceae. The fauna includes the ibex, hyrax and hyaena; the panther too is sometimes found. Flights of quail have been observed. In some valleys there are well-kept gardens and good date-palms; the most noted oasis is that of Feiran, in the N.W. of the peninsula, which is watered by a perennial stream. Whether Feiran is the Rephidim of Exod. xvii. is a question which, like the identifica- tion of the other stations of the Israeh'tes, depends on the localiza- tion of the Mountain of the Law. There is no genuine pre-Christian tradition on this subject. The chief authority for the ancient sanctity of Mount Sinai is Antoninus Martyr (end of the 6th century), who tells that the heathen Arabs in his time still celebrated a moon feast there. As sin means " moon," this feast has been connected with the name of Sinai, but the proposed etymology is not certain. Of heathen origin, too, are the many Nabataean inscriptions of Sinai, found especially in the Wady Mokatteb (in the N.W.), and sometimes accompanied by rude drawings. The language and character are Aramaic, but the proper names are mainly those of Arabs, who passing by graved their names on the rocks. That they were pilgrims to Sinai cannot be made out with certainty. The inscriptions date from the early years of the Christian era, when the Nabataean kingdom was at its height. In early Christian times many anchorites inhabited Sinai, living for the most part in the caves, which are numerous even in the primitive rocks. Then monasteries were built, the most famous being the great one of St Catherine in Wady el-Der (the valley of the monastery). On Serbal, too, there were many granite dwellings, and in the neighbouring Pharan (Phoenicion) , which was a bishop's see, there were, as the ruins show, churches and convents. The question then is whether when the hermits first settled in the peninsula there existed a tradition as to the place of the Mountain of the Law, and whether they chose for their residence a spot which was already traditionally consecrated by memories significant to the Christian as well as to the Jew. No assertion of the existence of such a tradition is to be found in Josephus, who only says that Sinai was the highest mountain of the district — a description which might apply to Serbal as seen from the plain below. Eusebius uses expressions which may also seem to point to Serbal as the place of the law-giving, and it must be admitted that the tradition which seeks the holy site in the group of Jebel Musa (i.e. the mass of which Mount Catherine is the highest peak) is not older than the time of Justinian, so that the identification with Mount Serbal seems to have greater antiquity in its favour. In later times Jebel Musa and Serbal had each its own tradition, and the holy places were pointed out at each; thus from the monastery of St Catherine a path of granite steps was constructed up to " the Mountain of the Law," but similar steps are found at Serbal. That these traditions are not decisive, however, is admitted, more or less, even by those moderns who, like Lepsius, Ebers, Bartlett, give their voice for Serbal. Most authorities still prefer Jebel Musa or some point in that group, but they again differ in details. First of all there is much difficulty in determining the route by which the Hebrews approached the mountain. Then comes the question of finding a suitable plain for their encampment under the mountain, which is best met if, with Robinson, Stanley, Palmer and others, the plain is taken to be that of al-Rahe and the overhanging moun- tain to be Jebel Sufsafeh. The latter is over 6300 ft. high, and consists of pasture ground; it does not fit all the details in Exodus, but this objection is quite as strong against the tradi- tional site on Jebel Musa (Mount Moses), which lies farther S. Jebel Musa has been accepted by Tischendorf, Laborde, Ritter, Strauss, Farrar, and many others; on this view the Israelites must have encamped in the narrow Wady al-Seya'Iyeh, N. of the mount. But the absence of exact topographical detail on the part of the Biblical narrators, who always speak of Sinai as if it were a single summit and give no hint about several summits of which it is one, shows that in their time there was no real tradition on the matter, and that all attempts at identification are necessarily vain. LITERATURE.— Burckhardt, Travels in Syria, &c. (London, 1822); Leon de Laborde, Voyage de I' Arabic Petree (Paris, 1830-1836); Robinson, Biblital Researches (London, 1841); Lepsius, Reise (Berlin, 1845); Stanley, Sinai and Palestine; Fraas, Aus d. Orient (Stuttgart, 1867); Ordnance Survey of the Pen. of Sinai (South- ampton, 1869, 3 vols.) ; Palmer, Desert of the Exodus (Cambridge, 1871); Ebers, Durch Gosen zum Sinai (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881); Baker Greene, The Hebrew Migration (London, 1883); Hull, Mount Seir, Sinai and West Palestine (London, 1885). See also the Palestine Society's Quarterly Statement, passim. (A. So.) 2. The Peninsula: Recent Research. — The peninsula of Sinai is about 230 m. in extreme length and 150 m. wide, or nearly the size of Ireland. It is practically waterless and barren, the population being not a thousandth of that on an equal area in England. The S. part is a high mass of schists and granite, deeply cut into valleys; it is overlaid by carboniferous sandstone, and limestone, capped with tertiary basalt, flows in the mining region. The N. part is an expanse of cretaceous limestone and nummulitic tertiary limestone, sloping down to the Mediter- ranean. The steep valley of the Gulf of Suez has been greatly deepened — if not formed — since the tertiary limestone was deposited, the beds dipping down sharply to the sea. The only water supply of any importance is that in the Wady Feiran; elsewhere only small water-holes preserve enough for a few persons, but fresh water can be obtained along the shore route by digging. The difficulty about the numbers of the Israelites who lived here has lately been treated on a fresh basis. That they were not more numerous than the previous inhabitants is shown by the difficulty in conquering the Amalekites at Rephidim. In the census lists of the Book of Numbers the hundreds of people in each tribe are in most cases 4 or 500; 2, 3, 6 or 700 are rare; o, i, 8 or 900 do not occur. The hundreds are therefore inde- pendent of the thousands prefixed to them: and as aldf means both a " thousand " and a " family," it is proposed that the original census was in numbers of tents or families, and hundreds of people; and that later the family numbers were mistaken for thousands. Other points agree in this view, such as the number of persons in a family, the similarity of hundreds in the census before and that after the wanderings, and the actual size of Goshen, from which they came, and the population of Sinai where they settled. Thus the total numbers were 5730 people. The internal evidence that the census lists are original documents is very strong, though they have been misunderstood by later compilers. It is impossible to suppose a population trained in Egypt not having the ability to keep some tribal 140 SINAIA— SINAN PASHA records of numbers and movements such as were the basis of the existing re-edited narrative. The history of the Egyptian settlements has been investigated. They began in the 1st Dynasty, shown by the tablet of the con- quest by King Semerkhet (5 280 B.C.) above the mines of turquoise at Wady Maghara. Seneferu (4750 B.C.) was already working at Serabit for turquoise. Other kings who left records here are Sanekht (Illrd Dynasty), Khufu (IVth), Sahura, Ranuser, Menkauhor (Vth), Amenemhat I., Senusert I., Senusert II., SenusertllL, AmenemhatlL, Amenemhat III., Amenemhat IV. (Xllth), Aahmes I., Amenhotep I., Tahutmes I., Hatshepsut, Tahutmes III., Tahutmes IV., Amenhotep III. (XVIIIth), Rameses I., Sety I., Rameses II., Merenptah, Sety II., Tausert, Setnekht (XlXth), Rameses III., IV., V. and VI. (XXth). The monuments are mostly inscriptions recording the mining expedi- tions and offerings made to the goddess of turquoise. The original shrine of the goddess was a cave; this was hewn out and buildings were gradually added before it to a length of 230 ft. The records show that no fewer than twenty-five different grades of officials took part in the work of mining, which was highly organized as regards direction, technical ability, labour and transport, often as many as 700 men being employed. Over 400 objects with kings' names have been found in the fragments of the offerings which were left in the shrine. The worship at Serabit was that of Hathor, mistress of turquoise. She is identical with Athtar or Ishtar, the Semitic goddess of Arabia. The features of the worship were entirely Semitic and not Egyptian. An enormous mass of burnt -offerings is shown by the bed of ashes before the sacred cave; tanks for ablutions are found in the temple courts, altars of incense are in the shrine itself, and also conical stones; and chambers or shelters for dreaming before the temple are a main feature. All of these belong to Semitic worship, and they show that before Mosaism the elements of the worship were the same as are found in later times. For all the recent research see W. M. Flinders Petrie, Researches in Sinai (1906). (W. M. F. P.) SINAIA, a town of Rumania, about 12 m. S. of the Hungarian frontier at Predeal, on the railway from Ploesci to Kronstadt in Transylvania. Pop. (1000), 2210. Sinaia resembles a large model village, widely scattered among the pine forests of the lower Carpathians, and along the banks of the Prahova, a swift alpine stream. The monastery of Sinaia, founded by Prince Michael Cantacuzino in 1695, was the residence of the royal family until the present chateau was built. It consists of two courts surrounded by low buildings. In the centre of each court is a small church built in the Byzantine style. The monks possess a library, in which are kept valuable jewels belonging to the Cantacuzene family. Castle Peles or Pelesh, the modern palace, named after the hill on which it stands, is of a mixed style of architecture. The interior is fitted with magnificent wood carvings and stained glass windows illustrating the principal scenes of " Carmen Sylva's " writings. Until 1850 Sinaia con- sisted of little more than the monastery and a group of huts. In 1864, however, the monastic estate was assigned to the Board of Civil Hospitals, by which a hospital and baths were opened and the mineral springs developed. Sinaia soon became the favourite summer resort of Bucharest society, and rapidly developed in all its equipment. SINALOA, a N. state of Mexico, bounded N. by Sonora and Chihuahua, E. by Durango, S. by Tepic, and W. by the Gulf of California, with a coast line of nearly 400 m. Area, 33,671 sq. m. Pop. (1900), 296,701, largely Indians. The surface consists of a narrow coastal zone where tropical conditions prevail, a broad belt of mountainous country covered by the ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental and their intervening valleys where oak and pine forests are to be found, and an intervening zone among the foothills of the Sierra Madre up to an elevation of 2000 ft., where the conditions are subtropical. The state is traversed by numerous streams, the largest of which have broad valleys among the foothills. The largest of these are the Culiacan , Fuerte and Sinaloa, the last two having short navigable courses across the lowlands. Rain is plentiful everywhere, except in the extreme north, where the conditions are arid. The climate of the low-lying coast lands is hot and malarious, but in the mountains it is. cool and healthy. Cereals and mezcal are produced on the uplands, and sugar, rum, coffee, tobacco, grape spirits and fruit in the lower zones. There are excellent cotton lands in the state and the production of this staple was largely developed during the American Civil War, but it has since declined. Grazing receives considerable attention in the uplands, where the temperature is favourable and the pasture- age good, and hides are largely exported. Mining, however, is the chief industry, Sinaloa being one of the richest mineral-producing states in the republic. Gold, silver, copper, iron and lead are found. There are also salt deposits and mineral springs. The best-known silver mines are the Rosario, from which about $90,000,000 had been extracted up to the last decade of the igth century, and the Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de los Reyes, discovered early in the igth century and yielding over $85,000,000 before its close. The forest products of the state include rubber, resins, cabinet and dye- woods, deerskins, orchilla and ixtle fibre. Up to the beginning of the 2Oth century Sinaloa had only one short railway, which con- nected Culiacan with its port Altata. Since then the Mexican branch of the (American) Southern Pacific railway from Nogales to Guaymas has been extended S.E. along the coast. Sinaloa has excellent natural harbours, only two of which — Mazatlan and Altata — are much used. The bays of Agiobampo and Topolobampo are prospective railway terminals with fine harbours. The capital of the state is Culiacan Resales (commonly called Culiacan), on the Culiacan river 39 m. from its port, Altata, at the mouth of the same river, with which it is connected by rail. It is a well-built town, with some thriving manufactures, including cotton goods, cigarettes, liqueurs, &c. It is the see of a bishop and has a fine cathedral. Culiacan (pop. in 1900, 10,380) is the distributing centre for a large district between Guaymas and Mazatlan. The most important town] is Mazatlan, one of the leading ports of Mexico on the Pacific coast, and the commercial centre for S. Sinaloa and N. Durango. Other towns are Mocorito (pop. 9971 in 1895), Sinaloa and Fuerte, all in the N. of the state, Rosario (pop. 8448 in 1900), and San Ignacio in the S. SINAN PASHA (1515-1596), Turkish soldier and statesman, was an Albanian of low origin. In 1 569 he was appointed governor of Egypt and was occupied until 1571 in the conquest of Yemen. In 1574 he commanded the great expedition against Tunis, which, in spite of the brave defence by the Spanish and Italian garrison, was added to the Ottoman empire. In 1580 Sinan commanded the army against Persia and was appointed grand vizier, but was disgraced and exiled in the following year, owing to the rout of his lieutenant Mahommed Pasha, at Gori, in an attempt to provision the Turkish garrison of Tiflis. He subse- quently became governor of Damascus and, in 1589, after the great revolt of the Janissaries, was appointed grand vizier for the second time. Another revolt of Janissaries led to his dismissal in 1591, but in 1593 he was again recalled to become grand vizier for the third time, and in the same year he commanded the Turkish army against Hungary. In spite of his victories he was again deposed inFebruary 1595, shortly after the accession of Mahommed III., and banished to Malghara; but in August was in power again and on the march to Wallachia. The unhappy course of this campaign, culminating in the fall of Gran, brought him once more into disfavour, and he was deprived of the seal of office (November 19). The death of his successor, Lala Mahommed, three days later, was looked on as a sign from heaven, and Sinan became grand vizier for the fifth time. He died suddenly on the 3rd of April 1596. Bold, overbearing and unscrupulous, Sinan recoiled from no baseness to put a rival out of the way; while his insolence was not confined to foreign ambassadors, but was exercised towards his opponents in the sultan's presence. He had a barbarous hatred not only for Christians but for all civiliza- tion. The immense fortune which he left is a proof of his rapacity. Another Sinan Pasha was governor of Anatolia at the time of Mahommed II. 's death in 1481. He was a brother-in-law of Bayezid II. and defeated Prince Jem's troops at Brusa. In Selim I.'s reign he served with great distinction in the Persian and Egyptian cam- paigns and fell at the battle of Ridania, where the Mamelukes were defeated, in 1517. A third Sinan Pasha, brother of the grand vizier Rustem Pasha, was grand admiral under Suleiman I. and died about 1553. See J. v. Hammer-Purgstall, Gesch. des Osmanischen Retches (2nd ed., Pesth, 1840), and authorities there cited. SINCLAIR— SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN 141 SINCLAIR, the name of an old Scottish family, members of which have held the titles of earl of Orkney and earl of Caithness. The word is a variant of Saint Clair. SIR WILLIAM SINCLAIR, or SAINT CLAIR (c. 1260-0. 1303), was the descendant of a line of Anglo-Norman barons, one of whom obtained the barony of Rosslyn from King David I. in the I2th century. Sir William took part in the dispute over the succession to the crown of Scotland in 1292, and was one of the leaders of the Scots in their revolt against Edward I. One of his sons was William Sinclair (d. 1337), bishop of Dunkeld, who was responsible for the defeat of an English force at Donibristle in Fife in 1317. Sir William's eldest son was Sir Henry Sinclair (d. 1330), the friend of Robert the Bruce; and Sir Henry's son was Sir William Sinclair, who was slain by the Saracens in August 1330, while journeying through Spain to Palestine with Sir James Douglas, the bearer of the heart of Bruce. This Sir William Sinclair married Isabel, daughter of Malise, earl of Strathearn, Caithness and Orkney (d. c. 1350), and their son Sir Henry Sinclair (d. c. 1400) obtained the earldom of Orkney by a judgment of the Norwegian king Haakon VI. in 13 79. He then helped to conquer the Faeroe Islands, and took into his service the Venetian travellers, Niccolo and Antonio Zeno, sailing with Antonio to Greenland. This prince of Orkney, as he is sometimes called, was succeeded by his son Henry (d. 1418), who was admiral of Scotland, and then by his grandson William (c. 1404-1480), the founder of the beautiful chapel at Rosslyn. WILLIAM, the 3rd earl of his line, whose earldom of Orkney was a Norwegian dignity, was made chancellor of Scotland in 1454 and Lord Sinclair and earl of Caithness in 1455. He tcok some part in public affairs in Scotland, and when in 1470 the Orkney Islands were ceded by Norway to King James III. he resigned all his rights therein to his sovereign and was known merely as earl of Caithness. His eldest son, William, having offended his father by his wasteful habits, the earl settled his earldom on his eldest son by another marriage, also called William, who was killed at Flodden in 1513. The elder William, however, in- herited the title of Lord Sinclair, and the family was thus split into two main branches. John, the 3rd earl, was killed in 1529 while attempting to seize the Orkney Islands. GEORGE, 4th earl of Caithness (c. 1525-1582), a son of the 3rd earl, was a Roman Catholic and a supporter of Mary Queen of Scots, but he was mainly occupied with acts of violence in the north of Scotland. His grandson George, the sth earl (c. 1566- 1643), was outlawed and compelled to fly to the Shetlands. He left many debts, and his great-grandson and successor, George, the 6th earl (d. 1676), who was childless, arranged that his estates should pass to a creditor, Sir John Campbell, afterwards earl of Breadalbane. Campbell was created earl of Caithness in 1677, but the title was also claimed by George Sinclair (d. 1698), a grandson of the sth earl, and in 1681 the privy council decided in his favour. When Alexander, the 9th earl, died in 1765 the title was successfully claimed by William Sinclair (d. 1770), a descendant of the 4th earl, who became the loth earl. James, the izth earl (1766-1823), was descended from another branch of the 4th earl's family, and his grandson James, the i4th earl (1821-1881), was a representative peer for Scotland from 1858 to 1868, and was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Barrogill in 1866. He was interested in scientific matters, and published Lectures on Popular and Scientific Subjects (1877). The title of Lord Sinclair passed from William, the 2nd lord, who died about 1488, to John (1610-1676), who became the gth lord in 1615. At first a covenanter, afterwards he became a royalist, and was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester. He died with- out male issue and the title became dormant. His estates, how- ever, passed to his grandson, Henry St Clair (1660-1723), the son of his daughter Catherine (d. 1666) and her husband, John St Clair of Herdmanston, and in 1677 Henry was created Lord Sinclair with the precedence of the older title. He had two sons, John Sinclair (1683-1750) the Jacobite, and James Sinclair, who became a general in the British army, and was also ambassador at Vienna and Turin and a member of parliament for many years After the attainder of John, in consequence of his share in the rising of 1715, the family estates were settled on James, but he resigned them to his elder brother when the latter was pardoned in 1726. The pardon, however, did not include the restoration of the title. Earlier in life John Sinclair had killed a man named Shaw in a duel and had afterwards shot this man's brother. He was tried by court-martial and sentenced to death, but was pardoned. An account of the proceedings in the court-martial was edited by Sir Walter Scott for the Roxburghe Club (Edin- burgh, 1828). Sinclair himself wrote Memoirs of the Rebellion, published by the Roxburghe Club in 1858. Neither of the brothers left male issue, and the title devolved upon a cousin, Charles St Clair (d. 1775), who was not included in the attainder. Charles did not claim it, but in 1782 his grandson Charles (1768-1863) was declared to be Lord Sinclair. He was a Scottish representative peer from 1807 to 1859 and is the ancestor of the present holder of the title. Three brothers were also noted Sinclairs: — Oliver, the friend of James V. and^the leader of the Scots at the rout of Sol way Moss; Henry (1508-1565), bishop of Ross and president of the court of session, who made some additions to Hector Boece's Chronicles of Scotland; and John (d. 1566), bishop of Brechin. See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul; G. E. (Cokayne), Complete Peerage; Sinclair, The Sinclairs of England (1887); Sir R. Gordon and G. Gordon, The Earldom of Sutherland (Edinburgh, 1813), and Hay, Genealogy of the Sinclairs ofRoslin (1835). SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN, BART. (1754-1835), Scottish writer on finance and agriculture, was the eldest son of George Sinclair of Ulbster, a member of the family of the earls of Caithness, and was born at Thurso Castle on the loth of May 1754. After studying at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Trinity College, Oxford, he was admitted to the faculty of advocates in Scotland, and called to the English bar, but never practised. In 1780 he was returned to parliament for Caithness, and subsequently repre- sented several Engh'sh constituencies, his parliamentary career extending, with few interruptions, until 1811. He established at Edinburgh a society for the improvement of British wool, and was mainly instrumental in the creation of the Board of Agriculture, of which he was the first president. His reputation as a financier and economist had been established by the publica- tion, in 1784, of his History of the Public Revenue of the British Empire; in 1793 widespread ruin was prevented by the adoption of his plan for the issue of exchequer bills; and it was on his advice that, in 1797, Pitt issued the " loyalty loan " of eighteen millions for the prosecution of the war. His services to scientific agriculture were no less conspicuous. He supervised the com- pilation of the valuable Statistical Account of Scotland (21 vols., 1791-1799), and also that of the General Report of Scotland, issued by the Board of Agriculture; and frofh the reports compiled by this society he published in 1 8 1 9 his Code of A griculture. He was a member of most of the continental agricultural societies, a fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, as well as of the Antiquarian Society of London, and president of the Highland Society in London. Originally a thorough supporter of Pitt's war policy, he later on joined the party of " armed neutrality." In 1805 he was appointed by Pitt a commissioner for the con- struction of roads and bridges in the N. of Scotland, in 1810 he was made a member of the privy council and, next year, received the lucrative sinecure office of commissioner of excise. He died on the 2ist of December 1835. Sir John Sinclair, who was created a baronet in 1780, was twice married, first to a daughter of Alexander Maitland, by whom he had two daughters, and secondly to Diana, daughter of the first lord Macdonald, by whom he had thirteen children. His eldest son, Sir George Sinclair (1790-1868) was a writer and a member of parliament, representing Caithness at intervals from 1811 till 1841. His son, Sir John George Tollemache Sinclair, the 3rd baronet, was member for the same constituency from 1869 to 1885. The first baronet's third son, John (1797-1875), became archdeacon of Middlesex; the fifth son, William (1804-1878), was prebendary of Chichester and was the father of William Macdonald Sinclair (b. 1850), who ia 1889 became archdeacon of SIND London; the fourth daughter, Catherine (1800-1864), at one time enjoyed some vogue as an author. See Correspondence of the Right Hon. Sir John Sinclair, Bart., with Reminiscences of Distinguished Characters (2 vols., London, 1831); and Memoirs of the Life and Works of the Right Hon. Sir John Sinclair (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1837). SIND, a former province of India, now a division of the Bombay presidency. It is the most northerly portion of the presidency, lying between 23° 35' and 28° 29' N. and between 66° 40' and 71° 10' E., having an area of 53,116 sq. m. and a population (1901) of 3,410,223. It includes the six districts of Karachi, Hyderabad, Thar and Parkar, Larkhana, Sukkur and Upper Sind Frontier, together with the native state of Khairpur. It differs widely in physical features and climate, no less than in the language, dress and customs of the people, from the rest of the presidency, from which it is cut off by the deserts or the sea. It is bounded on the N. by Baluchistan and the Punjab; on the E. by the desert tracts of W. Rajputana; on the S. by the Runn of Cutch and the Indian Ocean; and on the W. by Baluchistan. Physical features. — Sind proper, or the central alluvial plain watered by the Indus, lies between the Kohistan or hilly country that rises to the Kirthar range on the Baluchistan border, and the Registan or Thar desert that stretches E. into Rajputana. The Kohistan in years of good rainfall yields abundant fodder for cattle and camels, and supports a scanty tillage on the banks of the hill streams or nais, one of which, named the Hab, forms the boundary between Sind and Baluch- istan. Central Sind lies on both banks of the Indus, which flows S. in a bed that has been raised by the deposit of silt above the surrounding country. Except where its bed is confined by rocks, as at Sukkur, Rohri and along the edge of the Kohistan from Lakhi to Jhirak, the river constantly changes its course, especially in the delta, the head of which is now opposite Shah- bandar. Central Sind depends on the yearly inundation of the Indus, which begins to rise in March and reaches its highest point about the middle of August. The water is distributed by a very ancient system of canals, which has been greatly improved and extended since the British conquest. The soil is a plastic clay desposited by the river. The great geographical feature in Sind is the lower Indus, which passes through the entire length of the country, first in a S.W. direction, then turning somewhat to the E., then returning to a line more directly S., and finally inclining to the W., to seek an outlet at the sea. The distant line of mountains between Sukkur and Sehwan, the steep pass overhanging the water at Lakhi, and the hill country below Sehwan give a distinctive character to the right bank. Sind has been aptly likened to Egypt. If the one depends for life and fertility on the Nile, so does the other on the Indus. The cities and towns are not so readily to be compared. Hyderabad, notwithstanding its remarkable fortress and handsome tombs, can scarcely vie in interest as a native capital with Cairo; nor can Karachi, as a Europeanized capital, be said to have attained the celebrity of Alexandria. The province contains many monuments of archaeological and architectural interest. Owing to the deficiency of rain, the continuance of hot weather in Sind is exceptional. Lying between two monsoons, it just escapes the influence of both. The S.W. monsoon stops short at Lakhpat in Cutch, the N.W. monsoon at Karachi, and even here the annual rainfall is not reckoned at more than 6 or 8 in. At times there is no rain for two or three years, while at others there is a whole season's rainfall in one or two days. The average temperature of the summer months rises to 95° F., and the winter average is 60°, the summer maximum being 120° and the winter minimum 28°. The temperature on the sea-coast is much more equable than elsewhere. In northern Sind we find frost in winter, while both here and in Lower Sind the summer heat is extreme and prolonged. This great heat, combined with the poisonous exhalations from the pools left after the annual inundation and the decaying vegetable deposits, produces fever and ague, to which even the natives fall a prey. Agriculture. — The salt of the delta is the only mineral product of commercial importance. Timber and fuel are supplied chiefly by the babul (Acacia arabica), bahan (Populus euphratica), kandi (Pro- sopis spicigera) and iron wood (Tocoma undulata), and fruit by the date, mango and pomegranate. The chief rabt or spring crops, sown from August to October and reaped from February to April, are wheat, barley, gram, oilseeds and vegetables. The chief winter or kharif crops, sown from May to July and reaped from October to December, are the millets (bajri and juar), rice, urad (Phaseolus radiatus), mung (Phaseolus mungo), cotton and indigo. Efforts are being made to introduce the long-stapled Egyptian cotton. Agri- culture is almost entirely dependent upon irrigation from the Indus. Manufactures. — Among the chief manufactures may be mentioned gold, silver, and silk embroideries, carpets, cloths, lacquered ware, horse-trappings and other leather-work, paper, pottery, tiles, swords and matchlocks, and the boxes and other articles of inlaid work introduced from Shiraz. Lac work, a widely extended industry in India, is also in vogue in Sind. Variously coloured lac is laid in succession on the boxes while turning on the lathe, and the design is then cut through the different colours. Hyderabad was long famous for its silks and cottons, silver and gold work and lacquered ornaments, and the district could once boast of skilled workmen in arms and armour; but these old industries are now on the decline. In the cloths called sudi, silk is woven with the striped cotton — a practice possibly due to the large Mahommedan population of the country, as no Moslem may wear a garment of pure silk. Chundari, or knotting, is another method of decorating cotton and silk goods. The extension of cotton cultivation in Sind has caused a brisk de- velopment in ginning factories of recent years. The Sind cotton- printers are the most skilful and tasteful in the Bombay presidency. Cotton carpets, rugs, horse-cloths, towels and napkins are manu- factured at the gaols. Woollen saddle-cloths, blankets and felts are also made. Sind produces the best pottery of India. The art was introduced or developed by the Mahommedans, whose rulers gave it every encouragement. Magnificent tombs and mosques, now in ruins, testify to the skill of the ancient potters. Leather is worked in a variety of articles, such as saddle-covers for camels and horses, shoes, leggings and accoutrements. In 1904 two new flour and rice-cleaning mills were started at Sukkur. Trade. — The trade of Sind is carried on through Karachi with foreign countries, and across the land frontier with Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Seistan. Karachi is the great port for the grain trade of all N. India, and is also the great strategic military port for the N.W. frontier. The chief articles of import are cotton and woollen goods, iron and steel, mineral oil, sugar, tea and machinery; while the chief exports are wheat and other grains, cotton, wool, oilseeds, hides and skins, and bones. On the land frontier the chief articles of import are horses, ponies, mules, sheep and goats, woollen and cotton piece-goods, wheat, gram and pulse, rice, fruits and nuts, provisions, stores, leather, ghee, raw wool, silver, assafoetida, drugs, hides, fish, seeds, manufactured silk, spices and tobacco; while the exports are cotton twist and yarn, piece-goods, leather, metals, coal and coke, wheat, husked rice, liquors, ghee, sugar, tea, tobacco, wool and silver. Fauna. — The last tiger in Sind was shot about 1885. Among other wild animals are the hyaena, the gurkhar or wild ass (in the S. of the Thar and Parkar district), the wolf, jackal, fox, wild hog, antelope, pharho or hog deer, hares and porcupines. Of birds of prey, the vulture and several varieties of falcon may be mentioned. The flamingo, pelican, stork, crane and Egyptian ibis frequent the shores of the delta. Besides these there are the ubara (bustard) or tilur, the rock-grouse, quail, partridge and various kinds of parrots. Waterfowl are plentiful; in the cold season the lakes or dhandhs are covered with wild geese, kulang, ducks, teal, curlew and snipe. Among other animals to be noted are scorpions, lizards, centipedes and many snakes. The domestic animals include camels (one-humped), buffaloes, sheep and goats, horses and asses (small but hardy), mules and bullocks. Of fish there are, on the sea-coast, sharks, saw-fish, rays and skate; cod, sir, cavalho, red-snapper, gassir, begti, dangara and buru abound. A kind of sardine also frequents the coast. In the Indus, the finest flavoured and most plentiful fish is the palo, generally identified with the hilsa of the Ganges. Dambhro (Labeo rohita) and mullet, morako (Cirrhina mrigala), gandan (Notopterus kapirat), khago or catfish (Rita buchanani), popri (Barbus sarana), shakur, jerkho and singhari (Macrones aor) are also found. Otter, turtle and porpoise are frequently met with ; so too are long-snouted crocodiles and water-snakes. Forests. — The area of reserved forest in Sind is 1065 sq. m. The forests are situated for the most part on the banks of the Indus, and extend S. from near Rohri to the middle delta. They are narrow strips of land, from 2 to 3 m. in length, and ranging from 2 furlongs to 2 m. in breadth. The largest are between 9000 and 10,000 acres in area, but are subject to diminution owing to the encroachments of the stream. The wood is principally babul (Acacia arabica), bahan (Populus euphratica) and kandi (Prosopis spicigera). The tali (Dalbergia Sissoo) grows to some extent in Upper Sind ; the iron- wood tree (Tocoma undulata) is found near the hills in the Mehar districts. There are, besides, the nim (Melia Azadirachta), the pipal (Ficus religiosa), the ber (Zizyphus Jujuba). The delta has no forests, but its shores abound with mangrove trees. Of trees introduced are the tamarind (Tamarindus Mica), several Australian wattle trees, the water-chestnut (Trapa natans), the aula (Emblica officinalis), the bahera (Terminalia Bellerica), the carob tree (Ceratonia Siliqua), the China tallow (Stillingia sebifera), the bel (Aegle Marmelos) and the manah (Bassia lalifolia). There is a specially organized forest department. SINDBAD THE SAILOR Irrigation. — The Indus at its source is 16,000 ft. above sea-level. At Attock it is still 2000 ft. above the sea. It is, therefore, a rapid river, which brings down a great quantity of silt from the mountains and deposits it in the Sind valley. The bed of the river is always rising, and has to be constantly watched to prevent its overflowing its banks, while the quantity of silt that the water contains makes it very valuable to the cultivator. The inundation canals of the Indus have, therefore, been carried to a high degree of perfection, though the water of the river cannot be fully utilized until the proposed barrage is constructed at Sukkur. The chief of the existing canals are: on the right bank of the Indus, the Desert, Undarwah, Begari, Mahiwah, Sukkur, Ghar, Sattah, Sind and Western Nara canals; and on the left bank the Eastern Nara, Hiral, Jamrao, Dad, Nasrat, Fuleli and Hasanali canals. Within the area watered by these canals all vegetation is luxuriant ; but beyond the reach of the silt- laden waters the dry and hardened ground is almost bare. Railways. — Sind is traversed by the North- Western railway, which follows the Indus from the Punjab to the sea at Karachi. The Indus is twice bridged : at Rohri where the main line crosses the river and a branch goes off to Quetta; and at Kotri, opposite Hyderabad, whence a narrow-gauge line was opened into Rajputana in 1900, and another branch runs S. to Budin in the delta. A chord line connects Hyderabad with Rohri, to evade the erosion of the Indus, giving an alternative route from Karachi to Quetta and the N.W. frontier. One of the main purposes of the Indus valley line is the strategic defence of that frontier. Population. — The great majority of the inhabitants of Sind are of Hindu descent, converted to Islam. They speak a language of their own, which is akin to that of the Punjab, though retaining many archaic peculiarities. Mahommedans, who form more than three-fourths of the total, may be divided into Sindis proper and naturalized Sindis. The Sindi proper is a descendant of the original Hindu. In sect he is a Suni, though the Talpur mirs adopted the Shiah persuasion. There is, as a rule, no distinction of caste, except that followers of certain vocations — such as weavers, leather-workers, sweepers, huntsmen — are considered low and vile. The six different classes of naturalized Sindis are — the four families of the Saiyids (the Bokhari, Mathari, Shirazi and Laghari) ; the Afghans; the Baluchis; the slaves or Sidis — originally Africans; the Memans; and the Khwajas. More than half of the Hindus are Lohanas, originally traders, who have almost monopolised government service and the professions. Brahmans are few and uninfluential. Sikhs are numerous. Administration. — Sind is administered as a non-regulation province, under a commissioner, who resides at Karachi. The highest court, independent of the High Court at Bombay, is that of the judicial commissioner, consisting of three judges, one of whom must be a barrister specially qualified to deal with mercantile cases. The Karachi brigade, forming part of the Quetta or fourth division of the Southern army, is distributed in cantonments at Karachi, Hyderabad and Jacobabad. History. — Sind has a history of its own, distinct from the rest of India. In the early centuries of the Christian era it was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty, with capitals at Alor and Brahmanabad. It was the first part of the peninsula to be invaded by the Mahom- medftns, under Mahommed bin Kasim, a general of the caliph, in 711. The invasion was by sea, from the mouth of the Indus; and for nearly three centuries Sind remained nominally subject to the Arab caliphs. Though conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in the course of his raids into India, Sind long preserved a semi- independence under two local dynasties, the Sumras and the Sammas, both of Rajput descent but Mahommedans in religion. The latter had their capital at Tatta, in the delta of the Indus, which continued to be a seaport until the i8th century. The Sammas were followed by the Arghuns, of foreign origin, and the Arghuns by the short-lived Turkhan dynasty. It was not till the time of Akbar, who had himself been born at Umarkot in Sind, that the province was regularly incorporated in the Delhi empire. When that empire broke up on the death of Aurangzeb, local dynasties again arose. The first of these was the Kalhoras, who were succeeded by the Talpurs, of Baluch descent, who were ruling under the title of Mirs, with their capital at Hyderabad, when the British first entered into close relations with the country. The East India Company had established a factory at Tatta in 1758; but the Talpur mirs were never friendly to trade, and the factory was withdrawn in 1775. In 1830 Alexander Burnes was permitted to pass up the Indus on his way to the court of Ranjit Singh at Lahore, and two years later Henry Pottinger concluded a commercial treaty with the mirs. It was, however, the expedition to Afghanistan in 1838 for the restoration of Shah Shuja that forced on matters. The British army under Sir John Keane marched through Sind, and the mirs were compelled to accept a treaty by which they paid a tribute to Shah Shuja, surrendered the fort of Bukkur to the British, and allowed a steam flotilla to navigate the Indus. The crisis did not arrive till 1842, when Sir Charles Napier arrived in Sind and fresh terms were imposed on the niirs. The Baluch army resented this loss of independence, and attacked the residency near Hyderabad, which was bravely defended by Outram. Then followed the decisive battle of Meeanee and the annexation of Sind. A course of wise, firm and kindly administration inaugurated by Sir Charles Napier himself, and continued by Sir Bartle Frere, Sir W. Merewether and later commissioners, has since made the province peaceful and prosperous. See H. M. Birdwood, The Province of Sind (Society of Arts, 1903) ; and Sir Richard Burton, Scinde (1851). SINDBAD THE SAILOR, VOYAGES OF, a collection of Arabic travel-romances, partly based upon real experiences of Oriental navigators in the seas S. of Asia and E. of Africa (especially in the 8th-ioth centuries); partly upon ancient poetry, Homeric and other; partly upon Indian and Persian collections of mirabilia. In Sindbad's First Voyage, from Bagdad and Basra, the incident of the Whale-Back Island may be compared with the Indian Ocean whales of Pliny and Solinus, covering four jugera, and the pristis sea-monster of the same authorities, 200 cubits long; Al Kazwini tells a similar tale of a colossal tortoise. Such Eastern stories are probably the original of the whale-island in the Irish travel-romance of St Brandan. With the Island of the Mares of King Mihraj, or Mihrjan, we may find (rather imperfect) parallels in Homer's Iliad (the mares impreg- nated by the wind), in Ibn Khurdadbih and Al Kazwini, and in Wolf's account of the three Ilhas de Cavallos near Ceylon, so called from the wild horses with which they abounded, to which the Dutch East India merchants of the I7th century sometimes sent their mares for breeding purposes. Sindbad's account of the Kingdom of Mihraj (Mihrjan) is perhaps derived from the Two Musulman Travellers of the gth century; it would seem to refer to one of the greater East Indian islands, perhaps Borneo. With the Rukh (" roc ") of the Second Voyage we may compare Al Kazwini, and, more particularly, Ibn Al Wardi, who mentions the Island of the Rukh among the isles of the China Sea, and relates two incidents parallel to adventures with the rukh of Sindbad's Second and Fifth Voyages. Marco Polo in a famous passage describes this monstrous bird in detail, locates it apparently to the S. of Madagascar, and relates how one of its supposed feathers had been taken to the grand khan of the Mongols. Sindbad's Valley of Diamonds has fairly complete parallels in Al Kazwini, in Benjamin of Tudela, in Marco Polo and in the far earlier Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, who died A.D. 403. As to the Mountain, or Island, of Apes in the Third Voyage, Ibn Al Wardi and Idrisi each recognizes an island of this kind, the former in the China Sea, the latter near Sokotra. Sindbad's negro cannibal adventure, next following, reproduces almost every detail of the Cyclops story in the Odyssey; among the Spice Islands, and perhaps at Timor, may be located the island rich in sandal-wood, where the wanderer rejoins his friends. The cannibal land of the Fourth Voyage, producing pepper and coco-nuts, where Sindbad's companions were offered food which destroyed their reason, has suggested the Andamans to some inquirers and certain districts of Sumatra to others; with this tale we may compare the lotus-eating of the Odyssey, Plutarch's story of Mark Antony's soldiers maddened and killed by an " insane " and fatal root in their Parthian wars, a passage in Davis's Account of Sumatra in 1599, and more com- plete parallels in Ibn Al Wardi and Al Kazwini. The burial of Sindbad in, and his escape from, the cavern of the dead is faintly foreshadowed in the story of Aristomenes, the Messenian hero, and in a reference of St Jerome to a supposed Scythian 144 SINDHI AND LAHNDA custom of burying alive with the dead those who had been dear to them; the fully-developed Sindbad tale finds an echo in " Sir John Mandeville." For the " Old Man of the Sea," in the Fifth Voyage, we may also refer to Al Kazwini, Ibn Al Wardi and the romance of Seyf Zu-1 Yezen; Sindbad's tyrannical rider has usually been explained as one of the huge apes of Borneo or Sumatra, improved to make a better story. The account of pepper, somewhat later in this Voyage, has a good deal in common with Idrisi's; Sindbad's pearl-fishing is probably to be located in the famous beds off Ceylon, of which Marco Polo has an excellent description. The romance of Seyf Zu-1 Yezen has a voyage along a subterranean river similar to that of Sindbad on his Sixth Voyage; the elephant adventure of the Seventh Voyage adds another to the many stories of the elephant's sagacity which were already told in every southern country, and of which we have many examples in Pliny's Historia Naturalis, and in Aelian's Historia Animalium. See Richard Hole, Remarks on the Arabian Nights' Entertainments, in which the Origin of Sindbad's Voyages . . . is particularly con- sidered (London, 1797); Eusebius Renaudot's edition of the Two Musulman Travellers (1718, translated into English, 1733, as Ancient Accounts of India and China by two Mahommedan Travellers ... in the cjth Century) ; J. T. Reinaud, Relations des voyages fails par les Arabes et les Per sans dans I'Inde et a la Chine dans le IX' sie.de (1845); E. W. Lane's translation of the Arabian Nights (London, 18^9), especially the notes in vol. iii. pp. 77-108; M. J. de Goeje, La Legende de Saint Brandan (1890) ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (1897), i. 235-238, 438-450. Besides the works noticed in the text of this article, the 12th-century Romance of Duke Ernest of Bavaria, written in German rhyme by Henry of Veldeck about 1160, gives parallels to Sindbad's flight through the air (tied to his rukh) in Voyage II., to the subterranean river-excursion in Voyage VI., and to some other incidents. (C. R. B.) SINDHI (properly Sindhi, the language of Sindh, i.e. Sind) AND LAHNDA (properly Lakndd or Lahinda, western, or Laknde-di boll, the language of the west), two closely connected forms of speech belonging, together with Kashmiri (q.v.), to the N.W. group of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages. In the following pages it will be assumed that the reader is familiar with the main facts stated in the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT. In 1901 Sindhi (including Kachchhi) was spoken by 3,494,971 people, and Lahnda by 3,337,917, — the former in Sind and Cutch, and the latter in the W. Punjab and adjoining tracts (for further details on this point see the article LAHNDA). The parent Prakrit, from which Lahnda is sprung, must once have extended over the greater part of the Punjab, but, as explained under INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES, the population of the Midland expanded so as to cover the E. and centre of that province, and the language (Panjabi) now there spoken is a mixed one, Midland in its main characteristics, but showing more and more traces of its old Lahnda basis as we go W. The wave of Midland progress exhausted itself in the barren tract of the west-central Punjab, and W. of about the seventy-third degree of E. longitude Lahnda holds decisive sway. The facts are very much the same with regard to the mixed language of Rajputana. Here the expansion of the Midland language was stopped by the desert, beyond which lies Sindhi. Lahnda and Sindhi, the W. outposts of Indo-Aryan speech, have accordingly for centuries occupied a peculiarly isolated position, and have in many respects struck out common lines of independent growth. This process was aided by the presence, of Pisaca languages (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). In early times there were Pisaca colonies along the Indus, right down to its delta, and both Sindhi and Lahnda have borrowed many peculiarities from their dialects. Sindhi is directly derived from the Vracada Apabhramsa Prakrit (see PRAKRIT). The name of the Apabhramsa from which Lahnda is derived is not known, but it must have been closely allied to Vracada. Sindhi has one important dialect, Kachchhi, spoken in Cutch. Here the language has come into contact with Gujarati and is somewhat mixed with that form of speech. For the dialects of Lahnda, and the various names under which that language is known, see the article LAHNDA. Owing to their geographical position both Sind and the W. Punjab were early subject to Mahommedan inroads. The bulk of the population is Mussulman, and their languages make free use of words borrowed from Persian and (through Persian) from Arabic. The written character employed for Lahnda is usually that modification of the Persian alphabet which has been adopted for Hindostani. The same is the case for Sindhi, except that further modifications have been introduced to represent special sounds. In both languages, Hindus also employ a script akin to the well-known Nagari alphabet (see SANSKRIT). It is the same as the " Landa " (a word distinct from " Lahnda ") or " clipped " character current all over the Punjab and is very imperfect, being seldom legible to any one except its original writer, and not always so to him. Phonetics.' — The phonetic system of both languages in most respects resembles that of other Indo-Aryan vernaculars. Space will not allow us to do more than draw attention to the main points of difference. In other Indo-Aryan languages a final short vowel is generally elided. This rule is also followed in Lahnda, but the genius of Sindhi requires every word to end in a vowel, and hence these short vowels are still retained. ThusJSkr. naras, a man, Pr. naro, Ap. naru, L. nor, but S. nar". In Sindhi these final short vowels are, as in Kashmiri, very lightly pronounced, so that they are hardly audible to a person unacquainted with the language. They are therefore printed. in these pages as small letters above the line. In the cognate Kashmiri a short i or u affects by epenthesis the pro- nunciation of a preceding vowel, just as in English the silent vowel e added to " mar " changes its pronunciation to "mare." So, in Kashmiri, mar" is pronounced mor. Lahnda, especially when dropping the final short vowel, has similar epenthetic changes. Thus chohar(u), a boy, becomes chohur; shahar(u), a city, becomes first shahur and then, further, shahur (& like the a in " all ") ; while chohar(i), a girl, becomes chohir. The oblique singular (see below) of chohur is chohar, for chohar(a) with a final a instead of a final u, and hence the vowel of the second syllable is unchanged. Similarly, the oblique form of shahur is shahar, while the oblique form of chohir is still chohir, because it also originally ended in i. Similar epenthetic changes have not been noted in Sindhi. In that language and in Lahnda the short vowel i, when preceded or followed by h, or at the end of a word, is pronounced as a short e. Thus S. kiharn, of what kind, and S. mihif, a mosque, are respectively pronounced keharo and mehetf. When'i is so pronounced, it will be written as e or • in the following pages. In Prakrit almost the only consonants which had survived were double letters, and in 'most of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars these have been simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened in com- pensation. Thus, Ap. kammu, a work, Hindostani, kam. In Panjabi and Lahnda the double consonant is generally retained, as in kamm, but in Sindhi, while the double consonant is simplified, the vowel, as in the Pisaca languages, remains short; thus, kam". This non- lengthening of the vowel in such cases is typical of Sindhi, words like S. ag", fire, from Ap. aggi, being quite exceptional. It even happens that an original long vowel coming before a conjunct consonant is shortened when the conjunct is simplified. Thus, Skr. turyam, S. tun, a trumpet. In Sindhi, as in Pisaca, a sibilant is liable to be changed into h. Thus, Skr. mamsam, S. masu or mdh", flesh; Skr. desas, S. des" or deh\ a country. In L. the i is generally, but not always, preserved. As in most Indo-Aryan languages a medial d becomes the hard f ; thus, S. juran", to join ; L. ghor.a, a horse. As in the Pisaca languages, there is great confusion between cerebrals and dentals. There was the same tendency in Vracada Apabhramsa, and it is more common in Sindhi than in Lahnda. Thus, Skr. tamrakas, S. Jamo, copper; Skr. dandas, S. abo, a father's brother. Declension. — Both languages have lost the neuter gender, all nouns being either masculine or feminine. The rules for distinguish- ing gender are much as in Hindostani. As in other Indo-Aryan languages, nouns may be either strong or weak, the strong forms being derived from nouns with the pleonastic Sanskrit suffix ka (see HINDOSTANI and MARATHI). In Sindhi a masculine weak form "Abbreviations: Skr. = Sanskrit ; Pr. = Prakrit; Ap. = Apa- bhramsa; L. = Lahnda; S. = Sindhi. . SINDHI AND LAHNDA in " corresponds to the strong one in 5, and feminine weak forms in "and ' to a strong one in i. In Lahnda weak forms have dropped the final short vowel, and the strong forms end in a (masc.) and J (fern.). As explained in the articles above referred to, almost the only old case that has survived throughout the declension of both languages is the general oblique. This is used for any oblique case, the particular case required being as a rule further defined by the help of a postposition. The general oblique case, without any defining postposition, is specially employed for the case of the agent. There are also examples of the survival of the old locative and of the old ablative. Thus S. math", top, loc. math', on the top; L. AmK, at Amb; L. vela, time, rofi-de 'vele, at the time of food; L. jangil, for jangali, in the forest. This locative is of regular occurrence in the case of Sindhi weak masculine nouns in ". For the old ablative, we have S, ghar", L. ghar, a house, abl. S. gharo, L. ghara, and so others. The locative termination can be referred to the Ap. locative termination -hi or -hi, and the ablative 8, or 5 to the Ap. -ha or -hit. The nominative plural, and the general oblique case of both numbers are formed as in the following examples: — Comparison is effected as in Hindostani by putting the noun with which comparison is made in the ablative case. Sometimes special postpositions are employed for this form of the ablative. Case. Singular. Plural. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Nominative Accusative . Agent . . Dative . Ablative Genitive Locative ghor.o ghoro ghore ghore-khe ghora, ghore-kha ghore-jo ghore-me ghora ghora ghor.e ghore-nu ghore-to ghore-dd ghor.e-vic ghor.d ghora ghora ghoran'-khe ghoranea, ghorane-kha ghoran'-jo ghoran'-me ghor.e ghore ghored ghorea-nu ghorea-to ghorea-da ghorea-vic The usual pronouns are as follows, pronounced as in German : — I — S. au, a, ma or mu; L. ma; In the Lahnda forms a is Singular. Plural. Nominative. Oblique. Nominative. Oblique. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Weak Noun — Masc. ghar" , ghar ghar" ghar . ghar" ghar gharan", ghara a house ghara, ghare Fern. . Jibh", jibbh Jibh" jibbh jibhu, jibbha Jibhun", jibbha a tongue Jibha Jibha, Jibhe ... ag°, fire ogg ag' agg ageu agga agean", agea, agii agga Strong Noun — Masc. ghoro, ghora ghor.e ghore ghora ghore ghoran', ghorea a horse ghora, ghore Fem. . ghorl, ghori ghori" ghori ghoriu ghoria ghorin', ghoria a mare ghoria, ghoris In Lahnda the final short vowel of the weak forms has been dropped, but in some cases the final u of the masculine and the final t of the feminine have been preserved by epenthesis, as explained under the head of phonetics. The origin of the nominative plural and of the various oblique forms is explained in the article HINDO- STANI. In the same article is discussed the derivation of most of the postpositions employed to define the various oblique forms and to make real cases. There are as follows: S. khe, L. nit, to or for; S. kha, L. to, { rom ; S. jo, sando, L. da, of; S. me, L. vie, in. It will be observed that the Lahnda forms are identical with those found in Panjabi. In both languages the accusative case is the same as the nominative, unless special definiteness is required, when, as usual in Indo-Aryan vernaculars, the dative is employed in its place. The agent case is the oblique form without any postposition. The S. khe is a corruption of Ap. kaahl, Skr. krte; and similarly kha from Ap. kaahu, Skr. krtat. S. sando, like the Rajasthani hando and the Kashmiri sand" or hand", is by origin the present participle of the verb substantive, ghar"-sandd, meaning literally " existing (in connexion) with the house," hence " of the house." We may com- pare the Bengali use of haite, on being, to mean " from." All these postpositions are added to the oblique form. We thus get the declension of the strong masculine noun S. ghoro, L. ghora, a Those, they — S. ho;- L. oh, obi. S. a, ma, mu; L. ma. We — S. ast; L. assl; obi. S. asa; L. assa. Of me, my — S. muh"-jd; L. mera. Of us, our — S. asa-jo; L. asddd. Thou— S. L. tu; obi. S. to; L. tu, ta, tudh. You— S. tavhl, avht; L. tussl; obi. S. tavha, avha; L. tussa. Of thee, thy— S. tuhP-jo; L. terd. Of you, your — S. tavha-jo, avha-jo; L. tusddd, tuhdda. This, he, she, it— S. hi; L. eh; obi. S. hin", in"; L. is. These, they — S. he; L. eh, in; obi. S. hin', in'; L. inhS. That, he, she, it — S. hit; L. oh; obi. S. hun", un"; un; obi. S. htm", une; L. Those, they — S. se; obi. L. us. unha. That, he, she, it — S. so; obi. tah' tan'. We should expect corresponding forms for Lahnda, but they are not given in the grammars. Self — S. pan"; L. ape. Own — S. pah*-jd; L. dpnci. Cf. Panjabi ap, Kashmiri pan". Who-^S. L. jo; obi. S. jdh'; L. ja; plur. nom. S. je; L. jo; obi. S. jane ; L. jinha. Who ? — S. ker"; L. kaun; obi. S. . kahf; L. ka; plur. nom. S. ker'; L. kaun; obi. S. kan'; L. kinha. What?— S. chd; L. ca; obi. S. chd; L. kill. Any one^S. L. kol; obi. S. kahl; L. kdhe. The derivation of most of these forms can be gathered from the article HINDOSTANI. Others, such as asst, tuss",, pan", are borrowed from Pisaca. The north-western group of Indo-Aryan vernaculars, Sindhi, Lahnda, and Kashmiri, are distinguished by the free use which they make of pronominal suffixes. In Kashmiri these are added only to verbs, but in the other two languages they are also added to nouns. These suffixes take the place of personal pronouns in various cases and are as follows : — First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Nom. Other Cases. Nom. Other Cases. Nom. Other Cases. Nom. Other Cases. Nom. Agent. Other Cases. Nom. Agent. Other Cases. Sindhi . Lahnda s' m m', ma m »! se u, hu (not as gen.) se e 1 e I ve t* ve None None 1 i s' s None None a ne «", n", ne horse, as shown in the next column. When there are optional methods of making the oblique form only one is given. The others can be employed in the same way. As in most other Indo-Aryan vernaculars, the genitive is really a possessive adjective, and agrees with the person or thing possessed in gender, number and case, exactly as in Panjabi. An adjective agrees with its qualified noun in gender, number and case. In Lahnda, as in Hindostani, the only adjectives which change in these respects are strong adjectives in a. In Sindhi weak forms in " also change the " to ' or ° in the feminine. Thus, S. carjo, L. cangd, good, fern. S. carjl, L. cangi; S. nidhar", helpless, fern. nidhar' or nidhar". The plural and oblique forms are made as in the case of nouns. If a postposition is used with the noun it is not also used with the adjective. Thus, L. cangia ghoria-dd, of good mares. All these suffixes are remnants of the full pronominal forms. In all cases they can be at once explained by a reference to the originals in Pisaca, rather than to those of other Indo-Aryan languages.1 It will here be convenient to consider them only in connexion with nouns. In such cases they are usually in the genitive case. Thus, S. piu, a father; pium", my father; piu', thy father; piuv", your father; pins', his father; piun' or piun", their father. There being in Sindhi no suffix of the genitive plural of the first personal pronoun, there is no compound for " our father." For that, as in the beginning of the Lord's Prayer, we must employ the full ex- pression, asa-jo piu. In Lahnda we have piu, a father; pium, my 1 See G. A. Grierson, The Pi$aca Languages of North-Western India (London, 1906), pp. 44 ff. 146 SIN-EATER father; piuse, our father; piut, thy father; piiive, your father; pius, his father; piune, their father. A junction vowel is often inserted between these suffixes and the main word to assist the pronunciation. Further examples will be found under the head of verbs. Conjugation. — As in Marathi (q.v.) there are, in both languages, two conjugations, of which one (intransitive) has -a- and the other (transitive) -e- or -i- for its characteristic letter. The differences appear in the present participle and, in Sindhi, also in the con- junctive participle, the present subjunctive and imperative. The two latter are the only original synthetic tenses which have survived in Sindhi, but in Lahnda the old synthetic future is also in common use. Both languages have a passive voice formed by adding ij or Ij to the root. This form is not employed for the past participle or for tenses derived from it. The following are the principal parts of the regular verb in each conjugation: — Infinitive Present participle Past participle Conjunctive participle First Conjugation. Second Conjugation. f Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. halarf, halando, halio, hall, halan, to go. halda, going. halea, gone. halt, having gone. maran", marlndo, mario, mare, maran, to kill. marlndo, killing. marea, killed. marl, having killed. It will be observed that, as in most other Indo-Aryan vernaculars, the past participle of the transitive verb is passive in signification. There is therefore no need of a past participle for the passive voice. The Sindhi present participle of the passive voice follows a different rule of formation, and, in Lahnda, it omits the letter j, thus S. maribo (Pr. mariawad), L. marlnda, being killed. In other respects the passive, S. marijan", L. marljan, to be killed, is conjugated like a regular verb of the first conjugation. The passive is directly derived from the Outer Prakrit passive in -ijja-. The origin of the other forms is dealt with under HINDOSTANI and MARATHI. The present subjunctive is the direct descendant of the old Prakrit (q.v.) present indicative. It is conjugated as follows: — Person. Singular. Plural. First Conjugation. Second Conjugation. First Conjugation. Second Conjugation. Sindhi and Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. I. 2. 3- hala hale hale maria marie marie mara marie mare ha ha halan* lu Id halin mariu mdrio marin' maru maro marin The imperative is formed very similarly. In Lahnda the future is maresa (Pr. marissam), I shall kill, conjugated like mara. The Sindhi future is formed by adding the nominative pronominal suffixes to the present participle. It will be remembered that there are no nominative suffixes of the third person. For that person, therefore, the simple participle is employed. There are slight euphonic changes of the termination of the participle in the other persons. Thus, halando, he will go; halandus', I shall go; and so on. The past tense is formed from the past participle, with pronominal suffixes added in both languages. As in the transitive verb the past participle is passive in signification, the subject (see article HIN- DOSTANI) must be put in the agent case, and the participle agrees in gender and number with the direct object, or, if the object is put in the dative case instead of the accusative, is treated impersonally in the masculine. Examples of this tense are :— Intransitive verb — S. halio, L. halea, he went; S. L. hall, she went; S. haliu-s*, L. haleu-m, I (masc.) went ; S. halia-s', L. haliu-m, I (fern.) went, and so on. Transitive verb — S. mario, L. marea, he was killed; S. L. marl, she was killed; S. mariu-m', L. mareu-m, he was killed by me, I killed him ; S. m&ria-m', L. mariu-m, she was killed by me, I killed her; S. patishah" sail galhe budhal, the-whole matter (fem.) was- related (fem.) by-tne-king (agent), the king related the whole matter; S. tah'-khe sath" chadio, with-reference-to-her, by-the-cara- van, it-was-abandoned (impersonal), i.e. the caravan abandoned her. There are numerous compound tenses formed by conjugating the verb substantive with one or other of the participles. The usual forms of the present and past of this verb are as follows: — Person. Present, " I am," &c. (com. gen.). Past, " I was," &c. (masc.). Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. Sindhi. Lahnda. I. 2. 3- ahiya She She ha he he dhiyu ahiyo Shin' hal ho hin has' hue ho haus Ml ha huasi hua" ha hase hare hain The past has slightly different forms with a feminine subject. Sindhi examples of the compound tenses are halando ahiya, I am going; halando has', 1 was going; halio ahiya, I have gone; and so on. The Lahnda tenses are made on the same principles. We have seen the important part that pronominal suffixes play in the conjugation of the verb. But their use is not confined to the examples given above. Additional suffixes may be added to indicate the object, direct or remote. Thus, S. mane, thou mayest kill; marie-m", thou mayest kill me; mdrio (he) was killed; maria-l (for mario-T), (he) was killed by-him, he killed him; maria-i-m', it (impersonal)-was killed by-him with-reference-to-me, i.e. he killed me; dinS-i-s', was-given by-him to-him, he gave to him. Numerous verbs have irregular past participles, derived directly from the Prakrit past participles, instead of being made by adding -id to the root. These must be learnt from the grammars. We may mention a few very common ones: S. kararf, L. karat}, to do, to make, past participle S. kio, kilo, L. klta; S. dian", L. dean, to give, past participle S. dino, L. ditto; S. labhan", L. labbhan, to be obtained, past participle S. ladho, L. laddha. The many compound verbs are formed much as in Hindo- stam, and must be learnt from the grammars. LITERATURE. — Sindhi and Lahnda possess no literature worthy of the name. Such as they have consists of translations from Arabic and Persian. There is, however, as usual in uncul- tivated dialects, in both languages a large stock of folk-songs — rude poems dealing with the popular traditions of the country. Some of these have been published in Colonel Sir Richard Temple's Legends of the Panjab (3 vols., Bombay, 1884-1900). The late Professor Trumpp published one text of some importance under the title of Sindhi Literature, the Divan of Abd-ul-Latlf , known by the name of Shahajo Risalo (Leipzig, 1866). AUTHORITIES. — G. A. Grierson, " Vracada and Sindhi," in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1902), p. 47; G. Stack, Grammar and Dictionary (both Bombay, 1849); E. Trumpp, Grammar (London and Leipzig, 1872). This last is still the standard work on the language, although much of the philological portion is now out of date. It was the pioneer of the comparative study of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars. G. Shirt, Udharam Thavurdas and S. F. Mirza, Sindhi-English Dictionary (Karachi, 1879). W. St Clair Tisdall's Simplified Punjabi Grammar (London, 1889) also deals, in an appendix, with Lahnda. ,E. O'Brien, Glossary of the Multani Language (ist ed., Lahore, 1881 ; 2nd ed., revised by J. Wilson and Hari Kishen Kaul, Lahore, 1903) ; T. Bomford, " Rough Notes on the Grammar of the Language spoken in the Western Panjab," in Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. Ixiv. (1895), pt. i. pp. 290 ff. ; the same, " Pronominal Adjuncts in the Language spoken in the Western and Southern Parts of the Panjab," ib. vol. Ixvi. (1897), pt. i. pp. 146 ff. ; A. Jukes, Dictionary of the Jatki or Western Panjabi Language (Lahore and London, 1900) ; J. Wilson, Grammar and Dictionary of Western Panjabi as spoken in the Shahpur District (Lahore, 1899). For both languages the authorities quoted under the articles INDO- ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT may be consulted with advantage. Vol. viii. of the Linguistic Survey of India contains full particulars of both in great detail. (G. A. GR.) SIN-EATER, a man who for trifling payment was believed to take upon himself, by means of food and drink, the sins of a deceased person. The custom was once common in many parts of England and in the highlands of Scotland, and survived until recent years in Wales and the counties of Shropshire and Here- fordshire. Usually each village had its official sin-eater to whom notice was given as soon as a death occurred. He at once went to the house, and there, a stool being brought, he sat down in front of the door. A groat, a crust of bread and a bowl of ale were handed him, and after he had eaten and drunk he rose and pro- nounced the ease and rest of the dead person, for whom he thus pawned his own soul. The earlier form seems to have been more realistic, the sin-eater being taken into the death-chamber, and, a piece of bread and possibly cheese having been placed on the breast of the corpse by a relative, usually a woman, it was afterwards handed to the sin-eater, who ate it in the presence of the dead. He was then handed his fee, and at once hustled and thrust out of the house amid execrations, and a shower of sticks, cinders or whatever other missiles were handy. The custom SINECURE— SINGAPORE of sin-eating is generally supposed to be derived from the scapegoat (g.i>.) in Leviticus xvi. 21, 22. A symbolic survival of it was witnessed as recently as 1893 at Market Drayton, Shropshire. After a preliminary service had been held over the coffin in the house, a woman poured out a glass of wine for each bearer and handed it to him across the coffin with a " funeral biscuit." In Upper Bavaria sin-eating still survives: a corpse cake is placed on the breast of the dead and then eaten by the nearest relative, while in the Balkan peninsula a small bread image of the deceased is made and eaten by the survivors of the family. The Dutch doed-koecks or " dead-cakes, " marked with the initials of the deceased, introduced into America in the i7th century, were long given to the attendants at funerals in old New York. The " burial-cakes " which are still made in parts of rural England, for example Lincolnshire and Cumberland, are almost certainly a relic of sin-eating. SINECURE (Lat. sine cura, without care), properly a term of ecclesiastical law, for a benefice without the cure of souls (bene- ficium sine curd). In the English Church such sinecures arise when the rector has no cure of souls nor resides in the parish, the work of the incumbent being performed by a vicar; such sinecure rectories were expressly granted by the patron; they Were abolished by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840. Other ecclesiastical sinecures are certain cathedral dignities to which no spiritual function attached or incumbencies where by reason of depopulation and the like the parishioners have dis- appeared or the parish church has been allowed to decay. Such cases have ceased to exist. The term is also used of any office or place, to which a salary, emoluments or dignity but no duties are attached. The British civil service and royal household were loaded with innumerable offices which by lapse of time had become sinecures and were only kept as the reward of political services or to secure voting power in parliament. They were extremely prevalent in the i8th century and were gradually abolished by statutes during that and the following century. SINEW (O. Eng. sinu, sionu, cf. Dutch zenuiv, Ger. Sehne, possibly allied to Skt. snava, tendon, cf. Ger. Schnur, string), a tendon, a cord-like layer of fibrous tissue at the end of a muscle forming the attachment to the bone or other hard part. The broad, flat tendons are usually called fasciae (see MUSCULAR SYSTEM AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE). The word is used figura- tively of muscular or nervous strength, and particularly, in " sinews of war, " of the power of money. SINGAPORE (Malay, Singaptira, i.e. "The City of the Lion"), a town and island situated at the S. extremity of the Malay Peninsula in i° 20' N., 103° 50' E. Singapore is the town!" most important part of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements, which consists with it of Penang, Province Wellesley and the Dindings, and Malacca. The port is one of the most valuable of the minor possessions of Great Britain, as it lies midway between India and China, and thus forms the most important halting-place on the great trading-route to the Far East. It is strongly fortified by forts and guns of modern type upon which large sums have been expended by the imperial government, aided by a heavy annual military contribution payable by the colony and fixed at 20% of its gross revenue. Its geographical position gives it strategic value as a naval base; and as a commercial centre it is without a rival in this part of Asia. Its prosperity has been greatly enhanced by the rapid development of the Federated Malay States on the mainland. It possesses a good harbour; docks and extensive coaling- wharves, which have been acquired by government from the Tanjong Pagar Dock Company, and are undergoing considerable extensions; an admiralty dockyard; and many facilities for shipping. It is also resorted to by native sailing craft from all parts of the Malay Archipelago. On the island of Pulau Brani stand the largest tin-smelting works in existence, which for many years have annually passed through their furnaces more than half the total tin output of the world. Singapore has also establishments for tinning pineapples, and a large biscuit factory. The town possesses few buildings of any note, but government house, the law-courts, the gaol, the lunatic asylum and the Hong- Kong and Shanghai Bank are exceptions, as also is the cathedral of St Andrew. There are three Roman Catholic churches, a Free Kirk, an American mission, and several chapels belonging to Nonconformist sects. The mosques and Chinese and Hindu temples are numerous. There are extensive military barracks at Tanglin. There is a good race-course and polo-ground, a fine cricket-ground on the esplanade, three golf courses, and several clubs. The island is 27 m. long by 14 m. broad, and is separated from the native state of Johor, situated on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula, by a strait which, at its narrowest point, is less than \ m. in width. A line of railway connects the is°/aa.°' town of Singapore with the spot on the strait opposite to the town of Johor Bharu. The strait which divides the island from the Dutch islands of Bintang, Rhio, &c., bears the name of the Singapore Strait. The surface of the island is undulating and diversified by low hills, the highest point being Bukit Timah, on the N.W. of the town, which is a little over 500 ft. in altitude. Geologically, the core of the island consists of crystalline rocks; but in the W. there are shales, conglomerates and sandstones; and all round the island the valleys are filled with alluvial deposits on a much more extensive scale than might have been looked for seeing that no river in the island has a course longer than some 6 m. The S.W. shores are fringed with coral reefs, and living coral fields are found in many parts of the straits. Being composed largely of red clays and laterite, the soil is not gener- ally rich, and calls for the patient cultivation of the Chinese gardener to make it really productive. There is a forest reserve near the centre of the island, but the forest is of a mean type. The humid climate causes the foliage here, as in other parts of Malaya, to be very luxuriant, and the contrast presented by the bright green on every side and the rich red laterite of the roads is striking. When it was first occupied by Sir Stanford Raffles, on behalf of the East India Company, the island was covered by jungle, but now all the land not reserved by government has been taken up, principally by Chinese, who plant vegetables in large quantities, indigo and other tropical products. There are fine botanical gardens at Tanglin on the outskirts of the town. Climate. — The climate of Singapore is always humid and usually very hot. There is hardly any seasonal change to be observed, and the dampness of the climate causes the heat to be more oppressive than are higher temperatures in drier climates. The mean atmo- spheric pressure in Singapore during 1906 was 29-908 in. The highest shade temperature for the year was 92° F. registered in March; the lowest 72-5° F., registered in November. The mean was 80-3° F. The range for the year was 14-5° F. The temperature of solar radiation was in 1906: highest in the sun 153-8°, recorded in March; the lowest 143-4°, recorded in June. The highest temperature of nocturnal radiation on grass was 73-1°, recorded in May, and the lowest 67-2°, recorded in January. The mean for 1906 was 71 °. Re- .lative humidity: highest 92, recorded in December; lowest, 72, recorded in April; mean for 1906, 81. N. and N.E. winds prevail from the middle of October to the end of April, and S. and S.W. winds from the middle of May to the end of September. The mean velocity of winds for 1906 was no m. ; the maximum recorded being 148 in May, the minimum velocity recorded being 76 in December. The rainfall of Singapore for 1906 was 129-64 in.; the heaviest rainfall for any one month being 15-23 in. recorded in January, the smallest being 4-98 in. recorded in May. There were 182 rainy days during the year, the average annual number of the past decade being 176. Population. — The following shows the composition of the popula- tion, which numbered in all 228,555 in 1901 : Europeans 3824, Eurasians 4120, Chinese 164,041, Malays 36,080, Indians, 17,823, other nationalities 2667. The births registered in Singapore during 1898 numbered 3751, namely, 1960 males and 1791 females, being a ratio of 16-55 per mille. The deaths registered during the same period numbered 7602, namely, 5894 males and 1708 females, a ratio °f 33 '54 Per mille. The excess of deaths over births is due to the fact that there are comparatively few women among the Chinese; the steady increase of the population in the face of this fact is to be attributed entirely to immigration, mainly from China, but to a minor extent from India also. The persons classed above under " other nationalities " are representatives of almost every Asiatic nation of importance, and of many African races, Singapore being one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world. A dministration and Trade. — As Singapore is the chief administrative 148 SINGER— SINGLE-STICK centre of the colony, the governor, who is also ex officio high com- missioner of the Federated Malay States, British North Borneo, Brunei, Sarawak and governor of Labuan, has his principal residence here. Here also are chief offices of the various heads of the govern- ment departments, and here the legislative council of the colony holds its sessions. The town is governed by a municipality composed partly of ex officio, nominated and elected members. Finance. — The revenue of Singapore for 1906 amounted to $5,942,661, exclusive of $26,650 received on account of land sales. The chief sources of revenue were licences (which include the farms let for the collection of import duties in opium, wine and spirits) $4,248,856, nearly half the revenue of the settlement; post and telegraphs $424,645; railway receipts $196,683; and land revenue $104,482. The expenditure of the settlement during 1906 amounted to $5,392,380. Of this $1,416,392 was expended on personal emoluments, and $1,116,548 on other charges connected with the administrative establishments; $1,763,488 was spent on military services, exclusive of expenses connected with the volunteer force; $183,075 on the upkeep and maintenance of existing public works; and $569,884 on new public works.. Trade. — The trade of Singapore is chiefly dependent upon the position which the port occupies as the principal emporium of the Federated Malay States and of the Malayan archipelago, and as the great port of call for ships passing to and from the Far East. The total value of the imports into Singapore in 1906 was $234,701,760, and the exports in the same year were valued at $202,210,849. The ships using the port during 1906 numbered 1886 with an aggregate tonnage of 3,805,566 tons, of which 1261 were British with an aggregate tonnage of 2,498,968 tons. The retail trade of the place is largely in the hands of Chinese, Indian and Arab traders, but there are some good European stores. The port is a free port, import duties being payabje only on opium, wines and spirits. History. — A tradition is extant to the effect that Singapore was an important trading centre in the I2th and I3th centuries, but neither Marco Polo nor Ibn Batuta, both of whom wintered in Sumatra on their way back to Europe from China, have left anything on record confirmatory of this. It is said to have been attacked and devastated by the Javanese in 1252, and at the time when it passed by treaty to the East India Company in 1819, Sir Stamford Raffles persuading the sultan and tumenggong of Johor to cede it to him, it was wholly un- inhabited save by a few fisherfolk living along its shores. It was at first subordinate to Benkulen, the company's principal station in Sumatra, but in 1823 it was placed under the administration of Bengal. It was incorporated in the colony of the Straits Settlements when that colony was established in 1826. See Life of Sir Stamford Raffles; Logan's Journal of the Malay Archipelago; the Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) ; Sir Frank Swettenhanr British Malaya (London, 1906); Blue-Book of the Straits Settlements (1906); The Straits Directory, 1908 (Singapore, 1908). (H. CL.) SINGER, SIMEON (1846-1906), Jewish preacher, lecturer and public worker. He was born in London, and after a short stay at a Hungarian school, entered as one of its pupils the Jews' College, of which he was subsequently for a time the head- master. In 1867 he became minister of the Borough Synagogue, London. In the following year he married. He moved to the new West End Synagogue in 1878, and remained the minister of that congregation until his death. He was the first to introduce regular sermons to children; as a preacher to the young Singer showed rare gifts. His pulpit addresses in general won wide appreciation, and his services were often called for at public functions. In 1897 he strongly opposed the Diggle policy at the London School Board, but he refused nomination as a member. In 1890 the Rabbinical Diploma was conferred on him by Lector Weiss of Vienna, but again he evidenced his self-denial by declin- ing to stand for the post of associate Chief Rabbi in the same year. Singer was a power in the community in the direction of moderate progress; he was a lover of tradition, yet at the same time he recognized the necessity of well-considered changes. In 1892 at his instigation the first English Conference of Jewish Preachers was held, and some reforms were then and at other times intro- duced, such as the introduction of Bible Readings in English, the admission of women as choristers and the inclusion of the express consent of the bride as well as the bridegroom at the marriage ceremony. Singer did much to reunite Conservatives and Liberals in the community, and he himself preached at the Reform Synagogue in Manchester. He had no love for the minute critical analysis of the Bible, but he was attracted to the theory of progressive revelation, and thus was favourably disposed to the modern treatment of the Old Testament. His cheery optimism was at the basis of this attitude, and strongly coloured his belief in the Messianic ideals. He held aloof, for this very reason, from all Zionist schemes. His interest in the fortunes of foreign Jews led him to make several continental journeys on their behalf; he was one of the leading spirits of the Russo-Jewish Committee, of the Inter- national Jewish Society for the Protection of Women and of other philanthropic organizations. Despite his devotion to public work, Singer published some important .works. In 1896 the Cambridge University Press published Talmudical Fragments in the Bodleian Library of which Singer was joint author. But his most famous work was his new edition and English translation of the Authorized Daily Prayer Book (first published in 1870), a work which has gone through many large editions and which has probably been the most popular (both with Jews and Chris- tians) of all books published by an English Jew. See The Literary Remains, of the Rev. Simeon Singer (3 vols., 1908), with Memoir. (I. A.) SIN6HBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at Chaibasa. Area 3891 sq. m. Its central portion consists of a long undulating tract of country, running E. and W., and enclosed by great hill ranges. The depressions lying between the ridges comprise the most fertile part, which varies in elevation above sea-level from 400 ft. near the -Subanrekha on the E. to 750 ft. around the station of Chaibasa. S. of this an elevated plateau of 700 sq. m. rises to upwards of 1000 ft. In the W. is an ex- tensive mountainous tract, sparsely inhabited by the wildest of the Hos; while in the extreme S.W. is a still grander mass of mountains, known as " Saranda of the seven hundred hills, " rising to a height of 3500 ft. From the Layada range on the N.W. of Singhbhum many rocky spurs strike out into the district, some attaining an elevation of 2900 ft. Among other ranges and peaks are the Chaitanpur range, reaching an elevation of 2529 ft., and the Kapargadi range, rising abruptly from the plain and running in a S.E. direction until it culminates in Tuiligar Hill (2492 ft.). The principal rivers are the Subanrekha, which with its affluents flows through the E. of the district; the South Koel, which rises W. of Ranchi, and drains the Saranda region; and the Baitarani, which touches the S. border for 8 m. About two-thirds of Singhbhum district is covered with primeval forest, containing some valuable timber trees; in the forests tigers, leopards, bears and several kinds of deer abound, and small herds of elephants occasionally wander from the Meghasani Hills in Mayurbhanj. In 1901 the population was 613,579, showing an increase of 12 % in the decade. More than one-half belong to aboriginal tribes, mostly Hos. The chief crop is rice, followed by pulses, oil-seeds and maize. There are three missions in the district — S.P.G., Lutheran and Roman Catholic — which have been very successful among the aboriginal tribes, especially in the spread of education. The isolation of Singhbhum has been broken by the opening of the Bengal-Nagpur railway, which has protected it from the danger of famine, and at the same time given a value to its jungle products. Colonel Dalton, in his Ethnology of Bengal, says that the Singhbhum Rajput chiefs have been known to the British government since 1803, when the marquess Wellesley was governor-general of India; but there does not appear to have been any intercourse between British officials and the people of the Kolhan previous to 1819. The Hos or Larka Kols, the aboriginal race of Singhbhum, would allow no stranger to settle in, or even pass through, the Kolhan; they were, however, subjugated in 1836, when the head-men entered into engagements to bear allegiance to the British government. The country remained tranquil and prosperous until 1857, when a rebellion took place among the Hos under Parahat Raja. After a tedious campaign they surrendered in 1859, and the capture of the raja put a stop to their disturbances. SINGLE-STICK, a slender, round stick of ash about 34 in. long and thicker at one end than the other, used as a weapon of attack and defence, the thicker end being thrust through a cup-shaped hilt of basket-work to protect the hand. The original form of the single-stick was the " waster, " which appeared in the i6th century and was merely a wooden sword used in practice for the back-sword (see SABRE-FENCING), and of the same general shape. By the first quarter of the 1 7th century wasters had become simple cudgels provided with sword-guards, and when, about twenty- five years later, the basket-hilt came into general use, it was SINGORA— SINTER 149 employed with the cudgel also, the heavy metal hilt of the back- sword being discarded in favour of one of wicker-work. The guards, cuts and parries in single-stick play were at first identical with those of back-sword play, no thrusts being allowed (see FENCING). The old idea, prevalent in England in the i6th century, that hits below the girdle were unfair, disappeared in the 1 8th century, and all parts of the person were attacked. Under the first and second Georges back-sword play with sticks was immensely popular under the names " cudgel-play " and " single- sticking," not only in the cities but in the country districts as well, wrestling being its only rival. Towards the end of the 1 8th century the play became very restricted. The players were placed near together, the feet remaining immovable and all strokes being delivered with a whip-like action of the wrist from a high hanging guard, the hand being held above the head. Blows on any part of the body above the waist were allowed, but all ex- cept those aimed at the head were employed only to gain openings, as each bout was decided only by a " broken head," i.e. a cut on the head that drew blood. At first the left hand and arm were used to ward off blows not parried with the stick, but near the close of the i8th century the left hand grasped a scarf tied loosely round the left thigh, the elbow being raised to protect the face. Thomas Hughes's story, Tom Brown's School Days, contains a spirited description of cudgel-play during the first half of the i pth century. This kind of single-sticking practically died out during the third quarter of that century, but was revived as a school for the sabre, the play being essentially the same as for that weapon (see SABRE-FENCING) . The point was introduced and leg hits were allowed. By the beginning of the 2oth century single- stick play had become much neglected, the introduction of the light Italian fencing sabre having rendered it less necessary. Stick- play with wooden swords as a school for the cutlas is common in some navies. The French cane-fencing (q.v.) has a general similarity to single-stick play, but is designed more for defence with a walking-stick than as a school for the sabre. See Broadsword and Single-stick, by R. G. Allanson Winn and C. Phillips-Wolley (London, 1898); Manual of Instruction for Single- stick Drill (London, 1887, British War Office); Schools and Masters of Fence, by Egerton Castle (London, 1892); The Sword and the Centuries, by A. Hutton (London, 1901). SINGORA, or SONGKLA (the Sangore of early navigators), a port on the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula and the head- quarters of the high commissioner of the Siamese division of Nakhon Sri Tammarat. It is situated in 7° 12' N. and 100° 35' E. It was settled at the beginning of the ipth century by Chinese from Amoy, the leader of whom was appointed by Siam to be governor of the town and district. Having been more than once sacked by Malay pirates, the town was encircled, about 1850, by a strong wall, which, as both Chinese governors and Malay pirates, are now things of the past, supplies the public works department with good road metal. The population, about 5000, Chinese, Siamese and a few Malays, is stationary, and the same may be said of the trade, which is all carried in Chinese junks. The town has become an important administrative centre; good roads connect it with Kedah and other places in the Peninsula, and the mining is developed in the interior. In 1906 railways surveys were undertaken by the government with a view to making Singora the port for S. Siam; but this harbour, formed by the entrance to the inland sea of Patalung, would require dredging to be available for vessels of any size. SINOPE, Turk. Sinub, a town on the N. coast of Asia Minor in the vilayet of Kastamuni, on a low isthmus which joins the promontory of Boz Tepe to the mainland. Though it possesses the only safe roadstead between the Bosporus and Batum, the difficulties of communication with the interior, and the rivalry of Ineboli on the W. and Samsun on the E. have prevented Sinope from becoming a great commercial centre. It is shut off from the plateau by forest-clad mountains; a carriage road over the hills to Boiavad and thence by Vezir-Kcupru to Amasia was begun about 20 years ago, but has never been completed even as far as Boiavad. Consequently the trade is small; the annual exports are about £80,000, and the imports £50,000. Population, 5000 Moslems and 4000 Christians, chiefly Greeks and Armenians. On the isthmus, towards the mainland, stands a huge but for the most part ruined castle, originally Byzantine and afterwards strengthened by the Seljuk sultans; and the Mahommedan quarter is surrounded by massive walls. Of early Roman or Greek antiquities there are only the columns, architraves and inscribed stones built into the old walls; but the ancient local coinage furnishes a very beautiful and interesting series of types. See M. Six's paper in the Numismatic Chronicle (1885), and MM. Babelon & Reinach, Recueil des monnaies grecques d'Asie Mineure (1904). Sinope (StvdnrT;) , whose origin was assigned by its ancient inhabitants to Autolycus, a companion of Hercules, was founded 630 B.C. by the lonians of Miletus, and ultimately became the most flourishing Greek settlement on the Euxine, as it was the terminus of a great caravan route from the Euphrates, through Pteria, to the Black Sea, over which were brought the products of Central Asia and Cappadocia (whence came the famous " Sinopic " red earth). In the sth century B.C. it received a colony of Athenians; and by the 4th it had extended its authority over a considerable tract of country. Its fleet was dominant in the Euxine, except towards the W., where it shared the field with Byzantium. When in 220 B.C. Sinope was attacked by the king of Pontus, the Rhodians enabled it to maintain its independence. But where Mithradates IV. failed Pharnaces suc- ceeded; and the city, taken by surprise in 183 B.C., became the capital of the Pontic monarchy. Under Mithradates VI. the Great, who was born in Sinope, it had just been raised to the highest degree pf prosperity, with fine buildings, naval arsenals and well-built harbours, when it was captured by Lucullus and nearly destroyed by fire (70 B.C.). In 64 B.C. the body of the murdered Mithradates was brought home to the royal mausoleum. Under Julius Caesar the city received a Roman colony, but was already declining with the diversion of traffic to Ephesus, the port for Rome, and in part to Amisos (Samsun). In the middle ages it became subject to the Greek Empire of Trebizond, and passed into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, and in 1461 was incorporated in the Ottoman Empire. In November 1853 the Russian vice-admiral Nakhimov destroyed here a division of the Turkish fleet and reduced a good part of the town to ashes. (J. G. C. A.) SINTER, a word taken from the German (allied to Eng. " cinder ") and applied to certain mineral deposits, more or less porous or vesicular in texture. At least two kinds of sinter are recognized — one siliceous, the other calcareous. Siliceous sinter is a deposit of opaline or amorphous silica from hot springs and geysers, occurring as an incrustation around the springs, and sometimes forming conical mounds or terraces. The pink and white sinter-terraces of New Zealand were destroyed by the eruption of Mount Tarawera in 1886. Mr W. H. Weed on studying the deposition of sinter in the Yellowstone National Park found that the colloidal silica was largely due to the action of algae and other forms of vegetation in the thermal waters (glh Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Sun., 1889, p. 613). Siliceous sinter is known to mineralogists under such names as geyserite, fiorite and michaelite (see OPAL) . Calcareous sinter is a deposit of calcium carbonate, exemplified by the travertine, which forms the principal building stone of Rome (Ital. travertine, a corruption of tiburlinot the stone of Tibur, now Tivoli). The so-called "petrifying springs, " not uncommon in limestone-districts, yield calcareous waters which deposit a sintery incrustation on objects exposed to their action. The cavities in calcareous sinter are partly due to the decay of mosses and other vegetable structures which have assisted in its precipitation. Even in thermal waters, like the hot springs of Carlsbad, in Bohemia, which deposit Sprudelstein, the origin of the deposits is mainly due to organic agencies, as shown as far back as 1862 by Ferd. Cohn. Whilst calcareous deposits in the open air form sinter-like travertine, those in caves constitute stalagmite. Iron-sinter is a term sometimes applied to cellular bog iron-ore. (F. W. R.*) SIGN— SIOUX FALLS SIGN [Ger. Sitten], the capital of the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is on the railway between St Maurice ( 2 s| m. distant) and Brieg (33 m. distant). Sion is one of the most picturesque little cities in Switzerland, being built around two prominent hillocks that rise from the level valley of the Rhone. The north hillock is crowned by the castle of Tourbillon (built 1294, burnt 1788), which was long the residence of the bishops. The south hillock bears the castle of Valeria, long the residence of the canons (it now contains an historical museum) with the interesting i3th century church of St Catherine. In the town below is the 1 5th century cathedral, and the Majoria castle (burnt in 1788) the former residence of the "major" (or mayor of the city). There are various other curious objects in the city, which is built on the banks of the Sionne torrent, and is at a height of 1680 ft. above the sea-level. In 1900 Sion contained 6048 inhabitants (mainly Romanists), of whom 1481 were German- speaking and 4446 French-speaking. Sion [Sedunum] dates from Roman times, and the bishop's see was removed thither from Martigny [Octodurum] about 580. In 999 the bishop received from Rudolf III., king of Burgundy, the dignity of count of the Valais, and henceforward was the temporal as well as the spiritual lord of the Valais, retaining this position, at least in part, till 1798. See also J. Gremaud, Introduction to vol. v. (Lausanne, 1884) of his Documents relatifs wv, a tube), an instrument, usually in the form of a bent tube, for conveying liquid over the edge of a vessel and delivering it at a lower level. The action depends upon the difference of the pressure on the liquid at the extremities of the tube, the flow being towards the lower level and ceasing when the levels coincide. The instrument affords a ready method of transferring liquids. The tube is made of glass, indiarubber, copper or lead, according to the liquid which is to be transferred. The simple siphon is used by filling it with the liquid to be decanted, closing the longer limb with the finger and plunging the shorter into the liquid; and it must be filled for each time of using. Innumerable forms have been devised adapted for all purposes, and provided with arrange- ments for filling the tube, or for keeping it full and starting it into action automatically when required. Pipes conveying the water of an aqueduct across a valley and following the contour of the sides are sometimes called siphons, though they do not depend on the principle of the above instrument. In the siphon used as a container for aerated waters a tube passes through the neck of the vessel, one end terminating in a curved spout while the other reaches to the bottom of the interior. On this tube is a spring valve which is opened by pressing a lever. The vessel is filled through the spout, and the water is driven out by the pressure of the gas it contains, when the valve is opened. The " Regency portable fountain, " patented in 1825 by Charles Plinth, was the prototype of the modern siphon, from which it differed in having a stopcock in place of a spring valve. The " siphon champenois " of Deleuze and Dutillet (1829) was a hollow corkscrew, with valve, which was passed through the cork into a bottle of effervescent liquid, and the " vase siphoide " of Antoine Perpigna (Savaresse pbre), patented in 1837, was essentially the modern siphon, its head being fitted with a valve which was closed by a spring. SIPPARA (Zimbir in Sumerian, Sippar in Assyro-Babylonian), an ancient Babylonian city on the east bank of the Euphrates, north of Babylon. It was divided into two quarters, " Sippar of the Sun-god " (see SHAMASH) and " Sippar of the goddess Anunit, " the former of which was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in 1881 at Abu-Habba, 16 m. S.E. of Bagdad. Two other Sippars are mentioned in the inscriptions, one of them being " Sippar of Eden, " which must have been an additional quarter of the city. It is possible that one of them should be identified with Agade or Akkad, the capital of the first Semitic Babylonian Empire. The two Sippars of the Sun-god and Anunit are referred to in the Old Testament as Sepharvaim. A large number of cuneiform tablets and other monuments has been found in the ruins of the temple of the Sun-god which was called E-Babara by the Sumerians, Bit-Uri by the Semites. The Chaldaean Noah is said by Berossus to have buried the records of the antediluvian world here — doubtless because the name of Sippar was supposed to be connected with sipru, " a writing " — and according to Abydenus (Fr. 9) Nebuchadrezzar excavated a great reservoir in the neighbourhood. Here too was the Babylonian camp in the reign of Nabonidos, and Pliny (N.H. vi. 30) states that it was the seat of a university. See Hormuzd Rassam, Babylonian Cities (1888). (A. H. S.) SIPUNCULOIDEA, marine animals of uncertain affinities, formerly associated with the Echiuroidea (q.v.) in the group Gephyrea. Externally, the body of a Sipunculoid presents no projections: its surface is as a rule even, and often glistening, and the colour varies from whitish through yellow to dark brown. The anterior one-quarter or one-third of the body is capable of being retracted. into the remainder, as the tip of a glove-finger may be pushed into the rest, and this retractile part is termed the introvert. At the tip of the introvert the mouth opens, and is surrounded in Sipunculus by a funnel-shaped, ciliated lophophore (figs, i and 2). In Phascolosoma and Phascolion this funnel- shaped structure has broken up into a more or less definite group of tentacles, which in Dendrostoma are arranged in four groups. In Aspidosiphon and Physcosoma the tentacles are usually arranged in a horse-shoe, which may be double, overhanging the mouth dorsally. On the surface of the funnel-shaped lopho- phore are numerous ciliated grooves, and each of the tentacles in the tentaculated forms has a similar groove directed towards the mouth. These grooves doubtless serve to direct currents of water, carrying with them small organisms towards the mouth. The skin consists of a layer of cuticle, easily stripped off, secreted by an ectodermal layer one cell thick. Within this is usually a sheath of connective tissue, which surrounds a layer of circular muscles ; the latter may be split up into separate bundles, but more usually form a uniform sheet. Within the circular muscles is a layer of longitudinal muscles, very often broken into bundles, the number of which is often of specific importance. Oblique muscles sometimes lie between the circular and longitudinal sheaths. On the inner surface is a layer of peritoneal epithelium, which is frequently ciliated, and at the bases of the retractor muscles is heaped up and modified into the repro- ductive organs. The ectoderm is in some genera modified to form certain excretory glands, which usually take the form of papillae with an apical opening. These papillae give the surface a roughened aspect; the use of their secretion is unknown. They are best developed in Physcosoma. When the body of a Sipunculoid is opened, it is seen that the body- cavity is spacious and full of a corpusculated fluid, in which the various organs of the body float. The most conspicuous of these is 152 SIPUNCULOIDEA the long, white alimentary canal, crowded with mud. The mouth is devoid of armature, and passes, without break into the oesophagus ; this is surrounded by the retractor muscles, which are inserted into the skin around the mouth, and have their origin in the body- wall, usually about one-third or one-half of the body-length from the anterior end (figs. I and 2). Their function is to retract the introvert, which is protruded again by the contraction of the circular muscles of the skin; these, compressing the fluid of the body-cavity, force forward the anterior edge of the introvert. The number of muscles varies from one (Onchnesoma and Tylosoma) to four, the latter being very common. The alimentary canal is U-shaped, the dorsal limb of the U terminating in the anus, situated not very far from the level of the origin of the retractor muscles. The limbs of the U are further twisted to- gether in a looser or tighter coil, the axis of which may be traversed by a " spindle muscle arising from the pos- terior end of the body. No glands open into the ali- mentary canal, but a diver- ticulum, which varies enor- mously in size, opens into the rectum. As is so often the case with animals which eat mud and sand, and extract what little nutri- ment is afforded by the organic debris therein, the walls of the alimentary canal are thin and appar- ently weak. All along one side is a microscopic ciliated groove, into which the mud does not seem to enter, and along which a continuous stream of water may be kept up. Possibly this is respiratory — there are no special respiratory organs. A so-called heart lies on the dorsal surface of the oeso- phagus; it is closed behind, but in front it opens into a circumoesophagealring, which gives off vessels into the lophophore and ten- tacles. The contraction of this heart, which is not rhythmic, brings about the expansion of the tentacles and lophophore. This sys- tem is in no true sense a vascular system ; there are no capillaries, and the fluid it contains, which is cor- pusculated, can hardly have a respiratory or nutritive function. It is simply a hydrostatic mechanism for expanding the tentacles. The excretory organs are FIG. i. — Sipunculus nudus, L., with typical nephridia, with an introvert and head fully extended, laid internal ciliated opening open by an incision along the right into the body-cavity, and side to show the internal organs, X 2. a, Mouth. 6, Ventral nerve-cord. c, " Heart." d, Oesophagus. e, Intestine. /, Position of anus. f, Tuft-like organs. , Right nephridium. i. Retractor muscles. j, Diverticulum on rectum. The body, and they are some- spindle-muscle is seen overlying times spoken of as brown the rectum. tubes. There is a well-. developed brain dorsal to the mouth; this gives off a pair of oesophageal commissures, which surround the oesophagus and unite in a median ventral nerve-cord which runs between the longitudinal muscles to the posterior end of the body. From time to time it gives off an external pore. One surface of the tube is pro- longed into a large sac lined with glandular excretory cells. The organs are typi- cally two, though one is often absent, e.g. in Phas- colion. They serve • as channels by which the re- productive cells leave the minute circular nerves, which run round the body in the skin and break up into a very fine nerve plexus. There are no distinct ganglia, but ganglion cells are uniformly distributed along the ventral side of the cord. The whole is anteriorly somewhat loosely slung to the skin, so as to allow free play when the animal is extend- ing or retracting its introvert. A pit or depression, known as " the cerebral organ," opens into the brain just above the mouth; this usually divides into two limbs, which are deeply pigmented and have been called eyes. Sipunculoids are dioecious, and the ova and spermatozoa are formed from the modified cells lining the body-cavity, which are heaped up into a low ridge running along the line of origin of the retractor muscles. The ova and the mother-cells of the spermatozoa break off from this ridge, and increase in size considerably in the fluid of the body-cavity. Fertilization is external ; and in about three days a small ciliated larva, not unlike that of the Echiuroids, but with no trace of segmentation, emerges from the egg-shell. This little creature, which has many of the features of a Trochosphere larva, swims about at the surface of the sea for about a month and grows rapidly. At the end of this time it undergoes a rapid metamorphosis : &... FIG. 2. — Right half of the anterior end of Sipunculus nudus, L., seen from the inner side and magnified. a, Funnel-shaped grooved ten- c', " Heart." tacular crown leading to d, Brain. the mouth. e, Ventral, and £, dorsal re- ft, Oesophagus. tractor muscles. c. Strands breaking up the /, Ventral nerve-cord. cavity of the tentacular g, Vascular spaces in tentacular crown intb vascular spaces. crown. it loses many of its larval organs, cilia, takes in a quantity of water into its body-cavity, sinks to the bottom of the sea, and begins life in its final form. The following genera of Sipunculoids are recognized: — (i.) Sipun- culus. This, with Physcosoma, has its longitudinal muscles divided up into some 17-41 bundles. It has no skin papillae. The members of this genus attain a larger size than any other species, and the genus contains some 16-17 species, (ii.) Physcosoma (fig. 3) has its body covered with papillae, and usually numerous rows of minute hooks encircling the introvert. It is the most numerous genus, and consists for the most part of shallow-water (less than 50 fathoms) tropical and subtropical forms. They often live in tubular burrowings in coral-rock. The following three genera have their longitudinal muscles m a continuous sheath : — (iii.) Phascolosoma, with some 25 species, mostly small, with numerous tentacles, (iv.) Phascolion, 10 species, small, living in mollusc-shells and usually adopting the coiled shape of their house; only one kidney, the right, persists, (v.) Dendrostoma, with 4-6 tentacles, a small genus found in tropical shallow water, (vi.) Aspidosiphon, with 19 species, is easily dis- tinguished by a calcareous deposit and thickened shield at the posterior end and at the base of the introvert, which is eccentric, (vii.) Cloeosiphon has a calcareous ring, made up of lozenge-shaped plates, round the base of its centric introvert, (viii.) Petalostoma, a SIQUIJOR— SIR minute form with two leaf-like tentacles, is found in the English Channel, (ix.) Onchnesoma, with 2 species, and (x.) Tylosoma, with I species, have no tentacles, only one brown tube, and only one retractor muscle. Both genera are found off the Norwegian coast. The last named is said to have numerous papillae and no introvert. '••M FIG. 3. — A semi-diagrammatic figure of the anterior end of half Physcosoma, seen from the inner side. The introvert is fully everted and the lophophore expanded. The collar which surrounds the head is not fully extended. Two rows only of hooks are shown. 12, Coelom of upper lip; tinuous with 21. 13, Mouth. 14, Lower lip. 15, Blood-sinus of ventral side, con- tinuous with 6. 16, Ventral portion of ' skeleton." 1, Lophophore. 2, Pigmented pit leading to brain. 3, Section of dorsal portion of meso- blastic " skeleton." 4, Pit ending in eye. 5, The brain. 6, Blood-sinus of dorsal side sur- rounding brain and giving off branches to the tentacles. 7, Collar. 8, Retractor muscle of head. 9, Hook. 10, Sense-organ. n, Nerve-ring. 17, Ventral nerve-cord. SIR (Fr. sire, like sieur a variant of seigneur,1 from Lat. senior, comparative of senex, " old "), a title of honour. As a definite style it is now confined in the dominions of the British crown to baronets, knights of the various orders, and knights bachelor. It is never used with the surname only, being prefixed to the Christian name of the bearer; e.g. Sir William Jones. In formal written address, in the case of baronets the abbreviation Bar', Bart, or B' (baronet) is added after the surname,2 in the case of knights of any of the orders the letters indicating his style (K.G., K.C.B., &c.). In conversation a knight or baronet is addressed by the prefix and Christian name only (e.g. " Sir William "). The prefix Sir, like the French sire, was originally applied loosely to any person of position as a mere honorific distinction (as the equivalent of dominus, lord) , as it still is in polite address, but Selden (Titles of Honor, p. 643) points out that as a distinct title " pre- fixed to the Christian names in compellations and expressions of knights " its use " is very ancient," and that in the reign of Edward I. it was " so much taken to be parcel of their names " that the Jews in their documents merely transliterated it, instead of trans- lating it by its Hebrew equivalent, as they would have done in the case of e.g. the Latin form dominus. How much earlier this custom originated it is difficult to say, owing to the ambiguity of extant documents, which are mainly in Latin. Much light is, however, thrown upon the matter by the Norman-French poem Guillaume le Mareschal,3 which was written early in the I3th century. In this Sire is obviously used in the general sense men- tioned above, i.e. as a title of honour applicable tc all men of rank, whether royal princes or simple knights. The French king's son is " Sire Lpeis " (/. 17741), the English king's son is " Sire Richard li filz le roi " (/. 17376); the marshal himself is " Sire Johan li Mareschals " (17014). We also find such notable names as " Sire Hubert de Burc " (II. 17308, 17357) and " Sire Hue de Bigot "- " Qui par lignage esteit des buens, E apres son pere fu cuens," 4 and such simple knights as " Sire Johan d'Erlee " (Early in Berks), the originator of the poem, who was squire to William the Marshal, or " Seingnor Will, de Monceals," who, though of very good family, was but constable of a castle. Throughout the poem, moreover, though Sire is the form it is con- commonly used it is freely interchanged with Seignor and Monseignor. Thus we have " Seingnor Hue. de Corni " (/. 10935), " Sire Hug. de Corni " (I. 10945) and " Mon- seingnor Huon de Corni "j (I. 10955). Occasionally it is replaced by Dan (dominus), e.g. the brother of Louis VII. of France is " Dan Pierre de Cortenei " (/. 2131). Very mesoblastic rarely the e of Sire is dropped and we have Sir: e.g. " Sir Will." (I. 12513). Sometimes, where the surname is not territorial, the effect is closely approximate to more AUTHORITIES. — Selenka, " Die Sipunculiden," Semper's Reisen (1883), and Challenger Reports, xiii. (1885); Sluiter, Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl. Ind. xli. and following volumes; Andrews, Stud. Johns Hopkins Univ. iv. (1887-1890); Ward, Bull. Mus. Harvard, xxi. (1891) ; Hatschek, Arb. Inst. Wien, v. (1884) ; Shipley, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxi. (1890), xxxii. (1891), and xxxiii. (1892); P. Zool. Soc. London (1898), and Willey's Zoological Results, pt. 2 (1899); Horst, Niederland. Arch. Zool., Supplementary, vol. i. (A. E. S.) SIQUIJOR, a town of the province of Negros Oriental, Philip- pine Islands, on a small island of the same name about 14 m. S.E of Dumaguete, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903) after the annexation of San Juan, 19,416. There are sixty-four barrios or villages in the town, but only one of these had in 1903 more than 1000 inhabitants. The language is Bohol-Visayan. The principal industry is the raising of coco-nuts and preparing them for market. Other industries are the cultivation of tobacco, rice, Indian corn and hemp, and the manufacture of sinamay, a coarse hemp cloth. The island is of coral formation; its highest point is about 1700 ft. 18, Coelom, continuous with 12 and 21. modern usage: e.g. " Sire Aleins Basset," " Sire Enris li filz ,„ r> 1 Gerolt " (Sir Henry Fitz Gerald), " Sire Girard Talebot," from the " Sire Robert Tresgoz." It is notable that in connexion with a name the title Sire in the poem usually stands by itself : sometimes mis (my) is prefixed, but never li (the). Standing alone, how- ever, Sire denominates a class and_the article is prefixed: e.g. les 19, Oesophagus. 20, Dorsal vessel arising blood-sinus 6. 21, Coelom. seirs d'Engleterre—the lords of England— (/. I5837).6 " Sire," " Seignor " are used in addressing the king or a great noble. It is thus not difficult to see how the title " Sir " came in England to be " prefixed to the expressions of knights." Knight- hood was the necessary concomitant of rank, the ultimate proof of nobility. The title that expressed this was " Sire " or " Sir " prefixed to the Christian name. In the case of earls or barons it might be lost in that of the higher rank, though this was not 1 Certainly not " from Cyr, nvp, a diminutive of the Greek word xuptos " (F. W. Pixley, A History of the Baronetage, 1900, p. 208). 2 For not very obvious reasons some baronets now object to the contracted form " Bart.," which had become customary. See Pixley, op. cit. p. 212. 3 Edited in 3 vols., with notes, introduction and mod. French translation by Paul Meyer for the Soc. de 1'Histoire de France (Paris, 1891). * " Who was of good lineage and after his father became earl." 6 Cf. /. 18682. N'entendi mie bien li sire _ Que mis sire Johan volt dire. 154 universal even much later: e.g. in the I4th century, Sir Henry Percy, the earl marshal, or Sir John Cobham, Lord Oldcastle. The process by which the title lost all connotation of nobility would open up the whole question of the evolution of classes in England (see GENTLEMAN). In the case of baronets the prefix "Sir" before the Christian name was ordained by King Jamesl. when he created the order. The old use of " Sir " as the style of the clergy, representing a translation of dominus, would seem to be of later origin; in Guillaume le Mareschal even a high dignitary of the church is still maisire (master): e.g. " Maistre Pierres li cardonals " (/. 11399). It survived until the honorific prefix " Reverend " became stereotyped as a clerical title in the i;th century. It was thus used in Shakespeare's day: witness " Sir Hugh Evans," the Welsh parson in The Merry Wives of Windsor. In the English universities there is a curious survival of this use of " Sir " for dominus, members of certain colleges, technically still " clerks," being entered in the books with the style of " Sir " without the Christian name (e.g. " Sir Jones "). In ordinary address the title " Sir," like the French Monsieur, is properly applied to any man of respectability, according to circumstances. Its use in ordinary conversation, as readers of Boswell will realize, was formerly far more common than is now the case; nor did its employment imply the least sense of inferiority on the part of those who used it. The general decay of good manners that has accompanied the rise of democracy in Great Britain has, however, tended to banish its use, together with that of other convenient forms of politeness, from spoken intercourse. As an address between equals it has all but vanished from social usage, though it is still correct in addressing a stranger to call him " Sir." In general it is now used in Great Britain as a formal style, e.g. in letters or in addressing the chairman of a meeting; it is also used in speaking to an acknowledged superior, e.g. a servant to his master, or a subaltern to his colonel. " Sir " is also the style used in addressing the king or a prince of the blood royal (the French form " Sire " is obsolete). In the United States, on the other hand, or at least in certain parts of it, the address is still commonly used by people of all classes among themselves, no relation of inferiority or superiority being in general implied. The feminine equivalent of the title "sir" is legally " dame" (domino) ;' but in ordinary usage it is "lady," thus recalling the original identity of the French sire with the English " lord." (W. A. P.) SIRAJGANJ, a town of British India, in the Pabna district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, on the right bank of the Jamuna or main stream of the Brahmaputra, 6 hours by steamer from the railway terminus at Goalundo. It is the chief river mart for jute in northern Bengal, with several jute presses. The jute mills were closed after the earthquake of 1897. Pop. (1901) 23,"4- SIRDAR, or SARDAR (Persian sardar, meaning a leader or officer), a title applied to native nobles in India, e.g. the sirdars of the Deccan. Sirdar Bahadur is an Indian military distinction ; and Sirdar is now the official title of the commander-in-chief of the Egyptian army. SIREN, a name derived from the Greek Sirens (see below) for an acoustical signalling instrument specially used in lighthouses, &c. (see LIGHTHOUSE), and applied by analogy to certain other forms of whistle. In zoology the siren (Siren lacertina), or " mud-eel " of the Americans, one of the perennibranchiate tailed batrachians, is the type of the family Sirenidae, chiefly distinguished from the Proteidae by the structure of the jaws, which, instead of being beset with small teeth, are covered by a horny sheath like a beak; there are, however, rasp-like teeth on the palate, and a few on the inner side of the lower jaw, in- serted on the splenial bone. The body is eel-like, black or blackish, and only the fore-limbs are present, but are feeble and furnished with four fingers. It grows to a length of three feet and inhabits marshes in North and South Carolina, Florida and Texas. A second closely-allied genus of this family is Pseudobranchus, differing in having a single branchial aperture on each side instead SIRAJGANJ— SIRENIA of three, and only three fingers. The only species, P. striatus, is a much smaller creature, growing to six inches only, and striated black and yellow; it inhabits Georgia and Florida. As E. D. Cope has first shown, the siren must be regarded as a degenerate rather than a primitive type. He has observed that in young specimens of Siren lacertina (the larva is still un- known) the gills are rudimentary and functionless, and that it is only in large adult specimens that they are fully developed in structure and function; he therefore concludes that the sirens are the descendants of a terrestrial type of batrachians, which passed through a metamorphosis like the other members of their class, but that more recently they have adopted a permanently aquatic life, and have resumed their branchiae by reversion. From what we have said above about Proteus and similar forms, it is evident that the " perennibranchiates " do not constitute a natural group. See E. D. Cope, " Batrachia of North America," Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 34 (1889), p. 223. SIRENIA, the name (in reference to the supposed mermaid-like appearance of these animals when suckling their young) of an order of aquatic placental mammals, now represented by the manati (or manatee) and dugong, and till recently also by the rhytina. Although in some degree approximating in external form to the Cetacea, these animals differ widely in structure from the members of that order, and have a totally distinct ancestry. The existing species present the following leading characteristics. The head is rounded and not disproportionate in size as compared with the trunk, from which it is scarcely separated by any externally visible constriction or neck. Nostrils valvular, separate, and placed above the fore-part of the obtuse, truncated muzzle. Eyes very small, with imperfectly formed eyelids, capable, however, of con- traction, and with a well-developed nictitating membrane. Ear without any conch. Mouth of small or moderate size, with tumid lips beset with stiff bristles. General form of the body depressed fusiform. No dorsal fin. Tail flattened and horizontally expanded. Fore-limbs paddle-shaped, the digits being enveloped in a common cutaneous covering, though sometimes rudiments of nails are present. No trace of hind-limbs. External surface covered with a tough, finely wrinkled or rugous skin, naked, or with sparsely scattered fine hairs. The skeleton is remarkable for the massiveness and density of most of the bones, especially the skull and ribs, which add to the specific gravity of these slow-moving animals, and aid in keeping them to the bottom of the shallow waters in which they dwell, while feeding on aquatic vegetables. The skull presents many peculiarities, among which may be indicated the large size and backward position of the nasal aperture, and the downward flexure of the front of both jaws. The nasal bones are absent, or rudimentary and attached to the edge of the f rentals, far away from the middle line; but in some extinct species these bones, though small, are normal in situation and relations. In the spinal column none of the vertebrae are united together to form a sacrum, and the flat ends of the bodies do not ossify separately, so as to form disk-like epiphyses in the young state, as in nearly all other mammals. The anterior caudal vertebrae have well-developed chevron-bones. In one genus (Manatus) there are only six cervical vertebrae. There are no clavicles. The humerus has a small but distinct trochlear articulation at the elbow- joint; and the bones of the fore-arm are about equally developed, and generally welded together at both extremities. The carpus is short and broad, and the digits five in number, with moderately elongated and flattened phalanges, which are never increased beyond the number usual in Mammalia. The pelvis is rudimentary, con- sisting of a pair of bones suspended at some distance from the verte- bral column. Two kinds of teeth, incisors and molars, separated by a wide interval, are generally present. The former may be developed into tusks in the upper jaw, or may be quite rudimentary. The molars vary much in character. In one genus (Rhytina) no teeth of any kind are present, at least in the adult. In all, the anterior part of the palate, and a corresponding surface on the prolonged symphysis of the lower jaw, are covered with rough horny plates of peculiar structure, which doubtless assist in mastication. The tongue is small and fixed in position, with a surface resembling that of the aforesaid plates. The salivary glands are largely developed. The stomach is compound, being divided by a valvular constriction into two principal cavities, the first of which is provided with a glandular pouch near the cardiac end, and the second usually with a pair of elongated, conical, caecal sacs or diverticula. The intestinal canal is long, and with very muscular walls. There is a caecum, either simple, conical, and with extremely thick walls, as in Halicore, or cleft, as in Manatus. The apex of the heart is deeply cleft between the ventricles. The principal arteries form extensive and complex network-like structures, retia mirabilia. The lungs are long and SIRENIA 155 narrow, as, owing to the oblique position of the diaphragm, the thoracic cavity extends far back over the abdomen. The -epiglottis and arytenoid cartilages of the larynx do not form a tubular pro- longation. The brain is comparatively small, with the convolutions on the surface of the cerebrum few and shallow. The kidneys are simple, and the testes abdominal. The uterus is bicornuate. The placenta is non-deciduate and diffuse, the villi being scattered generally over the surface of the chorion except at the poles. The umbilical vesicle disappears early. The teats are two, and pectoral or rather post-axillary in position. In vol. Ixxvii. of the Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Zoologie Mr L. Freund describes in detail the osteology of the flippers of the dugong as displayed in " sciograph " pictures. These show that the carpus of the adult consists of three large bones. Of the two in the first row, one consists of the fused radiale and intermedium, and the other of the ulnare plus the pisiform and the fifth carpale, the lower bone being composed of the four inner carpalia. In the manati the reduction of the carpus has been carried to a less extent, the radiale being in some instances distinct from the intermedium, while in other cases in which these two bones are fused the four inner carpalia remain separate. Sirenians pass their whole life in water, being denizens of shallow bays, estuaries, lagoons and large rivers, and not met with in the high seas far away from shore. Their food consists entirely of aquatic plants, either marine algae or freshwater grasses, upon which they browse beneath the surface, as the terrestrial herbivorous mammals do upon the green pastures on shore. To visit these pastures, they come in with the flood-tide and return with the ebb. They are generally gregarious, slow and inactive in their movements, mild, inoffensive, and apparently unintelligent in disposition. Though occasionally found stranded by the tide or waves, there is no evidence that they voluntarily leave the water to bask or feed on the shore. The habit of the dugong of raising its round head out of water, and carrying its young under the fore fin, seems to have given rise, among the early voyagers in the Indian Ocean, to the legendary beings, half human and half fish, in allusion to which the name Sirenia was bestowed by Illiger. The species now existing are few. One species, Rhytina gigas of the North Pacific, was exterminated through the agency of man during the i8th century; and the others, being valuable for their flesh as food, for their hides, and especially for the oil obtained from the thick layer of fat which lies immediately beneath their skin, diminish in numbers as civilized populations occupy the regions forming their natural habitat. The species are confined to the tropical regions of the shores of both sides of the Atlantic and the great rivers which empty themselves into that ocean, and to the coasts of the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to North Australia. As regards dentition (or the want thereof) the three modern genera are remarkably different; and while on this and other grounds some writers refer them to as many separate families, by others they are all included in the Manatidae. In the manatis (Manatus) the incisors, f in number, are rudi- mentary, and concealed beneath the horny mouth-plates, and end of the series; with square, enamelled crowns, the grinding surface raised into tuberculated transverse ridges. The upper teeth with two ridges and three roots, the lower with an additional (posterior) ridge or heel and two roots. The cervical vertebrae present the anomaly of being reduced to six in number, the usual vertebral formula being C 6, D 15-18, L and C, a 25-29. Rostrum of the skull, formed by the union of the premaxillae in front of the nasal aperture, shorter than the length of the aperture and scarcely deflected from the basi-cranial axis. Tail entire, rounded or shovel- shaped. Rudimentary nails on the fore-limbs. Caecum cleft. Manatis inhabit the shores of, and the great rivers which empty themselves into, the Atlantic within the tropics. The American (M. australis) and African (M. senegalensis) forms are generally considered distinct species, though they differ but little from each other in anatomical characters and in habits. There is also the small M. inunguis of the Amazon, which has no nails. They are rather fluviatile than marine, ascending large rivers almost to their sources (see MANATI). In the dugong (Halicore) the upper jaw is furnished with a pair of large, nearly straight, tusk-like incisors, directed downwards and forwards, partially coated with enamel. In the male they have persistent pulps, and bevelled cutting edges, which project a short distance from the mouth, but in the female, though they remain through life in the alveolar cavity, they are not exserted, and, the pulp cavity being filled with osteodentine, they soon cease to grow. In the young there is also a second small deciduous incisor on each side above. At this age there are also beneath the horny plate which covers the anterior portion of the mandible four pairs of slender conical teeth lodged in wide socket -like depressions which FIG. i. — Skull of African Manati (Manatus senegalensis). Xi- From Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons. disappearing before maturity. Molars about f§, but rarely more than 8 present at one time ; the anterior teeth falling before the posterior come into use; similar in characters from beginning to FIG. 2. — American Manati (Manatus australis). become absorbed before the animal reaches maturity. The molars are usually f , sometimes |, altogether, but not all in place at once, as the first falls before the last rises above the gum; they are more or less cylindrical in section, except the last, which is compressed and grooved laterally, without distinction into crown and root, increasing in size from before backwards, with persistent pulps and no enamel. The summits of the crowns are tuberculated before wearing, afterwards flattened or slightly concave. Skull with rostrum formed by the union of the premaxillae in front of the nasal aperture, longer than the aperture itself, bending downwards at a right angle with the basi-cranial axis, and enclosing the sockets of the large tusks. Anterior part of the lower jaw bent down in a corresponding manner. Vertebrae: C 7, D 18-19, L and C 30. Tail broadly notched in the middle line, with two pointed lateral lobes. No nails on the fore-limbs. Caecum single. The genus is repre- sented by H. tabernaculi from the Red Sea, H. dugong from the Indian seas and H. australis from Australia. (See DUGONG.) The last genus is represented only by the extinct Rhytina gieas, of Bering Sea, in which there were no teeth, their place being supplied functionally by the dense, strongly-ridged, horny mouth-plates. Premaxillary rostrum about as long as the anterior narial aperture, and moderately deflected. Vertebrae: C 7, D 19, L and C 34-37. Head very small in proportion to the body. Tail with two lateral pointed lobes. Front limbs small and truncated. Skin naked and covered with a thick, hard, rugged, bark-like epidermis. Stomach without caecal appendages to the pyloric cavity. Caecum simple. See RHYTINA. Extinct Sirenia. — In past times the Sirenia were represented by a number of extinct generic types ranging overall the temperate and probably tropical regions, and extending from the Pliocene to the Eocene epoch. In the Pliocene of Europe the group is represented by Felsinotherium, in the Miocene by Metaxytherium, and in the Oligo- cene by Halitherium; the latter having an acetabular cavity to the pelvis and a rudimentary femur. From Halitherium, which has a somewhat maniti-like dentition, although there are few cheek-teeth, there is a transition through the other two genera to Halicore; Felsinotherium having a large pair of tusk-like upper teeth. In Halitherium milk-molars were developed. In Miosiren, of the Belgian Miocene, the teeth were differentiated into i. f , p. },m. |. Remains of several early types of sirenians have been obtained from the Eocene deposits of Egypt. The least generalized of these is Eosiren, an animal differing from the modern forms chiefly by the retention of traces of the second and third pairs of incisors and of the .S6 SIRENS— SIRICIUS canines, and the somewhat less degree of reduction in the pelvis, which has a complete acetabulum lor the head of the femur. The front teeth (incisors and canine) have, however, been thrust to the sides of the jaw, possibly to make room for a horny plate on the palate. In the somewhat earlier Eotherium the incisors and canines are larger and occupy the normal position in the front of the jaws ; while the pelvis has a closed obturator foramen and a complete acetabulum, suggestive that a functional thigh-bone or femur was still retained. The most primitive member of the group with which we are yet acquainted is the very imperfectly known Prorastomus, from the Eocene of the West Indies, in which a complete and fully differentiated dentition is accompanied by the absence of that de- flection of the front part of the jaws which constitutes one of the most striking features of all the foregoing representatives of the order; — a feature which Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out must be of great value to short-necked, long-bodied creatures feeding on the herbage at the bottom of the water in which they dwell. The foregoing Egyptian fossil sirenians afford important evidence with regard to the ancestry of the order. Many years ago it was suggested by the French naturalist de Blainville that the Sirenia are related to the Proboscidea. This is supported by the occurrence of the remains of some of the most primitive sirenians with those of the most primitive proboscideans in the Eocene formations of Egypt; confirmatory evidence being yielded by the similarity of the brain and to some extent of the pelvis in the ancestral forms of the two groups. As regards the living members of the two groups, both have pectoral teats, abdominal testes, and a cleft apex to the heart; while the cheek-teeth of the sirenians are essentially of the same type as those of the early proboscideans. There seems also to be a certain similarity in the mode of succession of the teeth in the more specialized members of the two groups, although in the sirenians this specialization has displayed itself in an abnormal augmentation of the number of the teeth, while in the proboscideans, on the other hand, it has taken the form of an increase in the complexity of the individual teeth, especially those at the hinder part of the series^. Finally, although the Proboscidea have a declduate and the Sirenia a zonary nondeciduate placenta, yet there are certain similarities in the structure of this organ in the two groups which may indicate genetic affinity. LITERATURE. — O. Thomas and R. Lydekker, " On the Number of Grinding-Teeth possessed by the Manatee," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1897); G. R. Lepsius, Halitherium schinzi, die fossile Sirene des Mainzer- Beckens, Abhandl. Mittelrhein. Geol. Vereins (1881 and 1882); O. Abel, " Die Sirenen der mediterranen Tertiarbildungen Osterreichs," Abhandl. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, Wien, vol. xix. (1904); and " Cber Halitherium bellunense, eine Ubergangsform zur Gattung Metaxy- therium," Jahrbuch k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, Wien, vol. Iv. (1905); C. W. Andrews, Descriptive Catalogue of the Vertebrata from the Fayum (British Museum, 1906). (R. L.*) SIRENS (Gr. 'Sfiprjves), in Greek mythology, the daughters of Phorcys the sea-god, or, in later legend, of the river-god Acheloiis and one of the nymphs. In Homer they are two in number (in later writers generally three); their home is an island in the western sea between Aeaea, the island of Circe, and the rock of Scylla. They are nymphs of the sea, who, like the Lorelei of German legend, lured mariners to destruction by their sweet song. Odysseus, warned by Circe, escaped the danger by stopping the ears of his crew with wax and binding himself to the mast until he was out of hearing (Odyssey xii.). When the Argonauts were passing by them, Orpheus sang so beautifully that no one had ears for the Sirens, who, since they were to live only until some one heard their song unmoved, flung themselves into the sea and were changed into sunken rocks (Apollodorus i. 9; Hyginus, Fab. 141). They were said to have been the playmates of Persephone, and, after her rape by Pluto, to have sought for her in vain over the whole earth (Ovid, Metam. v. 552). When the adventures of Odysseus were localized on the Italian and Sicilian coasts, the Sirens were transferred to the neighbourhood of Neapolis and Surrentum, the promontory of Pelorum at the entrance to the Straits of Messina, or elsewhere. The tomb of one of them, Parthenope, was shown in Strabo's (v. p. 246) time at Neapolis, where a gymnastic contest with a torch-race was held in her honour. Various explanations are given of the Sirens. As sea-nymphs, they represent the treacherous calm of ocean, which conceals destruction beneath its smiling surface; or they signify the enervating influence of the hot wind (compare the name Sirius), which shrivels up the fresh young life of vegetation. Or, they symbolize the magic power of beauty, eloquence and song; hence their images are placed over the graves of beautiful women and maidens, of poets and orators (Sophocles, Isocrates). Another conception of them is that of singers of the lament for the dead, for which reason they are often used in the adornment of tombs, and represented beating their breasts and tearing their hair or playing the flute or lyre. In early art, they were repre- sented as birds with the heads of women; later, as female figures with the legs of birds, with or without wings. See H. Schrader, Die Sirenen (1868); Preller- Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894), pp. 614-616; G. Weicker, De Sirenibus quaes- tiones selectae (Leipzig, 1895), in which the writer endeavours to show that the Sirens, like the Harpies, were originally the souls of the dead, their employment on tombstones expressing the desire to find a permanent abode for the souls; and Der Seelenvogel in der alien Literatur und Kunst (1902), with bibliography; J. E. Harrison, Myths of the Odyssey (1882), Mythology and Monuments of Athens (1890) and Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1908); J. P. Postgate, in Journal of Philology, ix. (1880), who considers the Sirens to have been birds; W. E. Axon, R. Morris, D. Fitzgerald in the Academy, Nos. 484, 486, 487 (1881); A. Baumeister, Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums, iii. (1888). SIRGUJA, or SURGUJA, one of the Chota Nagpur feudatory states, which was transferred in 1905, from Bengal to the Central Provinces. It-is bounded on the N. by the state of Rewa and the districts of Mirzapur and Ranchi, on the E. by Ranchi, on the S. by the Bilaspur district of the Central Provinces and the states of Udaipur and Jashpur, and on the W. by the state of Korea. It is very hilly, with elevated table-lands affording good pasturage, and cut up by numerous ravines. The rivers are the Kanhar, Rer, Mahan, Sone and Sankh, the last being formerly known as the Diamond river. Hot springs exist in the state. Extensive sal forests cover a large area, affording shelter to herds of wild elephant, bison, and many sorts of deer, and also to tigers, bears and other beasts of prey. Area, 6089 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 351,011; estimated revenue, £8000. The residence of the maharaja is at Bisrampur.- SIRHIND, a tract of land in the Punjab, India. It consists of the north-eastern portion of the plain between the Jumna and Sutlej rivers, and is watered by the Sirhind canal. Sirhind is not an administrative division, but historically the name includes the districts of Umballa, Ludhiana, and Ferozepore, together with the states of Patiala, Jind and Nabha. The Sirhind canal serves the Umballa and Ludhiana districts, and the Patiala, Jind and Nabha states. It draws its water- supply from the Sutlej near Rupar, where the head-works are situated. The canal, which was opened in 1882, has 538 m. of main and branch canals, and irrigates nearly 2000 sq. m. The town of Sirhind, in the state of Patiala, had a population in 1901 of 5415. It is of very early, but uncertain, foundation, and had a period of great prosperity under the Moguls. Its ancient ruins cover a large extent, and include two fine domed tombs of the I4th century. It is held accursed by the Sikhs, owing to the barbarous murder of the son of Guru Govind by the Mahommedan governor in 1704. SIRICIUS, pope from December 384 to November 399, suc- cessor of Damasus. Siricius was averse from countenancing the influence of the monks, and did not treat Jerome with the favour with which he had been honoured by preceding popes, with the result that Jerome left Rome and settled at Bethlehem. Some years later, however, Siricius condemned the anti-ascetic doctrines of Jovinianus. Several of the decretal letters of Siricius are extant, in which, at the request of certain groups of Western bishops, he sets forth the rules of ecclesiastical discipline. It was under his pontificate that a general council was convened at Capua in 391, at which various Eastern affairs were brought forward. Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, at the request of Siricius, had two important disputes settled by two councils held in 393 at Caesarea and Contantinople, relating respectively to the sees of Antioch and Bostra. The council of Capua, inspired by the pope, deferred to the council of Macedonia the affair of Bonosus, bishop of Sardinia, who had been accused of heresy. To safeguard the authority of the Holy See over the bishops of Illyricum, Siricius entrusted his powers to the bishop of Thes- salonica, who was henceforth the vicar of the pope in those provinces. In 386 Siricius had protested against the attitude of Bishop Ithacius, tie accuser of Priscillian, and this protest he SIRKAR— SIRSA resolutely maintained, although he disapproved of the doctrines taught by the Spanish doctor. It was during his pontificate that the last attempt to revive paganism in Rome was made (392-394) by Nicomachus Flavianus. Siricius died on the 26th of November 399. (L. D.*) SIRKAR (Persian sarkar, meaning " head of affairs"), a term used in India in three distinct senses; for the government or supreme authority, for a division of territory under the Moguls, otherwise spelt circar (q.v.), and for a head servant in Bengal. SIRMIO, a promontory at the southern end of the Lacus Benacus (Lake of Garda), projecting 2| m. into the lake. It is celebrated from its connexion with Catullus, for the large ruins of a Roman villa on the promontory have been supposed to be his country house. A post-station bearing the name Sirmio stood on the high-road between Brixia and Verona, near the southern shore of the lake. On the shore below is the little village of Sermione, with sulphur baths. SIRMOND, JACQUES (1559-1651), French scholar and Jesuit, was born at Riom, Auvergne, on the i2th or the 22nd of October 1559. He was educated at the Jesuit College of Billom; having been a novice at Verdun and then at Pont-a-Mousson, he entered into the order on the 26th of July 1576. After having taught rhetoric at Paris he resided for a long time in Rome as secretary to R. P. Aquaviva (1590-1608); in 1637 he was confessor to Louis XIII. He died on the 7th of October 1651. Father Sirmond was a most industrious scholar, and his criticisms were as enlightened as was possible for a man living in those times. He brought out many editions of Latin and Byzantine chroniclers of the middle ages: Ennodius and Flodoard (1611), Sidonius Apollinaris (1614), the life of St Leo IX. by the archdeacon Wibert (1615), Marcellinus and Idatius (1619), Anastasius the librarian (1620), Eusebius of Caesarea (1643), Hincmar (1645), Hrabanus Maurus (1647), Rufinus and Loup de Ferrieres (1650), &c., and above all his edition of the capitularies of Charles the Bald (Karoli Calm et successorum aliquot Franciae regum capitula, 1623) and of the councils of ancient France (Concilia antiquae Galliae, 1629, 3 vols., new ed. incomplete, 1789). An essay in which he denies the identity of St Denis of Paris and St Denis the Areopagite (1641), caused a very lively controversy from which his opinion came out victorious. His Opera varia, where this essay is to be found, as well as a description in Latin verse of his voyage from Paris to Rome in 1590, have appeared in 5 vols. (1696; new ed. Venice, 1728). To him is attributed, and no doubt correctly, Elogio di cardinale Baronio (1607). See the Bibliotheque des Peres de la Compagnie de Jesus by Father Carlos Sommervogel, tome vii. (1896). SIRMUR, or SARMOR (also called NAHAN, after the chief town), a native state of India, within the Punjab. It occupies the lower ranges of the Himalaya, between Simla and Mussoorie. Area 1198 sq. m. The state is bounded on the N. by the hill states of Balsan and Jubbal, on the E. by the British district of Dehra Dun, from which it is separated by the rivers Tons and Jumna, on the S.W. by Umballa district, and on the N.W. by the states of Patiala and Keonthal. Except a very small tract about Nahan, the chief town and residence of the raja, on the south-western extremity, where a few streams rise and flow south-westward to the Saraswati and Ghaggar rivers, the whole of Sirmur lies in the basin of the Jumna, which receives from this tract the Giri and its feeders the Jalal and the Palur. The Tons, the great western arm of the stream called lower down the Jumna, flows along the eastern boundary of Sirmur, and on the right side receives from it the two small streams Minus and Nairai. The surface generally declines in elevation from north to south; the chief elevations on the northern frontier (Chor peak and station) are about 12,000 ft. above the sea. The valley of the Khiarda Dun, which forms the southern part of the state, is bounded on the S. by the Siwalik range, the hills of which are of recent formation and abound in fossil remains of large verte- brate animals. Though the rocks of Sirmur consist of formations usually metalliferous, the yield of mineral wealth is small. The forests are very dense, so much so that the sportsman finds difficulty in making his way through them in search of deer and other game, with which they abound. The climate of Sirmur varies with the elevation; the northern extremity has very little rain; but large and excellent crops are everywhere to be obtained by irrigation. The population in 1901 was 135,687, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £40,000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of high lineage. The raja Shamsher Perkash, G.C.S.I., who died in 1898, ruled with remarkable ability and success. A younger son commanded the Imperial Service sappers in the Tirah campaign of 1896-97, and was rewarded with the rank of honorary captain in the Indian army and the distinction of C.I.E. Attempts have been made to establish an iron foundry, and to develop mines of slate and mica. The town of Nahan is situated about 40 m. S. of Simla, 3057 ft. above the sea-level. The palace of the raja and several other houses are built of stone in European style. It had a population in 1901 of 6256. SIROCCO, a name applied to two quite distinct types of local wind. The first type is the characteristic wind of the winter rainy season in the Mediterranean region, and is associated with the eastern side of local depression or cyclones, in which the weather is moist, cloudy and rainy, the prevailing directions being south and south-east. The second type is the intensely dry dust-laden wind of the desert which receives this name in Sicily and southern Italy especially, where the general direction is south- east or south-west. Local winds of this latter type receive a great variety of names in different parts of the Mediterranean and surrounding regions (see LEVECHE, LESTE, KHAMSIN, SIMOOM). SIROHI, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. Area 1964 sq. m. The country is much broken up by hills and rocky ranges; the Aravalli range divides it into two portions, running from north-east to south-west. The south and south-east part of the territory is mountainous and rugged, containing the lofty Mount Abu, an isolated mass of granite rock, culminating in a cluster of hills, enclosing several valleys surrounded by rocky ridges, like great hollows. On both sides of the Aravallis the country is intersected with numerous water channels, which run with considerable force and volume during the height of the rainy season, but are dry for the greater part of the year. The only river of any importance is the Western Banas. A large portion of the state is covered with dense jungle, in which wild animals, including the tiger, bear and leopard, abound. Many splendid ruins bear witness to the former prosperity and civilization of the country. The climate is on the whole dry; in the south and east there is usually a fair amount of rain. On Abu the average annual rainfall is about 64 in., whereas in Erinpura, less than 50 m. to the north, the average fall is only between 12 and 13 in. Pop. (1901) 154,544, showing a decrease of 17% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Gross revenue £28,000, tribute £450. During the early years of the igth century, Sirohi suffered much from wars with Jodhpur and the wild Mina hill tribes. The protection of the British was sought in 1817; the pretensions of Jodhpur to suzerainty over Sirohi were disallowed, and in 1823 a treaty was concluded with the British government. For services rendered during the Mutiny of 1857 the chief received a remission of half his tribute. The chief, whose title is maharao, is a Deora Rajput of the Chauhan clan, and claims descent from the last Hindu king of Delhi. The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway. The town of SIROHI is 28 m. N. of Abu-road station. Pop. (1901) 5651. It has manufactures of sword-blades and other weapons. The Crosthwaite hospital, which is built and equipped on modern principles, was opened by Sir Robert Crosthwaite in December 1897. SIRSA, a town of British India, in Hissar district of the Punjab, situated on a dry bed of the river Ghaggar, and on a branch of the Rajputana railway, midway between Rewari and Ferozepur. Pop. (1901) 15,800. It occupies an ancient site, and was refounded in 1837 as the head-quarters of a British district. It is an important centre of trade with Rajputana, and has manu- factures of cotton cloth and pottery. The former district of i58 SIS— SISKIN Sirsa was part of the territory conquered from the Mahrattas in 1803, when it was almost entirely uninhabited. It required reconquering from the Bhattis in 1818 ; but it did not come under British administration until 1837. During the Mutiny of 1857 Sirsa was for a time wholly lost to British rule. On the restoration of order the district was administered by Punjab officials, and in the following year, with the remainder of the Delhi territory, it was formally annexed to that province. In 1884 it was sub- divided between the districts of Hissar and Ferozepur. SIS (anc. Sision or Siskia, later Flaviopolis or Flavias), the chief town of the Khozan sanjak of the Adana vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on the left bank of the Kirkgen Su, a tributary of the Jihun (Pyramus) and at the south end of a group of passes leading from the Anti-Taurus valleys to the Cilician plain and Adana. It was besieged by the Arabs in 704 but relieved by the Byzantines. The Caliph, Motawakkil took it and refortified it ; but it soon returned to Byzantine hands. It was rebuilt in 1186 by Leo II., king of Lesser Armenia, who made it his capital. In 1374 it was taken and demolished by the sultan of Egypt, and it has never recovered its prosperity. It is now only a big village of some 3000 inhabitants. It has had, however, a great place in Armenian ecclesiastical history from the times of St Gregory the Illuminator to our own. Gregory himself was there consecrated the first Catholicusin A.D. 267, but transferred his see to Vagarshabad (Echmiadzin, Etchmiadzin), whence, after the fall of the Arsacids, it passed to Tovin. After the constitution of the kingdom of Lesser Armenia, the catholicate returned to Sis (1294), the capital, and remained there 150 years. In 1441, Sis having fallen from its high estate, the Armenian clergy proposed to remove the see, and on the refusal of the actual Catholicus, Gregory IX., installed a rival at Echmiadzin, who, as soon as Selim I. had conquered Greater Armenia, became the more widely accepted of the two by the Armenian church in the Ottoman empire. The Catholicus of Sis maintained himself nevertheless, and was supported in his pretensions by the Porte up to the middle of the igth century, when tlie patriarch Nerses, declaring finally for Echmiadzin, carried the government with him. In 1885 Sis tried to declare Echmiadzin schismatic, and in 1895 its clergy took it on themselves to elect a Catholicus without reference to the patriarch; but the Porte annulled the election, and only allowed it six years later on Sis renouncing its pretensions to independence. The present Catholicus has the right to prepare the sacred myron (oil) and to preside over a synod, but is in fact not more than a metropolitan, and regarded by many Armenians as schismatic. The lofty castle and the monastery and church built by Leo II., and containing the coronation chair of the kings of Lesser Armenia, are inter- esting. (D. G. H.) SISAL HEMP, or HENEQUEN, of Florida and the Bahamas, theproduct of Agaverigida, variety sisalana, anative of Yucatan, but found in other parts of Central America and distributed to the West Indies, where it is being increasingly cultivated. Agave (q.v.) is a member of the order Amaryllidaceae ; and a well-known species of the genus, Agave americana, the century plant, will suggest the habit of the sisal hemp, which, however, differs in the absence of prickles along the margin of the fleshy leaf. After six or seven years the flowering stalk or " pole " develops from the centre of the leaf-cluster, and grows to the height of 15 or 20 ft. The flowers are borne in dense clusters at the ends of short lateral branches, and closely resemble those of Agave americana. After they have begun to wither, buds are developed from the point of union with the flower-stalk; these form tiny plants, which, when several inches long, become detached and fall to the ground. Those that fall in a suitable place take root and are soon large enough to transplant. After flowering the plant perishes, but is renewed by suckers springing from the base of the stem; these suckers are then planted, and the leaves should be ready for cutting in about four years. The other method of planting is by means of " pole " plants just described. In collecting the fibre the leaves are cut off at the base, the spine at the top end removed, and the leaves carried in bundles to the machines. Here two scraping wheels remove the pulp from the leaves. The leaves are put into the machine at one side, and delivered clean at the other. One half is cleaned by the first wheel, then the cleaned portion is held while the second wheel cleans the remainder of the leaf; all the operations are auto- matically performed. In Yucatan, the leaves measure from 4 to 5 ft. in length, about 4 in. in width, and % in. in thickness. They are lance-shaped and weigh from ij Ib to if Ib on an average. As only about 3 to 4% of the weight is available for fibre, the average yield of 1000 leaves is from 50 to 60 Ib. The yield per acre is estimated at about half a ton. It has been proposed to treat the pulp, &c., with a view to extracting the chemical substances, but we are not aware that any successful attempt has been made. The fibre is yellowish-white, straight, smooth and clean, and a valuable cordage fibre second only to manila fibre in strength. It is used extensively for cordage and binder twine, both alone and in conjunction with manila, and is also used for bags, hammocks and similar articles. The plants thrive on arid rocky land, growing, for instance, on the Florida Keys upon the almost naked coral rock. Their northern limit of cultivation is determined by frost, which the plants will not stand; in Florida this is represented by the line of 27° N. An inferior fibre is obtained from the leaves of another species, Agave decipiens, which is found wild along the coasts and keys of Florida. It is known as the false sisal hemp, and can at once be distinguished from true sisal by its spiny leaf-margin. SISKIN (Dan. sidsken, Ger. Zeisig and Zeising), long known in England as a cage-bird called by dealers the Aberdevine or Abadavine, names of unknown origin, [the Fringilla spinus of Linnaeus, and Carduelis spinus of modern writers, belongs to the Passerine family Fringillidae. In some of its structural characters it is most nearly allied to the goldfinch (q.v.), and both are placed in the same genus by systematists; but in its style of coloration, and still more in its habits; it resembles the redpolls (cf. LINNET), though without their slender figure, being indeed rather short and stout of build. Yet it hardly yields to them in activity or in the grace of its actions, as it seeks its food from the catkins of the alder or birch, regardless of the attitude it assumes while so doing. Of an olive-green above, deeply tinted in some parts with black and in others lightened by yellow, and beneath of a yellowish-white again marked with black, the male of this species has at least a becoming if not a brilliant garb, and possesses a song that is not unmelodious, though the resemblance of some of its notes to the running-down of a piece of clockwork is more remarkable than pleasing. The hen is still more soberly attired; but it is perhaps the siskin's disposition to familiarity that makes it so favourite a captive, and, 'though as a cage-bird it is not ordinarily long-lived, it readily adapts itself to -the loss of liberty. Moreover, if anything like the needful accommodation be afforded, it will build a nest and therein lay its eggs; but it rarely succeeds in bringing up its young in confinement. As a wild bird it breeds constantly, though locally, throughout the greater part of Scotland, and has frequently done so in England, but more rarely in Ireland. The greater portion, however, of the numerous bands which visit the British Islands in autumn and winter doubtless come from the Continent — perhaps even from far to the eastward, since its range stretches across Asia to Japan, in which country it is as favourite a cage-bird as with us. The nest of the siskin is very like that of the goldfinch, but seldom so neatly built; the eggs, except in their smaller size, much resemble those of the greenfinch (q.v.). A larger and more brightly coloured species, C. spinpides, inhabits the Himalayas, but the siskin has many other relatives belonging to the New World, and in them serious modifications of structure, especially in the form of the bill, occur. Some of these relatives lead almost insensibly to the greenfinch (ut supra) and its allies, others to the goldfinch (ut supra), the redpolls and so on. Thus the siskin perhaps may be regarded as one of the less modified descendants of a stock whence such forms as those just mentioned have sprung. Its striated plumage also favours this view, as an evidence of permanent immaturity or generalization of form, since striped feathers are so often the earliest clothing of many of these birds, which only get rid of them at their first moult. On this theory the yellowbird or North- American " goldfinch," C. tristis, would seem, with its immediate allies, to rank among the highest forms of the group, and the pine- goldfinch, C. pinus, of the same country', to be one of the lowest — SISLEY— SISSEK the cock of the former being generally of a bright yellow hue, with black crown, tail and wings — the last conspicuously barred with white, while neither hens nor young exhibit any striations. On the other hand, neither sex of the latter at any age puts off its striped garb — the mark, it may be pretty safely asserted, of an inferior stage of development. The remaining species of the group, mostly South- American, do not seem here to need particular notice. (A. N.) SISLEY, ALFRED (1840-1899), French landscape painter, was born in Paris in 1839, of English parents. He studied painting under Gleyre, and was afterwards influenced, first by Corot, and then by the impressionists Monet and Renoir. He worked both in France and in England, and made the Seine, the Loing and the Thames the subjects of many pictures that are remarkable for the subtle appreciation of the most delicate colour effects. Success was not given him during his life, which was one of constant poverty and hard struggle. Purchasers of his pictures were few and far between, although the prices rarely exceeded a few pounds. Only after his death, which occurred at Moret-sur-Loing in 1899, did his work find appreciation, and at the Viau sale in Paris, in 1907, his small painting of " The Seine at Port-Marly " realized £652, whilst ten other landscapes sold at prices ranging from £200 to £400. He was essentially a colourist who, like Monet, delighted in recording the changing effects of light in the successive hours of the day, and paid very little attention to composition and draughtsmanship. The impressionist exhibition at the Grafton Galleries, London, in 1905, included several characteristic examples of his work. Sisley is also represented at the Luxembourg in the Caillebotte collection. SISMONDI, JEAN CHARLES LEONARD DE (1773-1842), whose real name was Simonde,was born at Geneva, on the 9th of May 1773. His father and all his ancestors seem to have borne the name Simonde, at least from the time when they migrated from Dauphine to Switzerland at the revocation of the edict of Nantes. It was not till after Sismondi had become an author that, observing the identity of his family arms with those of the once flourishing Pisan house of the Sismondi, and finding that some members of that house had migrated to France, he assumed the connexion without further proof and called himself De Sismondi. The Simondes, however, were themselves citizens of Geneva of the upper class,' and possessed both rank and property, though the father was also a village pastor. The future historian was well educated, but his family wished him to devote himself to commerce rather than literature, and he became a banker's clerk at Lyons. Then the Revolution broke out, and as it affected Geneva the Simonde family took refuge in England, where they stayed for eighteen months (1793-1794). Disliking, it is said, the climate, they returned to Geneva, but found the state of affairs still unfavourable; there is even a legend that the head of the family was reduced to sell milk himself in the town. The greater part of the family property was sold, and with the proceeds they emigrated to Italy, bought a small farm at Pescia near Lucca, and set to work to cultivate it themselves. Sismondi worked hard here, both with his hands and his mind, and his experiences gave him the material of his first book, Tableau de I' agriculture toscane, which, after returning to Geneva, he published there in 1801. In 1803 he published his Traite de la richesse commercial, his first work on the subject of political economy, which, with some differences of view, continued to interest him to the end of his life. As an economist, Sismondi represented a humanitarian protest against the dominant orthodoxy of his time. In his first book he followed Adam Smith, but in his principal subsequent economic work, Nouveaux Principes d'economie politique (1819), he insisted on the fact that economic science studied the means of increasing wealth too much, and the use of wealth for producing happiness too little. He was not a socialist; but, in protesting against laisser faire and invoking the intervention of government " to regulate the progress of wealth," he was an- interesting precursor of the German " socialists of the chair." Meanwhile he began to compile his great Histoire des Re- Publiques Italiennes du moyen age, and was introduced to Madame de Stael. With her he became very intimate, and after being regularly enrolled in the society of Coppet he was invited or commanded (for Madame de Stael's invitations had something of command) to form one of the suite with which the future Corinne made the journey into Italy, resulting in Corinne itself during the years 1804-1805. Sismondi was not altogether at his ease here, and he particularly disliked Schlegel, who was also of the company. But during this journey he made the acquaintance of the countess of Albany, Louisa of Stolberg, widow of Charles Edward, and all her life long gifted with a singular faculty of attracting the affection (Platonic and other) of men of letters. She was now an old woman, and Sismondi's relations with her were of the strictly friendly character, but they were close and lasted long, and they produced much valuable and interesting correspondence. In 1807 appeared the first volumes of the above mentioned book on the Italian republics, which (though his essay in political economy had brought him some reputation and the offer of a Russian professorship) first made Sismondi prominent among European men of letters. The completion of this book, which extended to sixteen volumes, occupied him, though by no means entirely, for the next eleven years. He lived at first at Geneva, and delivered there some interesting lectures on the literature of the south of Europe, which were continued from time to time and finally published; and he held an official post — that of secretary of the chamber of commerce for the then department of Leman. In 1813 he visited Paris for the first time, and abode there for some time, mixing much in literary society. Although a Liberal and in his earlier days almost an Anglo- maniac, he did not welcome the fall of the empire. During the Hundred Days he defended Napoleon's constitutional schemes or promises, and had an interview with the emperor himself, which is one of the chief events of a not very eventful life. After the Restoration he left Paris. On completing (1817) his great book on the Italian republics, he undertook (1818) a still greater, the Histoire des Francois, which he planned on a vast scale, and of which during the remaining twenty-three years of his life he published twenty-nine volumes. His untiring industry enabled him to compile many other books, but it is on these two that his fame chiefly rests. The earlier displays his qualities in the most favourable light, and has been least injuriously affected by subsequent writings and investigations; but the Histoire des Fran^ais, as a careful and accurate sketch on the great scale, has now been superseded. Sainte-Beuve has with benevolent sarcasm surnamed the author " the Rollin of French History," and the praise and the blame implied in the comparison are both perfectly well deserved. In April 1819 Sismondi married an English lady, Miss Allen, whose sister was the wife of Sir James Mackintosh, and the marriage appears to have been a very happy one. His later years were chiefly spent at Geneva, in the politics of which city he took a great, though as time and changes went on a more and more chagrined, interest. Indeed, in his later days he became a kind of reactionary. He died at Geneva on the 25th of June 1842. Besides the works above mentioned he had executed many others, his custom for a long period of years being never to work less than eight hours a day. The chief of these are Litterature du rnidi de I'Europe (1813), an historical novel entitled Julia Severa ou Van 492 (1822), Histoire de la Renaissance de la liberte en Italic (1832), Histoire de la chute de I'empire remain (1835), Precis de I'histoire des Franfais, an abridgment of his own book (1839), with several others, chiefly political pamphlets. Sismondi's journals and his correspondence with Channing, with the countess of Albany and others have been published chiefly by Mile. Mongolfier (Paris, 1843) and M. de Saint-Rene" Taillandier (Paris, 1863). The latter work serves as the chief text of two admirable Lundis of Sainte-Beuye (September 1863), republished in the Nouveaux Lundis, vol. vi. SISSEK (Hungarian, Sziszek; Croatian, Sisak), a town of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Agram; situated at the confluence of the Save and Kulpa, 30 m. by rail S.E. by S. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 7047. Sissek has a considerable trade in grain and timber. Its only noteworthy building is an ancient castle, constructed of brick. As the vestiges of its Roman walls tend to prove, Sissek was a large and flourishing city under Roman rule. Augustus made it i6o SISTER— SISTOVA a military station; Tiberius chose it as his headquarters against the Pannonian rebels; and from Septimius Severus, who made it the centre of a military government, it gained the name of Septimia Sissia. A Segesla, on the Save, is mentioned by Appian, and Strabo distinguishes between this town and the neighbouring Siscia. It seems likely, as St Aymour suggests, that two towns, the native Segesta and the Roman fortress called by Strabo i) 2t(ma Qpovpiov, ultimately united under the single name of Siscia. In the 3rd century, under Gallienus and Probus, the city contained the chief imperial mint and treasury; and an engraved coffer, found in Croatia, dating from the 4th century, and representing the five foremost cities of the Empire, includes Siscia along with Rome, Byzantium, Carthage and Nicomedia. Its bishopric was removed to Salona, in 441, when Attila appeared, and thenceforward the city declined. For a brief period, in the 7th and 8th centuries, the conquering Slavs made it one of their Zupanates, or governments; but in the loth century it was sacked by the Magyars, and in 1092 its territories were bestowed upon the cathedral chapter of Agram by Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Under the walls of its castle, built by this chapter in 1544, the Turks were thrice defeated in 1593- At a fourth venture the city fell, only to be evacuated in 1594. It witnessed a final Turkish defeat in 1641. See C. de St Aymour, Les Pays sud-slaves de I' Autriche-Hongrie (1883), ch. ii. SISTER, the correlative of brother (q.v.), a female in her relation to the other children born of the same parents, also one who has acquired such relationship by marriage, a sister-in-law, or by adoption. The O. Eng. word was sweostor; cf. Dutch zuster, Ger. Schwester, Goth, swislar; in M. Eng. this appears as suster; the Scandinavian form appears in Icel. systir, Swed. systor, Dan. sbstor, and this has curiously taken the place of the true English form suster. Outside Teut. are found Lat. soror for sosor, Skt. svasti; the origin is not known, but it may be related with Skt. svasti, happiness, joy. The Lat. consobrinus, which has given " cousin," is from con-sobrinus, sosbrinus, from the stem of soror, sister. Ay " brother " and " brethren " are used for the male members of a religious body or community, so also is " sister " for the female members; more particularly it is applied to the members of a female religious order or community, a " sisterhood," in the Roman and other churches, who are de- voted to a religious life, works of charity or mercy, whether bound by irrevocable vows or not. SISTERHOODS (MODERN ANGLICAN). The dissolution of religious houses in England (1536-1540) under Henry VIII. swept away more than 140 nunneries, and the Anglican Church was left without sisterhoods for three centuries. But as these had for 900 years formed part of her system, there were protests from time to time and attempts at restoration. Amongst such protests, which generally dwelt a good deal on the want of provision for unmarried women, may be mentioned three in successive centuries. The historian Fuller would have been glad " if such feminine foundations had still continued," those " good shee-schools," only without vows (Bk. vi.). Richardson the novelist, in Sir Charles Grandison, wishes there could be a Protestant nunnery in every county, " with a truly worthy divine, at the appointment of the bishop of the diocese, to direct and animate the devotion of such a society "; in 1829 the poet Southey, in his Colloquies (cxiii.), trusts that " thirty years hence this reproach also may be effaced, and England may have its Beguines and its sisters of mercy. It is grievously in need of them." Also small practical efforts were made in the religious households! of Nicholas Ferrar at Little Gidding, 1625, and of William Law at King's Cliff e, 1743; and under Charles II., says Fr. Bede, Aulob., " about 12 Protestant ladies of gentle birth and considerable means " founded a shortlived convent, with Sancroft, then Dean of St Paul's, for director. Southey's appeal had weight, and before the thirty years had passed, compassion for the needs of the destitute in great cities, and the impulse of a strong Church revival, aroused a body of laymen, among whom were included Mr Gladstone, Sir T. D. Acland, Mr A. J. Beresford-Hope, Lord Lyttelton and Lord John Manners (chairman), to exertions which restored sisterhoods to the Church of England. On 26th March 1845 the Park Village Community was set on foot in Regent's Park, London, to minister to the poor population of St Pancras. The " Rule " was compiled by Dr Pusey, who also gave spiritual supervision. In the Crimean War the superior and other sisters went out as nurses with Florence Nightingale. The community afterwards united with the Devonport Sisters, founded by Miss Sellon in 1849, and together they form what is known as Ascot Priory. The St Thomas's sisterhood at Oxford commenced in 1847; and the present mother-superior of the Holy Trinity Convent at Oxford, Marian Hughes, dedicated herself before witnesses to such a life as early as 1841 (Liddon's Life of Dr Pusey, Hi.). Four sisterhoods stand together as the largest : those of Clewer, Wantage, All Saints and East Grinstead ; and the work of the first may stand as a specimen of that of others. The " Community of St John the Baptist " at Clewer, near Windsor, arose in 1849 through the efforts of Mrs Tennant and the vicar, afterwards warden of the society, the Rev. T. T. Carter, to save fallen women. Under the first superior, Harriet Monsell, the numbers grew apace, and are now above 200. Their services to society and the Church include 6 houses for fallen women, 7 orphanages, 9 elementary and high schools and colleges, 5 hospitals, mission work in 13 parishes and visiting in several "married quarters" of barracks. Many of these are im- portant institutions, and their labours extend over a wide area ; two of the settlements are in India and two in the United States. A list of 26 sisterhoods is given in the Official Year-Book of the C.E. (1900), to which may bf, added 10 institutions of deaconesses, many of whom live in community under rule. The Episcopal Church of Scotland has 3 sisterhoods' and they are found also at Toronto, " Saint John the Divine "; Brisbane, " Sacred Advent "; Grahamstown, " Resurrec- tion"; Blaemfontein, " St Michael and All Angels"; Maritzburg, " Saint John the Divine." The Year-Book (1911) of the Protestant Episcopal Church of America (Anglican) mentions 1 8 American sister- hoods and 7 deaconess homes and training colleges. Practically all Anglican sisterhoods originated in works of mercy, and this fact largely accounts for the rapidity with which they have won their way to the good will and confidence of the Church. Their number is believed to exceed 3000, and the de- mand for their services is greater than the supply. Bishops are often their visitors, and Church Congresses, Convocation and Lambeth Conferences have given them encouragement and regulation. This change in sympathy, again, has gained a hearing from modern historians, who tend more and more to discredit the wholesale defamation of the dissolution period. This charitable activity, however, distinguishes the modern sister from the nuns of primitive and medieval times, who were cloistered and con- templative, and left external works to deaconesses, or to laywomen of a " third order," or to the freer societies like the Beguines. St Vincent de Paul is considered to have begun the new era with his institution of " Sisters of Charity " in 1634. Another modern feature is the fuller recognition of family ties: Rule 29 of the Clewer sisters directs that " the sisters shall have free intercourse with relations, who may visit them at any time." But in most essential respects modern sisterhoods follow the ancient traditions. They devote themselves to the celibate life, have property in common, and observe a common rule of prayer, fellowship and work. Government is by a sister superior, assisted by various officers. The warden and chaplain are clergy, and the visitor is commonly a bishop. In one important regard there has been hesitation, and authorities like Dr Littledale and Bishop Grafton contend strongly for the primitive ideal of the convent as family, with a constitutional government, as against the later and wide- spread Jesuit ideal of the convent as regiment, with a theory of despotic rule and absolute obedience. If some early mistakes in the restoration of sisterhoods were due to this exaggerated doctrine of obedience, the doctrine itself may be trusted to disappear among a Church and people accustomed to free institu- tions and to respect for individuality. AUTHORITIES. — T. T. Carter, Memoir of Harriet Monsell; Dr R. F. Littledale, Papers on " Sisterhoods " in the Monthly Packet (July i874-November 1879); Parl. Report on Convent, and Monast. Inst. (1870); Lina Eckenstein, Woman under Monasticism; Bishop Grafton, Vocation. (J. O. N.) SISTOVA (Bulg. Svishtov), the capital of the department of Sistova, Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 40 m. W. SISTRUM— SITKA 161 of Rustchuk. Pop. (1906), 13,408. Despite the lack of railway communication, and the migration of the Turkish inhabitants after the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), Sistova is an important commercial centre, exporting wine and grain and importing petroleum. Sistova is identified with the Roman colony Novae mentioned by Ptolemy. The exact site appears to have been Staklen, to the west of the present town, which has gradually moved east- ward since the i6th century, when it was almost destroyed in the Turkish wars. It was at Sistova that the peace of 1790 was signed, by which the Austrian-Turkish boundary was determined. The town was burned in 1810 by the Russians; but after 1820 it began to revive, and the introduction of steam traffic on the lower Danube (1835) restored its prosperity. The Walachian town of Alexandria was founded by fugitives from Sistova in 1878. SISTRUM (Gr. aiia-rpov, Ger. Rappel), an ancient Egyptian instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, a kind of metal rattle. The sistrum consists of a metal frame in the shape of an egg, fastened to a handle, frequently surmounted by a grotesque head or by a figure of the sacred lioness Sekhet. The frame is crossed by four metal horizontal rods passing through holes large enough to allow them to rattle when the sistrum is shaken, the rods being prevented from slipping out altogether by little metal stops in the shape of a leaf; sometimes metal rings are threaded over the rods to increase the jingling. The sistrum is played also by beating it with a metal stick. This ancient instrument was extensively used by the priests in the temple of Isis to attract the attention of worshippers to different parts of the ritual. The Egyptians attributed to it, as well as to the tambourine, the power of dispersing and terrifying evil spirits and more especially the Typhon. Queen Cleopatra1 made use of a large number of sistra at the battle of Actium (31 B.C.), and accordingly the instrument was satirically called Queen Cleopatra's war trumpet. (K. S.) SISYPHUS, in Greek mythology, son of Aeolus and Enarete, and king of Ephyra (Corinth). He was the father of the sea-god Glaucus and (in post-Homeric legend) of Odysseus. He was said to have founded the Isthmian games in honour of Melicertes, whose body he found lying on the shore of the Isthmus of Corinth (Apollodorus iii. 4). He promoted navigation and commerce, but was avaricious and deceitful. From Homer onwards Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. When Death came to fetch him, Sisyphus put him into fetters, so that no one died till Ares came and freed Death, and delivered Sisyphus into his custody. But Sisyphus was not yet at the end of his resources. For before he died he told his wife that when he was gone she was not to offer the usual sacrifice to the dead. So in the under world he complained that his wife was neglecting her duty, and he per- suaded Hades to allow him to go back to the upper world and expostulate with her. But when he got back to Corinth he positively refused to return, until forcibly carried off by Hermes (Schol. on Pindar, Ol. i. 97). In the under world Sisyphus was compelled to roll a big stone up a steep hill; but before it reached the top of the hill the stone always rolled down, and Sisyphus had to begin all over again (Odyssey, xi. 593). The reason for this punishment is not mentioned in Homer, and is obscure; according to some, he had revealed the designs of the gods to mortals, according to others, he was in the habit of attacking and murdering travellers. The subject was a common- place of ancient writers, and was depicted by the painter Poly- gnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi (Pausanias x. 31). According to the solar theory, Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day and then sinks 'below the horizon. Others see in him a personification of the waves rising to a height and then suddenly falling, or of the treacherous sea. It is suggested by Welcker that the legend is symbolical of the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge. The name Sisyphus is generally explained as a reduplicated form of cro^os ( = " the very wise "); Gruppe, however, thinks it may be connected with 2?th edition, 1884); Sermons on Sundays and Saints' Days (ist ed., Cracow, 1595, Latin ed., Cracow, 1691); Sermons preached before the Diet (last and best edition, Cracow, 1904) and numerous other volumes of sermons, some of which have already run through thirty editions. Of less importance are his very numerous polemical works, though his famous book On the Unity of the Church of God (ist edition, Wilna, 1577) directed against the dissenters, especially the Greek Orthodox schismatics, will always have an historical interest. See Izydor Dzieduszycki, Peter Skarga and his Age. (Pol.) (Cracow, 1850-1851). (R. N. B.) SKAT, a game of cards, much played in central and northern Germany. It is generally supposed to have been invented about 1817 by an advocate of the name of Hempel in Saxe-Altenburg. There is, however, some reason for believing that the game is of much earlier origin and was played by the Slav inhabitants of Saxe-Altenburg long before that date. In the home of the game of skat (Saxony and Thuringia) the old German single-ended cards are usually employed, while in north and south Germany French cards are ordinarily used. The German cards are thirty- two in number and of four suits, — Schellen (bells), the equivalent of diamonds; Roth (red), hearts; Griln (green), spades; and Eichel (acorn), clubs. The eight cards of each suit are the seven, eight, nine, ten, Wenzel or knave, queen, king, ace. This arrange- ment denotes at once the value of the single cards, each following card being higher in value than the preceding; i.e. hearts are higher than diamonds, spades than hearts, and clubs (the highest colour) takes spades, hearts and diamonds. Again 8 takes 7, 9 takes 8 and 7; but the knave (called Wenzel or Unter) is an exception (see below). The game is played by three persons; where four play, the dealer takes no part in the play though he shares in the winnings and losings of the opponents of the player. The cards are dealt from right to left — or (as skat players say) in the direction the coffee-mill is turned. After the cards have been shuffled and cut, the dealer first deals three cards to each player, then four and again three, laying aside two cards (the skat). Each player has now ten cards in his hand, which he arranges in suits. The Wenzel or knaves occupy a peculiar position. They are not regarded as colour cards, but are essentially trumps and take all other trumps. The player sitting to the left of the dealer is "first hand," and if he himself intends to make a game, invites the others to declare theirs, or if he wishes to reserve all rights to himself, simply says " Ich bin iiorn "- " I have the lead, " and then his next neighbour on the left has to offer a game.. If this neighbour holds such cards as to give him no prospect of winning he passes, and his neighbour to the left has the right to offer a game. If he in his turn passes, then the first hand is at liberty to determine the game or declare " Ramsch " (see below). But if the first neighbour thinks he can risk a game, he offers one. If the first hand reserves this game (see above " I have the lead"), either because he intends to play it himself or to play a higher game, the second hand must go higher or pass, i.e. renounce a game, and then his neighbour to the left has the right to offer, and if he again passes and does not offer a higher game than that which the first hand intends to play, the latter determines the game to be played. The usual games in skat are the following. First the simple colour game, which is, however, seldom played by skat enthusiasts. The player has here the right to take up the skat, and to determine the suit of the game; but here the rule is that the colour must not be lower in value than that of the game offered, though it may be higher. For instance, if spades are offered, the player cannot take hearts as trumps, though he may take clubs, because they are higher in value than spades. Next to the colour game comes " tourne1," the player turning up one of the skat cards, the suit of which becomes trumps. If a knave be turned up the player may announce " grando." Then comes the game of " solo," where the player declares which suit shall be trumps, and the skat remains intact. The highest " sob," still higher than clubs, is " grando." In this game only the four knaves are trumps. If the hand playing grando thinks he can make all the tricks, he declares open grando — i.e. shows his hand. If in open grando a single trick be lost, the player loses the game. If one of the players holds such cards as to enable him to force his opponents to take all the tricks, he can declare nullo. But here the game is lost if even a single trick falls to the player. In nullo, the knaves are regarded as colour, i.e. are not trumps. Nullo can be played open, if there is no probability of the player taking a single trick. Simple nullo counts higher than diamond solo; open nullo comes after clubs solo. In Ramsch, which takes place when none of the players will risk a game, each player takes (as in whist) all the tricks he makes — but only knaves are trumps-^-and the loser is he who makes most points. The value of the individual cards given in figures is as follows. The seven, eight and nine count nothing, the knave counts 2, the queen 3, king 4, ten 10 and ace II points. This gives the value of the whole game as 120 points. The game is won if the player gets one above the half of this sum, i.e. 61. The hand that does not make 30 is " Schneider," that is " cut," and " Schwarz " (black) if he does not make a single point. Skat is almost invariably played for money, and the calculation is made thus. Every game and every suit have a set value : — Colour game . . 3, 4, 5 and 6, according to the suits. Tourne1 . . . . 5, 6, 7, 8 and 12 (the last the grando). Solo . . . . 9, 10, n, 12 and 16 (grando). These figures are increased by the number of " matadores." Suppose a player of club solo holds all four knaves and the ace and ten of clubs, he has a game with 6 matadores. By matadores is accordingly meant an uninterrupted sequence, e.g. from the knave of clubs down to the seven of trumps. If the player has then all four knaves and all the cards of the trump suit in his hand (or in the skat), he has a game with 1 1 matadores. But if a single card is missing in the series, only the matadores of higher value than the missing card count. If, for instance, the knave of hearts is missing, the game in question has only 3 matadores. To the number of matadores is added I if the game is simply won, 2 if won with Schneider (cut), and 4 if the opponents are Schwarz (black). Thus, if a spade solo with 5 mata- dores is won with Schneider, the winner makes 5+2X11 = 77 points. SKATING (Dutch schaats, a skate), a mode of progression on ice with the aid of appliances called skates, attached to the sole of the shoe by straps, clamps or screws. The earliest form of skate that we know is that of the bone " runners" (still preserved in museums) worn by the primitive Norsemen. These were bound to the foot with thongs. The Norse sagas speak with pride of the national achievements in skating, and the early development of the art was due principally to the Norsemen, Swedes, Danes, Finns and the Dutch. Whatever its origin in Great Britain, skating was certainly a common sport in England in the i2th century, as is proved by an old translation of SKATING 167 Fitz-Steven's Description of London, published in 1180, in which the following words occur: — " When the great fenne or moore (which watereth the walls of the citie on the North side) is frozen, many young men play on the yce . . . asome tye bones to their feete and under their heeles, and shoving themselves with a little picked staffe do slide as swiftlie as a birde nyeth in the aire or an arrow out of a cross-bow." At what period the use of metal runners was introduced is unknown, but it was possibly not long after the introduction into northern Europe, in the 3rd century after Christ, of the art of working in iron. By the time of Charles II. skating had become popular, with the aristocracy as well as with the people, as is proved by entries in the diaries of Pepys and Evelyn. Skating does not appear to have been known in America before its colonization by Europeans, though bone slides were used to a limited extent by certain Eskimo tribes. The modern skate is in the form of a steel blade mounted upon a wood or metal base. In the old-fashioned skate the wooden base was strapped to the boot and kept firm by low spikes or screws that entered the sole. The next step in development was the " club-skate," originally Canadian, a patent appliance adjusted by clamps to fit the sole. There are several varieties of club-skates still popular. They have a broad blade with slightly curved edge, and are more suitable for figure-skating than for speed. The best skaters now use skates fixed permanently to special skating-boots. As in ancient times, skating is most practised by the Scandi- navians, Finns, Dutch and British, to whom in modern days have been added the Germans, Swiss, Austrians, and especially the Canadians and Americans. All these nations have central organizations which control skating, the British, founded in 1879, being the National Skating Association. The American, founded in 1884, is also called the National Skating Association, and generally co-operates with the Canadian Amateur Skating Association, founded in 1888. Speed Skating. — Of the earliest skating races no records have been kepi. That racing was a popular pastime in Holland two centuries and longer ago is proved by the numerous paintings of the time depicting racing scenes. In England the first skating match recorded was that in which Youngs of Mepal beat Thomson of Wimblingdon, both men of the Fens, in the year 1814. The Fen country has remained the chief English home of skating, owing to the abundance of ice in that district, and most British champions have been Fensmen, notably the Smarts of Welney. In January 1823 the Sporting Magazine recorded the first amateur match, which was between teams of six gentlemen from March and Chatteris, Mr Drake of Chatteris finishing first. In the same year a match took place for a silver bowl on the Maze Lake, Hertfordshire, over a course 5 m. long, the winner being Mr Blenkinsop. Racing, more or less intermittent, continued annually, the Fen skaters generally triumphing. In 1854 appeared the celebrated William (" Turkey ") Smart, who, after defeating Larmen Register in that year, remained champion for more than a decade. His nephew George (" Fish" ) Smart won the championship in 1878 and held it until 1889, only to relinquish it to his younger brother James. The first amateur championship of England was held in 1880 at Hendon, and was won by Mr F. Norman, a Fen skater. Owing to the great area of Canada and the northern United States, and the long and cold winter, the sport of skating is indulged in to a greater extent in North America than anywhere else, and local matches have been held for years in many places. Owing to the reputation of Charles June, who was considered to be the best American skater from 1838 for many years, his place of residence, Newburgh, N.Y., on the Hudson river, became the headquarters of American speed skating. This city also is the birthplace of the Donoghue family, who may be called the Smarts of America. The most noted members of this family were Mr T. Doncghue and his two sons, Tim and J. F. Donoghue, each in his day the fastest skater in the world, Joseph Donoghue winning every event at the international championship meeting at Amsterdam in 1891. There is practically no professional skating in America. Skating received a great impetus during the last decade of the i gth century, profiting both by the growing devotion of athletics and by increased facilities of communication, which led to inter- national competitions and the institutions of skating clubs in Switzerland and elsewhere, especially those of Davos, St Moritz and Grindelwald, where ice is available every winter. Although skating instruments are so simple, the evolution of the skate has advanced considerably, contributing to marked improvement in the skater's skill. In speed-skating an epoch was marked, first, by the almost universal adoption of the Norwegian type of racing skate; and, secondly, by the institution in 1892, at an inter- national congress held in Holland, of annual races for the cham- pionships of Europe and of the world. The Norwegian skate, introduced and perfected (-1887-1902) by Axel Paulsen and Harald "Hagen, is constructed with a view to lightness, strength, and diminution of friction. The blade, of specially hardened steel, is set in a hollow horizontal tube of aluminium, and connected by similar vertical tubes with foot- plates riveted to a closely-fitting boot with thin leather sole. It is 16-171 in. long and \-2 millimetres thick (i.e. -019-078 in.), the average employed for hard ice being f mm., often thinner towards the heel. This thickness is suitable for hard ice, but for softer ice TV or A in. is preferable. The blade is flat on the ice throughout, except for an inch in front; this flatness distributes the weight, and with the extreme thinness of blade reduces friction to a minimum. The edges are right-angled and sharp. The skater's style has been modified. ' The blade, when planted on the ice with weight upon it, describes a nearly . straight line, the last few feet only curving slightly outwards as the skate leaves the ice. Hence the stroke of the best modern skaters is almost, if not entirely, on the inside edge, a gain in directness and speed, the outside edge being used for curves only. The length of stroke has tended to diminish. Contrasted with the 12-18 yards' stroke attributed to the old English champion, W. "Turkey" Smart, which was partly on the outside edge, the modern racing stroke rarely exceeds 10 yds., and is usually nearer 6 or 7. Particular instances vary with conditions of ice, &c., but at St Petersburg, in 1896, Eden's stroke in the 10,000 metre race averaged about 75 yds., that of P. Oestlund at Davos, in 1900, the same (for one lap, 8 yds.). J. F. Donoghue's stride in 1891 was computed at about 6 yds. The general effect has been vastly increased speed, and a conjoint cause is the stricter training under- gone before important races. The races held annually since 1892-1893 for the championships of Europe and of the world, under the auspices of the International Skating Union, have assembled representatives from the skating countries of Europe and from America. The races are four in number, over distances of 500, 1500, 5000 and 10,000 metres, and to obtain the title of champion a skater must win three races and finish in the fourth. In addition, each country, when possible, holds its own championship races. In England races are still skated, with rare exceptions, on straight courses, with a sharp turn round a post or barrel, the distance prescribed for N.S.A. championships being i J m. with three turns. The Continental and international system involves a course with straight sides and curved ends of such a radius that no slackening of speed is necessary. In both instances the competitors race two at a time on a double track, and the time test is used. Each skater must keep his own course, to prevent either from using the other as pace- maker or wind-shield. The international regulations (Eiswettlauf- Ordnung) prescribe that, if a single track be used, the hindmost skater must keep at a minimum distance of 5 metres from the other, on pain of disqualification. The advantage of inner curve on a Continental course is given alternately, and a space left open between the tracks at one point for the skaters to cross. The curves are skated with a step-over-step action, and the direc- tion is always from right to left. Hence, on entering the curve the right foot is brought across in front and set down on the inside edge, the left passing behind on the outside edge, and being in its turn set down on an outside edge in front. The strokes thus form a series of tangents to the curve, and are little shorter than in the straight. With a radius of 25 and 30 metres, as at Davos, the curves can be skated with safety at full speed. The following are the amateur speed records at the principal distances: Distance. m. s. Name. Nationality. 500 metres(546 yds.) 1,000 ,, (1093 yds.) 1,500 ,, (1639 yds.) 5,000 ,, (3 m. l88yds.) 10,000 ,, (6 m. 376 yd O 44f 1 34» 2 22| 8 37f 17 50? R. Gundersen P. Oestlund P. Oestlund [. Eden P. Oestlund Norway Holland Norway i68 SKEAT, W. W. The following times and distances have also been recorded in America : Distance. h. m. s. Name. too yds i m. . . 91 35i J. S. Johnson H. P. Mosher I m. : . 2 36 J. Neilson 2m. . . •5 42! O. Rudd 5m. 14 24 O. Rudd 10 m. . . 50 m. . 3i n& 3 15 59s J. S. Johnson . F. Donoghue loo m. . . . 7 ii 3«& J. F. Donoghue See contemporary records in the Field, Outing, and other sporting journals, as well as the annual almanacs ; A Bibliography of Skating., by F. W. Foster (London, 1898); Skating, in the Badminton Library (1892) ; Skating, in the Oval Series (1897) ; " Skating," article in the Encyclopaedia of Sport (1899); Skating, in the Isthmian Library (1901); Skating, by W. T. Richardson (New York, 1903). Figure Skating. — This variety of skating,, as subjected to definite rules, is quite modern, having originated in the igth century, though the cutting of figures on the ice was regarded as an accomplishment by skaters long before. Although the " Edinburgh Skating Club," founded in 1642, is the oldest skating organization in Great Britain, the " Skating Club" of London, formed in 1830, is the most important, and for many years practically controlled figure skating. Many other important figure skating clubs now exist in Great Britain, for entrance into which a certain standard of proficiency is demanded. Figure skating championships are now held in many countries under the auspices of the national associations, the world's championship meeting being held by the International Skating Union. In England great impetus has been given to figure skating by the multiplication of clubs (e.g. Wimbledon, founded 1870, Thames Valley, Crystal Palace, &c.) in addition to the original " Skating Club" and those in Switzerland already mentioned; and from the construction of numerous artificial rinks, such as at Niagara and Prince's Club in London, as well as by the encouragement afforded by the National Skating Associa- tion, which offers ist, 2nd and 3rd class badges (and a special or " Diamond" badge for figure skating) for figure tests as well as for speed; in 1893 the Association founded a " London Skating Council," while in 1898 and in 1902 it held the figure skating championship of the world in London. In America comparatively little interest is shown in this branch of the sport. In the British style of figure skating, which is not recognized by the International Skating Union, the body is held as nearly as possible upright, the employed leg is kept straight, the un- employed leg carried behind, the arms hang loosely at the sides, and the head is turned in the direction of progress. In the so- called Anglo-Swiss style, affected by British skaters trained at Davos and St Moritz, the upright, almost rigid position is insisted on, even the unemployed leg being held straight. Much more latitude is allowed by the Continental school, though no definite rules of form have been laid down. The knee of the employed leg is slightly bent, and the unemployed leg is in constant action, being used to balance the body during the execution of the figures. The Continental is less difficult in execution than the British style, but its movements are less graceful. There are, of course, local modifications, the strictest exponents of the English school being the Davos and St Moritz skaters, while the Continental varies from the complete abandon of the French to the more restrained style of the Germans; Canadians cultivate also grape-vines and other two-footed figures. The essential features are, however, identical. Thus Englishmen consider of secondary importance loops, cross-cuts, continuous and hand-in-hand skating, though such figures are included in the ist class test of the N.S.A., and devote themselves mainly to " combined figures." Combined figures have been defined as " symmetrical execution of a figure by one or more pairs of skaters." Originally known as the " skating club figures," they have been gradually developed, and in 1891 delegates from the principal clubs established a regular terminology. The ideal number of skaters for a combined figure is four, though sixes and eights are seen, one being chosen " caller" of the movement to be skated. Various sets of " calls " are arranged at the discretion of different clubs, and consist ordinarily of " turns " and " changes." The N.S.A. offer a challenge shield for an annual competition in combined figure skating. There has, however, been a marked tendency towards unification of style, through Englishmen adopting Continental methods, rendered almost a necessity by the circumscribed area of artificial rinks. In 1901 the Figure Skating Club was established for this purpose, and its members attained such success that an English lady, Mrs Syers, gained the second place in the world's championship competition in 1902, and with her husband won the International Pair Skating in that year, and again in 1904; and in 1906 she won the ladies' amateur championship of the world, established in that year. The World's Figure Skating Championship was won in 1896 by Fuchs, Austria; 1897, G. Hugel, Austria; 1898, H. Grenander, Sweden; 1899 and 1900, G. Hugel, Austria; 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904, U. Salchow, Sweden. The competition consists of two parts, (a) compulsory figures, (b) free skating, the latter affording scope for the performance of dance steps and brilliant individual figures, such as the " sitting pirouette," and the " star," consist- ing of four crosses (forward rocker, back loop, back counter), invented by Herr Engelmann and splendidly rendered by Herr Salchow. The skates used for the English and Continental styles are shorter than those used for speed-skating, and differ in radius, though both are of the same type, i.e. a blade fastened to the boot by sole-plates, the " Mount Charles " pattern being the one generally adopted by Englishmen. The English radius is 7 ft., or now more usually 6 ft. ; the foreign, 5^ or even 5 ft., and the result is seen in the larger curves skated on the former, and the greater pace obtained owing to de- creased friction; at the same time,. the difficulty of making a turn is greater. The English skate has generally right-angled edges and blade of same thickness throughout, except in the " Dowler " variety, which is thicker towards the extremities. The foreign skate is some- times thicker in the middle than at the ends. See Skating, in the Badminton Library (1892); Skating, in the Oval Series (1897); A System of Figure-Skating, by T. Maxwell Witham (5th ed., 1897); On the Outside Edge, by G. H. Fowler (1897); Combined Figure-Skating, by George Wood (1899); "Skat- ing, in the Encyclopaedia of Sport (1899); Handbook of Figure- Skating, by G. H. Brown (Springfield, Mass., 1900); Lessons in Skating, by G. A. Meagher (1900); Figure-Skating, by M. S. Monier- Williams, in the Isthmian Library (1901); How to become a Skater, by G. D. Phillips, in Spalding's Athletic Library, New York. See also ROLLER-SKATING. SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1833- ), English philo- logist, was born in London on the 2 ist of November 1835, and educated at King's College, Highgate Grammar School, and Christ's College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in July 1860. In 1878 he was elected Ellington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge. He completed Mitchell Kemble's edition of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels, and did much other work both in Anglo-Saxon and in Gothic, but is perhaps most generally known for his labours in Middle English, and for his standard editions of Chaucer and Piers Plowman (see LANG- LAND). As he himself generously declared, he was at first mainly guided in the study of Chaucer by Henry Bradshaw, with whom he was to have participated in the edition of Chaucer planned in 1870 by the University of Oxford, having declined in Bradshaw's favour an offer of the editorship made to himself. Bradshaw's perseverance was not equal to his genius, and the scheme came to nothing for the time, but was eventually resumed and carried into effect by Skeat in an edition of six volumes (1894), a supplementary volume of Chaucerian Pieces being published in 1897. He also issued an edition of Chaucer in one volume'for general readers, and a separate edition of his Treatise on the Astrolabe, with a learned commentary. His edition of Piers Plowman in three parallel texts was published in 1886; and, besides the Treatise on the Astrolabe, he edited numerous books for the Early English Text Society, including the Bruce of John Barbour, the romances of Havelock the Dane and William of Palerne, and /Elfric's Lives of the Saints (4 vols.). For the Scottish Text Society he -edited The Kingis Quair, usually ascribed to James I. of Scotland, and he published an edition (2 vols., 1871) of Chatterton, with an investigation of the sources SKEFFINGTON— SKELETON 169 of the obsolete words employed by him. In pure philology Skeat's principal achievement is his Etymological English Dictionary (4 parts, 1879-1882; rev. and enlarged, 1910), the most important of all his works, which must be considered in connexion with the numerous publications of the English Dialect Society, in all of which, even when not edited by himself, he had a hand as the founder of the society and afterwards its- president. His other works include : Specimens of English from 1394 to 1597 (1871); Specimens of Early English from 1298 to 1393 (1872), in conjunction with R. Morris; Principles of English Etymology (2 series, 1887 and 1891); A Concise Dictionary of Middle English (1888), in conjunction with A. L. Mayhew; A Student's Pastime (1896), a volume of essays; The Chaucer Canon (1900); A Primer of Classical and English Philology (1905), &c., &c. SKEFFINGTON, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1465-1535), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged to a Leicestershire family and was sheriff of Leicestershire and Warwickshire under Henry VII. He was master of the ordnance and a member of parliament during the reign of Henry VIII., and in 1529 was appointed deputy in Ireland for Henry's son, the duke of Richmond, the nominal lord lieutenant of that country. He crossed over in August 1829, but his power was so circumscribed by instructions from Henry that the head of the Fitzgeralds, Gerald, 9th earl of Kildare, and not Skeffington, was the real governor of Ireland. This state of affairs lasted for three years and then in 1532 the deputy was recalled. In 1534, Kildare being in prison in England and his son Thomas, afterwards the loth earl, being in revolt, Skeffington was again appointed deputy. After some delay he landed at Dublin in October 1534 and marched at once to relieve Drogheda, but further progress in the work of crushing the rebellion was seriously delayed by his illness. However, in the spring of 1535 he was again in the field. He took Maynooth, the heavy artillery used by him o"n this occasion earning for him his surname of " the gunner "; he forced some of Kildare's allies to make peace and he captured Dungarvan. He died on the 3ist of December 1535. SKEGNESS, a seaside resort in the S. Lindsey, or Horncastle parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; 131 m. N. by E. from London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2140. Since 1873, when railway connexion was given with Firsby on the Grimsby branch line, the place has undergone a complete transformation, and now possesses good hotels and a pier. There are broad, firm sands, on which accouut Skegness is much visited. On bank holidays and similar occasions thousands of excursionists come from the manufacturing towns within reach. It is said that a former Skegness, an important haven, was obliterated by the encroach- ments of the sea; Leland, writing in the middle of the i6th century, states that proofs of this were then extant. SKELETON. In most animals, and indeed in plants, the shape could not be maintained without a thickening and harden- ing of certain parts to form a support for the whole. These hardened parts are called the skeleton (Gr. <7K«XXo>, I dry), because they dry up and remain after the rest of the body has disappeared. In animals the skeleton is usually, and in higher animals always, rendered more rigid and permanent by the deposit in it of lime salts, thus leading to the formation of bone. Sometimes, as in most of the lower or invertebrate animals, the skeleton is on the surface and thus acts as a protection as well as a framework. This is known as an exoskeleton. In the higher or vertebrate animals there is an internal or endoskelelon and the exoskeleton is either greatly modified or disappears. The following descriptive account is divided into (i) axial, or skeleton of the trunk, (2) appendicular or skeleton of the limbs, (3) skull, (4) visceral skeleton, or those parts which originally form the gill supports of water breathing vertebrates, (5) the exoskeleton, which is considered under the heading SKIN AND EXOSKELETON. These divisions, although they seem logical, cannot in practice be strictly adhered to, especially in the case of the visceral skeleton, because doing so would involve, among other things, separating the description of the upper jaw from that of the rest of the skull. For the microscopical structure of bone see CONNECTIVE TISSUES. xxv. 6 a Axial. The axial skeleton, from a strictly scientific point of view, should comprise a good deal of the skull as well as the spinal column, ribs and breast bone, but, as the skull (q.v.) is dealt with in a separate article, the three latter structures alone are dealt with here. The SPINE, SPINAL or VERTEBRAL COLUMN, chine or backbone in man consists of a number of superimposed bones which are named vertebrae, because they can move or turn somewhat on Soine each other. It lies in the middle of the back of the neck and trunk; has the cranium at its summit; the ribs at its sides, which in their turn support the upper limbs ; whilst the pelvis, with the lower limbs, is jointed to its lower end. The spine consists in an adult of twenty-six bones, in a young child of thirty-three, certain of the bones in the spine of the child becoming ankylosed or blended with each other in the adult. These blended bones lose their mobility and are called false vertebrae; whilst those which retain their mobility are the true verte- brae. The bones of the spine are arranged in groups, which are named from their position — vertebrae of the neck or cervical ; of the chest, thoracic, formerly called dorsal; of the loins, lumbar; of the pelvis, sacral; and of the tail, coccygeal or caudal; and the number of vertebrae in each group may be expressed in a formula. In man the formula is as follows: — C7Thi2L5SsCoc4 = 33 bones, as seen in the child ; but the five sacral vertebrae fuse together into a single bone — the sacrum — and the four coccygeal into the single coccyx. Hence the sacrum and coccyx of the adult are the false, whilst the lumbar, dorsal and cervical are the true vertebrae. The vertebrae are irregularly-shaped bones, but as a rule have certain characters in common. Each possesses a body and an arch, which enclose a ring, with certain processes and notches. The body, or centrum, is a short cylinder, which by its upper and lower surfaces is connected by means of fibro- cartilage with the bodies of the verte- brae immediately above and below. The collective series of vertebral bodies forms the great column of the spine. The arch, also called neural arch, because it encloses the spinal marrow or nervous axis, springs from the back of the cen- trum, and consists of two symmetrical C? The cervical vertebrae, halves united behind in the middle line. p12 The thoracic Each half hasan anterior part or pedicle, L6~ The lumbar, and a posterior part or lamina. The g5 The sacral rings collectively form the spinal canal. Coc/The coccygeal The processes usually spring from the CC The series of' twelve arch. The spinous process projects ribs on one side, backward from the junction of the two ps The presternum laminae, and the collective series of Ms The meso-sternum. these processes gives to the entire Xs The xiphisternum. column the spiny character from which The dotted line W has arisen the term spine, applied to it. represents the vertical I he transverse processes project out- axjs of tne Spine. ward, one from each side of the arch. The articular processes project, two upward and two downward, and are for connecting adjacent vertebrae together. The notches, situated on the upper and lower borders of the pedicles, form in the articulated spine the intervertebral foramina through which the nerves pass out of the spinal canal. The vertebrae in each group have characters which specially dis- tinguish them. In man and all mammals, with few exceptions, whatever be the length of the neck, the cervical vertebrae cervical are seven in number. In man the body of a cervical vertebrae vertebra is comparatively small, and its upper surface is transversely concave; the arch has long and obliquely sloping laminae; the ring is large and triangular; the spine is short, bifid, and horizontal ; the transverse process consists of two bars of bone, the anterior springing from the side of the body, the posterior from the arch, and uniting externally to enclose a foramen (vertebrarterial) through which, as a rule, the vertebral artery passes; the articular processes are flat and oblique, and the upper pair of notches are deeper than the lower. The first, second and seventh cervical vertebrae have characters which specially distinguish them. The first, or atlas, has no body or spine: its ring is very large, and on each side of the ring is a thick mass of bone, the lateral mass, by Coc* FIG. i.— The Axial Skeleton. 170 SKELETON [AXIAL which it articulates with the occipital bone above and the second vertebra below. The second vertebra, axis, or Vertebra dentata, has its body surmounted by a thick, tooth-like odontoid process, which is regarded as the body of the atlas displaced from its proper vertebra and fused with the axis. This process forms a pivot round which the atlas and head move in turning the head from one side to the other; the spine is large, thick and deeply bifid. The seventh, called Vertebra prominens, is distinguished by its long prominent spine, which is not bifid, and by the small size of the foramen at the root of the transverse process. In the human spine the distinguishing char- acter of all the cervical vertebrae is the foramen at the root of the trans- verse process. The thoracic vertebrae, formerly called dorsal, are twelve i.i number in the human spine. They are intermediate in size and position to the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, and are all distinguished by having one or two smooth surfaces on each side of the body for articulation with the head of one or two ribs. The arch is short and with imbricated laminae; the ring is nearly circular; the spine is oblique, elongated and bayonet- shaped; the transverse processes are directed back and out, not bifid, and with an articular surface in front for the tubercle of a rib ; and the articular processes are flat and nearly vertical. The first, twelfth, eleventh, tenth and sometimes the ninth, thoracic verte- brae are distinguished from the rest. The first is in shape like the seventh cervical, but has no foramen at the root of the transverse process, and has two articular facets on each side of the body ; the ninth has sometimes only one facet at the side of the body; the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth have invariably only a single facet on the side of the body, but the eleventh and twelfth have stunted transverse processes, and the twelfth has its lower articular processes shaped like those of a lumbar vertebra. The lumbar vertebrae in man are five in number. They are the lowest of the true vertebrae, and vertebrae. ?lso the 'argest, especially in the centrum. The arch has short and deep laminae; the ring is triangular; the spine is mas- sive and hatchet-shaped; the trans- verse processes are long and pointed ; the articular are thick and strong, the superior pair concave, the inferior convex, and the inferior notches, as in the thoracic vertebrae, are deeper than the superior. In the lumbar vertebrae and in the lower thoracic an accessory process projects from the base of each transverse process, and a mammillary tubercle from each superior articular process. The fifth lumbar vertebra has its body much deeper in front than behind and its spine is less massive. The sacrum is composed of five originally separate vertebrae fused into a single bone. It forms "m- the upper and back wall of the pelvis, is triangular in form, and possesses two surfaces, two borders, a base, and an apex. The anterior or pelvic surface is concave, and is marked by four transverse lines, which indicate its original subdivision into five bones, and by four pairs of foramina, through which are transmitted the anterior sacral nerves. Its posterior surface is convex; in the middle line are four spines, because in the last sacral vertebra the spinal canal is not closed behind. On each side of these are two rows of tubercles, the inner of which are the conjoined articular and mammillary processes, the outer the transverse processes of the originally distinct vertebrae. Between these rows four pairs of foramina are found transmitting the posterior sacral nerves from the sacral canal, which extends From Arthur Thomson, Cunning- ham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 2. — Vertebral Column as seen from behind. through the bone from base to near the apex, and forms the lower end of the spinal canal. By its borders the sacrum is articulated with the haunch-bones — by its base with the last lumbar vertebra, by its apex with the coccyx. The human sacrum is broader in proportion to its length than in other mammals; this great breadth gives solidity to the lower part of the spine, and, conjoined with the size of the lateral articular surfaces, it permits a more perfect junction with the haunch-bones, and is correlated with the erect position. Owing to the need in woman for a wide pelvis, the sacrum is broader than in man. (For details see A. M. Paterson, " The Human Sac- rum," Sci. Trans. R. Dublin Soc. vol. v. ser. 2.) The coccyx consists of four or five vertebrae in the human spine though the last one is sometimes suppressed. It is the rudimentary tail, but instead of projecting back, as in mammals _^ generally, is curved forward, and is not visible externally, mw*- an arrangement which is also found in the anthropoid apes and in Hoffmann's sloth. Not only is the tail itself rudimentary in man, but the vertebrae of which it is composed are small, and represent merely the bodies and transverse processes of the true vertebrae. As there are no arches, the ring is not formed, and the spinal canal does not extend, therefore, beyond the fourth piece of the sacrum. The first coccygeal vertebra, in addition to a body, possesses two processes or horns, which are the superior articular processes. The human spine is more uniform in length in persons of the same race than might be supposed from the individual differences in stature, the variation in the height of the body in adults being due chiefly to differences in the length of the lower limbs. The average length of the spine is 28 in.; its widest part is at the base of the sacrum, from which it tapers down to the tip of the coccyx. It diminishes also in breadth from the base of the sacrum upwards to the region of the neck. Owing to the projection of the spines behind and the transverse processes on each side, it presents an irregular outline on those aspects; but in front it is more uniformly rounded, owing to the convex form of the antero-lateral surfaces of the bodies of its respective vertebrae. In its general contour two series of curves may be seen, an antero-posterior and a lateral. The antero-posterior is the more important. In the infant at the time of birth the sacro- coccygeal part of the spine is concave forward, but the rest of the spine, except a slight forward concavity in the series of thoracic vertebrae, is almost straight. When the infant begins to sit up in the arms of its nurse, a convexity forward in the region of the neck appears, and subsequently, as the child learns to walk, a convexity forward in the region of the loins. Hence in the adult spine a series of convexo-concave curves are found, which are alternate and mutually dependent, and are associated with the erect attitude of man. A lateral curve, convex to the right, opposite the third, fourth, and fifth thoracic vertebrae, with compensatory curve convex to the left immediately above and below, is due apparently to the much greater use of the muscles of the right arm over those of the left, drawing the spine in that region somewhat to the right. In disease of the spine its natural curvatures are much increased, and the deformity known as humpback is produced. As the spine forms the central part of the axial skeleton, it acts as a column to support not only the weight of the body, but of all that can be carried on the head, back and in the upper limbs: by its transverse and spinous processes it serves also to give attachment to numerous muscles, ana the transverse processes of its thoracic vertebrae are also for articulation with the ribs. The THORAX, PECTUS, or CHEST is a cavity or enclosure the walls of which are in part formed of bone and cartilage. Its skeleton consists of the sternum in front, the twelve thoracic _. vertebrae behind, and the twelve ribs, with their corre- °' spending cartilages, on each side. The sternum or breast bone is an elongated bone which inclines downward and forward in the front wall of the chest. It consists of three parts — -an upper, called manubrium or presternum ; „ a middle, the gladiolus or mesosternum ; and a lower, the ensiform process or xiphisternum. Its anterior and posterior surfaces are marked by transverse lines, which indicate not only the subdivision of the entire bone into three parts, but that of the meso- sternum into four originally distinct segments. Each lateral border of the bone is marked by seven depressed surfaces for articulation with the seven upper ribs: at each side of the upper border of the presternum is a sinuous depression, where the clavicle, a bone of the upper limb, articulates with this bone of the axial skeleton. The xiphisternum remains cartilaginous up to a late period of life, and Irom its pointed form has been named the ensiform cartilage. The ribs or costae, twenty-four in number, twelve on each side of the thorax, consist not only of the bony ribs, but of a bar of cartilage continuous with the anterior end of each bone, c st e called a costal cartilage, so that they furnish examples of a cartilaginous skeleton in the adult human body; in aged persons these cartilages usually become converted into bone. The upper seven ribs are connected by their costal cartilages to the side of the sternum, and are called sternal or true ribs; the lower five do not reach the sternum, and are named a-sternal or false, and of these the two lowest, from being comparatively unattached in front, are called free or floating. Another and perhaps more useful classification is to speak of the first seven ribs as vertebro-sternal, the next three as vertebro-costal, and the last two as vertebral. All the ribs are AXIAL] SKELETON 171 articulated behind to the thoracic vertebrae, and as they are sym- metrical on the two sides of the body, the ribs in any given animal are always twice as numerous as the thoracic vertebrae in that animal. They form a series of osseocartilaginous arches, which From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 3. — The Thorax as seen from the Front. extend more or less perfectly around the sides of the chest. A rib is an elongated bone, and as a rule possesses a head, a neck, a tubercle and a shaft. The head usually has two articular surfaces, and is connected to the side of the body of two adjacent thoracic vertebrae ; the neck is a constricted part of the bone, uniting the head to the shaft; the tubercle, close to the junction of the shaft and neck, is the part which articulates with the transverse process of the vertebra. The shaft is com- pressed, possesses an inner and outer surface, and an upper and lower border, but from the shaft being somewhat twisted on itself, the direction of the surfaces and borders is not uniform throughout the length of the bone. The ribs slope from their attachments to the spine, at first outward, downward and back- ward, then downward and forward, and where the curve changes from the backward to the SoP_j forward direction an angle is formed on the rib. The angle and the tubercle are at the same place in the first rib and in each succeeding rib the angle is a little farther from the tubercle SpP, than in the last. The first, tenth, eleventh and twelfth ribs articulate each with only one vertebra so that there is only one surface on the head. The surface of the first rib which is not in contact with the lung is directed upward, forward and outward while that of the second rib is much more outward; the eleventh and twelfth ribs are rudimentary, have neither neck nortubercle, and are pointed anteriorly. The ribs are by no means uniform in length: they increase from the first to the seventh or eighth, and then diminish to the twelfth; the first and twelfth are therefore the shortest ribs. The first and second costal cartilages are almost horizontal, but the others are directed upward and inward. In its general form the chest may be likened to a barrel which is wider below than above. It is rounded at the sides and flattened in front and behind, so that a man can lie either on his back or his belly. Its upper opening slopes downward and forward, is small in size, and allows the passage of the windpipe, gullet, large veins and nerves into the chest, and of several large arteries out of the chest into the neck. The base or lower boundary of the cavity is much larger than the upper, slopes downward and backward, and is occupied by the diaphragm, a muscle which separates the chest from the cavity of the abdomen. The transverse diameter is greater than the antero- posterior, and the antero-posterior is greater laterally, where the lungs are lodged, than in the mesial plane, which is occupied by the heart. Embryology. — The first appearance of any stiffening of the embryo is the formation of the notochord, which in the higher vertebrates is a temporary structure and is not converted into cartilage or bone. It also differs from the bony skeleton in that it is derived from the entoderm or inner of the three layers of the embryo while the bony skeleton is formed from the mesoderm or middle layer and, just as the entoderm is an older layer of the embryo than the mesoderm, so the notochord or entodermal skeleton precedes, both in embryology and in phylogeny or comparative anatomy, the bony mesodermal skeleton. In the accompanying figure (fig. 4) the notochord is seen in section fully formed and lying between the entoderm and the neural canal. Its first formation is at an earlier period than this, before the neural groove has closed into a canal, and it appears at first as an upward groove from the most dorsal part of the entoderm in what will later on be the cervical region of the embryo. The groove, by the union of its edges, becomes a tube, sometimes spoken of as the chordal tube, but the cavity of this is soon obliterated by the growth of its cells, so that a solid elastic rod is formed which grows forward as far as the pituitary region of the skull and backward to where the end of the coccyx will be. While the development of the notochord is going on the mesoderm on each side of it is dividing itself into a series of masses called mesodermic somites (see fig. 4, PS) or protovertebrae. This process begins in the cervical region and proceeds forward and backward until thirty-eight pairs have been formed for the neck and trunk and probably four extra ones for the occipital region of the skull. Each of these somites consists of three parts: that nearest the surface ectoderm is the cutaneous lamella (fig. 4, CL). Deep to this and separated in the earlier-formed somites by a space is the muscle layer (fig. 4, ML) while deepest of all and nearest the nerve cord and notochord is the scleratogenous layer (fig. 4, SL). It is this layer which gradually meets its fellow of the opposite side and encloses the nerve cord and the notochord in continuous tubes of mesodermal tissue, thus forming the membranous vertebral column, which is perforated forthe exit of the spinal nerves, but the intervals between the successive mesodermic somites are still marked by the tissue being rather denser there. The next stage is that of chondrification or the conversion into cartilage of each segment of the membranous vertebral column surrounding the notochord. In this way the bodies of the cartilaginous vertebrae are formed and each of these is segmental, that is, it corresponds to a muscle segment and a spinal nerve. The cartilaginous neural arch, however, which surrounds the nerve cord is intersegmental and is formed in the denser fibrous tissue which separates each somite from the next. This also applies to the cartilaginous ribs which appear in the fibrous intervals (myo- EN From Alfred H. Young and Arthur Robinson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 4. — Transverse Section of a Ferret Embryo, showing further differentiation of the mesoderm. CC Central canal. CL Cutaneous lamella of protovertebral somite. CO Coelom. EC Ectoderm. EN EntoJerm. GC Germinal cell. SG SL SoM ML Muscular layer of meso- dermic somite. N Notochord. NC Neural crest. PA Primitive aorta. PS Mesodermic somite. SB Spongioblast. SC Spinal cord. commata) between the muscle plates (myotomes), and so it is easy to realize that each typical rib must articulate with the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae, but with the neural arch, through its trans- verse process, of only one. The intersegmental tissue between the bodies of the vertebrae becomes the intervertebral discs and in the centre of these a pulpy Spinal ganglion. Scleratogenous layer of protovertebral somite. Somatic mesoderm. SoP Somatopleure. SpM Splanchnic mesoderm. SpP Splanchnopleure. 172 SKELETON [AXIAL mass is found which contains some remnants of the notochord. Elsewhere this structure is pressed out of existence and there is no further use for it when the cartilaginous vertebrae are once formed. One other series of structures must be mentioned though they do not 16 From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 5. — -Ossification of Vertebrae. Cervical Vertebra. Centre for body. Superior epiphysial plate. Anterior bar of transverse process developed by lateral extension from pedicle. Neuro-central synchondrosis. Inferior epiphysial plate. a which Lumbar Vertebra. 6 Body. 7 Superior epiphysial plate. 8 Epiphysis for mammillary process. 9 Epiphysis for transverse process. 10 Epiphysis for spine. 11 Neuro-central synchondrosis. 12 Inferior epiphysial plate. Dorsal Vertebra. 13 Centre for body. 14 Superior epiphysial plate, appears about puberty; unites at 25th year. 15 Neuro-central synchondrosis does not ossify till 5th or 6th year. 1 6 Appears at puberty; unites at 25th year. 17 Appears at puberty; unites at 25th year. 18 Appears about 6th week. Axis. 19 Centre for transverse process and neural arch; appears about 8th week. 20 Synchondroses close about 3rd year. 5th to 6th year. play any great part in human development. In the intersegmental tissue ventral to each of the interyertebral disks a transverse rod of cells, known as a hypochordal bar, is formed which connects the heads of two opposite ribs. In man the greater number of these either disappear or form the middle fasciculus of the stellate ligament which joins the head of the rib to the intervertebral disk, but in the case of the atlas the rod chondrifies to form the anterior (ventral) arch which is therefore intersegmental, while the segmental body of the atlas, through which the notochord is passing, joins the axis to form the odontoid process. These hypochordal bars are interesting as the last remnant in man of the haemal arch of the vertebrae of fishes (see subsection on comparative anatomy). In the cervical region the ribs are very short and form the ventral boundary of the foramen for the vertebral artery. They are so short that little movement occurs between them and the rest of the vertebra, hence no joints are formed and the rib element becomes fused with the centrum and transverse process, leaving the vertebrarterial canal between. Sometimes in the seventh cervical vertebra the rib element is much longer and then of course more movement occurs, and instead of fusing with the rest of the vertebra it remains as a separate cervical rib with definite joints. The sternum is developed according to G. Ruge by a fusion of the ventral ends of the ribs on each side thus forming two parallel longi- tudinal bars which chondrify and eventually fuse together in the mid line. The anterior seven or sometimes eight ribs reach tlje sternum, but the ventral ends of the ninth and sometimes the eighth probably remain as the xiphisternum, indeed a fibrous band is sometimes seen joining the caudal end of that structure to the ninth rib. The fusion of the two parallel bars begins at their cephalic ends and sometimes is interrupted toward the caudal end, thus leading to cleft or perforate sternum. At the cephalic end of each sternal bar, close to the place where the clavicles articulate, is an imperfectly separated patch of cartilage which usually fuses completely with the presternum, though sometimes it remains distinct and may later acquire a separate centre of ossification and so form a separate episternal bone on each side. If the sternum is to be regarded as the fused ventral ends of the thoracic ribs, the episternal elements are probably the remnants of the ventral ends of the seventh cervical ribs. The question of the morphological meaning of the sternum and surrounding parts cannot be settled entirely by a study of their development even when combined with what we know of their comparative anatomy or phylogeny. Professor A. M. Paterson (The Human Sternum, London, 1904) takes a dif- ferent view from the foregoing and regards the sternum as derived from the shoulder girdle. To this point of view we shall return in the section on comparative anatomy. The last stage in the development of the axial skeleton is the ossification of the cartilage; bony 21 Centre for summit of odontoid pro- centres appear first in each half of the neural arches cess; appears 3rd to 5th year, fuses of the vertebrae and a little later (tenth week) 8th to 1 2th year. double centres are deposited in the centra though 22 Appears about 5th or 6th month ; these are so close together and fuse so rapidly that unites with opposite side 7th to 8th their double nature is often only indicated by their month. oval or dumb-bell-like appearance. The bone in the 23 Synchondrosis closes from 4th to 6th two halves of the neural arch spreads and fuses in year. the mid dorsal line, and later on joins the ossified 24 Inferior epiphysial plate; appears centrum ventral to the facet for the rib. This point about puberty, unites about 25th of junction remains as a narrow strip of cartilage for a long time and is known as the neuro-central suture or synchondrosis. The head of the rib therefore articulates with the developmental neural arch instead of the centrum. About the age of body; year. 25 Single or double centre for appears about 5th month. Atlas. 26 Posterior arch and lateral developed from a single centre on as thm plates -ust aboye and -be,ow t-he body (gee 11 fig. 5—2 and 3).- These are fully united by the twenty-fifth year. In the lower two cervical verte- puberty secondary centres or epiphyses appear at 's the tips of the transverse and spinous processes and appears either side, 7th week. 27 Anterior arch and portion of superior braeYhere ''is' often a separate centre for the part articular surface developed from correspondmg to the rib, while the lumbar have an single or double centre, appearing cxtra epiphysis for the mammillary process. The during ist year. atlas has one centre for each side of the dorsal part Dorsal Vertebra. of the arch and one (probably two fused) for the 28 Epiphysis for transverse process ; ventral part, which has already been referred to as appears about puberty, unites about a hypochordal bar. In the axis, in addition to the 25th year. ordinary centres, there is one for each side of the 29 Epiphysis appears about puberty; odontoid process and one for the tip (see fig. 5 — unites about 25th or 27th year. 20, 21, 22). The sacral vertebrae have the usual 30 Centre for neural arch on either side ; centres, except that the anterior part of the lateral appears about 6th or 7th week, the mass (costal element) has a separate centre and laminae unite from birth to 1 5th that there are two extra centres on each side of month. the whole sacrum where it articulates with the ilium 31 Centre for body; appears about 6th (see fig. 6). week, unites with neural arch from The ribs ossify by one primary centre appearing about the sixth week and by secondary ones for the tubercle and head. The sternum is ossified by centres which do not appear opposite the attachment of the ribs but alternately with them, so that although the original From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 6. — Ossification of Sacrum — a,a, Centres for bodies; 6,5, Epiphysial plates on bodies; c,c, Centres for costal elements; d,d, Centres for neural arches ; e,e, Lateral epiphyses. cartilaginous structure is probably intersegmental the bony segments are segmental like those of the vertebral centra. As seven ribs articulate with the sternum six centres of ossification between them might be looked for, but there is so little room between the points of attachment of the sixth and seventh ribs that centres do not occur AXIAL] SKELETON here as a rule. Consequently five centres are found; those for the two higher segments being single while the lower ones are often double. Later on in life a centre for the xiphisternum appears. At birth. At 3 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 7. — Ossification of the Sternum. In this figure the second as well as the third segment of the body possesses two centres, j^ 1 Appears about 5th or 6th month; III. segment unites month. with II. about puberty; IV. 2 Appear about 7th month; segment unites with III- unite from 20 to 25. early childhood. [later. 3 Appear about 8th or gth 4 Appears about 3rd year or For further details see C. S. McMurrich, The Development of the Human Body (London, 1906). This includes bibliography, but G. Ruge's paper on the development of the sternum (Morph. Jahrb. vi. 1880) is of special importance. Comparative Anatomy. — Just as in development the [notochord forms the earliest structure for stiffening the embryo, so in the animal kingdom it appears before the true backbone or vertebral column is evolved. This is so important that the older phylum of Vertebrata has now been expanded into that of Chordata to include all animals which either permanently or temporarily possess a noto- chord. In the subphylum Adelochorda, which includes the worm- like Balanoglossus, as well as the colonial forms Rhabdopleura and Cephalodiscus, an entodermal structure, apparently corresponding to the notochord of higher forms, is found in the dorsal wall of the pharynx. In the subphylum Urochorda or Tunicata, to which the ascidians or sea-squirts belong, the notochord is present in the tail region only and as a rule disappears after the metamorphosis from the larval to the adult form. In the Acrania, which are represented by Amphioxus (the lancelet), and are sometimes classed as the lowest division of the subphylum Vertebrata, the notochord is permanent and extends the whole length of the animal. Both this and the nerve cord dorsal to it are enclosed in tubes of mesodermal connective tissue which are continuous with the fibrous myocom- mata between the myotomes. Here then is a notochord and a membranous vertebral column resembling a stage in man's develop- ment. In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) the notochord and its sheath persist through life, but in the adult lamprey (Petromyzon) cartilaginous neural arches are developed. In cartilaginous ganoid fishes like the sturgeon, the notochord is persistent and has a strong fibrous sheath into which the cartilage from the neural arches encroaches while in the elasmobranch fishes (sharks and rays) the cartilaginous centra are formed and grow into the notochord, thus causing its partial absorption. The growth is more marked peri- pherally than centrally, and so each centrum when removed is seen to be deeply concave toward both the head and tail ; such a vertebra is spoken of as amphicoelous and with one exception is always found in fishes which have centra. In the body fish (Teleostei) and mud- fish (Dipnoi) the vertebrae are ossified. If a vertebra from the tail of a bony fish like the herring be ex- amined, it will be seen to have a ventral (haemal) arch surrounding the caudal blood-vessels and corresponding to the dorsal or neural arch which is also present. In the anterior or visceral part of the body the haemal arch is split and its two sides spread out deep to the muscles and lying between them and the coelom to form the ribs. In the elasmobranchs on the other hand the ribs lie among the muscles as they do in higher vertebrates, and the fact that both kinds of ribs are coexistent in the same segments in the interesting and archaic Nilotic fish Polypterus bichir shows that they are de- veloped independently of one another. The sternum is never found in fishes with the possible exception of the comb-toothed shark (Notidanus). Among the Amphibia the tailed forms (Urodela) have amphicoelous vertebrae in embryonic life and so have some of the adult salamanders, but usually the intercentral remnants of the notochord are pressed out of existence by the forward growth of the centrum behind it, so that in the adult each vertebra is only concave behind (opisthocoelous). In the Anura (frogs and toads), on the other hand, the centra are usually concave forward (procoelous) and some of the posterior ones become fused into a long delicate bone, the urostyle. The ribs of urodeles have forked vertebral ends and are thus attached to the centrum as well as to the neural arch of a vertebra; this forking is supposed to be homologous with the double ribs of Polypterus already referred to. The sternum as a constant structure first appears in amphibians and is more closely connected with the shoulder girdle than with the ribs, the ventral ends of which, except in the salamander Necturus, are rudimentary. It is not certain whether it is the homologue of the sternum of the fish Notidanus, but the subject is discussed by T. J. Parker and A. M. Paterson (The Human Sternum, London, 1904, p. 50), and still requires further research. If the sternum be regarded as a segmental structure or series of segmental structures corresponding to the centra of the vertebrae there is no reason why it should not develop independently of the intersegmental ribs and, when the ribs are suppressed, gain a secondary connexion with the shoulder girdle In Reptilia the centra of the vertebrae are usually procoelous, though there are a few examples, such as the archaic Tuatera lizard (Sphenodon), in which the amphicoelous arrangement persists. There are several cervical vertebrae instead of one, which is all the amphibians have. The odontoid bone is usually separate both from the atlas and axis while, between the atlas and the skull, there are rudiments of an extra intervertebral dorsal structure or pro-atlas in some forms such as the crocodile and Sphenodon lizard. Two sacral vertebrae (i.e. vertebrae articulating with the ilium) are generally present instead of the one of the Amphibia, but they are not fused together as in mammals. In the tail region haemal arches are often found enclosing the caudal artery and vein as they are also in urodele amphibians; in some species these are separate and arc then spoken of as chevron bones. In the Crocodilia intervertebral disks first appear. Ribs are present in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions, and in the Chelonia (tortoises) the cervical ones blend with the vertebrae as they do in higher forms. In crocodiles a definite vertebrarterial canal is established in the cervical region which henceforward becomes permanent. The shafts of the ribs are sometimes all in one piece as in snakes or they may be developed by three separate centres as in Sphenodon with intervening joints. In these cases dorsal, intermediate and ventral elements to each shaft are present. In Crocodilia and Sphenodon there are spurs from each thoracic rib which overlap the next rib behind and are known as uncinate processes; they are developed in connexion with the origin of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen and are very constant in birds. The ventral elements of some of the hinder ribs are found in the Crocodilia lying loose in the myocommata of the rectus and obliquus internus (inscriptiones tendineae) and are known as abdominal ribs, while the sacral vertebrae articulate with the ilium through the intervention of short rods of bone, sometimes called pleurapophyses, which are no doubt sacral ribs. The sternum of reptiles is a broad plate of cartilage which may be calcified but is seldom converted into true bone; it always articulates with the coracoids (see section Appendicular) anteriorly and with a variable number of ribs laterally and posteriorly. It should not be confounded with the dagger-shaped interclavicle which, like the clavicles, is a membrane bone and overlaps the sternum ventrally. It is also probable that the interclavicle is morphologically quite distinct from the episternum, of which vestiges are present in man and are referred to above in the section on embryology (see fig. 27). In birds the characteristics are largely reptilian with some specialized adaptations to their bipedal locomotion and power of flight. One effect of this is that the two true sacral vertebrae become secondarily fused with the adjacent lumbar, caudal and even thoracic, and these again fuse with the ilium so that the posterior part of a bird's trunk is very rigid. The neck, on the other hand, is very movable and the centra articulate by means of saddle-shaped joints which give the maximum of movement combined with strength (see JOINTS). The caudal vertebrae are fused into a flattened bone, the pygostyle, to support the tail feathers. In the fossil bird Archaeopteryx the centra are amphicoelous and the long tail has separate caudal vertebrae. The ribs are few and consist of dorsal (vertebral) and ventral (sternal) parts; the former almost always have uncinate processes. Free cervical ribs are often present and Archaeopteryx possessed abdominal ribs. The sternum is very large and in flying birds (Carinatae) has a median keel (carina) projecting from it, while the non-flying, ostrich-like birds (Ratitae) have no such structure. In Mammalia the centra articulate by means of the intervertebral disks and it is only in this class that the epiphysial plates appear though these are absent in the Monotremata (duck-mole, &c.) and Sirenia (sea-cows). The cervical vertebrae are with a few exceptions (two-toed and three-toed sloths and the manatee or sea-cow) always seven in number, and some, usually all, of them have a vertebrar- terial canal in the transverse process. In some of the Cetacea they are fused together. In the Ornithorhynchus the odontoid is a separate bone, as it is in many reptiles, but this part includes the facets by means of which the axis and atlas articulate. The thoracic '74 SKELETON [AXIAL vertebrae vary from ten in some of the whales and the peba armadillo to twenty-four in the two-toed sloth, though thirteen or fourteen is the commonest number. In the anterior part of the thoracic region the spines point backward, while in the posterior thoracic and lumbar regions they have a forward direction. There is always one spine in the posterior thoracic region, which is vertical, and the vertebra which bears this is known as the anticlinal vertebra. The FIG. 8. — Anterior Surface of Sixth Cervical Vertebra of Dog. s Spinous process. as Anterior zygapophysis. •a Vertebrarterial canal. t Transverse process. I' Its costal lamella. FIG. 9. — Side View of the First Lumbar Vertebra of a Dog (Canis familiaris). s Spinous process. m Metapophysis. az Anterior zygapophysis. pz Posterior zygapophysis. a Anapophysis. I Transverse (costal) pro- lumbar vertebrae vary from two in the Ornithorhynchus and some of the armadillos to twenty-one in the dolphin, the average number being probably six. Both the mammillary and accessory tubercles (meta- and ana-pophyses) are in some forms greatly enlarged. It is usually held that the former are morphologically muscular pro- cesses while the latter represent the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae. In the American edentates additional articular processes (zygapophyses) are developed, so that these animals are sometimes divided from the old-world edentates and spoken of as Xenarthra. Lying ventral to the intervertebral disks in many mammals small paired ossicles are occasionally found; these are called inter- centra and are ossifications in the hypochordal bar (see subsection on embryology). They probably represent the places where the chevron bones or haemal arches would be attached and are the serial homologues of the anterior arch of the atlas (see fig. 10). Boulenger has pointed out that these intercentra, either as paired or median ossicles, are often found in lizards (P.Z.S., 1891, p. 114). The sacrum con- sists of true sacral vertebrae, which directly articulate with the sacrum, and false, which are caudal vertebrae fused with the others to form a single bone. There is also reason to believe that vertebrae which are originally lumbar become secondarily included in the sacrum because in the develop- ment of man the pelvis is at first attached to the thirtieth vertebra, but gradually shifts forward until it reaches the twenty -fifth, twenty-sixth and twenty-seventh ; the twenty- fifth or first sacral vertebra has, however, a frequent tendency to revert to the lumbar type and sometimes may do so on one After F. G. Parsons, "On Anatomy of sjde but not on the other. A. AihtrwAfncw.-ProcZool.Soc.,^ Paterson, on the other hand, FIG. io.— The Intercentra of brings forward evidence to 'the Lower Part of the Vertebral prove that the human sacrum Column, a, a, a, Intercentra. undergoes a backward rather than a forward shifting (Scientif. Trans. R. Dublin Society, vol. v., ser. II, p. 123). Taking the vertebrae which fuse together as an arbitrary definition of the sacrum, we find that the number may vary from one in Cercopithecus patas to thirteen in some of the armadillos, and, if the Cetacea are included, seventeen in the bottle-nosed dolphin, Tursiops. Four seems to be about the average of sacral vertebrae in the mammalian class and of these one or two are true sacral. In some of the Edentata the posterior sacral vertebrae are fused with the ischium, in other words the great sacro-sciatic ligament is ossified. The lateral centres of ossification which form the articular surface for the ilium probably represent rib elements. The caudal or tail vertebrae vary from none at all in the bat Megaderma to forty-nine in the pangolin (Manis macrura). The anterior ones are remarkable for usually having chevron bones (shaped like a V) on the ventral surface of the intercentral articulation. These protect the caudal vessels and give attachment to the ventral tail muscles. The ribs in mammals correspond in number to the thoracic vertebrae. In mono- tremes the three parts of the rib (dorsal, intermediate and ventral) already noticed in the reptiles are found, but usually the intermediate part is sup- pressed. The ventral part generally remains cartilaginous as it does in man though sometimes it ossifies as in the armadillos. In the typical pronograde mammals the shape of the ribs differs from that of the higher Primates and man: they are so curved that the dorso-ventral diameter of the thorax is greater than the transverse while in the higher Primates the thorax is broader from side to side than it is FiG. II. — Anterior Surface of Fourth Caudal Vertebra of Por- poise (Phocaena communis). s Spinous process. dorso-ventrally. In this respect the bats agree with man and the lemurs with the pronograde mammals. In some whales the first rib articulates by an apparently double head with two verte- brae; this is probably the result of a m t Metapophysis. Transverse process. h Chevron bone. cervical rib joining it a little way from the vertebral column, and the result is homologous with those cases in man in which a cervical rib joins the first thoracic as it sometimes does. In the toothed whales, of which the porpoise is an example, the more posterior ribs lose their heads and necks and only articulate with the transverse processes. The sternum of mammals typically consists of from seven to nine narrow segments or sternebrae, the first of which (presternum) is often broader than those behind. As a rule the second rib articulates with the interval between the first and second pieces, but sometimes, as in the gibbon, it is the third rib which does so. When this is the case, as it sometimes is in man, the first two sternebrae have pro- bably fused (see A. Keith, Journ. Anal, and Phys. xxx. 275). The segmental character of the separate sternebrae contrasts strongly with the intersegmental of the ribs. When the pectoralis major muscle is largely developed, as in the mole and bats, the sternum, especially the presternum, develops a keel as in birds. In the toothed whales there is usually a cleft or perforation throughout life between the two lateral halves of the sternum. In the whalebone whales the mesosternum is suppressed and consequently only the first ribs reach the ster- num; this is of great interest when the oblique position of the diaphragm (see art. DIAPHRAGM) in these animals is remembered, and makes one suspect that the development of the sternum in mam- mals is dependent on • and subservient to the attachment of the dia- phragm. The broad- ened thorax of the anthropomorpha is ac- companied by a broad- ened sternum and the sternebrae of the mesosternum fuse to- gether early, though in the orang they not only remain separate but each half of them re- FIG. 12. — Sternum and strongly ossified mains separate until the Sternal Ribs of Great Armadillo (Priodon animal is half-grown, gigas). ps, Presternum; xs, xiphisternum. The episternum is re- presented by small ossicles which occasionally occur in man, while in the Ornithorhynchus and the tapir there is a separate bone in front (cephalad) of the presternum which in the former animal is distinct at first from the interclavicle, and this probably represents the episternum, though it was called by W. K. Parker by the noncom- mittal name of proosteon. For further details and literature see S. H. Reynolds, The Verte- brate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897); W. H. Flower and H. Gadow, APPENDICULAR] SKELETON 175 Osteology of the Mammalia (London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim, Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, adapted and translated by \V. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; R. Wiedersheim and G. Howes, The Structure of Man (London, 1897); C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anal, der Wirbeltiere, Band i. (Leipzig, 1901). Appendicidar. The bony framework of the two appendages or extremities, as the upper and lower limbs are called, is built up on the same plan in both. Each consists of a limb girdle (shoulder and hip girdles) connecting it with the axial skeleton, a proximal single bone segment (humerus, femur), a distal double bone segment (radius, ulna; tibia, fibula), the hand and foot segments (carpus, metacarpus; tarsus, metatarsus) and the digits (phalanges). It should be understood that in the following descriptions the terms internal and external are used in relation to the mid-line of the body and not to that of the limb. The upper limb in man may be subdivided into a proximal part or shoulder, a distal part or hand, and an intermediate shaft, which consists of an upper arm or brachium, and a forearm or ante-brachium. In each of these subdivisions certain bones are found : in the shoulder, the clavicle and scapula ; in the upper arm, the humerus; in the forearm, the radius and ulna, the bone of the upper arm in man being longer than the bones v of the forearm ; in the hand, the car- pal and metacar- pal bones and the phalanges. The scapula and clavicle together form an imperfect bony arch, the Scapular Arch or FIG. 13. — Diagrammatic Section to represent Shoulder Girdle; the Relations of the Shoulder Girdle to the the shaft and' Trunk. The clavicle. Upper Utah. V C St Sc Cr A thoracic vertebra. A rib. The sternum. The scapula. The coracoid. hand form a free Cl The clavicle. divergent A p- M The meniscus at p e n d a g e. The its sternal end. shoulder girdle is H The humerus. the direct medium of connexion be- tween the axial skeleton and the divergent part of the limb; its anferior segment, the clavicle, articulates with the upper end of the sternum, whilst its posterior segment, the scapula, approaches, but does not reach, the dorsal spines. The clavicle, or collar bone (fig. 14), is an elongated bone which extends from the upper end of .the sternum horizontally outward, Clavicle. to articulate with the acromion process of the scapula. It presents a strong sigmoidal curve, which is associated with the transverse and horizontal direction of the axis of the human shoulder. It is slender in the female, but powerful in muscular males; its sternal end thick and somewhat triangular; its acromial end, flattened from above downward, has an oval articular surface for the acromion. Its shaft has four surfaces for the attachment of muscles; and strong ligaments connecting it with the coracoid, is attached to the under surface, nea-- the outer end, whilst near the inner a strong ligament passes between it and the first rib. The scapula, or shoulder blade (fig. 14), is the most important bone of the shoulder girdle, and is present in all mammals. It lies Scapula at ^e uPPer ancl back part of the wall of the chest, reaching from the second to the seventh rib. Its form is plate-like and triangular, with three surfaces, three borders, and three angles. Its costal or ventral surface is in relation to the ribs, from which it is separated by certain muscles: one, called sub- scapularis, arises from the surface itself, which is often termed subscapular fossa. The dorsum or back of the scapula is traversed from behind forward by a prominent spine, which lies in the proper axis of the scapula, and subdivides this aspect of the bone into a surface above the spine, the supra-spinous fossa, and one below the spine, the infra-spinous fossa. The spine arches forward to end in a broad flattened process, the acromion, which has an oval articular surface for the clavicle; both spine and acromion are largely de- veloped in the human scapula in correlation with the great size of the trapezius and deltoid muscles, which are concerned in the elevation and abduction of the upper limb. The borders of the scapula, directed upward, backward, and downward, give attach- ment to several muscles. The angles are inferior, antero-superior, and postero-superior. The antero-superior is the most important; it is truncated, and has a large, shallow, oval, smooth surface, the Ctenoid fossa, for articulation with the humerus, to form the shoulder joint. Overhanging the glenoid fossa is a curved beak-like process, the coracoid, which is of importance as corresponding with the separate coracoid bone of monotremes, birds and reptiles. The line of demarcation between it and the scapula proper is marked on the upper border of the scapula by the supra-scapular notch The humerus, or bone of the upper arm (fig. 14), is a long bone, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity possesses a convex spheroidal smooth surface, the head, „ for articulation with the glenoid fossa of the scapula; it is surrounded by a narrow constricted neck, and where the neck and shaft become continuous with each other, two processes or tuberosities are found, to which are attached the rotator muscles arising from the scapular fossae. Between the tuberosities is a groove in which the long tendon of the biceps rests. A line drawn through the head of the humerus perpen- dicular to the middle of its articular surface, forms with the axis of the shaft of the bone an angle of 40°. The shaft of the humerus is triangular in section above, but flattened and expanded below; about midway down the outer surface is a rough ridge for the insertion of the deltoid muscle, and on the inner surface another rough mark for the insertion of the coraco brachialis. A shallow groove winds round the back of the bone, in which the musculo-spiral nerve is lodged. The lower extremity of the humerus consists of an articular and a non-articular portion. The articular has a small head or capitellum externally for the radius, and a pulley or trochlea internally for the movements of the ulna in flexion and extension of the limb. The non-articular part has a projection both on its inner and outer aspect; these are known as the internal and external condyles, and of these the internal is the more prominent; each is surmounted by a supracondylar ridge, and the internal condyle and ridge attach the muscles passing to the flexor surface of the fore- arm, while the external are for those passing to the extensor surface. A small, downwardly directed, hook- like process of bone is occasionally found above the internal condyle and is the vestige of the supracondylar fora- men found in so many of the lower animals (see below Comparative Anatomy). Before describing the two bones of the forearm, the range of movement which can take place between them should be noticed. In one position, which is called supine, they lie parallel to each other, the radius being the more external bone, and the palm of the hand being directed pJG 54 _ The Appen- forward; in the other or prone position dicular Skeleton of the the radius crosses obliquely in front of Left Upper Limb. the ulna, and the palm of the hand is r, r, • , directed backward. Not only the bones Jr of the forearm, but those of the hand \c are supposed to be in the supine position £ when (hey are described. C The radius (fig. 14) is the outer bone of H the forearm, and like all long bones possesses a shaft and two ex- „ .. tremities. The upper extremity Ka<""s- or head has a shallow, smooth cup for moving on the capitellum of the humerus ; , , ,-. Cc the outer margin of the cup is also Mc Opposit smooth, for articulation with the ulna Process- ^oracoid P«>c«s of „ x "u>7}erus- 11?,?, ^lna" ., ,, . . , Opposite the eight Cc the five p metacarpal bones. and orbicular ligament; below the cup f. Pollex, or thumb. is a constricted neck, and immediately iiy i!????/ below the neck a tuberosily for the in- if,1' £'.iaale- sertion of the biceps. The shaft of the i,V' JV"?' , bone possesses three surfaces for the V" attachment of muscles, and a sharp inner border for the in- terosseous membrane. The lower end of the bone is much broader than the upper, and is marked posteriorly by grooves for the lodgment of tendons passing to the back of the hand : from its outer border a pointed styloid process projects down- ward ; its inner border has a smooth shallow fossa (the sig- moid cavity of the radius) for articulation with the ulna, and its broad lower surface is smooth and concave, for articu- lation with the scaphoid and semilunar bones of the wrist. The ulna (fig. 14) is also a long bone. Its upper end is subdivided into two strong processes by a deep fossa, the greater sigmoid cavity, which possesses a smooth surface for articulation with Ulaa the trochlea of the humerus. The anterior or coronoid process is rough in front for the insertion of the brachialis anticus, whilst the posterior or olecranon process gives insertion to the large triceps muscle of the upper arm. Immediately below the outer border of the great sigmoid cavity is the small sigmoid cavity for articulation with the side of the head of the radius. The shaft of 176 SKELETON [APPENDICULAR the bone has three surfaces for the attachment of muscles, and a sharp outer border for the'interosseous membrane. The lower end, much smaller than the upper, has a pointed styloid process and a smooth articular surface, the outer portion of which is for the lower end of the radius, the lower part for moving on a cartilage of the wrist joint called the triangular fibro-cartilage. The hand consists of the carpus or wrist, of the metacarpus or palm, and of the free digits, the thumb and four fingers. Anatomists H ad describe it with the palm turned to the front, and with its axis in line with the axis of the forearm. The carpal or wrist bones (fig. 14) are eight in number and small in size: they are arranged in two rows, a proximal, — i.e. a row Carpus next tne f°rearm>~7consist;ing of the scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform and pisiform; and a distal, — i.e. a row next the bones of the palm, — consisting of a trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum and unciform; the bones in each row being named in the order they are met with, from the radial or outer to the ulnar or inner side of the wrist. It is unnecessary to give a separate de- scription of each bone. Except the pisiform or pea-shaped bone, which articulates with the front of the cuneiform, each carpal bone is short and irregularly cuboidal in shape; its anterior (or palmar) surface and its posterior (or dorsal) being rough, for the attachment of ligaments; its superior and inferior surfaces being invariably smooth, for articulation with adjacent bones; whilst the inner and outer surfaces are also smooth, for articulation, except the outer surfaces of the scaphoid and trapezium (the two external bones of the carpus), and the inner surfaces of the cuneiform and unciform (the two internal bones). Occasionally extra bones are found, but they are apparently the remnants of cartilaginous elements found in the hand of the early embryo (see G. Thilenius, Morph. Arbeiten, v., 1896). The metacarpal bones, or bones of the palm of the hand, are five in number (fig. 14). They are miniature long bones, and each possesses a shaft and two extremities. The metacarpal of the thumb is the shortest, and diverges outward from the rest; its carpal extremity is saddle-shaped, for articulation with the trapezium ; its shaft is somewhat compressed, and its phalangeal end is smooth and rounded, for the first phalanx of the thumb. The four other metacarpal bones belong to the four fingers; they are almost parallel to each other, and diminish in size from the second to the fifth. Their carpal ends articulate with the trapezoid, os magnum and unciform: their shafts are three-sided: their phalangeal ends articulate with the proximal phalanges of the fingers. The number of digits in the hand is five. They are distinguished by the names of pollex or thumb, index, medius, annularis and m it minimus. Their skeleton consists of fourteen bones, named phalanges, of which the thumb has two, and each of the four fingers three. The phalanx next the metacarpal bone is the proximal, that which carries the nail, the terminal or ungual phalanx, whilst the intermediate bone is the middle phalanx. Each is a miniature long bone, with two articular extremities and an intermediate shaft, except the terminal phalanges, which have an articular surface only at their proximal ends, the distal end being rounded and rough, to afford a surface for the lodgment of the nail. The INFERIOR or PELVIC EXTREMITY, or LOWER LIMB, consists of a proximal part or haunch, a distal part or foot, and an intermediate shaft subdivided into thigh and leg. Each part has its appropriate skeleton (the thigh-bone in man being longer than the leg-bones). The bone of the haunch (os innomina- tum) forms an arch or pelvic girdle, which articulates behind with the side of the sacrum, and arches forward to articulate with the opposite haunch-bone at the pubic symphysis. It is the direct medium of connexion between the axial skeleton and the shaft and foot, which form a free divergent appendage. The os innominatum, or haunch-bone, is a FIG. 15. — Diagrammatic section to repre- large irregular plate- sent the relations of the Pelvic Girdle to like bone, which forms Lower limb. the lateral and inferior boundary of the cavity of the pelvis. In early the Trunk. V A sacral vertebra. II The ilium. P The two pubic bones meeting in front at life it consists of three the symphysis. bones — ilium, ischium F The femur. and pubis — which unite about the twenty-fifth year into a single bone. These bones converge, and join to form a deep fossa or cup, the ace.tabulum or cotyloid cavity, on the outer pelvtc surface of the bone, which lodges the head of the thigh- rirdle ^one at tne h>P-J°int- One-fifth of this cup is formed by the pubes, and about two-fifths each by the ischium and ilium. At the bottom of the acetabulum is a depression, to the sides of which the ligamentum teres of the hip-joint is attached. From the acetabulum the ilium extends upward and backward, the ischium downward and backward, the pubis forward, inward and downward. Below the acetabulum is a large hole, the obturator or thyroid foramen, which is bounded by the ischium and pubes; behind and above the acetabulum is the deep sciatic notch, which is bounded by the ischium and ilium, and below this is the small sciatic notch. The ilium (fig. 16) in man is a broad plate-like bone, the lower end of which aids in forming the acetabulum, while the upper end forms the iliac crest, which, in man, in conformity with the general expan- sion of the bone, is elongated into the sinuous crest of the ilium. This crest is of great importance, for it affords attachment to the broad muscles which form the wall of the abdominal cavity. One surface of the ilium is external, and marked by curved lines which subdivide it into areas for the origin of the muscles of the buttock; another surface is anterior, and hollowed out to give origin to the iliacus muscle; the third, or internal, surface articulates posteriorly with the sacrum, whilst anteriorly it forms a part of the wall of the true pelvis. The external is separated from the anterior surface by a border which joins the anterior end of the crest, where it forms a process, the anterior superior spine. About the middle of this border is the anterior inferior spine. Between the external and internal surfaces is a border on which are found the posterior superior and inferior spines ; between the anterior and internal surfaces is the ilio-pectineal line, which forms part of the line of separation between the true and false pelvis. The pubis (fig. 16) is also a three- sided, prismatic," rod-like bone, the fundamental form of which Pubis is obscured by the modi- fication in shape of its inner end. In human anatomy it is customary to regard it as consisting of a body and of two branches, an upper and a lower ramus. The upper ramus runs downward, forward and inward from the aceta- bulum to the body of the pubis, which is a plate of bone placed nearly hori- zontally in the upright position of v the subject and articulating with its FIG. 16. — The Appendicular fellow of the opposite side at the Skeleton of the Left Lower symphysis pubis (see JOINTS). Pro- Limb, jecting forward from the junction of II the body and upper ramus is the Is pubic spine, an important landmark Pb Pubis, the three parts of in surgery, and to this the ilio-pec- the innominate bone, tineal line, already mentioned, may F Femur, be traced. P Patella. The lower ramus is really more Tb Tibia, horizontal than the upper (which Fb Fibula, used to be called the horizontal Tr ramus), and runs backward and outward from the body to meet the C ramus of the ischium and so form the subpubic arch. Mt The ischium (fig. 16), like the ilium and pubis, has the fundamental form H of a three-sided prismatic ischium H- rod. One extremity (the ' III. upper) completes the acetabulum, IV. Fourth, whilst the lower forms the large V. Fifth or little toe. prominence, or tuber ischii. The surfaces of the bone are internal or pelvic, antero-external, and postero- external. The pelvic and postero- external surfaces are separated from each other by a sharp border, on which is seen the ischial spine. The pelvic and antero-external surfaces are separated by a border, which forms a part of the boundary of the obturator foramen; but the margin between the antero- and postero-external surfaces is feebly marked. The tuberosity, a thick, rough and strong process, gives origin to several powerful muscles : on it the body rests in the sitting posture ; a flattened ramus ascends from it to join the lower ramus of the pubis, and completes both the pubic arch and the margin of the obturator foramen. Ilium. Ischium. Opposite the seven tarsal bones. Os calcis, forming promi- nence of heel. Opposite the five meta- tarsal bones. Hallux or great toe. Second. Third. The dotted line HH repre- sents the horizontal plane, whilst the dotted tine V is in line with the vertical axis of the spine. APPENDICULAR] SKELETON 177 By the articulation of the two innominate bones with each other in front at the pubic symphysis, and with the sides of the sacrum Pelvis. behind, the osseous walls of the cavity of the PELVIS are formed. ' This cavity is subdivided into a false and a true pelvis. The false pelvis lies between the expanded wing-like portions of the two ilia. The true pelvis lies below the two ilio-pectineal lines and the base of the sacrum, which surround the upper orifice or brim of the true pelvis, or pelvic inlet ; whilst its lower orifice or outlet is bounded behind by the coccyx, laterally by the ischial tuberosities, and in front by the pubic arch. In the erect attitude the pelvis is so inclined that the plane of the brim forms with the horizontal plane an angle of from 6p° to 65°. The axis of the cavity is curved, and is represented by a line dropped perpendicularly from the planes of the brim, the cavity and the outlet; at the brim it is directed downward and backward, at the outlet downward and a little for- ward. Owing to the inclination of the pelvis, the base of the sacrum is nearly 4 in. higher than the upper border of the pubic symphysis. The female pelvis is distinguished from the male by certain sexual characters. The bones are more slender, the ridges and processes for muscular attachment more feeble, the breadth and capacity greater, the depth less, giving the greater breadth to the hips of a woman; the inlet more nearly circular, the pubic arch wider, the distance between the tuberosities greater, and the aceta- bulum smaller in the female than in the male. The greater capacity of the woman's over the man's pelvis is to afford greater room for the expansion of the uterus during pregnancy, and for the expulsion of the child at the time of birth. The femur or thigh-bone (fig. 16) is the longest bone in the body, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity _ or head has a smooth hemispherical surface, in which an " ' oval roughened fossa, for the attachment of the liga- mentum teres of the hip, is found; from the head a strong elongated neck passes downward and outward to join the upper end of the shaft ; the place of j unction is marked by two processes or trochantcrs ; to the external or great trochanter are attached many muscles; the internal or lesser trochanter gives attachment to the psoas and iliacus. A line drawn through the axis of the head and neck forms with a vertical line drawn through the shaft an angle of 30°; in a woman this angle is a little less obtuse than in a man, and the obliquity of the shaft of the femur is slightly greater in the former than in the latter. The shaft is almost cylindrical about its centre, but expanded above and below; its front and sides give origin to the extensor muscles of the leg; behind there is a rough ridge, which, though called linea aspera, is really a narrow surface and not a line; it gives attachment to several muscles. The lower end of the bone presents a large smooth articular surface for the knee-joint, the anterior portion of which forms a trochlea or pulley for the movements »f the patella, whilst the lower and posterior part is subdivided into two convex cpndyles by a deep fossa which gives attachment to the crucial ligaments of the knee. The inner and outer surfaces of this end of the bone are rough, for the attachment of muscles and the lateral ligaments of the knee. The femur constitutes usually about 0-275 of the individual stature; but this proportion is not constant, as this bone forms a larger element in the stature of a tall than of a short man. The human femur presents also a concave popliteal surface, thus differing from that of Pithecanthropus, whose popliteal surface is convex. In the bones of some races the dorsal ridge of the thigh-bone (linea aspera) projects as a prominent crest causing the bones to appear " pilastered," a condition the amount of which is indicated by the increased relative length of the sagittal of the coronal diameter of the bone. Pilastering, though characteristic of lower and primitive races of man, is never found in the anthropoids. The upper third of the femur in some races is sagittally flattened, a condition which is called platymeria. Its degree is indicated by the excess of the coronal over the sagittal diameter in this region. The patella or knee-pan (fig. 16) is a small triangular flattened bone developed in the tendon of the great extensor muscles of the p l II 'eS- 'ts anterior surface and sides are rough, for the attachment of the fibres of that tendon; its posterior surface is smooth, and enters into the formation of the knee- joint. Between the two bones of the leg there are no movements of pronation and supination as between the two bones of the forearm. The tibia and fibula are fixed in position ; the fibula is always external, the tibia internal. The tibia or shin-bone (fig. 1 6) is the larger and more important of the two bones of the leg; the femur moves and rests upon its Tibia upper end, and down it the weight of the body in the erect position is transmitted to the foot. Except the femur, it is the longest bons of the skeletpn,rand consists of a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity is broad, and is expanded into two tuberosities, the external of which has a small articular facet inferiorly, for the head of the fibula; superiorly, the tuber- osities have two smooth surfaces, for articulation with the condyles of the femur; they are separated by an intermediate rough surface, from which a short spine (really a series of elevations) projects, which gives attachments to the interarticular crucial ligaments and semilunar cartilages of the knee, and lies opposite the intercondylar fossa of the femur. The shaft of the bone is three-sided; its inner surface is subcutaneous, and forms the shin; its outer and posterior surfaces are for the origin of muscles; the anterior border forms the sharp ridge of the shin, and terminates superiorly in a tubercle for the insertion of the extensor tendon of the leg; the outer border of the bone gives attachment to the interosseous membrane of the leg. The lower end of the bone, smaller than the upper, is pro- longed into a broad process, internal malleolus, which forms the inner prominence of the ankle : its under surface is smooth for articulation with the astragalus; externally it articulates with the lower end of the fibula. The tibia in most civilized races is triangular in the section of its shaft, but in many savage and prehistoric races it is two-edged. The condition is named platycnemia, and is indicated by the pro- portional excess of the sagittal over the coronal diameter. The foetal tibia has its head slightly bent backward with regard to the shaft, a condition which usually disappears in the adult, but which is shown in the prehistoric tibae found in the cave of Spy. In races_that squat on their heels the front margin of the lower end of the tibia is marked by a small articular facet for the neck of the astragalus. The fibula, or splint-bone of the leg (fig. 16), is a slender long bone with a shaft and two extremities. The upper end or head articulates with the outer tuberosity of the tibia. The shaft is four- _.. sided, and roughened for the origins of the muscles. "*«"»• Separating the anterior from the internal surface is a slender ridge for the attachment of the interosseous membrane. The lower end has a strong process (external malleolus) projecting downward to form the outer prominence of the ankle, and a smooth inner surface for articulation with the astragalus, above which is a rough surface for the attachment of ligaments which bind together the tibia and fibula. The foot consists of the tarsus, the metatarsus and the five free digits or toes. The human foot is placed ,-, in the prone position, with the sole or plantar surface in relation to the ground; the dorsum or back of the foot directed upward; the axis of the foot at about a right angle to the axis of the leg; and the great toe or hallux, which is the corresponding digit to the thumb, at the inner border of the foot. The human foot, therefore, is a pentadactylous, plantigrade foot. The bones of the tarsus or ankle (fig. 16, Tr), are seven in number, and are arranged in three transverse _, rows — a proximal, next the bones of the leg, consisting of the astra- galus and os calcis, a middle, of the scaphoid and a distal next the meta- tarsus, consisting of the cuboid, ecto- meso- and ento-cuneiform. If the tarsal bones be looked at along with those of the metatarsus and toes, the bones of the foot may be arranged in two longitudinal columns — an outer, consisting of the os ~~ Metatarsus, calcis, cuboid and the metatarsal bones " Phalanges, and phalanges of the fourth and fifth c toes; an inner column consisting of the a FIG. 17. — Bones of the- right Human Foot. T Tarsus. Calcaneum. Astragalus. astragalus, scaphoid, three cuneiform and c" VT 9 . the metatarsal bones and phalanges of the n, Navicular. first, second and third toes. The tarsal, c In'<:r,nal cuneiform, like the carpal bones, are short and, with c Middle cuneiform, the exception of the cuneiforms which are c Tfexter,na • cuneiform, wedge-shaped, irregularly cuboidal; the ine digits are in- dorsal and plantar surfaces are as a rule dicated by Roman rough for ligaments, but as the astragalus numerals, counting is locked in between the bones of the fr°m *"<: tlblal to the leg and the os calcis, it's dorsal and "Dular side, plantar surfaces, as well as the dorsum of the os calcis, are smooth for articulation; similarly, its lateral surfaces are smooth for articulation with the two malleoli. The posterior surface of the os calcis projects backward to form the prominence of the heel. With this exception, the bones have their anterior and posterior surfaces smooth for articulation. Their lateral surfaces are also articular, except the outer surface of the os calcis and cuboid, which form the outer border; and the inner surface of the os calcis, scaphoid and ento-cuneiform, which form the inner border of the tarsus. Supernumerary bones are occasionally found as in the hand. The metatarsal bones and the phalanges of the toes agree in number and general form with the metacarpal bones and the phalanges in the hand. The bones of the great toe or hallux are Tofs more massive than those of the other digits, and this digit, - unlike the thumb or pollex, does not diverge from the other digits, but lies almost parallel to them. Embryology. — The development of the appendicular skeleton takes. i78 SKELETON [APPENDICULAR place in the core of mesenchyme in the centre of each limb.1 This substance first becomes changed into cartilage, except perhaps in the case of the clavicle, though there is at present some doubt as to how much of this bone is chondrified before ossification reaches it. The present belief is that, although a deposit of lime salts constitut- ing the process of calcification may and frequently does occur in cartilage, true ossification or the orderly disposal of that deposit into bony tissue can only take place through the intervention of osteo- blasts and osteoclasts, and as these cells are not formed in cartilage they must make their way in from the surrounding fibrous tissue which constitutes the periohpndrium. The factors which determine the general shape and proportionate size of each limb bone are at work while the cartilage is being formed, because each future bone has a good cartilaginous model laid down before ossification begins. Calcification usually begins at one point in each bone, unless that bone be a compound one formed by the fusion of two or more elements which were distinct in lower verte- brate types, as is the case with the os innominatum. It is interesting to notice that this centre of calcification, which will later on be the centre of ossification, is usually in the middle of the shaft of a long bone, or, when a cuboidal block of cartilage is dealt with, as in the case of the carpal and tarsal bones, in that place which is farthest away from the periphery, and which is likely to be least well nourished. There seems, too, to be a general tendency for larger masses of cartilage to begin calcifying before smaller ones. Contrasting these facts with the behaviour of tumours, which contain cartilage and which are liable to undergo a process of calcareous degeneration, the present writer is led to suspect that the calcification which precedes ossification in cartilage may be a degensrative change brought about by ill-nutrition. However this may be, there is little doubt that the calcification, once established, acts as an attraction for blood-vessels, which probably bring with them osteoblasts, and the subsequent ossification is a process which needs and receives a plenteous supply of nourishment. After a long bone has reached a certain size it very often has extra centres of ossification developed at its ends as well as at places where important muscles have raised lever-like knobs of cartilage on the model. These extra centres are called epiphyses, and it is convenient to distinguish three varieties of these: (a) pressure epiphyses at the joint ends of long bones; (6) traction epiphyses, where muscles pull; and (c) atavistic epiphyses, the mechanical causes of which are more remote, but which represent structures of greater import in the lowlier vertebrates. With regard to the pressure epiphyses, they form a cap which protects the epiphysial line, or plate of cartilage, by means of which the bone in- creases in length, but they are certainly not essential to the growth of a bone, because they often do not appear until the bone has been growing for a long time, while in birds they are not found at all. The traction epiphyses are, in the opinion of the writer, originally pieces of cartilage which have the same nature as sesamoid cartilages developed in the play of a tendon, where it presses against a neigh- bouring cartilaginous model of a bone, and which, instead of remain- ing separate structures throughout life, as is the case with the patella, fuse early with the model against which they are pulled, and so form a knob. For practical purposes the coracoid process of man may be regarded as an example of an atavistic epiphysis or perhaps of two atavistic epiphyses. (For further details on this subject see the writer's papers on epiphyses, Jour. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxxvii. P- 3TS; vol. xxxviii. p. 248; vol. xxxix. p. 402.) Turning now to the development of the individual bones of the axial skeleton, the clavicle, as has been mentioned, is partly fibrous, and partly cartilaginous, but the exact proportions are still imperfectly Sternal epiphysis ossifies about 2oth year; fuses about 25th year. Primary centre appears about 5th or 6th month of foeta! life. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of -Anatomy. FIG. 18. — Ossification of the Clavicle. known ; its primary centre is the earliest of all in the body to appear, while its sternal epiphysis does not come till the bone is fully grown, and so can have no effect on the growth of the bone. It is probably one of the atavistic class, and is often regarded as the vestige of the precoracoid (see subsection on comparative anatomy), though it may represent the inter-clavicle, which, as has been pointed out in the article on the axial skeleton, is quite distinct from the episternum. It sometimes fails to appear at all. The centres for the scapula are shown in the accompanying figures (fig. 19). G. B. Howes regarded the subcoracoid centre as the atavistic epiphysis representing the coracoid bone of lower verte- 1 By mesenchyme is meant that part of the mesoderm, or middle layer of the embryo, in which the cells are irregularly scattered in a matrix, and are not arranged in definite rows or sheets as in the •coelomic membrane. brates, while the human coracoid he looked upon as the equivalent of the epicoracoid. The epiphyses in the vertebral border are ata- vistic and represent the supra-scapular element (see section below on Comparative Anatomy). In the humerus the centre for the shaft appears about the eighth week of foetal life, which is the usual time for primary centres. The head, trochlea and capitellum have pressure epiphyses, while those for the t jberosities and condyles are of the traction variety. The ulna is a very interesting bone because there is no pressure epiphysis for its upper end. The upper epiphysis shown in fig. 21 does not encroach upon the articular surface, but is a pure traction epiphysis developed in the triceps tendon and serially homologous with the patella (a sesamoid bone) in the lower limb. In the radius there are two terminal pressure epiphyses and one traction for the insertion of the biceps. The carpus ossifies after birth, one centre for each bone occurring in the following order: os magnum, II to 12 months; unciform, 12 Appears about 1 6-i 7 yrs.; fuses Acromial centres about 20 yrs. app_ar 1 5-16 yrs. ; fuse about 25 yrs. Secondary centres for coracoid appea/s about end ist year; fuses about 18 yrs. Primary centre appears about 2nd m. foeta" Subcoracoid centre appears 10 yrs.; fuses 16-17 yrs. Appears about 1 7 yrs. ; fuses about 20 yrs. Appears about 16 or 17 yri. ; fuses 18-20 yr5. Appears 16-17 yrs. fuses 20-25 yfs. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. Scapula at end of First Year. Scapula about the Age of Puberty. FIG. 19. — Ossification of the Scapula. to 14 months; cuneiform, 3 years; semilunar, 5 to 6 years; trap- ezium, 6 years; scaphoid, 6 years; trapezoid, 6 to 7 years; pisiform, 10 to 12 years. Up to the third month of foetal life a separate cartilage for the os centrale (see subsection on comparative anatomy) is found, but this later on fuses with the scaphoid. It will be noticed that, broadly speaking, the larger cartilaginous masses ossify before the smaller. The metacarpal bones have one centre each for the shaft and one epiphysis for the head, except that for the thumb which has one centre for the shaft and one epiphysis for the proximal end. The phalanges develop in the same way that the metacarpal bone of the thumb does. The os innominatum has three primary centres for the ilium, ischium and pubis. The special centres for the crest of the ilium are probably a serial repetition of those for the vertebral border of the scapula (see fig. 19) ; that for the anterior inferior spine is a purely human traction epiphysis connected with the use of the straight head of the rectus femoris in the upright position. The centre for the pubic symphysis probably represents the epipubis of amphibians, while that for the tuberosity of the ischium is the hypoischium of reptiles (see sub- section on comparative anatomy). The most anterior of the epi- physes in the acetabulum is the os acetabtili of lower mammals, while the occasional one for the spine of the pubis is often looked on as the vestige of the marsupial bone of monotremes and marsupials. It will thus be seen that many of the secondary centres of the os innominatum are of the nature of atavistic epiphyses. The femur has two pressure epiphyses, one for the head and another for the lower end, and two traction for the great and small trochanters. The cartilaginous patella does not appear until the third month of foetal life, that is well after the quadriceps extensor cruris, in the tendon of which it is formed, is defined. Its ossification begins in the third year. The patella is usually looked upon as the largest and most typical example of a sesamoid bone in the body. The tibia has a pressure epiphysis at either end, but that for the upper comes down in front so as to include a good deal of the tubercle. In almost any other mammal, and often in man himself, it may be APPENDICULAR] SKELETON 179 seen that this down-growth is a traction epiphysis developed in the quadriceps tendon below the patella and joining the main upper epiphysis before uniting with the diaphysis or shaft. The fibula has two pressure epiphyses, the lower of which appears At birth. About 5 years. About 12 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 20. — Ossification of the Humcrus. 1 Appears early in 2nd month foetal life. 2 For tuberosity, appears 2 to 3 years. 3 For head, appears within first 6 months. 4 For internal condyle, appears about 5 years. 5 For capitellum, appears 2 to 3 years. 6 Appears about 12 years. 7 Centres for head and great tuberosity coalesce about 5 years. as a little bone at the back of the astragalus, known as the a trigonum. The centre for the calcaneum appears in the sixth month of foetal life, that for the astragalus in the seventh, the cuboid about birth, the external, middle and internal cuneiforms in the first and second years, while the navicular is the last to appear in the third year. It will be noticed that, although ossification occurs in the bigger cartilaginous masses earliest, e.g. calcaneum astragalus and cuboid, the large navicular is the last cartilage to ossify, and this is an exception to the general rule which is probably caused by some factor which we do not at present understand. The calcaneum has a very definite traction epiphysis developed in the insertion of the tendo Achillis behind. The development of the metatarsal bones and phalanges of the foot is the same as that of the hand. For further details and literature see J. P. M'Murrich's Development of the Hurr.an Body (London, 1906) and D. J. Cunning- ham's Text-Book of Anatomy (Edinburgh, 1906). Comparative Anatomy. — It is only when the class of pisces is reached that paired ap- pendages are found, and there are two main theories to account for their first occurrence. The one which is at present most favoured is that in some ancestral fishes two folds ran along the ventro-lateral part of the body, like the bilge keels of a boat, and that these joined one another in the mid-ventral line behind the cloacal orifice to form the median caudal fin. Into these folds the segments of the body including myotorr.es and myocom- mata, extended. Later on parts of these 8 Centre for small tuberosity fuses with ridges were suppressed, but in the pectoral About 1 6 years. other centres about 7 years. 9 Appears about II or 12 years. 10 Inferior epiphysis fuses with shaft about 16 to 17 years. 1 1 Superior epiphysis fuses with shaft about 25 years. 12 Fuses with shaft about 17 to 1 8 years. first. The general rule with the long bones of the extremities is that the epiphysis nearest the elbow or farthest from the knee is the first to appear and the last to join. The writer accounts for the neglect of this rule in the case of the fibula by the fact that the lower cartil- aginous end is larger than the upper (see fig. 26). In the tarsus the cartilages are at an early stage arranged m three Fuses with shaft about 16 years Appears about 10 years Appears about 6 years Fuses with shaft 20-23 yeari At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book oj Anatomy. FIG. 21. — The Ossification of the Ulna. rows in just the same way that those of the hand are, but in the proximal row the middle one (intermedium), corresponding to the semilunar in the hand, fuses with the one on the tibial side to form the astragalus, though sometimes a vestige of it seems to persist and pelvic regions they were retained to form l he paired fins. This theory was first fore- shadowed by Goodsir, and has been elaborated by Balfour, Dohrn and many others. It is supported by the fact that in some elasmo- branch embryos the whole length of the folds can be traced. The second theory is that the limbs are elaborated gills; this was proposed by C. Gegenbaur, and has lately been supported by Graham Kerr. It is probable that the limb girdles are of later evolution than the skeleton of the fins themselves. In the elasmobranch fishes (sharks and rays) there is a crescentic Fuses with shaft 18-20 years Unites with shaft 20-25 years At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 22. — The Ossification of the Radius. bar of cartilage (pectoral girdle), concave upward, which girdles the ventral and lateral parts of the body; it is divided into a dorsal part (scapula) and a ventral part (precoracoid and coracoid) by a i8o SKELETON [APPENDICULAR facet for the articulation of the fin. This of course is the glenoid _^ . cavity. In some forms, e.g. the shark Heptanchus, there . ' . °ra is a perforation in the ventral part of the bar on each side, which possibly indicates the division between the precoracoid and coracoid elements. In many of the bony fish (Teleostei) the outline is obscured by a Appears about later end of 2nd m. of foetal life Appears about 15 years; fuses 22-25 years Appears about 4th m. of foetal life App:ars about 15 years: fuses 22- 25 years years Appears about 18 years nite about 10 years At birth. About 12 or 13 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 23. — Ossification of the Innominate Bone. series of bones which connect the girdle with the skull and may be the precursors of the clavicle. In the Amphibia the dorsally-placed scapula (fig. 27, S) has more dorsally still a cartilaginous plate, the supra-scapula (fig. 27, S.S), which may be calcified. The precoracoid (fig. 27, P.C) and coracoid (C) are quite distinct, the former being in front (cephalad) and over- laid by a dermal bone, the clavicle (Cl). The attachment of the coracoids to the sternum has been noticed in section Axial of this article. Uniting the ventral ends of the precoracoid and coracoid is the epicoracoid on each side (fig. 27, E.C). In the Reptilia the same general plan is evident, but in the lizards Appears about early part of first year Appears about 2-3 years Fuses with shaft about i8-ig years / Usually appears in the gth month of foetal life Fuses with shaft about 20-22 years At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 24. — Ossification of Femur. the ventral ends of the two clavicles are united by a median dagger- like dermal bone, the interclavicle (fig. 27, I.C), which lies on a plane superficial to the sternum and epicoracoids. In birds the scapula has the shape of a sabre blade, and there is a rudimentary acromion process, though this is also indicated in some reptiles. The pre- and epi-coracoids are aborted, but the coracoids are very strong. The clavicles and interclavicle unite into a V- shaped bar which forms the furcula or " merrythought." In the Mammalia the Monotremata(Ornithorhynchusand Echidna) retain the reptilian arrangement of large coracoids and epicora- coids articulating with the sternum, while the clavicles and inter- Fuses with shaft about 20-24 years May appear Appears independently before birth about 1 1 years Appears about ij years Fuses about i8th year ^ At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 25. — Ossification of the Tibia. clavicle are also largely developed; the scapula too is more bird- like in shape than mammalian. In the higher mammals the scapula develops a spine and usually an acromial process, and has a triangular outline. As long as the forelimb is used for support, the vertebral border is the shortest of the three, and the long axis of the bone runs from this border to the glenoid cavity; but when the extremity is used for prehension, as in the Primates, or for flight, as in the Chir- optera, the vertebral border elongates and the distance from it to the glenoid cavity decreases so that the long axis is now parallel with that of the body instead of being transverse. Above the monotremes too the coracoid becomes a mere knob for muscles, and no longer articu- lates with the sternum. There is thus a sudden transition from the way in which the forepart of the body is propped! up on the forelimbs when the coracoid is functional (as in reptiles) to the way in which it is suspended like a suspension bridge between the two scapulae in pronograde mammals, the serratus magnus muscles form- ing the chains of the bridge (see fig. 28). The clavicle is often entirely suppressed in mammals; this is the case in most of the Ursidae, all the Pinnipedia, Manis among edentates, the Cetacea, Sirenia, all Ungulata S I Fuses with shaft about 20-24 years Appears about 3-4 years and some of the Rodentia. It is complete in all the Primates, Chiroptera, Insectivora (except Potamogale), many of the Rodentia, most Edentata, and all the Marsupialia except Perameles. In the Monotre- mata it is fused with a well- developed interclavicle, but in other mammals the inter- clavicle is either suppressed or possibly represented by the sternal epiphysis of the clavicle of the Primates. The pre- coracoid as a distinct structure entirely disappears, though vestiges of it may remain m the cartilaginous parts of the clavicle. The chief modifications of the humerus are the development of the pectoral ridge, which is large whenever the pectoral muscles are strong, and is represented in man by the outer lip of the bicipital groove and the supracondylar foramina. In the tuatera lizard (Sphenodon) Appears about 2nd year Fuses with shaft about i g years At About About birth. 12 years. 16 years. From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of A natomy. FIG. 26. — Ossification of Fibula. APPENDICULAR] SKELETON 18 there are two of these, one on the outer side for the musculo- spiral nerve, and one on the inner for the median nerve; in other living and fossil reptiles one or other of these may be present. The three bars bounding these two foramina in Sphenodon humenis. ar^ somet;mes regarded as indications that the humerus contains vestiges of three fin rays in its evolution from the fin of the fish. In the mammals the internal supracondylar (entepicondylar) foramen is most erratic in its appearance and disappearance, very few orders being without some family or genus which shows it. In some mammals, e.g. dog, a supratrochlear foramen is present just above the trochlea; it transmits nothing. Epiphyses are found in this, as in other long bones, in amphibians, reptiles and mammals, but not in birds. In the tailless am- FIG. 27. — Diagrammatic Representa- phibians (Anura) the tion of a Generalized Form of Shoulder radius and ulna are fused, Girdle. while in the Urodela S Scapula. E.C Epicoracoid. and reptiles they are Coracoid. St Sternum. always distinct. In some Glenoid cavity. E.S Epi- or omo- lizards (Iguana, Spheno- sternum (dotted don, &c.) the olecranon deep to inter- epiphysis remains a clavicle). distinct sesamoid bone just as the patella does, and this is also the case in some bats. In the pronograde mammals the radius is in a position of permanent pronation, and is a much more important bone than the ulna, which is sometimes suppressed, so that little more than the olecranon process remains (e.g. horse, giraffe). In the lower Primates the ulna articulates directly with the cuneiform and (some- times) pisiform bones, and is not shut off from the carpus by a meniscus as in man. The carpus of the higher vertebrates may be reduced from a gener- alized type by the fusion or suppression of certain of its elements. A perfect generalized type is not known to exist in any vertebrate, though it is very closely approached by the carpus. primitive reptile Sphenodon. In such a type the .bones are arranged in three rows; proximal, nearest the forearm, middle and distal. There are five bones in the proximal row, which bear the C G Cl Clavicle. I.C Interclavicle. P.C Precoracoid. Radius and ulna. B \ FIG. 28.— Diagrams representing the change of Mechanism in supporting the Thorax in the Reptilian (A) the Mammalian (B) types of Shoulder Girdle. St Sternum. H Humerus. The dotted line C Coracoid. represents the serratus S Scapula. magnus muscle. Tr Section of trunk. following names, beginning at the outer or radial side of the wrist : (i) Radiate marginale (fig. 29, R.M); (2) Radiale (R) ; (3) Inter- medium (I); (4) Ulnare (U) ; (5) Ulnare marginale (U.M). In the middle row there are two: (i) Ce.nlra.le radiate (C.R); (2) Centrale ulnare (C.U).1 In the distal row there are again five bones, which are spoken of as the first, second, third, fourth and fifth distalia. Sphenodon has all these bones except the radiale marginale. In many of the urodele amphibians, e.g. the salamander and newt (Molge), the carpus is very generalized, the only elements wanting being the radiale marginale, ulnare marginale, centrale ulnare and distale V. In the tailless forms (Anura), however, it is more special- ized, although the radiale marginale is sometimes present and by some morphologists is spoken of as the prepollex. When only four distalia are present it is doubtful whether the fifth is suppressed, or whether it has fused with the fourth. 1 In the giant salamander of Japan (Megalo-batrachus) three centralia are sometimes found, so that possibly the generalized carpus should have three instead of two of these elements in the middle row. In the Reptilia the carpus is often very generalized, as in Spheno- don and Chelydra (see fig. 30). In the birds the radiale and ulnare are distinct, but the distal bones are fused with the metacarpus to -form a carpo-metacarpus. In Mammalia various examples of fusion and suppression occur. All that space will here allow is to attempt to show how the human carpus is derived from the generalized type. In man the radiale, radiale marginale, and centrale radiale fuse to form the scaphoid; the semilunar is the intermedium; the cuneiform the ulnare; and the pisiform the ulnare marginale. The trapezium and trapezoid are distalia I. and II.; the os magnum distale III. fused with the centrale ulnare; while distalia IV. and V. have either fused to form the unciform, or, as some believe, distale V. has been suppressed. In some mammals the radiale marginale is very large, e.g. mole and elephant, and is regarded as a stage in the evolution of a digit on the radial side of the pollex, hence named the prepollex. In the Cape jumping hare (Pedetes) this digit is two-jointed and bears a rudi- mentary nail. Feebler indications of another digit on the ulnar side of the carpus, called the post-minimus, are sometimes seen in relation with the pisiform, which is therefore no longer regarded as a sesamoid bone, but, with the radiale marginale, as a stage in the progress from a pentadactylous_to ajieptadactylous manus. The centrale radiale FIG. 29. — Diagram of a generalized carpus. Rad. Radius. Uln. Ulna. R.M Radiale margin- ale (prepollex). R Radiale. I Intermedium. U Ulnare. U.M .Ulnare marginale. C.R Centrale radiale. C.U Centrale ulnare. D Distalia. M Metacarpalia. FIG. 30. — Dorsal Surface of the Right Manus of a Water Tortoise (Chelydra serpentina). After Gegen- baur. U Ulna. R Radius. u Ulnare. i Intermedium. < r Radiale. c Centrale. 1-5 The five bones of the distal row of the carpus. The five meta- carpals. persists as a distinct bone throughout life in many monkeys, as also does the radiale marginale. In the suppression of digits in vertebrates a regular sequence occurs; the pollex is the- first to go, then the minimus, index and annularis one after another, so that an animal like the horse, which has only one digit, has lost all except the medius. In the mammals the number of the phalanges usually corresponds with that of man, though in the lower vertebrates they are often much more numerous. When the extremity is modified to form a paddle, as in Ichthyo- saurus and the Cetacea, the phalanges are often greatly increased in number. In the elasmobranch fishes the pelvic girdle is a repetition of the pectoral though it is not quite so well marked. The acetabulum corresponds to the glenoid cavity, and the part of the pejvic girdle dorsal to this is the ilium; the ventral part, uniting girdle with its fellow in the mid-line, is the ischio-pubis, the two elements of which are sometimes separated by a small foramen for the passage of a nerve. When this is the case the anterior (cephalic) part is the pubis, and is in series with the precoracoid, while the ischium (caudad) repeats the coracoid. In Amphibia the connexion between the ilium and sacrum becomes established, and some of the extinct Labyrinthodontia have separate pubic and ischial symphyses, though in existing forms the ischium and pubis are generally fused. In the Urodela there is usually a bifid cartilage just in front (cephalad) of the pubes, in the mid-line, which is called the epipubis (see subsection on embryology). In the Reptilia the ilium always projects backward towards the 182 SKELETON [VISCERAL FIG. 31. — Pelvis of Sphenodon Lizard. A Pubic symphysis. B Ischial symphysis. C Epipubis. D Hypoischium. (The dotted part is cartila- ginous, the white and darkly shaded parts bony.) tail; the ischia usually meet in a ventral ischial symphysis, from which a cartilage or bone projects backward to support the anterior lip of the cloacal orifice ; this is the hypoischium, a structure which is traceable throughout the Verte- brata to man (see fig. 31). The hypoischium and epipubis are parts of a cartilaginous pelvic sternum, the former representing are xiphisternum and the latter the episternum of the shoulder girdle (see F. G. Parsons, " Epi- physes of the Pelvis," /. Anat. and Phys. vol. xxxvii. p. 315). The pubis may or may not form a symphysis; occasionally it is double and then a pre- and post- pubis are recognized. In birds the ilium extends for- ward and backward, and is fused with the vertebral column, as has been noticed in section Axial of this article. The ischia and pubes do not form a symphysis except in the struthious birds (ostrich and rhea). The acetabulum is always perforate. In mammals the ilium projects forward toward the head, and an ischio-pubic symphysis is common, though sometimes it is only pubic as in man. In Echidna among the monotremes the acetabulum is perforate as in birds. In the mono- tremes and marsupials part of the external oblique muscle is ossified to form the marsupial bones; these are sometimes regarded as part of the epipubis, though it is more probable that they are merely adaptive strengthenings of the external oblique to support the traction of the pouch. A cotyloid bone (os acetabuli) is usually present, at all events in early life, and it often shuts out the pubis from taking any part in the formation of the acetabulum. The femur is comparatively a very stable bone. Sometimes, especially in the odd-toed ungulates (Perissodacty la) , the gluteal Femur ridge forms a large third trochanter, while in most mammals, though not in ungulates, there are two sesamoid bones, called fabellae, developed in the gastrocnemius just above the condyles. The patella first appears in the reptiles, though it is not present in all of them. Most of the Lacertilia show it as a small sesamoid p structure in the quadriceps extensor tendon. It is present in all birds and mammals, with the exception of some bats. In most marsupials it remains cartilaginous throughout life. The tibia and fibula fuse in the Anura and also in some mammals (e.g. rodents). The fibula is often nearly or quite suppressed in birds and mammals, while in birds the tibia fuses with the proximal row of tarsal bones, so that the ankle joint is fibula. obliterated and a tibio-tarsus formed. In the marsupials the upper'end of the fibula is large and may articulate with the femur in certain positions of the knee, but, as a whole, it reaches its maxi- mum development in the Carnivora in the aquatic suborder of which (Pinnipedia) it is as large as the tibia. It is curious that the only epiphysis which occurs in the long bones of birds is in the head of the tibia of the Gallinaceae. In the tarsus the bones are arranged on the same generalized plan as in the carpus; the proximal row consists of tibiale marginals, T tibiale, intermedium, fibulare and fibulare marginale; the 'us' middle row as far as we know only contains one centrale, while the distal row has five distalia. It is more difficult to trace the fate of these structures in existing vertebrates than it is with the carpal bones. In man the astragalus probably contains the tibiale, tibiale marginale and intermedium, the latter structure possibly accounting for the occasional os tri- gpnum, already mentioned in the subsection on embryology. The fibulare and fibulare marginale probably form the calcaneum, though it is unlikely that the epiphysis at the back of that bone represents any integral part of a generalized tarsus. The centrale persists as the navicular, while the three cuneiform represent tarsalia I., II. and III. and the cuboid tarsalia IV. and V., unless V. is suppressed as some believe. Vestiges of a prehallux are found in the Cape jumping hare and other rodents, though they are usually more closely connected with the navicular and internal cuneiform than with the bones of the proximal row. The large size of the hallux in man is an adapta- tion to the erect position. Most of the remarks already made about the metacarnals and phalanges of the hand apply equally to the foot, though there is a greater tendency to reduction of digits in the hind limb than in the fore. For further details and literature seeS. H. Reynolds, TheVertebrate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897); W. Flower and H. Gadow, Osteology of the Mammalia (London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim, Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, adapted by W. N. Parker, (London 1907); C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich Anat. der Wirbeltiere (Bd. i.) (Leipzig, 1901). Visceral. In the lower vertebrates as well as in the embryo of man, a number of cartilaginous or bony arches encircle the mouth and pharynx (anterior part of the food tube), just as hoops encircle a barrel. There is little doubt that, when they first appeared in the history of evolution, all these bars supported gills and bounded gill slits, but in all existing types the first arch has been modified to surround the mouth and to act as both upper and lower jaws, gaining in different animals a more or less complete connexion with the cranium or brain-containing part of the skull. The first of these visceral arches, therefore, is known as the oral or jaw arch and, as has been shown, the muscles in connexion with it are supplied by the fifth nerve (see MUSCULAR SYSTEM; and NERVE: Cranial). The second visceral arch is the hyoid and is accompanied by the seventh or facial nerve. The third visceral or first branchial arch of most writers has the ninth or glosso-pharyngeal for its nerve supply, while the arches behind this are supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve. It will be seen, on reading the subsections devoted to embry- ology and comparative anatomy, that in man the maxilla, palate, internal pterygoid plate, malar and tympanic bones as well as the ear ossicles, mandible, hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage are developed in connexion with this visceral skeleton. Of these the ear ossicles are described in the article EAR, the thyroid cartilage in that on the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, while the other bones, with the exception of the hyoid, are treated under the head of SKULL. It therefore only remains to describe here the hyoid bone of man. The hyoid bone, so called from its likeness to the Greek letter u, 'lies in the upper part of the neck in close connexion with the root of the tongue and just above the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. It con- sists of a body across the mid-ventral line and a great and small cornu on each side (see fig. l). The body (basihyal) is rectangular with its long axis placed hori- zontally; behind it is markedly concave both from above down- liatly HMO-RIM From Gray's Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical. FIG. 32. — Hyoid Bone, anterior surface (enlarged). ward and from side to side. In front it attaches several muscles, but behind it is smooth and is separated from the thyrohyoid membrane by a bursa. From its upper border this membrane runs downward to the thyroid cartilage. The great cornua (ihyrohyals) are attached to each side of the body by cartilage until middle life and afterwards by bony union. They curve upward and backward round the side of the pharynx and are laterally compressed. To their inner surfaces the thyrohyoid membrane is attached, while their knob-like ends are connected with the superior cornua of the thyroid cartilage by the lateral thyrohyoid ligaments. The small cornua (ceratohyals) are conical structures about a quarter of an inch long attached to the upper part of the body at its junction with the great cornua. It is only in late life that they become united with the body by bony union, if they ever do so. At their apices they are connected with the tips of the styloid pro- cesses by the long stylohyoid ligaments (epihyals). Embryology. — In the early embryo (see MOUTH and SALIVARY GLANDS) the mandibular processes grow forward on each side of the slit-like stomatodaeum or primitive mouth, and at length join one another in the mid- ventral line. From the proximal part of each of these another process, the maxillary, grows forward (ventrad), only more slowly, to blend with the fronto-nasal process. In each of these processes cartilage is formed in the lower vertebrates, which in the case of the mandible (lower jaw) reaches to the mid-ventral line and VISCERAL] SKELETON 183 forms what is known as Meckel's cartilage; but in the maxillary process the stage of chondrification is suppressed in man and other mammals, and the palato-quadrate cartilaginous bar which is so evident in embryo fishes and amphibians is not formed. It will thus be seen that both the maxillary and mandibular bars are derivatives of the first visceral arch. In the maxillary process a membrane bone is formed which blends with the sphenoid to form the internal pterygoid plate, while in front (ventrad) of this the upper jaw (maxilla) is developed in membrane by several centres. Of these, according to the usual description, (l) forms the body of the bone on the outer side of the«infraorbital canal; (2) forms the body of the bone on the inner side of that canal ; (3) forms the nasal process and the socket for the canine tooth ; (4) makes the posterior three- quarters of the palatine process; while (5) and (6) form the pre- maxilla, each of the latter contributing a socket for one of the two incisor teeth. When these premaxillary sutures fail to unite, the de- formity known as " cleft palate " is produced and this may occur either between the lateral incisor and the canine or between the central and lateral incisor teeth. The recent researches of Professor E. Fawcett point to the conclusion that these centres are not really as numerous as is generally thought. He regards (l) and (2) as a single centre which grows up round the infraorbital canal, while the premaxilla he finds need not necessarily have two centres. The maxillary antrum is first developed as an outgrowth from the cartilaginous olfactory capsule into the membranous maxilla, though the cartilage soon disappears. The palate bone is developed by one centre which is formed in what will be the vertical plate of that bone in the membrane, behind the centre or centres for the body of the maxilla and at a little later date (see E. Fawcett, Journ. Anal, and Phys. vol. 40, p. 400). The mandibular or Meckel's cartilage is continued up into the tympanum where it joins the proximal end of the cartilage of the second or hyoid arch, and it is from this junction (hyomandibular plate) that, according to H. Gadow, Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. 19, p. 396, the malleus and incus bones of the middle ear are developed (see EAR). Between the slender process of the malleus and the region of the inferior dental foramen, the cartilage later on disappears and its fibrous sheath forms the long internal lateral or sphenomandibular ligament (see fig. 33, L.I.L). Hitherto each half of the lower jaw has been considered to be com- posed of several distinct skeletal elements, homologous with the elements found in the jaws of lower vertebrates. This view is still held by Professor K. von Bardeleben, who contends that there are present in the lower jaws of man and mammals six separate elements, the os mentale, coronoid, condyloid, angular, marginal and dentary. The researches of B. Henneberg, Professor E. Fawcett and of Dr A. Lowe, however, are so complete and correspond so closely that one cannot help believing that the human lower jaw, at all events, is ossified from one centre only on each side, which appears in membrane near the symphysis and extends into a small part of Meckel's cartilage near the incisor tooth germs. From this centre, which represents the dentary of lower vertebrates, the whole adult bony jaw is formed and the greater part of Meckel's cartilage disappears by a process of resorption. But, although this bone is mainly membranous, patches of cartilage appear in the coronoid and condylar processes as well as near the symphysis and perhaps at the angle. These, however, do not ossify by separate centres, but are invaded by the main dentary ossification already described. It seems evident, therefore, that in man the process of ossification is slurred over although some of the original elements of the lower vertebrates are repeated as temporary cartilaginous masses, e.g. coronary, condylar and angular. (See E. Fawcett, " Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine," University Library, Edinburgh, 1906; also A. Lowe, " Development of Lower Jaw in Man," Proc. Anat. Soc. of the University of Aberdeen, 1905, p. 59. In the latter paper the literature is reviewed.) At birth the two halves of the mandible are separate as they are throughout life in many mammals (e.g. rodents), but in man they join together about the end of the first year. It has been stated that within the tympanum the dorsal or proximal ends of the first and second visceral arches unite to form the hyo- mandibular plate from which, following H. Gadow, the malleus and incus are derived. The stapes is also probably formed from the proximal end of the second or hyoid arch (see fig. 33, St), and just ventral to this the cartilage of the arch fuses with that of the periotic capsule, where it is later on ossified as the tympanohyal element of the temporal bone (fig. 33, T.H). From this point the cartilage becomes free from the skull and runs round the pharynx until it meets its fellow of the opposite side in the mid-ventral line. That part of the cartilage which is nearest the skull remains as the stylohyal element (fig. 33, S.H) and this later on ossifies to form the styloid process which fuses with the tympanohyal between twenty and twenty-five. For some distance beyond the stylohyal element the cartilage de- generates into fibrous tissue forming the stylohyoid ligament; this represents the epihyal element, and occasionally instead of degenerat- ing it ossifies to form an abnormal bone (fig. 33, E.H). Near the middle line the cartilage persists as the ceratohyal element or lesser cornu of the hyoid bone (fig. 33, C.H), while the most ventral part, where it fuses with its fellow of the opposite side as well as with the ventral part of the third arch, is the basihyal or body of the hyoid bone (fig. 33, B.H). The dorsal part of the cartilage of the third arch is wanting, but its lateral part forms the thyrohyal or great cornu of the hyoid bone (fig. 33, Th.H), while its ventral part fuses with its fellow of the opposite side as well as with the ventral part of the second arch to form the body of the hyoid bone. The fourth and fifth arches only develop cartilage in their Ventro-lateral parts and fuse to form the thyroid cartilage of the larynx (fig. '33, Th.C) (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). For further details see J. P. McMurrich, Development of theHuman Body (1906); A. Keith, Human Embryology and Morphology (1905); H. Gadow, " Modifications of the first and second Visceral Arches," Phil. Trans, vol. 179 (1888), and " The Evolution ot the Auditory Ossicles," Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. xix. (1901). Comparative Anatomy. — In the Amphipxus the pharynx is stiffened by chitinous bars which lie between the gill slits, but it is unlikely that ist. Arch Th.C. FIG. 33. — Diagram to show the fate of the Visceral Arches in man and (with modifications) other mammals. Membrane bones white. Cartilage and cartilage bones black. Cartilage which has degenerated into ligaments dotted. P.M Premaxilla. Max. Maxilla. Pal. Palate. Pt Pterygoid (internal ptery- goid plate). T.R Tympanic ring (quad- rate?). Mand. Mandible surrounding Meckel's cartilage (black). L.I.L Long internal lateral liga- ment. M Malleus. I Incus. St Stapes. T.H Tympanohyal. S.H Stylohyal (styloid process). E.H Occasional epihyal cartil- age or bone in stylohyoid ligament. C.H Ceratohyal (lesser cornu of hyoid bone). B.H Basihyal (body of hyoid bone). Th.H Thyrohyal (great cornu of hyoid bone). Th.C Thyroid cartilage of larynx. these are really homologous with the visceral skeleton of higher forms, though, in serving the same purpose, they are certainly analogous. Among the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) there is an arrange- ment known as the " branchial basket," which has a more super- ficial position than the visceral arches of fish and probably corre- sponds to the extra-branchials of those vertebrates. The oral and hyoid arches are very rudimentary and probably have degenerated in consequence of the suctorial mode of nourishment. In the Elasmo- branchii (sharks and rays) the visceral skeleton is entirely cartilagin- ous. In the more primitive types such as the comb-toothed shark (Notidanus) the oral and hyoid arches are quite distinct. The oral arch consists of the upper jaw, or palato-quadrate cartilage, and the lower jaw, or Meckel's cartilage; these articulate with one another posteriorly and also with the skull. Behind these and distinct from them is the hyoid arch. Such a type of suspensorium or jaw articula- tion is called autostylic. In the rays, on the other hand, the oral arch is connected with the skull by the proximal segment of the hyoid arch, which, since it connects both the hyoid and mandibular (oral) arches with the skull, is called the hyomandibular cartilage. This type of suspensorium is termed hyostylic. Below the hyomandibular cartilage the hyoid arch has two other 184 SKELTON segments, the ceratohyal laterally and the basihyal yentrally where it fuses with its fellow of the opposite side. Sometimes an epihyal intervenes between the hyomandibular and the ceratohyal. Behind the hyoid arch are usually five branchial arches, though in Hept- anchus there are as many as seven. These are divided into a number of segments, and outside these there is often another series of arches called extra-branchials which are probably homologous with the branchial basket of the Cyclostomata. The chimaeroid fishes are called Holocephali because in them the palato-quadrate bar is fused with the rest of the skull. In the bony ganoids and teleosteans (Teleostomi) the palato-quadrate bar ossifies to form the palatine, ecto-, meso- and meta-pterygoids and quadrate bones from before backward, while outside these is another row of dermal bones formed by the premaxilla, maxilla and jugal or malar. In the lower jaw, Meckel's cartilage is ossified at its proximal end to form the articular bone, but distally it remains and is partly en- cased by the dentary, and more posteriorly by the angular, both of FIG. 34. — Longitudinal and Vertical Section of the Skull of a Dog (Canis familiaris) , with mandible and hyoid arch. PS Presphenoid. PI Vo an Anterior narial aperture. MT Maxillo-turbinal bone. ET Ethmo-turbinal. Na Nasal. ME Ossified portion of the mes- ethmoid. CE Cribriform plate of the ethmo-turbmal. Fr Frontal. Pa Parietal. IP Interparietal. SO Supra-occipital. ExO Ex-occipital. BO Basi-occipital. Per Periotic. 55 Basi-sphenoid. Pt Pterygoid. AS Alisphenoid. OS Orbito-sphenoid. MX Palatine. Vomer. Maxilla. PMx Premaxilla. In the Reptilia the site of the palato-quadrate bar is surrounded by the same series of bones that are found in the Amphibia, but in lizards and chelonians a para-quadrate bone is found which, according to E. Gaupp, is the precursor of the tympanic ring of mammals. In the crocodiles the maxilla and palate grow inwards to meet one another and so form a hard palate. The mandible has dentary, splenial, angular, surangular, articular and coronoid ossifications and in some cases a mento-meckellian as well. The quadrate bone with which it still articulates is becoming included in the wall of the tympanic cavity, and, according to H. Gadow, it is this bone and not the para-quadrate which will become the tympanic of mammals. The hyoid arch is sometimes suppressed in snakes, but in Sphenodon its continuity with the columella or stapes can be demonstrated. The branchial skeleton is reduced with the cessation of branchial respiration and only the ventral parts of two arches can be seen; these unite to form a plate with the hyoid (basihyobranchial) and with this the glottis is closely connected. In birds the morphology of the visceral skeleton is on the reptilian plan, and, although the modi- fications are numerous, they are not of special interest in elucidating the problems of human morphology, hf In the Mammalia the premaxilla, maxilla, palate and pterygoid bones can be seen in connexion with the region where the palato- quadrate cartilage lay in the lower Vertebrata (see fig. 34). The premaxilla bears the incisor teeth, and except in man the suture between it and the maxilla is evident on the face if a young enough animal be looked at. The maxilla bears the rest of the teeth and articulates laterally with the jugal or malar, which in its turn articulates posteriorly with the zygomatic pro- cess of the squamosal, so that a zygomatic arch, peculiar to mammals, is formed. Both the maxilla and palate form the hard palate as in crocodiles, though the pterygoid bone does not do so but fuses with the sphenoid to form the internal pterygoid plate (see fig. 34, Pt). The mandible no longer articulates with the quadrate but forms a new articulation, by means of the con- dyle, with the glenoid cavity of the squamosal, and many modern morphologists, including the writer, are inclined to agree with H. Gadow that the quadrate has probably become the tympanic bone. In many mammals (e.g. Carnivora) this bone swells out to form the bulla tympani. The derivation of the auditory ossicles has been discussed in the section on embryology as well as in the article EAR. The presence of a chain of ossicles is peculiar to the Mammalia. In many of the lower mammals (e.g. Ungulata and Carnivora) the hyoid arch is much more completely ossified than it is in man, tympana-, stylo-, epi-, cerato- and basihyal elements all being bony (see fig. 34). It is of interest to notice that in the hares and rabbits the body of the hyoid has occasionally been found in two pieces, indicating its derivation from the second and third visceral arches. The fourth and fifth arches, which form the thyroid cartilage in mammals, are considered in the article RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. .For further details see S. H. Reynolds, The Vertebrate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897); W. Flower, Osteology of the Mammalia (London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim, Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, adapted and translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbeltiere, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1901). (F. G. P.) SKELTON, JOHN (c. 1460-1529), English poet, is variously asserted to have belonged to a Cumberland family and to have been a native of Diss in Norfolk. He is said to have been which are membrane bones. The jaw joint therefore is between the quadrate and the articular. In comparing this description with the section on human embryology it will be seen that certain bones, like the palate and pterygoids, which in the fish are ossifications in cartilage, become in the higher vertebrates membrane bones, and so it is clear that too great stress must not be laid on the histological history of a bone in determining its morphological significance. The branchial arches of the Teleostomi closely resemble those of the Elasmobranchii except that they are ossified and that the extra- branchials have disappeared. In the Dipnoi (mudfish) the suspensorium is autostylic, and either five or six branchial arches are present. In the Amphibia, too, the suspensorium is autostylic, the palato-quadrate bar remains largely cartilaginous, though its posterior part is often ossified to form the quadrate. The membranous premaxilla, maxilla, palatine, pterygoid, quadratojugal and squamosal bones are developed in connexion with it, though it is interesting to notice that the pterygoid is sometimes partly cartilaginous and the quadrato-jugal is absent in the tailed forms (Urodela). In the lower jaw a splenial ^ element has appeared, and in the frog a cartilaginous mento-meckellian bone develops close to the symphysis. In the larval stages there are rudiments of four branchial arches behind the hyoid, but in the adult these are re- duced in the Anura and their ventral ends are united into a broad basilingual plate. Stylo-hyal. Epi-hyal. Cerato-hyal. Basihyal. Thyro-hyal. Symphysis of mandible. Coronoid process. Condyle. Angle. Inferior dental canal. The mandible is displaced down- educated at Oxford. He certainly studied at Cambridge, and ^1^*1^°^^^?.!°™,^^ he is Probably the " one Scheklton " mentioned by William Cole (MS.Athen. Cantabr.) as taking his M.A.degree in 1484. In 1490 Caxton writes of him, in the preface to The Boke ofEneydos compyled by Vyrgyle, in terms which prove that he had already won a reputation as a scholar. " But I pray mayster John Skelton," he says, " late created poete laureate in the unyversite of Oxenforde, to oversee and correct this sayd booke . . . for him I know for suffycyent to expowne and englysshe every dyffyculte that is therin. For he hath late translated the epystlys of Tulle, and the boke of dyodorus siculus,1 and diverse other works ... in polysshed and ornate termes craftely ... I suppose he hath drunken of Elycons well." The laureateship referred to was a degree in rhetoric. Skelton received in 1493 the same honour at Cambridge, and also, it is said, at Louvain. He found a patron in the pious and learned countess of Richmond, Henry VII. 's mother, for whom he wrote Of Marines Lyfe the Peregrynacioun, a translation, now lost, of Guillaume de Deguille- ville's Pelerinage de la vie humaine. An elegy " Of the death of the noble prince Kynge Edwarde the forth," included in some of the editions of the Mirror for Magistrates, and another (1489) 1 The MS. of this translation is preserved at Corpus Christ! College, Cambridge. SKELTON 185 on the death of Henry Percy, fourth earl of Northumberland, are among his earliest poems. In the last decade of the century he was appointed tutor to Prince Henry (afterwards Henry VIII.) . He wrote for his pupil a lost Speculum principis, and Erasmus, in dedicating an ode to the prince in 1500, speaks of Skelton as " unum Britannicarum literarum lumen ac decus." In 1498 he was successively ordained sub-deacon, deacon and priest. He seems to have been imprisoned in 1502, but no reason is known for his disgrace. Two years later he retired from regular attendance at court to become rector of Diss, a benefice which he retained nominally till his death. Skelton frequently signed himself " regius orator " and poet-laureate, but there is no record of any emoluments paid in connexion with these dignities, although the Abbe du Resnel, author of Recherches sur les poetes couronnez, asserts that he had seen a patent (1513-1514) in which Skelton was appointed poet-laureate to Henry VIII. As rector of Diss he caused great scandal among his parishioners, who thought him, says Anthony a Wood, more fit for the stage than for the pew or the pulpit. He was secretly married to a woman who lived in his house, and he had earned the hatred of the Dominican monks by his fierce satire. Consequently he came under the formal censure of Richard Nix, the bishop of the diocese, and appears to have been temporarily suspended. After his death a collection of farcical tales, no doubt chiefly, if not entirely, apocryphal, gathered round his name — The Merie Tales of Skelton. During the rest of the century he figured in the popular imagination as an incorrigible practical joker. His sarcastic wit made him some enemies, among them Sir Christopher Garnesche or Garneys, Alexander Barclay, William Lilly and the French scholar, Robert Gaguin (c. 1425-1502). With Garneys he engaged in a regular " flyting," undertaken, he says, at the king's command, but Skelton's four poems read as if the abuse in them were dictated by genuine anger. Earlier in his career he had found a friend and patron in Cardinal Wolsey, and the dedication to the cardinal of his Replycacion is couched in the most flattering terms. But in 1522, when Wolsey in his capacity of legate dissolved convocation at St Paul's, Skelton put in circulation the couplet: " Gentle Paul, laie doune thy sweard For Peter of Westminster hath shaven thy beard." In Colyn Cloute he incidentally attacked Wolsey in a general satire on the clergy, but Speke, Parrot and Why come ye nat to Courte ? are direct and fierce invectives against the cardinal who is said to have more than once imprisoned the author. To avoid another arrest Skelton took sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. He was kindly received by the abbot, John Islip, who continued to protect him unt1'! his death on the 2ist of June 1529. The inscription on his tomb in the neighbouring church of St Margaret's described him as vatcs pierius. In his Garlande of Laurell Skelton gives a long list of his works, only a few of which are extant. The garland in question was worked for him in silks, gold and pearls by the ladies of the countess of Surrey at Sheriff Hutton Castle, where he was the guest of the duke of Norfolk. The composition includes compli- mentary verses to the various ladies concerned, and a good deal of information about himself. But it is as a satirist that Skelton merits attention. The Bowge of Court is directed against the vices and dangers of court life. He had already in his Bake of the Thre Poles drawn on Alexander Barclay's version of the Narrenschiff of Sebastian Brant, and this more elaborate and imaginative poem belongs to the same class. Skelton, falling into a dream at Harwich, sees a stately ship in the harbour called the Bowge of Court,1 the owner of which is the Dame Saunce Pere. Her merchandise is Favour; the helmsman Fortune; and the poet, who figures as Drede (modesty), finds on board Favell (the flatterer), Suspect, Harvy Hafter (the clever thief), Dysdayne, RyoHe, Dyssymuler and Subtylte, who all explain themselves in turn, until at last Drede, who finds they are secretly .his enemies, is about to save his life by jumping overboard, when he wakes with a start. Both of these poems are written in the 1 Bowge — Fr. bouche; court rations. The term is explained as the right to eat at the king's table. seven-lined Chaucerian stanza, but it is in an irregular metre of his own that his most characteristic work was accomplished. The Bake of Phyllyp Sparowe, the lament of Jane Scroop, a schoolgirl in the Benedictine convent of Carowe near Norwich, for her dead bird, was no doubt inspired by Catullus. It is a poem of some 1400 lines and takes many liberties with the formularies of the church. The digressions are considerable. We learn what a wide reading Jane had in the romances of Charlemagne, of the Round Table, The Four Sons of Aymon and the Trojan cycle. Skelton finds space to give his opinion of Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate. He seems fully to have realized Chaucer's value as a master of the English language. Gower's matter was, he said, " worth gold," but his English he regarded as antiquated. The verse in which the poem is written, called from its inventor " Skeltonical," is here turned entirely to whimsical use. The lines are usually six-syllabled, but vary in length, and rhyme in groups of two, three, four and even more. It is not far removed from the old alliterative English verse, and well fitted to be chanted by the minstrels who had sung the old ballads. For its comic admixture of Latin Skelton had abundant example in French and Low Latin macaronic verse. He makes frequent use of Latin and French words to carry out his exacting system of frequently recurring rhymes. This breathless, voluble measure was in Skelton's energetic hands an admirable vehicle for invective, but it easily degenerated into doggerel. By the end of the i6th century he was a " rude rayling rimer " (Puttenham, Arte of English Poesie), and at the hands of Pope 2 and Warton he fared even worse. His own criticism is a just one : — " For though my ryme be ragged, Tattered and jagged, Rudely rayne beaten, Rusty and moughte eaten, It hath in it some pyth." Colyn Cloute represents the average country man who gives his opinions on the state of the church. There is no more scathing indictment of the sins of the clergy before the Reformation. He exposes their greed, their ignorance, the ostentation of the bishops and the common practice of simony, but takes care to explain that his accusations do not include all and that he writes in defence of, not against, the church. He repeatedly hits at Wolsey even in this general satire, .but not directly. Speke, Parrot has only been preserved in a fragmentary form, and is exceedingly obscure. It was apparently composed at different times, but in the latter part of the composition he openly attacks Wolsey. In Why come ye nat to Courte? there is no attempt at disguise. The wonder is not that the author had to seek sanctuary, but that he had any opportunity of doing so. He rails at Wolsey's ostentation, at his almost royal authority, his overbearing manner to suitors high and low, and taunts him with his mean extraction. This scathing invective was not allowed to be printed in the cardinal's lifetime, but it was no doubt widely circulated in MS. and by repetition. The charge of coarseness regularly brought against Skelton is based chiefly on The Tunnynge of Elynoure Rummynge, a realistic description in the same metre of the drunken women who gathered at a well-known ale-house kept by Elynour Rummynge at Leatherhead, not far from the royal palace of Nonsuch. " Skelton Laureate against the Scottes " is a fierce song of triumph celebrating the victory of Flodden. " Jemmy is ded And closed in led, That was theyr owne Kynge," says the poem; but there was an earlier version written before the news of James IV.'s death had reached London. This, which is the earliest singly printed ballad in the language, was entitled A Ballade of the Scottysshe Kynge, and was rescued in 1878 from the wooden covers of a copy of Huon de Bordeaux. " Howe the douty Duke of Albany, lyke a cowarde knight " deals with the campaign of 1523, and contains a panegyric of Henry VIII. To this is attached an envoi to Wolsey, but it must surely have been 2 (Spence, Anecdotes, p. 87): Pope said: " Skelton's poems are all low and bad, there is nothing in them that is worth reading," and (in Satires and Epigrams, v. 38) " And beastly Skelton heads of houses quote." i86 SKELTON AND BROTTON— SKI misplaced, for both the satires on the cardinal are of earlier date. Skelton also wrote three plays, only one of which survives. Magnificence is one of -the best examples of the morality play. It deals with the same topic as his satires, the evils of ambition ; its moral, " how suddenly worldly wealth doth decay," being a favourite one with him. Thomas Warton in his History of English Poetry described another piece Nigramansir, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1 504, and dealing with simony and the love of money in the church; but no copy is known to exist, and some suspicion has been cast on Warton's statement. Illustration of the hold Skelton had on the public imagination is supplied from the stage. A play (1600) called Scogan and Skelton, by Richard Hathway and William Rankins, is mentioned by Henslowe. In Anthony Munday's Downfall of Robert, earl of Huntingdon, Skelton acts the part of Friar Tuck, and Ben Jonson in his masque, The Fortunate Isles, introduced " Skogan and Skelton in like habits as they lived." Very few of Skelton's productions are dated, and their titles are here necessarily abbreviated. Wynkyn de Worde printed the Bowge of Court twice. Diners Baletlys and dyties salacious devysed by Master Skelton Laureat, and Skelton Laureate agaynste a comely Coystroune. . . have no date or printer's name, but are evidently from the press of Richard Pynson, who also printed Replycacion against certain yong scoters, dedicated to Wolsey. The Garlande or Chapelet of Laurell was printed by Richard Faukes (1523); Magnificence, A goodly interlude , . . . probably by John Rastell about 1533, reprinted (1821) for the Roxburghe Club. Hereafter foloweth the Boke of Phyllyp Sparowe was printed by Richard Kele (1550 ?), Robert Toy, Antony Kitson (1560?), Abraham Veale (1570?), John Walley, John Wyght (1560?). Hereafter foloweth certaine bakes compyled by mayster Skelton . . . including " Speke, Parrot," " Ware the Hawke," " Ely- noure Rummynge " and others, was printed by Richard Lant (1550?) , John King and Thomas March (1565 ?), by John Day (1560). Here- after foloweth a litle boke called Colyn Cloute and Hereafter . . . why come ye nat to Courte ? were printed by Richard Kele (1550 ?) and in numerous subsequent editions. Pithy, plesaunt and profitable workes of maister Skelton, Poete Laureate. Nowe collected and newly published was printed in 1568, and reprinted in 1736. A scarce reprint of Elinour Rummin by Samuel Rand appeared in 1624. See The Poetical Works of John Skelton; with Notes and some account of the author and his writings, by the Rev. Alexander Dyce (2 vols., 1843). A selection of his works was edited by W. H. Williams (London, 1902). See also Zur Charakteristik John Skeltons by Dr Arthur Koelbing (Stuttgart, 1904) ; F. Brie, " Skelton Studien " in Englische Studien, vol. 38 (Heilbronn, 1877, etc.); A. Rey, Skelton's Satirical Poems . . . (Berne, 1899); A. Thummel, Studien iiber John Skelton (Leipzig- Reudnitz, 1905) ; G. Saintsbury, Hist. ofEng. Prosody (vol. i., 1906) ; and A. Kolbing in the Cambridge History of English Literature (vol. iii., 1909). SKELTON AND BROTTON, an urban district in the Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 17 m. E. by S. of Middlesbrough by a branch of the North-Eastern railway, with stations at Brotton and North Skelton. Pop. (1901) 13,240. This is one of the largest town- ships in the Cleveland ironstone district, and its industrial population is wholly employed in the quarries. The modern Skelton Castle incorporates part of the ancient stronghold of Robert de Brus who held it from William the Conqueror. A modern church replaces the ancient one, of which there are ruins, and a fine Norman font is preserved. The large ironstone quarries have not wholly destroyed the beauty of the district. The Cleveland hills rise sharply southward, to elevations some- times exceeding 1000 ft., and are scored with deep and picturesque glens. On the coast, which is cliff-bound and fine, is the watering- place of Saltburn by the Sea. SKENE, WILLIAM FORBES (1809-1892), Scottish historian and antiquary, was the second son of Sir Walter Scott's friend, James Skene (1775-1864), of Rubislaw, near Aberdeen, and was born on the 7th of June 1809. He was educated at Edinburgh High School, in Germany and at the university of St Andrews, taking an especial interest in the study of Celtic philology and literature. In 1832 he became a writer to the signet, and shortly afterwards obtained an official appointment in the bill department of the Court of Session, which he held until 1865. His early interest in the history and antiquities of the Scottish Highlands bore its first fruit in 1837, when he published The Highlanders of Scotland, their Origin, History and Antiquities. His chief work, however, is his Celtic Scotland, a History of Ancient Alban (3 vols.,. Edinburgh, 1876-1880), perhaps the most important contribu- tion to Scottish history written during the ipth century. In 1879 he was made a D.C.L. of Oxford, and in 1881 historiographer royal for Scotland. He died in Edinburgh on the 2gth of August 1892. The most important of Skenc's other works are: editions of John of Fordun's Chronica gentis Scotorum (Edinburgh, 1871-1872); of the Four Ancient Books of Wales (Edinburgh, 1868) ; of the Chronicles of the Picts and Scots (Edinburgh, 1867) ; and of Adamuar.'s Vita S. Columbae (Edinburgh, 1874); an Essay on the Coronation Stone of Scone (Edinburgh, 1869); and Memorials of the Family of Skene of Skene (Aberdeen, 1887). * SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schels, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. arts of the coast,2 — remarkable for the unique formation of ts bill, in which the maxilla, or so-called upper mandible, is capable of much vertical movement, while the lower mandible, vhich is considerably the longer of the two, is laterally compressed o as to be as thin as a knife-blade. This bird is the Rhynchops nigra of Linnaeus, who, however, united with it what proves o be an allied species from India that, having been indicated many years before by Petiver (Gazoph. naturae, tab. 76, fig. 2), >n the authority of Buckley, was only technically named and lescribed in 1838 by W. Swainson (Anim. Menageries, p. 360) s R. albicottis. A third species, R. Jlavirostris, inhabits Africa; ind examples from South America, though by many writers egarded as identical with R. nigra, are considered by Howard aunders (Proc. Zoo/. Society, 1882, p. 522) to form a fourth, he R. melanura of Swainson (ut supra, p. 340). All these " I call it Skimmer, from the manner of its collecting its food ith the lower mandible, as it flies along the surface of the water " len. of Birds, p. 52). 2 Other English names applied to it in America are " Razorbill," Scissorbill," and " Shearwater." i88 SKIN AND EXOSKELETON resemble one another very closely, and, apart from their singularly- formed bill, have the structure and appearance of Terns (q.v.). Some authors make a family of the genus Rhynchops, but it seems needless to remove it from the Laridae (see GULL). In breeding-habits the Skimmers thoroughly agree with the Terns, the largest species of which group they nearly equal in size, and indeed only seem to differ from them in the mode of taking their food, which of course is correlated with the extraordinary formation of their bill. (A. N.) SKIN AND EXOSKELETON, in anatomy. The skin (A.-S. scinn) is the covering of the whole body, and is continuous at the different orifices with the mucous membrane. It acts firstly as a protective layer, secondly as a regulator of the temperature, thirdly as an excretory organ and fourthly as a tactile and sensory organ in which nerves end. The skin varies in thickness from -5 mm. in the eyelids to 4 or more mm. in the palms and soles; it is also very thick over the back of the body. Two main layers are recognized in the Stratum lucidum Blood-vessels and nerves From Robert Howden in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy, FIG. I. — Vertical section of Epidermis and Papillae of Corium (highly magnified). skin; superficially there is the scarf skin or epidermis and more deeply the dermis or true skin. The epidermis under the micro- scope is seen to consist of five layers. On the surface is the horny layer or stratum corneum (see fig. i) composed of layers of scale- like cells, the walls of which are turned into the horny substance keratin. Deep to this is a thin layer of scale-like cells without keratin known as the stratum lucidum. Deeper still is a layer, the stratum granulosum, in which the cells are not so flattened and contain granules of a substance known as eleidin. In the fourth layer, stratum mucosum or stratum Malpighii, the cells are polygonal and are connected together by delicate prickle-like processes. It is in the deeper layers of these cells that the pig- ment of the negro's skin is found. The fifth and deepest layer of the epidermis is the stratum germinalivum, in which there is only one layer of columnar cells. The whole of the epidermis is non-vascular, and it will be noticed that as the different layers approach the surface the cells become more and more flattened. The true skin, dermis or corium is composed of a felted network of white fibrous tissue with a small number of yellow elastic fibres interspersed. It is divided into two layers. The superficial or papillary layer lies next to the epidermis and is raised into a number of papillae or conical projections which fit into corresponding depressions on the deep surface of the epidermis. In sensitive parts like the palms and soles these papillae are specially prominent and form wavy lines, each of which consists of a double row between which the ducts of the sweat glands pass on their way to the surface. So large are the papillae in these situations that the epidermis is also raised into ridges, and these in the fingers form the characteristic whorls so valuable for purposes of identification. The papillae contain leashes of blood-vessels, and in some of them are special tactile corpuscles in which the nerves end (see NERVOUS SYSTEM). In the deeper or reticular layer of the true skin the fibrous feltwork is looser and encloses pellets of fat. It also contains a network of blood-vessels and nerves, and in some places a layer of striped or unstriped muscle. Where hairs are present the hair follicles lie in this deeper layer, which gradually merges with the subcutaneous fatty tissue (see fig. 2). As appendages of the skin are found the hairs, the nails and the sebaceous and sweat glands. Hair. — The hairs are found in man on the scalp, eyelids, eyebrows, armpits, pubic region, vestibule of the nose, external auditory meatus, face, ventral surface of the trunk and dorsal surfaces of the leg, forearm and hand; indeed the only places which are quite free from them are the palms of the hands, soles of the feet and the glans penis. In some places, such as the armpits, pubic region and the face of the male they grow to a considerable length at and after puberty. They are of great anthropological interest since they differ in colour and texture in different races, sometimes being straight, sometimes wavy, sometimes curly. The amount and distribution of long hairs also vary with the race. In section it is only the straight hairs which are circular; wavy and curly hairs are oval. In the centre of each hair is the medulla or pith, though this is not always present; it is composed of nucleated cells containing pigment, fat and air spaces. Outside this is the fibrous layer or cortex, also containing pigment and air spaces, while most superficially is the cuticle made up of overlapping scales. The hair grows at its root from a hair follicle (see fig. 2), which is a tubular inpushing of the epidermis into the true skin or, in the case of large hairs, deeper still into the superficial fascia. It is divided into an inner and outer root sheath, the former representing the more superficial layers of the epidermis, the latter the deeper layers. At the bottom of the follicle the hair enlarges to form the bulb, and into the lower part of this a vascular papilla projects from the true skin. The cells of the hair are derived from, and are continuous at the bulb with those of the outer root sheath, and therefore with the deeper layers of the epidermis. The hair follicle always projects somewhat obliquely into the skin, and attached to the side toward which it is leaning is a small band of non-striated muscular fibres called arrector pili. When this acts it diminishes the obliquity of the hair and so makes it " bristle " or " stand on end," while a general con- traction of these small muscles leads to the familiar condition of " gooseflesh." Nails. — The nails are specially thickened parts of the epidermis, and are divided into a root and a body. The former is concealed by a fold of skin, and the corium on which it lies is known as the nail matrix. The body of the nail also lies on the corium, or true skin, which forms the nail bed and is very sensitive. This body of the nail is formed by the stratum germinativum and stratum mucosum in its deeper part, and more superficially by the stratum lucidum, which is here very much thickened and converted into keratin or horn. Near the root of each nail is a semi-lunar area which is more opaque than the rest and forms the white lunula. Sweat Glands. — Sebaceous glands are found wherever there are hairs, however rudimentary, and open by their ducts into the superficial part of the hair follicle (see fig. 2). Their deeper or secreting part divides into a number of bag-like alveoli composed of cells, which secrete oil droplets. There may be two or three glands to each hair follicle, and their size does not vary directly with that of the hair, since they are very large in the nose, where the hairs are quite rudimentary. They are also found on the labia minora and nipples, where no hairs are. Sudoriparous or sweat glands (see fig. 2) are found all over the surface of the body, SKIN AND EXOSKELETON 189 but are specially numerous on the palms and soles. It is esti- mated that in the palm there are nearly 3000 to a square inch, while in the skin of the back they do not reach 500 to the same area. In the armpits and groins they are very large. Each consists of a single long tube, lined by columnar epithelium, and coiled up into a ball or glomerulus in the subcutaneous tissue, after which it pierces the corium and epidermis to reach the surface at the porus sudoriferus. Where the stratum corneum of the epidermis is thick the duct is twisted like a corkscrew as it goes through. The glands of Moll in the eyelids and the ceruminous or wax glands of the ear are modified sweat glands; the former, when inflamed, cause a " sty." EMBRYOLOGY The skin ft derived partly from the ectoderm and partly from the mesoderm of the embryo. The whole of the epidermis Duct of sweat gland Hair Papillae of corium Hair follicle— Glomerulus Oblique section through Papilla of hair a Pacinian corpuscle From Robert Howden, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 2. — Vertical section of the Skin (schematic). and its appendages are ectodermal, and in the early embryo consist of a single layer of cells ; later on this becomes double, and the superficial layer is called the epitrichium, which, after the- sixth month, is cast ofif and mixes with the secretion of the large sebaceous glands to form the soapy vernix caseosa with which the foetus is coated at birth. In the meantime the cells of the deeper layer divide and form the various layers of the epidermis already enumerated. It is held, however, by some observers that part of the epitrichium remains as the stratum corneum. The mesodermal cells belong to the mesenchyme, and form the fibrous tissue of the true skin as well as the arrectores pilorum muscles and, in the scrotum, the dartos layer of unstriped muscle. In the sixth month fatty tissue appears in the deeper parts, and so the fat of the superficial fascia or sub- cutaneous tissue is formed. The nails are said to appear as thicken- ings of the epidermis at about the ninth week, quite at the tips of the digits. Later on they shift to the dorsal side, and in doing so carry the nerves in the nail bed with them. This is trie only explanation available of the fact that the ventral nerves to the tips of the fingers encroach on the dorsal area. By about the twelfth week the nails are perfectly formed, but tney do not reach the level of the finger tips until the eighth month. The hairs are developed in the third month of foetal life by ingrowths of the stratum mucosum ol the epidermis into the conum. During the fourth and fifth months the body becomes covered by fine unpigmented hairs which are known as lanugp; these begin to disappear about the eighth month, but some remain until after birth. On the scalp, however, the hair at birth is often more deeply pigmented than that which succeeds it. The sebaceous and sweat glands, like the hair follicles, are ingrowths of the stratum mucosum of the epidermis into the corium. The former become very large in the later months oi embryonic life, and secrete a large part of the above-mentioned vernix caseosa. The develop- ment of the mammary gland from modified sebaceous glands has already been referred to (see MAMMARY GLAND). For further details see J. P. M'Murrich, Development of the Human Body (London, 1906) ; J. C. Heisler, Text-book of Embryology (London, !9O7) ; Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908). COMPARATIVE ANATOMY In the larval (gastrula) stage of the Amphioxus (lancelet) cilia are present on the surface, and in the superficial epidermal cells of some fishes and amphibian larvae there is a striated layer on the free edge which is looked upon as a relic of ancestral cilia. Skin Glands. — The skin glands of the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) and fishes are generally unicellular and secrete slime which protects the surface of the body ; the amount of slime poured cut by some of the cyclostomes is enormous. Many of these slime cells, from their shape, are spoken of as goblet cells. Some of the tele- ostean fish have poison glands at the bases of their dorsal fins and opercula. In the mud fish (Dipnoi) and amphibians multicellular spherical glands appear as involutions of the ectoderm. .2 Sometimes, as in the so-called parotids of the toad, these form § large masses. Reptiles and birds are singularly wanting in *o skin glands, though the latter have a large uropygial gland at ,§• the root of the tail which secretes oil to lubricate the feathers; it is the chief constituent of the " parson's nose " of the fowl. In mammals, except the Cetacea, the sebaceous and sudoriparous glands already described in man are found ; some of the former sometimes attain a large size, as in the inter- digital gland of the sheep, Miiller's gland at the back of the pig's knee and the suborbital gland of ruminants. In addi- 3 tion to these, special scent-producing glands are often found o in different parts, the most remarkable of which, perhaps, are the scent glands beneath the tail of the skunk, while in male monotremes there is a special poison gland in the leg which is connected with a spur in the foot. Pigment. — Pigment cells are present both in the dermis and epidermis of fishes and amphibians, and the pigment may be either intra- or extra-cellular. In many cases it is under the control of the nervous system, so that forms like the flat-fish and the common frog can adapt their coloration to that of their g background. In animals permanently excluded from the light, J pigment is absent. In reptiles movable pigment cells are often £, found, as in the chameleon, while in birds the pigment is some- ^ times of great brilliancy in the necks and wattles. In mam- 7 mals, as in man, the pigment is confined to the cells of the § stratum mucosum layer of the epidermis. 5 Scales. — In the elasmpbranch fishes scales are found com- J posed of enamel superficially, and of dentine and bone deeply. _, They are developed from the epidermis and dermis, and in "* almost every way resemble the teeth of these animals, which are only modifications of them. The bony basal part of each scale is plate-like, hence this kind of scale is known as placoid. In the ganoid fishes, such as the sturgeon, much larger plaques called ganoid scales form a complete armature. In the teleos- tean fishes the scales overlap like tiles and are either cycloid, having a smooth border, or ctenoid, in which the free posterior border is serrated. Existing amphibians are usually remark- able for absence of any skin armour, though in fossil forms (Stegocephala) it was very complete. The reptilian class is. specially noticeable for the production of epidermal scales, which undergo many modifications. In the Ophidia they are cast off periodically in one mass as the snake's slough, while in the Chelonia they form the different varieties of tortoise-shell. Bony structures, developed in the dermis, may underlie these epidermal horny thickenings, and are very strongly developed in the dorsal and ventral bony shields of the Chelonia (carapace and plastron), which secondarily fuse with the true endoskeleton. The armadillo is the only mammal which has a true bony exoskeleton. Feathers. — Birds are remarkable for the possession of feathers, which are highly modified scales. The embryonic or down feathers are simple, and consist of a brush of hair-like barbs springing from a basal quill or calamus. From the whole length of each barb a series of smaller barbules comes off like branches of a shrub. The adult or contour feathers are formed at the bottom of the same follicles which lodge the down feathers and, by their growth, push these out. At first they are nothing more than enlarged down feathers, but soon one of the barbs grows enormously, and forms a main shaft or rachis to which the other barbs are attached on either side. From the sides of the barbs grow the barbules, just as in the down feathers, and these, in the case of the large wing feathers (remiges) and tail leathers (rectrices), are connected by minute hooks so that the feather vane, as opposed to the shaft, has a more resistant texture than it has in the feathers of the back or breast. The bird's moult is comparable to the casting of the scales in the reptiles. Hairs. — Hairs are only found in the mammalian class, and are divided into the long tactile bristles or vibrissae and the smaller hairs which maintain the warmth of the body. In some animals the hair, of the body is composed of long, stiff hairs, which are probably 1 90 SKIN DISEASES specialized for protective purposes, and short, soft hairs, which form the fur and keep in the warmth. Sometimes these long hairs are greatly enlarged and hardened to form protective spines as in the porcupine, hedgehog, spiny mouse and spiny ant-eater (Echidna). Horns. — Horns are of three kinds: (l) antlers, (2) hollow horns and (3) hairy horns of the rhinoceros. Antlers are growths of true bone and, except for their very vascular covering of skin (velvet), are not exoskeletal structures. They grow with great rapidity, and in the deer family are renewed each year. As soon as their growth is finished the skin covering dries up and strips off. The small horns of giraffes are also bony structures though permanent. The hollow horns of the ruminants (Bovidae) are cases of hardened epidermis which fit over a bony core and are permanent. They are found in both sexes, and in this differ from the antlers of the deer, which, except in the reindeer, are confined to the male. In the prongbuck (Antilocapra) the hollow horns are shed periodically. The hairy horns of the rhinoceros are a mass of hairs cemented together by cells. The hairs grow from dermal papillae, but differ from true hairs in not being sunk into hair follicles. Claws and Hoofs. — These are modifications of nails, but whereas in nails and claws the structures are confined to the dorsal aspect of the digits, in hoofs they spread to the plantar surface as well. It has been shown in the embryological section of this article that the nail appears at the very tip of the digit, and in this position it remains in many amphibians, e.g. giant salamander, while in hoofed mammals it develops both ventrally and dorsally. In the Felidae the claws are retractile, but the real movement occurs between the middle and terminal phalanges of the digits. Spurs. — Spurs are quite distinct from nails and claws; they are very common in birds as horny epidermal sheaths covering bony outgrowths of the radial side of the carpus, metacarpus or meta- tarsus. The spur- winged goose has a carpal spur; in the screamers (Palamedea and Chauna) the spur or spurs are metacarpal, while in many gallinaceous birds (e.g. common fowls and pheasants) metatarsal spurs are found. In the mammals the male monotremes (Echidna and Ornithorhynchus) have spurs attached to an extra (? sesamoid) bone in the hind leg, perforated for the duct of the already mentioned poison gland. Beaks. — Certain fishes belonging to the family Mormyridae have a fleshy prolongation of the lower lip, and are hence termed beaked fishes. In the Amphibia Siren and the tadpoles of most Anura (frogs and toads) have small horny beaks. In the Reptilia horny beaks are found in the Chelonia, while in birds beaks are constant and replace the teeth in modern species. In mammals a horny beak is found in Ornithorhynchus, though it coexists with true teeth in the young and with horny pads in adult specimens. In all these cases the beaks are formed from cornified epidermal scales. Baleen. — The baleen which is found in the mouths of the Balae- nidae or whalebone whales is a series of flattened triangular horny plates arranged on either side of the palate. The inner edges and apices of these are frayed out into long fibres which act as strainers. In Balaena mysticetus, the Greenland whale, there are nearly four hundred of these plates, the longest of which often exceed 10 ft. In its development baleen resembles rhinoceros horn in that it consists of a number of epidermal hair-like fibres cemented together and growing from dermal papillae, though not from true hair follicles. For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim, Com- parative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; S. H. Reynolds, TheVertebrate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897). (F. G. P.) ETHNOLOGY The colour of the human skin has always held an important place among physical criteria of race. Physiology explains colour as a consequence of climate and even diet. The pigment or colour- ing matter under the epidermis, or rather under the second or Malpighian skin, is not peculiar to the Negroid and other coloured races, but is common to all human beings. It is simply more abundant in certain peoples, and this abundance is attributed to the stimulating action of the solar heat, combined with moisture and an excess of vegetable food, yielding more carbon than can be assimilated, the character being then fixed by heredity. Theodor Waitz quotes examples proving " that hot and damp countries favour the darkening of the skin," and that the same race inclines to be darker in low marshy districts than on the hills. C. R.' Lepsius asserts that the hotter the climate the darker the negro, pointing out that if you-follow the line of greatest heat from Africa into Asia, it is in those regions of the latter continent that the darkest Asiatics are found. Many apparent exceptions to this general law occur, but they may be explainable as due to local causes. Thus Schweinfurth (Heart of Africa) believes that the reddish tint of the Bongos and other of the peoples inhabiting the hot, moist White Nile district is due to the ferruginous nature of the laterite soil: the hue of the A-Zandeh (Niam-Niam) of the Welle valley being possibly explicable in the same way. In South America all shades of complexion intermingle. Thus in Bolivia the coppery Maropas, the dark brown Aymaras, the yellowish Moxos, and the light Mosetenos, Siriones, and Guarayos are, so to speak, neighbours. In Austral- asia there is the contrast between the yellow-brown Malays and the sooty-black Tasmanians. Such deviations from the colour-law may be attributed'to descent (dark peoples migrating to cold, light to tropical countries), or to such varied causes as dryness, moisture, food and the vegetable peculiarities of the land, by all of which the complexion may be affected, and the influence of temperature mitigated. The colour of the human skin cannot, then, be regarded as an entirely trustworthy racial test, even blackness not being an exclusively negro characteristic. It serves, however, to divide Man into three fundamental types corresponding to the three great ethnic groups, viz. the White, the Yellow and the Black man. The first predominate in Europe, the second in Asia, while the third have their chief centres in Africa and Melanesia. Inter- breeding and, in a lesser degree, the influence of environment have caused the occurrence within the three main groups of almost every shade and tint of complexion. Thus the colour of the skin affords a faulty basis of ethnological classification, since in the same ethnic group it varies so widely and races of one group resemble in this particular races of another. The so-called Red Indians are usually classified as a fourth group, but they are not really red-skinned. The name has come about through their custom of smearing their faces with red ochre. But among the American aborigines, side by side with the yellow, olive brown or even black (e.g. the Charruas of Uruguay) , there are tribes of reddish-yellow or coppery hue. This tint is found also in certain African tribes. The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet of negroes are never black, but always yellowish, and in all coloured races the back of the body is a shade darker than the front. It is noteworthy that the skin of the coloured races is always of a lighter tint in the newly-born than in the adult ; the negro baby is born a light grey colour, and the dark pigment is absent in the negro foetus. On the eighth day, sometimes as early as the third, the negro infant changes its colour to a hue nearly as dark as that of its parents. It would seem as if the blackness is associated with the general thickening of the skin and is an accompaniment of the ¥:neral organic adaptation of the negro to his hot malarious climate, he effects of sunburn vary with different races. It is with the races having intermediate pigmentation, such as the dark Europeans and the yellow peoples, that the effect is most noticeable. With the former the sun burns the skin uniformly, making them of the tint of mulattoes. The colour so acquired is merely temporary. It diminishes in winter, and disappears entirely on their return to a cold temperate climate. With the Asiatics the sun causes different tints. The skins of the Indo-Chinese and the Malays become dark olive. The Fuegians and Galibis turn brick-colour or dull red. The Chinese skin turns darker in winter and paler in summer. Among certain peoples whose skins are naturally dark the parts of the body exposed to the light and air are often lighter than those covered by their clothes. This is the case with the Fuegians and the Sandwich Islanders. The fair European skin reddens under the sun, passing from pale red to brick red or to patches of deep red. SKIN DISEASES. The diseases of the skin do not essentially differ from those of the other organs of the body. Like these, the skin is composed of cells resting on a connective tissue framework, in which run the vessels which nourish it and the nerves which keep up its communications with the rest of the body. But it has certain differences from other organs, some dependent on its structure and some on its exposed position. Thus, .instead of, like the kidney, to which it may best be com- pared, having its epithelium faced by epithelium, all lies open, and the various processes are all " one-sided." There are no depths to be attacked, and any diseases, if they spread, must do so superficially; spreading as they often do equally in all directions, the diseases of the skin have a tendency to assume a circular form, independently of any parasitic cause, though when such cause is present the patches are of a more perfectly circular shape. Further, from the extent of its superficial area and its exposed position, the skin is liable to be attacked by more forms SKIN DISEASES 191 of irritation, parasitic or other, than any other organ of the body. Every stage and variety of disease is open to view; minute differences, minor or important, are at once noted; and thus it is that the recognized distinct maladies of the skin are so numerous. In no other organ, with the partial exception of the eye, can the changes be watched from day to day; in none can so many stages of the same disease be simultaneously observed; and in no other is it so simple a matter to remove and instantly fix for microscopic examination the living tissue. The multitude of its affections renders the difficulties of arrang- ing the diseases of the skin very great, and the absence of any generally accepted scheme of classification has always been and still remains one of the main obstacles to their intelligent study. The older systems, constructed before the days of bacteriology, were commonly based on the form which the eruption assumed (scaly, moist, purulent), but they usually contained in addition a certain number of diseases under the heading of Parasitic. Though obviously illogical, such systems served well enough while the recognized parasitic diseases were few, such as those caused by such gross parasites -as the Acarus scabiei (the itch mite), the pediculi (lice), and the hyphomycetic fungi such as the Achorion Schonleinii. The discoveries of bacteriology have enormously enlarged this class, but the difficulty is that one and the same disease is regarded as parasitic by one authority, as dependent on nerve influence by another, while a third assumes an agnostic position. The following is a useful working classification. 1. THE DERMATONEUROSES. — (a) Sensory: anaesthesia, hyper- aesthesia, pruritus; (b) vaso-motor: urticaria, erythema multiforme, angio-neurotic oedema, pellagra, purpura, certain forms of eczema, erythema pernip (chilblains), erythema nodosum, herpes, cheiropom- pholyx, alterations of pigment; (c) trophic: sclerodermia, perforating ulcer, Charcot's bed-sore, the lesions of certain forms of leprosy, Raynaud's disease, Morvan's disease, pemphigus, lupus erythematosus, the skin lesions of syringomyelia ; (d) glandular, according to the gland affected, — as the sweat-glands, hyperidrosis, haematidrosis, bromi- drosis, miliaria papulosa, or prickly heat; the sebaceous glands, rosacea, seborrhoea; the hair follicles, alopecia, greyness. 2. LOCAL INOCULABLE DISEASES. — The agents producing these are parasitic in origin and may be divided into those caused by animal parasites, vegetable parasites and various micro-organisms, (a) Animal parasites: scabies, due to the Acarus scabiei or itch mite; pediculosis, guinea-worm disease, due to the Dracunculus medinensis; trichinosis, due to the cysticercus cellulosae; elephantiasis, due to the filaria sanguinis hominis; various eruptions produced by accidental parasites such as the harvest bug (leptus autumnalis) , the jigger or sand flea (Dermatophilus penetrans), met with in the tropics. (b) Vegetable parasites: ringworm, caused by the Trichophylon tonsurans; favus, caused by the Achorion Schonleinii; tinea versicolor, caused by the Microsporon Furfur; erythrasma, due to the Microsporon minutissimum ; actinomycosis, due to the A cti- nomyces or ray fungi; mycetoma or Madura foot, due to Dyscomyces; aspergillosis and pinto, caused by an unknown fungus; streptothrix infections other than from the ray fungus, sporo/richosis; blastomy- cetic dermatitis, due to a fungus of the yeast family, (c) Micro- organisms: impetigo contagiosa, caused by inoculation with strepto- cocci; furunculosis or boils, due to the staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and albus; carbuncle, a deeper infection also caused by staphylococci ; anthrax, caused by the bacillus anthracis; sycosis, due to a staphylococcic infection of the hairy parts; acne, due to a bacillus called by Gilchrist the bacillus acnes, thought to be identical with the micro-organism of Sabouraud and Unna; furunculosis orientalis (Delhi boil, Aleppo boil, Biskra button), a tropical disease in which the parasite is not yet identified; certain forms of eczema, notably the pustular forms. 3. GENERAL INOCULABLE DISEASES. — Tuberculosis, manifesting itself as lupus vulgaris, verruca necrogenica, erythema induratum or as tuberculous ulcerations. In all these Koch's bacillus has been identified. Syphilis, caused by the Spirochaeta pallida of Schaudinn and Hoffmann, in which there are primary, secondary and tertiary skin lesions. Leprosy due to the bacillus lepra. Yaws (framboesia), caused by a specific parasite, the Spirochaeta pertenius. Glanders, due to inoculation with the bacillus mallei. Added to these are erysipelas and the various exanthematous fevers. 4. DISEASES OF UNCERTAIN AETIOLOGY. — Psoriasis, pityriasis rubra, pityriasis rosea. 5. ERUPTIONS DUE TO DRUGS. — These may follow on the internal administration of chloral belladonna, copaiba, phenazone, mercury, quinine, tar, stramonium, sulphonal, salicylic acid and the salicylates and bromides. 6. NEW GROWTHS. — Benign: cheloid and fibroma, naevus pigmen- tosus, vascular naevi, telangiectasis , lymphangioma, myoma, mycosis fungoides, papilloma, adenoma, moluscum contageosum, rhinoscleroma, cysts and warts (including corns and horny growths). Malignant: sarcoma, carcinoma, rodent ulcer, Paget's disease. The skin is liable to the same pathological conditions as other structures of the body, such as changes in vascularity, inflammations, invasion by parasites and new growths together with changes due to the special structure of the skin such as hypertrophy and atrophy, disorders of the sweat glands and sebaceous glands and alterations of pigment. Some of the groups of diseases classed as the der- matoneuroses are manifestations of widely different diseases; thus anaesthesia and hyperaesthesia occur in hysteria ; while the acute bed-sore of Charcot (a form of local gangrene) and perforating ulcer are generally due to an inflammatory condition of the nerve trunks. In the group of diseases known as purpura, where haemorrhages of varying size make their appearance on different parts of the skin, the lesion is considered to be due to a toxin or autotoxin acting directly on the vascular walls. In some cases we know it to be inorganic, such as phosphorus or mercury, in others organic as smallpox, measles, typhus or tuberculosis; or the haemorrhages may occur in connexion with new growths such as sarcoma and lymphadenoma. Why these very different causes should combine to produce the phenomenon of haemorrhage is not clear. The disease known as urticaria or nettle-rash is probably due to some irritant poison circulating in the blood, but the causes pro- ducing it vary from constitutional diseases such as gout and malaria to certain articles of diet which act as gastro-intestinal irritants such as pork and shell-fish. It has been known also to follow on mental emotion and is said to be frequent in the neurotic diathesis, but an attack may be set up by any local irritant such as stings or bites. The pathology of the lesions in this disease is as follows: reacting to some irritant, the blood-vessels dilate, serum is poured out from them into the tissues around, and compressing the vessels from without empties them of blood. This explains the white centre of the urticarial weal, the red margin cf which is the clinical expression of the dilated and uncompressed vessels at the border. In those diseases grouped together under the name of erythema, although the majority of authors place them under the heading of inflammation, there is a good deal suggestive of a close relation to urticaria. Some cases are caused by the ingestion of certain drugs, a good many are directly associated with the rheumatic poison, while others are apparently connected with fermentative changes in the gastro- intestinal tract. Thus all those examples of the disease with the cause of which we are approximately acquainted arc readily enough attributed to some circulating irritant. This disease differs histologi- cally from urticaria in the persistent dilatation of the vessels. Although serum is poured out from them as freely as in urticaria, the dilatation of the vessels is so active that they are not compressed as in that disease, while the presence of numerous cells around the vessels seems to suggest a more severe irritant, and the fact that the lesions are clinically more persistent further confirms that suggestion. When certain irritants are applied to the skin we know before- hand what effects they will produce. Thus croton oil produces a vesicular and pustular eruption, that of cantharides is vesicular or bulbous, while other drugs are followed by results dependent on their concentration, ranging from a mere redness produced by dilute applications to actual death of the skin from concentrated ones. With the milder irritants which produce the results clinically known as eczema we have invariably more or less pronounced certain definite phenomena. The blood-vessels dilate; serum is exuded from them — it may be merely into the deeper layers of the skin, or it may reach into and among the epidermic cells, or burst its way through these and appear in drops on 'the surface. The epithelial cells are, immediately if the irritation be slight, later if it be more severe, stimulated to increased activity of growth and production ; and this activity, often misdirected, is so great that the normal process of hardening in the cells is interfered with, and we have what is known as parakeratosis (irregular cornification) and the conse- quent production of scales. Should this be the prominent pathologi- cal change, the exudation spends itself among the cells of the scales, and a condition pathologically moist appears to the clinical observer as a dry eruption. Thus according to the reaction — which is pre- sumably largely dependent on the irritant to which it is due — we have various degrees and forms of inflammation of the skin, all of them covered clinically by the term eczema. When such a dermatitis is produced experimentally by the application of such an irritant as croton oil we can more or less accurately predict the duration of the inflammation, which gradually becomes less and less and usually terminates in dry scaling. So in eczema, as long as the irritant con- tinues to act, so long will its results be evident on the skin. Un- fortunately the irritant which is the cause of eczema is still a matter of dispute. In studying other inflammations we have the advantage of de- finitely knowing their cause. Thus in impetigo contagiosa we know, mainly owing to the work of Saboraud, that the cause of the disease is the streptococcus pyogenes. The first result of inoculation is a minute red spot (dilatation of the vessels), which is rapidly followed by the appearance on the surface of a vesicle or bleb (exudation of serum), which is soon converted into a pustule, the whole dries up into a scab, which when thrown off discloses a healthy or slightly reddened skin. Fresh areas may be constantly attacked. In ringworm, where the cause of the disease is the growth in the 192 SKINNER— SKIPPON superficial layers of the skin of one or other of the different varieties of fungus grouped together under the common name of ringworm, a reaction more resembling that of eczema is produced. There is the same dilatation of the vessel with exudation of fluid, sometimes reaching the surface in the form of vesicles, sometimes spending itself through and among the epidermic cells and only evidenced clinically by the presence of more or less scaling. In other cases the exudation early becomes purulent (this is said to occur regularly when the disease is contracted from the horse), a change which, though occasionally noted, is by no means frequent in eczema. The inflammations of the corium or deeper layer of the skin are due, with very few exceptions, to the growth of well-known organ- isms. Erysipelas, furuncle, anthrax and glanders are diseases which run an acute course and rapidly terminate, the two former usually in re- covery, the two latter often fatally. The other more chronic affections all follow one course; in their earlier stages there is a new growth of connective tissue cells in their lowest forms (granuloma), and this later breaks down, either rapidly, as in syphilis, or slowly, as in tuberculosis and leprosy. Most of these diseases leave behind them a well-defined scar. The new growths of the skin are the same as those found else- where. Only two present special characters requiring notice here. Keloid is a peculiar form of fibroma which, although benignant as regards any general infection, invariably recurs locally after re- moval. Rodent ulcer is a form of cancer which occurs usually on the face, and whose malignancy is almost entirely local. The class of atrophies of the skin comprises those diseases where the atrophy is primary, and those where it succeeds to previous hypertrophic or inflammatory changes. Anomalies of pigmentation are those of excess and lack. Chloasma, in which dark patches appear, most frequently on the face, is usually associated with disease of some internal organ, such as the liver or uterus, being frequently observed in pregnancy. The cause of vitiligo, in which the pigment normally present disappears from certain areas, a phenomenon more striking in coloured than in white races, is unknown. Diseases of the skin tend to manifest themselves in certain parts of the body; i.e. certain diseases exert a selective influence on the Selective s'tes °' tne'r eruption. Symmetry is characteristic of distrlb - eczema> psoriasis, drug rashes and the eruptions of s rjpu- specific fevers, while others, such as herpes zoster, ring- worm, tertiary syphilis and new growths, tend to be asymmetrical. Eczema selects the flexor aspect of the limbs and the neighbourhood of folds of skin and opposed surfaces, while psoriasis favours the extensor surfaces and the outer side of the elbows and knees. In certain diseases of nervous origin, notably in herpes zoster, the eruption follows the course of a certain nerve. In the face we get erythema, lupus erythematosus, rosacea, eczema, actinomycosis, &c., and syphilitic and malignant ulcers. Rodent ulcer usually selects the face, and generally the nose or orbit. The face too is usually the selective site of lupus vulgaris. The scalp is the chief site of two varieties of lesion — the pustular, as in pustular eczema and impetigo contagiosa, or the dry and scaly eruptions, as psoriasis, ringworm and squamous syphilides. The genital organs are the seat of vesicular eruptions such as herpes or eczema or occasionally scabies; they are also the seat of ulcers, chiefly venereal, and of secondary syphilides. Scabies or itch tends to occur on the hands, and the characteristic burrows are noticeable between the fingers. The hands too are subject to various forms cf eruption known as trade eruptions, due to the handling of paraffin, tar, sugar, salt, lime, sulphur, &c. The lesions mostly simulate eczema, and are frequent amongst tanners, dyers, chemists, bakers and washer- women, and workers in the electro-plating trade. Exposure to the X-rays sets up a form of dermatitis, either an acute erythematous form due to a single prolonged exposure or a chronic form affecting operators who have been exposed over prolonged periods. Ulceration and considerable destruction of the epidermis may take place together with the occurrence of warty growths which tend to become epitheliomatous. For an account of the treatment of the best known skin diseases see under their separate headings. SKINNER, JAMES (1778-1841), British military adventurer in India, son of Lieut.-Colonel Hercules Skinner, was born in India in 1778, his mother being a Rajput lady. At the age of eighteen he entered the Mahratta army under de Boigne, where he soon showed military talents; and he remained in the same service under Perron until 1803, when, on the outbreak of the Mahratta War, he refused to serve against his countrymen. He joined Lord Lake, and raised a regiment of irregular horse called " Skinner'3 Horse " or the " Yellow Boys," which became the most famous regiment of light cavalry in the India of that day. He was present at the siege of Bharatpur, and in 1818 was granted ajagir yielding Rs. 20,000 a year, appointed lieutenant- colonel in the British service and made C.B. He had an intimate knowledge of the character of the natives of India, and his advice was highly valued by successive governor-generals and com- manders-in-chief. He died at Hansi on the 4th of December 1841, and was buried in a church at Delhi which is called after his name. See J. Baillie Fraser, Military Memoir of Lieut.-Colonel James Skinner (1851). SKINNER, JOHN (1721-1807), Scottish author, son of John Skinner, a parish schoolmaster, was born at Balfour, Aberdeen- shire, on the 3rd of October 1721. He had been intended for the Presbyterian ministry, but, after passing through Marischal College, Aberdeen, and teaching for a few years, he took orders in the Episcopal Church, and was appointed to the charge of Longside in 1742. Very soon after Skinner joined the Episcopalians they became, in consequence of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745, a much persecuted remnant. Skinner's church was burnt; his house was plundered; for some years he had to minister to his congrega- tion by stealth; and in 1753 he suffered six months' imprison- ment for having officiated to more than four persons besides his own family. After 1760 the penal laws were less strictly en- forced, but throughout the century the lot of the Episcopalian ministers in Scotland was far from comfortable, and only the humblest provisions for church services were tolerated. He died at the house of his son, John Skinner, bishop of Aberdeen, on the i6th of June 1807. It is by his few songs that Skinner is generally known. A correspondence took place between him and Burns, who considered his " Tullochgorum " " the best Scotch song Scotland ever saw," and procured his collaboration for Johnson's Musical Museum. Other of his lyrics are: "The Monymusk Christmas Ba'ing," a football idyll; " The Ewie wi' the Crookit Horn " and " John o' Badenyon." His best songs had stolen into print; a collection was not published till 1809, under the title of Amusements of Leisure Hours. Throughout his life Skinner was a vigorous student, and published in 1788 an Ecclesiastical History of Scotland (2 vols.) in the form of letters. A Life of Skinner, in connexion with the history of Episcopacy in the north of Scotland, was published by the Rev. W. Walker in 1883. His songs and poems were edited by H. G. Reid (1859). SKINNER'S CASE, the name usually given to the celebrated dispute between the House of Lords and the House of Commons over the question of the original jurisdiction of the former house in civil suits. In 1668 a London merchant named Thomas Skinner presented a petition to Charles II. asserting that he could not obtain any redress against the East India Company, which, he asserted, had injured his property. The case was referred to the House of Lords, and Skinner obtained a verdict for £5000. The company complained to the House of Commons which declared that the proceedings in the other House were illegal. The Lords defended their action, and after two conferences between the Houses had produced no result the Commons ordered Skinner to be put in prison on 'a charge of breach of privilege; to this the Lords replied by fining and imprisoning Sir Samuel Barnardiston, the chairman of the company. Then for about a year the dispute slumbered, but it was renewed in 1669, when Charles II. advised the two Houses to stop all pro- ceedings and to erase all mention of the case from tHeir records. This was done and since this time the House of Lords has tacitly abandoned all claim to original jurisdiction in civil suits. See Lord Holies, The Grand Question concerning the Judicature of the House of Peers (1689); T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Con- stitutional History (1905); L. O. Pike, Constitutional History of the House of Lords (1894); and H. Hallam, Constitutional History, vol. iii. (1885). SKIPPON, PHILIP (d. 1660), English soldier in the Civil Wars, was born at West Lexham, Norfolk. At an early age he adopted the military profession and in 1622 was serving with Sir Horace Vere in the Palatinate. He took part in most of the battles and sieges of the time in the Low Countries. At the sieges of Breda in 1625 and 1637 he was wounded, and under his old commander, Lord Vere, he was present when Bois-le-Duc ('s Hertogenbosch) and Maestricht were attacked in 1629. A veteran of considerable experience, Captain Skippon returned to England in 1639, and was immediately appointed to a command in the (Honourable) Artillery Company. In 1642 the Civil War was fast approaching, and in January Skippon was made SKIPTON— SKOBELEV commander of the City troops. He was not present at Edgehill, but he rode up and down the lines of his raw militiamen at Turnham Green, cheering and encouraging them in the face of the king's victorious army. Essex, the Lord General of the Parliament forces, soon made Skippon his major-general, a post which carried with it the command of the foot and the complicated duty of arranging the line of battle. He was with Essex at Gloucester, and at the first battle of Newbury distin- guished himself at the head of the infantry. At the end of 1644 the amazing desertion of Essex when his army was surrounded at Lostwithiel left Skippon in command; compelled to surrender without firing a shot, the old soldier bore himself with calmness and fortitude in this adversity. At the second battle of Newbury he and Essex's old foot had the satisfaction of recapturing six of the guns they had lost at Lostwithiel. The appointment as major-general of the New Model Army soon followed, as, apart from his distinguished services, there was scarcely another man in England with the knowledge of detail requisite for the post. In this capacity he supported Fairfax as loyally as he supported Essex, and at Naseby, though dangerously wounded, he would not quit the field. For his conduct on this decisive field the two Houses of Parliament thanked him, and they sent him special physicians to cure him of his wound. It was long before he was fit to serve in the field again. He only reappeared at the siege of Oxford, which he directed. At the end of the war he was selected for the command of the forthcoming Irish expedition, with the rank of marshal-general. The discontent of the soldiery, however, which ended in open mutiny, put an end to a command which Skippon had only accepted under great pressure. He bore a part in all the movements which the army leaders now carried out. A Presbyterian himself, he endeavoured to preserve a middle position between his own sect and the Independents, and to secure by any means a firm treaty with the king. The army outstripped Fairfax and Skippon in action. The major-general was named as one of the king's judges, but, like his chief, did not take his place. During the Commonwealth period he held high office, military and civil, but ceased to influence passing events. He was one of the members of Cromwell's House of Lords, and, in general, was universally respected and beloved. Age and infirmities prevented him from taking any part in the revolutions which culminated in the restoration of the Monarchy, and in March 1660 he died. Skippon was a deeply religious man, and wrote several books of devotion for the use of soldiers. One of his few sayings in Parliament, that on the fanatic Naylor, has become famous: " If this be liberty, God deliver us from such liberty! " See Vicars, English Worthies (1647). SKIPTON, a market town in the Skipton parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 26 m. N.W. of Leeds by the Midland railway, served also by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,986. It is picturesquely situated in the hilly district of the upper valley of the river Aire, the course of which is followed by the Leeds and Liverpool canal. The strong castle built by Robert de Romille in the time of the Conqueror was partly demolished in 1648, but was restored by the countess of Pembroke. Of the ancient building of de Romille all that remains is the western doorway of the inner castle. In the castle grounds are the remains of the ancient chapel of St John. The church of the Holy Trinity, mainly Perpendicular, was also partly de- molished during the Civil War, but was restored by the countess of Pembroke. The free grammar-school was founded in 1548 by William Ermysted, a canon of St Paul's, London. There are also science and art schools. There are extensive woollen and cotton factories, and, in the neighbourhood, a large limestone quarry. Skipton was the capital of the ancient district of Craven. At the Norman accession it became part of the possessions of Earl Edwin, and was granted to Robert de Romille. Subse- quently it went to the Albemarle family, but was again vested in the Crown, and Edward II. bestowed it on Piers de Gaveston. In 1311 it came into the possession of the Cliffords. The castle xxv. 7 was taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645 after a desultory siege of three years. SKIRRET, known botanically as Sium Sisarum (natural order Umbelliferae), a fleshy-rooted perennial, the roots of which are boiled, and afterwards served up like salsify. It requires a free, deep and much enriched soil, and is generally raised from seeds, which should be sown in drills a foot apart about the end of March, the bed being well- watered in dry weather. The roots will be in use about November, and will continue fresh through the winter if carefully stored. SKIRVING, ADAM (1719-1803), Scottish song-writer, was born in Haddington in 1719. He became a farmer at Garleton, near Haddington, and died in April 1803. He was buried at Athelstaneford. His reputation rests on two Jacobite ballads on the battle of Prestonpans, one of which, " Hey, Johnnie Cope, are Ye Waking Yet?" has a well-deserved place in most collections of Scottish songs. SKITTLES (from O. Eng. sceoten, to shoot), a game played on the green or an alley with a number of " pins " of wood, which are knocked down by an oval, flattened missile called the cheese, about 10 ft in weight, thrown by the player. The game has been in existence for centuries in many countries under different names, quilles in France, Kegelspiel in Germany, skayles, kails, clash, cloddynge, roly-poly, Dutch bowls, &c., in Great Britain. In early days in England " sheepe's joynts " were thrown at the pins, and in many varieties of the game, for instance in the German and Dutch, balls were used, which were rolled along the ground at the pins. As now played, nine large, -oval-headed pins are set up in a square, three pins on each side, with a corner angle presented to the player, who stands about 21 ft. from the pins. One step in advance is allowed in delivery. The object is to knock down the greatest number of pins in the fewest throws. In the eastern counties of England four pins only, one on each corner, are generally used. In Dutch skittles the centre pin is called the " king-pin " and often has a crown on its head. The object of this game is to knock down the " king " without touching any of the other pins, or to knock down all the other pins and leave the king. In Germany and Holland balls have always been used, and the game in that form was introduced into America from the latter country early in the i8th century, but is not now played there, being replaced by bowling. SKOBELEV, MIKHAIL DIMITRIEVICH (1843-1882), Russian general, was born near Moscow on the 29th of September 1843. After graduating as a staff officer at St Petersburg he was sent to Turkestan in 1868 and, with the exception of an interval of two years, during which he was on the staff of the grand duke Michael in the Caucasus, remained in Central Asia until 1877. He commanded the advanced guard of General Lomakine's column from Kinderly Bay, in the Caspian, to join General Verefkin, from Orenburg, in the expedition to Khiva in 1874, and, after great suffering on the desert march, took a prominent part in the capture of the Khivan capital. Dressed as a Turko- man, he intrepidly explored in a hostile country the route from Khiva to Igdy, and also the old bed of the Oxus. In 1875 he was given an important command in the expedition against Khokand under General Kaufmann, showing great capacity in the action of Makram, where he out-man ceuvred a greatly superior force and captured 58 guns, and in a brilliant night attack in the retreat from Andijan, when he routed a large force with a handful of cavalry. He was promoted to be major-general, decorated with the order of St George, and appointed the first governor of Fergana. In the Turkish War of 1877 he seized the bridge over the Sereth at Barborchi in April, and in June crossed the Danube with the 8th corps. He commanded the Caucasian Cossack Brigade in the attack of the Green Hills at the second battle of Plevna. He captured Lovtcha on the 3rd of September, and distinguished himself again in the desperate fighting on the Green Hills in the third battle of Plevna. Promoted to be a lieutenant- general, and given the command of the i6th Division, he took part in the investment of Plevna and also in the fight of the 9th of December, when Osman Pasha surrendered, with his army. In January 1878 he crossed the Balkans in a severe snowstorm, 194 SKOPTSI— SKRAM defeating the Turks at Senova, near Schipka, and capturing 36,000 men and 90 guns. Dressed with care in white uniform and mounted on a white horse, and always in the thickest of the fray, he was known and adored by his soldiers as the " White General." He returned to Turkestan after the war, and in 1880 and 1 88 1 further distinguished himself in retrieving the disasters inflicted by the Tekke Turkomans, captured Geok-Tepe, and, after much slaughter, reduced the Akhal-Teke country to submission. He was advancing on Askabad and Kalat i-Nadiri when he was disavowed and recalled. He was given the com- mand at Minsk. In the last years of his short life he engaged actively in politics, and made speeches in Paris and in Moscow in the beginning of 1882 in favour of a militant Panslavism, predicting a desperate strife between Teuton and Slav. He was at once recalled to St Petersburg. He was staying at a Moscow hotel, on his way from Minsk to his estate close by, when he died suddenly of heart disease on the 7th of July 1882. SKOPTSI (Russian skopets, a eunuch), a secret religious sect of Russia. It is an offshoot of the sect known as the " People of God " or Khlysti (see RUSSIA: Religion). It was in 1771 in the government of Orel that the Skoptsi were first discovered by the authorities. A peasant, Andrei Ivanov, was convicted of having persuaded thirteen other peasants to mutilate themselves. His assistant was another peasant, known as Selivanov. A legal investigation followed. Ivanov was knouted and sent to Siberia: Selivanov fled, but was arrested in 1775. Skoptsism, however, increased, and Selivanov escaped from Siberia and proclaimed himself the Son of God incarnate in the person of Peter III. Peter had been popular among the Raskolniki (schismatics, or dissidents) because he granted them liberty of conscience, and among the peasants because when pillaging the convents he divided their lands among the labourers. Selivanov claimed the title " God of Gods and King of Kings," and announced his accomplishment of the salvation of believers through a self-inflicted mutilation. For eighteen years he lived in St Petersburg, in the house of one of his disciples, receiving double homage as Christ and tsar. In 1797 he was rearrested by order of Paul I. and imprisoned in a madhouse. Under Alexander I. Selivanov regained his liberty, but in 1820 was again shut up, this time in a monastery at Suzdal, where he died in 1832 in his hundredth year. Skoptsism was, however, not exterminated, and grave scandals constantly arose. The most remarkable feature of this extraordinary sect has always been the type of people who joined it. Nobles, military and naval officers, civil servants, priests and merchants were to be found in its ranks, and so rapidly did the numbers increase that 515 men and 240 women were transported to Siberia between 1847 and 1866 without seriously threatening its existence. In 1872 many trials of Skoptsi took place all over Russia. In 1874 the sect numbered at least 5444, including 1465 women. Of these 703 men and 160 women had mutilated themselves. Repres- sive measures proving useless, an unsuccessful attempt was made to kill the sect by ridicule: Skoptsi were dressed up in women's clothes and paraded with fools' caps on through the villages. In 1876 130 Skoptsi were sentenced in a batch to transportation. To escape prosecution some of the sect have emigrated, generally to Rumania, where they are known as Lipovans. But though the law is strict— every eunuch being compelled to register — Skoptsism still continues to hold its own in Russia. As their title indicates, the main feature of the sect is sexual mutilation. This they call their " baptism of fire." Of this there are two kinds, the " lesser " and " greater seal " (i.e. partial and complete mutilation). In this the Skoptsi maintain that they are fulfilling Christ's counsel of perfection in Matt. xix. 12 and xviii. 8, 9. A terrible operation with similar purpose is sometimes performed on the women. The earliest records of such female mutilations date from 1815. Usually the breasts only are amputated. The Skoptsi do not absolutely condemn marriage, and some are allowed to have one child, those at Bucharest two, before being fully admitted. They are not pessimists, desiring the end of the species, but aim- rather at the perfection of the individual. Their religious ceremonies include hymn-singing, addresses and frenzied dancing ending m ecstasy, like that of the Khlysti and the Mussulman dancing der- vishes. Strict oaths of secrecy are demanded from all members, who form a kind of mutual-aid association. Meetings are held late at night in cellars, and last till dawn. At these the men wear long, wide, white shirts of a peculiar cut with a girdle and large white trousers. Women also dress in white. Either all present wear white stockings or are barefoot. They call themselves " White Doves." They have a kind of eucharist, at which pieces of bread consecrated jy being placed for a while on the monument erected at Schlusselberg to Selivanov are given the communicants. The society has not ilways been content with proselytism. Bribes and violence have Deen often used. Children are bought from poor parents and brought up in the faith. The Skoptsi are millenarians, and look for a Messiah who will establish an empire of the saints, i.e. the pure. But the Messiah, they believe, will not come till the Skoptsi number 144,000 (Rev. xiv. I, 4), and all their efforts are directed to reaching this total. The Skoptsi's favourite trade is that of money-changer, and on 'Change in St Petersburg there was for long a bench known as the " Skoptsi's bench." Of late years there is said to have been a tendency on the part of many Skoptsi to consider their creed fulfilled by chaste living merely. See Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars (Eng. trans., 1896), vol. iii. ; E. Pelikan, Geschichtlich-medizinische Untersuchungen iiber das Skopzentum in Russland (Giessen, 1876); K. K. Grass, Die geheime heilige Schrift der Skopzen (Leipzig, 1904) and Die russischen Sekten (Leipzig, 1907, &c.). SKOWHEGAN, a township and the county-seat of Somerset county, Maine, U.S.A., on the Kennebec river, about 39 m. N. of Augusta. Pop. (1890) 5068, (1900) 5180, of whom 4266 were inhabitantsof Skowhegan village; (1910) 5341. Skowhegan is the terminus of a branch of the Maine Central railway. The township covers an area of about 50 sq. m., and has a public library, a fine court house and Coburn Park. The farms of the township are devoted largely to dairying. Paper and pulp, wooden-ware, woollen and worsted goods, &c., are manufactured. Skowhegan was settled as a part of Canaan about 1770. In 1814 the township of Bloomfield was erected out of the southern portion of Canaan. In 1823 a second township was erected out of what then remained; this was called Milburn at first, but in 1836 the former Indian name, Skowhegan, said to mean " spearing " or " watching place," was adopted. Bloomfield was annexed to Skowhegan in 1861. The village of Skowhegan was incorparated about 1856. SKRAM, PEDER (c. 1500-1581), Danish senator and naval hero, born between 1491 and 1503, at his father's estate at Urup near Horsens in Jutland. He first saw service in the Swedish war of Christian II. at the battle of Brannkyrka, 1518, and at the battle of Upsala two years later he saved the life of the Danish standard-bearer. For his services in this war he was rewarded with an estate in Norway, where he settled for a time with his young consort Elsebe Krabbe. During " Grevens Fejde," or " the Count's War," Skram, whose reputa- tion as a sailor was already established, was sent by the Danish government to assist Gustavus Vasa, then in alliance with Christian III. against the partisans of Christian II., to organize the untried Swedish fleet; and Skram seems, for the point is still obscure, to have shared the chief command with the Swedish Admiral Mans Some. Skram greatly hampered the movements of the Hanseatic fleets who fought on the side of Christian II., captured a whole Liibeck squadron off Svendborg, and prevented the revictualling of Copenhagen by Liibeck. But the incurable suspicion of Gustavus I. minimized the successes of the allied fleets throughout 1535. Skram's services were richly rewarded by Christian III., who knighted him at his coronation, made him a senator and endowed him with ample estates. The broad- shouldered, yellow-haired admiral was an out-and-out patriot and greatly contributed as a senator to the victory of the Danish party over the German in the councils of Christian III. In 1555, feeling too infirm to go to sea, he resigned his post of admiral; but when the Scandinavian Seven Years' War broke out seven years later, and the new king, Frederick II., offered Skram the chief command, the old hero did not hesitate a moment. With a large fleet he put to sea in August 1562 and compelled the Swedish admiral, after a successful engagement off the coast of Gotland, to take refuge behind the Skerries. This, however, was his sole achievement, and he was superseded at the end of the year by Herluf Trolle. Skram now retired from active service, but was twice (1565-1568) unsuccessfully besieged by the Swedes in his castle of Laholm, which he and his SKRZYNECKI— SKUA wife defended with great intrepidity. His estates in Halland were also repeatedly ravaged by the enemy. Skram died, at an advanced age, at Urup on the nth of July 1581. Skram's audacity won for him the nickname of " Denmark's dare-devil," and he contributed perhaps more than any other Dane of his day to destroy the Hanseatic dominion of the Baltic. His humanity was equally remarkable; he often im- perilled his life by preventing his crews from plundering. See Axel Larsen, Dansk-Norske Heltehistorier (Copenhagen, 1893). (R. N. B.) SKRZYNECKI, JAN ZYGMUNT (1787-1860), Polish general, was born in Galicia in 1787. After completing his education at the university of Lemberg, he entered the Polish Legion formed in the grand duchy of Warsaw, as a common soldier and won his lieutenancy at the battle of Raszyn in 1809. At the battle of Leipzig he greatly distinguished himself and at Arcis-sur-Aube, in 1814, saved Napoleon from the sudden on- slaught of the enemy by sheltering him in the midst of his battalion. On the formation of the kingdom of Poland in 1815 Skrzynecki was put in command of five infantry regiments of the line, and on joining the insurrection of 1830 was entrusted with the organization of the Polish army. After the battle of Grochow, he superseded Prince Radziwill as commander in chief; but avoided all decisive operations as he hoped for the pacific intervention of the powers in favour of Poland. In the beginning of March 1831 he even entered into correspondence with the Russian Field-marshal Diebitsch, who was taken very ill both at Paris and London. When at last Skrzynecki did take the offensive his opportunity was gone, and he com- mitted more than one tactical blunder. At Ostrolenka (26th of May 1831) he showed his usual valour and considerable ability, but after a bloody contest Diebitsch prevailed and Skrzynecki fell back upon Warsaw, where he demanded a recon- struction of the government and his own appointment as dictator. To this the diet would not consent, though it gave Skrzynecki a vote of confidence. But public opinion was now running strongly against him and he was forced on the roth of August, in his camp at Bolimow, to place his resignation in the hands of his successor, Dembinski. Skrzynecki thereupon joined a guerilla corps and on the 22nd of September took refuge in Austrian territory. Subsequently he resided at Prague, but migrated to Brussels where he was made commander in chief of the Belgian army, an appointment he was forced to resign by the combined and emphatic protest of Russia, Austria and Prussia, in 1839. With the permission of the Austrian govern- ment he finally settled at Cracow, where he died in 1860. Skrzynecki w.as remarkable for his personal courage and made an excellent general of division, but he was unequal to the heavier responsibility of supreme command, and did much harm in that capacity by his irresolution. He wrote Two Victorious Days (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1831); undMes Erreurs (Paris, 1835). See 5. J. N. Montalembert et sa correspondance inedite avec le generalissime Skrzynecki (Montligcon, 1903); Ignacy Pradzynski, The last four Polish Commanders (Pol.) (Posen, 1865). (R. N. B.) SKUA,1 the name for a long while given to certain of the Laridae (see GULL), birds which sufficiently differ in structure, appearance and habits to justify their separation as a distinct genus, Stercorarius (Lestris of some writers), or even subfamily, Stercorariinae. Swift of flight, powerfully armed, but above all endowed with extraordinary courage, they pursue their weaker cousins, making the latter disgorge their already swallowed prey, which is nimbly caught before it reaches the water; and this habit, often observed by sailors and fishermen, has made these predatory, and parasitic birds locally known as "Teasers," "Boatswains,"2 and, from a misconception of their 1 Thus written by Hoier (circa 1604) as that of a Faeroese bird (hodie Skuir) an example of which he sent to Clusius (Exotic. Auc- tarium, p. 367). The word being thence copied by Willughby has been generally adopted by English authors, and applied by them to all the congeners of the species to which it was originally peculiar. * This name in seamen's ornithology applies to several other kinds of birds, and, though perhaps first given to those of this group, is nowadays most commonly used for the species of TROPIC-BIRD (q.v.), the projecting middle feathers of the tail in each kind being intent, " Dunghunters." On land, however, whither they resort to breed, they seek food of their own taking, whether small mammals, little birds, insects or berries; but even here their uncommon courage is exhibited, and they will defend their homes and offspring with the utmost spirit against any intruder, repeatedly shooting down on man or dog that invades their haunts, while every bird almost, from an eagle down- wards, is repelled by buffets or something worse. The largest species known is the Stercorarius catarrhactes of ornith- ologists— the " Skooi " or " Bonxie " of the Shetlanders, a bird in size equalling a herring-gull, Larus argentatus. The sexes do not differ appreciably in colour, which is of a dark brown, somewhat lighter beneath ; but the primaries have at the base a patch of white, visible even when the wings are closed, and forming, when they are spread, a conspicuous band. The bill and feet are black. This is a species of comparatively limited range, breeding only in some two or three localities in the Shetlands, about half a dozen in the Faeroes,3 and hardly more in Iceland. Out of the breeding-season it shows itself in most parts of the North Atlantic, but never seems to stray farther south than Gibraltar or Morocco, and it is therefore a matter of much interest to find the Southern Ocean inhabited by a bird — the " Port Egmont Hen " of Cook's Voyages — which so closely resembles the Skua as to have been for a long while regarded as specifically identical with it, but is now usually recognized as distinct under the name of 5. antarcticus. This bird, characterized by its stout deep bill and want of rufous tint on its lower plumage, has an extensive range, and would seem to exhibit a tendency to further differentiation, since Howard Saunders, in a monograph of the group (Proc. Zool. Society, 1876, pp. 317-332), says that it presents three local forms — one occurring from New Zealand to Norfolk Island and past Kerguelen Land to the Cape of Good Hope, another restricted to the Falklands, and the third hitherto only met with near the south-polar ice. On the western coast of South America, making its way into the Straits of Magellan, and passing along the coast so far as Rio Janeiro, is found S. chilensis, distinguished among other characters by the cinnamon tint of its lower plumage. Three other smaller species of the genus are known, and each is more widely distributed than those just mentioned, but the home of all is in the more northern parts of the earth, though in winter two of them go very far south, and, crossing the equator, show themselves on the seas that wash the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, New Zealand and Peru. The first of them is 5. pomatorhinus (often incorrectly spelt pomarinus), about the size of a common gull, Larus canus, and presenting, irrespective of sex, two very distinct phases of plumage, one almost wholly sooty-brown, the other parti- coloured— -dark above and white on the breast, the sides of the neck being of a glossy straw-colour, and the lower part of the neck and the sides of the body barred with brown; but a singular feature in the adults of this species is that the two median tail-feathers, which are elongated, have their shaft twisted towards the tip, so that in flight the lower surfaces of their webs are pressed together vertically, giving the bird the appearance of having a disk attached to its tail. The second and third species so closely resemble each other, except in size, that their distinctness was for many years unperceived, and in consequence their nomenclature is an almost bewildering puzzle. H. Saunders (loc. cit.) thinks that the larger of them, which is about the size of a black-headed gull, should stand as 5. crepidatus, and the smaller as 5. parasiticus, though the latter name has been generally used for the larger when that is not termed, as it often is, S. richard- soni, a name that correctly applies only to whole-coloured examples, for this species too is dimorphic. Even its proper English name 4 is disputable, but it has been frequently called the Arctic gull or Arctic skua, and it is by far the commonest of the genus in Britain, and perhaps throughout the northern hemisphere. It breeds abundantly on many of the Scottish islands, and in most countries lying to the northward. The nest is generally in long heather, and contains two eggs of a dark olive-colour, suffused with still darker brown patches. Birds of either phase of plumage pair indiscrimin- ately, and the young show by their earliest feathers whether they will prove whole or parti-coloured ; but in their immature plumage the upper surface is barred with pale reddish brown. The smallest species, commonly known in English as the long-tailed or Button's generally likened to the marlinespike that is identified with the boatswain's position; but perhaps the authoritative character assumed by both bird and officer originally suggested the name. * It has long been subjected to persecution in these islands, a reward being paid for its head. On the other hand, in the Shetlands a fine was exacted for its death, as it was believed to protect the sheep against eagles. Yet for all this it would long ago have been extirpated there, and have ceased to be a British bird in all but name, but for the special protection afforded it by several members of two families (Edmonston and Scott of Melby), long before it was protected by modern legislation. 4 It is the " Fasgadair " of the Hebrides, the " Shooi " of the Shetlands, and the " Scouti-allen " of the fishermen on the east coast of Scotland. 196 SKULL skua, is not known to exhibit the remarkable dimorphism to which the two preceding are subject. It breeds abundantly in some seasons on the fells of Lapland, its appearance depending chiefly on the presence of lemmings (Lemmus norvegicus), on which it mainly preys. All these three species occasionally visit the southern coasts of Europe in large flocks, but their visitations are highly irregular. (A. N.) SKULL, the skeleton of the head, composed of 22 bones, 8 of which form the skeleton of the cranium, 14 that of the face. Except the lower jaw, which is movable, the bones are all firmly united by immovable joints. In the following article it is considered more profitable to treat the skull as a whole than to detail the bones separately, and for this purpose a normal European skull will be studied from in front (norma facialis), from above (norma verticalis), from the side (norma later alls), from behind (norma occipitalis) and from below (norma basalis). Afterwards the interior of it will be considered by means of sections. THE SKULL FROM IN FRONT (norma facialis) (see fig. i). The fore- head region is formed by the frontal bone, the two halves of which usually unite in the second year; sometimes, however, they fail to do so and then a suture (metopic) may remain to an advanced age. The lower limit of the forehead is formed by the upper margin of the orbit on each side, and by the articulation between the frontal and nasal bones near the mid line. At the junction of the inner and middle third of each supra- orbital margin is the supra- orbital notch for the nerve of that name. Above each supra-orbital margin is an elevation, better marked in adult males, called the supra- ciliary ridge, while between these ridges in the middle line is a slight prominence, the glabella. Below the fore- head the two nasal bones form the skeleton of the upper part of the nose ; they articulate with one another in the mid line, but laterally they are joined by a suture to the nasal processes of the maxillae which run up to articulate with the frontal at the internal orbital pro- cess, thus forming the inner margin of the orbit. Externally the malar bones (fig. I, g) articulate with the frontal at the external orbital process and form the lower and outer quadrant of the orbital margin. The maxillae or upper jaws (fig. I, M) form the greater part of the skeleton of the face ; they complete the lower and inner quadrant of the orbit, and below the nasal bones leave the anterior nasal aperture (apertura pyriformis) between them, and project slightly at the middle of the lower border of this aperture to form the anterior nasal spine. About a quarter of an inch below the infra-orbital margin and just below the articulation with the malar the infra- orbital foramen, for the infra-orbital branch of the fifth nerve, is seen on each side. The lower parts of the maxillae form the alveolar margin in which all the upper teeth are set. Laterally each maxilla is prolonged out into a buttress, the zygomatic process, which sup- ports the malar bone. Below the maxillae the mandible or lower jaw is seen in perspective (fig. I, m). The horizontal part or body is in two halves up to the second year, but after that complete bony union takes place, forming the symphysis. Above the body of the mandible is an alveolar margin containing the sockets of the lower teeth, while below, near the mid line, the bone projects forward to a variable extent and so forms the mental prominence (fig. I, o), one of the special character- istics of a human skull. Below the second bicuspid tooth on each side is the mental foramen for the exit of the mental branch of the fifth nerve. The Orbit. — Each orbit is a pyramidal cavity, the base of the pyramid being in front, at the orbital margin, and the apex behind, at the optic foramen, where the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery pass through. The four sides of the pyramid form the roof, floor, inner and outer walls of the orbit. The roof is arched from side to side and is made up of the frontal bone anteriorly, and the lesser wing of the sphenoid posteriorly. The floor is chiefly formed by the maxilla, though the malar forms a little of it in front. There is a groove for the infra-orbital nerve running forward in it, but before the margin of the orbit is reached the groove becomes a tunnel. The inner wall is antero-posterior and parallel with its fellow of the FIG. i. opposite orbit; in front it is formed by the nasal process of the maxilla, behind which the lachrymal bone articulates ; together they enclose a vertical groove, for the lachrymal sac, which leads down into the nose, through the naso-lachrymal canal, transmitting the nasal duct (see EYE). Behind the lachrymal bone is the orbital plate of the ethmoid and in the suture between this and the frontal the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina are seen. Posteriorly the ethmoid articulates with the sphenoid, while at its lower and hinder part a small piece of the palate bone comes into the orbit. The outer wall of the orbit slopes backward and inward, the two opposite sides therefore converge as they run back. The malar bone, in front, and the great wing of the sphenoid, behind, form this wall. Between the roof and the outer wall there is a slit in the posterior part of the orbit called the sphenoidal fissure because it lies between the great and small wings of the sphenoid ; it transmits the third, fourth, first division of the fifth and sixth cranial nerves, as well as the ophthalmic vein. Another slit called the spheno-maxillary fissure lies in the line of junction of the outer wall and floor, it leads into the spheno-maxil- lary and zygomatic fossae and transmits the second division of the fifth nerve and some veins. THE SKULL FROM ABOVE (norma verticalis). When looked at from above the frontal bone is seen forming the anterior part of the vertex and articulating with the two parietals posteriorly by a nearly transverse serrated suture (coronal suture). Running back from the middle of this is the median sagittal suture extending as far as the lambda on the norma occipitalis. The point where the sagittal and coronal sutures join is the bregma, the site of the lozenge-shaped anterior fontanelte in the infant's skull, but this closes during the second year of life. Small ossicles called Wormian bones are often found in the cranial sutures, and one of these (the interfrontal or os anti-epilepticum) is sometimes found at the bregma. About two- thirds of the way back the sagittal suture becomes less serrated and on each side of it the small parietal foramen may be seen. This only transmits a small emissary vein (see VEINS) in the adult, but, as will be seen later, is of considerable morphological interest. As middle life is reached the cranial sutures tend to become obliterated and the bones can no longer be separated ; this fusion begins at the places where the sutures are least deeply serrated, and as a rule the sagittal suture disappears between the two parietal foramina between thirty and forty years of age. THE SKULL FROM THE SIDE (norma lateralis). -On looking at the accompanying figure (fig. 2) it will be seen that the Calvaria or brain FIG. 2.— Profile of the Skull. Fr, Frontal bone. Pa, Parietal. SO, Supra-occipital. Sq, Squamous-temporal. MT.Mastoid-temporal. Ty, Tympanic. St, Styloid-temporal. As, Ali-sphenoid. E, Os planum of ethmoid. L, Lachrymal. N, Nasal. MX, Superior maxilla. Ma, Malar. Mn, Mandible. bh, Basi-hyal. th, Thyro-hyal. ch, Cerato-hyal. em. External meatus. cs, Coronal suture. Is, Lambdoidal suture. ss, Squamous suture. case forms all the upper part, while the face is below the anterior half. Taking the calvaria first the side view of the frontal bone (fig. 2, Fr) is seen extending back as far as the coronal suture (cs). Just above Fr is an elevation on each side, the frontal eminence, better seen in female than in male skulls. The junction between the frontal and malar (Ma) at the outer margin of the orbit has already been referred to as the external angular process and is an important SKULL 197 landmark for measurements, and from it a curved line (the temporal crest) runs back crossing the coronal suture to reach the parietal bone (Pa, fig. 2) ; as it runs back this line divides into two. Below the crossing of the temporal crest the coronal suture is less serrated than above, and here it becomes obliterated first. The quadrilateral outline of the parietal bone is seen as well as its articulations; above it touches its fellow of the opposite side; in front, the frontal (Fr) ; below the great wing of the sphenoid or alisphenoid (As), the squamous part of the temporal or squamosal (Sq) and the mastoid part of the temporal (MT), while behind it articulates with the supra-occipital (SO), through the lambdoid suture (Is). All four angles of the parietal are points of special interest; the antero- superior angle or bregma has been already noticed, and it will be seen to lie nearly above the ear opening or external auditory meatus in the temporal bone (em). The antero-inferior angle where the frontal, parietal and alisphenoid meet is the pterion and is the site of an occasional Wormian bone (epipteric). The posterior superior angle is the lambda and will be better seen on the nprma occipitalis, while the posterior inferior angle, where the parietal, supra-occipital, and mastoid temporal bones meet, is known as the asterion and marks the lateral sinus within the cranium. A little above and behind the middle of the parietal bone, and just above the superior temporal crest, is the parietal eminence where ossification starts. The squamous part of the temporalbone overlaps the parietal at the squamous suture, while from its lower part the zygomatic process projects forward to articulate with the malar. At the root of this process is the glenoid cavity where the condyle of the lower jaw articulates, and just behind this the external auditory meatus is seen (em). Behind this again the mastoid temporal is prolonged down into a nipple-shaped swelling, the mastoid process (MT), con- taining air cells and only found in the adult human skull, while just in front of the external auditory meatus is the styloid process (St), connected with the hyoid bone by the stylo-hyoid ligament (dotted). In the side view of the face the nasal and maxillary bones are seen, and from this point of view it will be noticed that just below the nasal aperture the maxillae, where they join, are produced forward into a little spur, the anterior nasal spine, which is a purely human characteristic. At the side of the maxilla the malar or jugal (Ma) bone is placed, and its lozenge-shaped outline is apparent; it forms the anterior part of the zygomatic arch. When the mandible is disarticulated and removed the posterior part of the maxilla is seen, and behind it the external pterygoid plate of the sphenoid. Between these two bones there is a vertical slit-like opening into a cave, the spheno-maxillary fossa, which communicates with the orbit through the spheno-maxillary fissure, with the nasal cavity through the spheno-palatine foramen, with the cranial cavity through the foramen rotundum, and with the mouth through the posterior palatine canal, as well as having other smaller openings. The side view of the mandible or lower jaw shows the body, already seen from in front, and the ramus projecting up from the back part of it at an angle of from 1 10° to 120° in the adult. Before the teeth come and after they are lost the angle is greater. The point just above ch (fig. 2) is known as the angle of the jaw. At the upper part of the ramus are two projections; the most anterior is the coronoid process for the attachment of the temporal muscle, while posteriorly is the condyle which articulates with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone. THE SKULL FROM BEHIND (norma occipitalis) (fig. 3). From this point of view the posterior ends of the parietal bones (PP), with the sagittal suture between them, are seen. Below these comes the supra-occipital bone (fig. 3, O) separated from them by the lambdoid suture which is deeply ser- rated and a frequent site of Wormian bones. Where the sagittal and lambdoid sutures meet is the lambda (L), and here a small Wormian bone is sometimes found, called the preinter parietal. In the mid line about a hand's breadth (2^-3 in.) below the lambda is a prominence, the external occipital protuberance or inion, for the attachment of the ligamentum nuchae, while running out on each side from this are the superior curved lines which attach muscles of the neck. THE SKULL FROM BELOW (norma basalis) (fig. 4). Starting from in front, the superior alveolar arcade with the teeth sockets is seen. This in a European skull approaches a semicircle, but in lower races the sides become more parallel; this is known as a hypsiloid arcade. Within the arcade is the hard palate formed by the maxillae in front (fig. 4, m), and the palate bones (p) behind. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. At the front of the median suture between the maxillae is the anterior palatine canal which, if it is looked into closely, will be seen to lead into four small foramina, two antero-posterior known as Scarpa's foramina, for the naso-palatine nerves, and two lateral called Stensen' s foramina for small arteries and the re- mains of the mouth opening of Jacobson's organ (see OLFACTORY SYSTEM). In young skulls a suture runs outward from the anterior palatine canal to between the lateral incisor and canine sockets, and sometimes another runs from the same place to between the central and lateral incisor teeth. At each postero-lateral angle of the palate are the posterior palatine canals for the descending palatine nerves. The posterior mar- gin of the hard palate is a free edge which forms the lower boundary of the pos- terior nasal apertures or choanae and attaches the soft palate (see PHARYNX). Be- hind the alveolar arcade on each side are the external and internal pterygoid plates pf the sphenoid; the external is a muscular process for the attachment of the pterygoid muscles, while the internal ends below in the hook-like hamular process which is directed backward and outward. Dividing the posterior nasal aperture into two is the vertical hind edge of the vomer (v), which articulates above with the body of the sphenoid (basi-sphenoid), and just behind this the sphenoid is united by bone with the basioccipital (b), though up to twenty years of age there is a synchrondrosis (see JOINTS) called the basilar suture) between them. It is therefore very easy to tell an adult's skull from that of a young person. Passing back in the mid line the foramen magnum (f) is seen, through which pass the spinal cord and its membranes, the vertebral arteries and the spinal accessory nerves. A little in front of this is a small tubercle, the pharyngeal spine, to which the constrictors of the pharynx are attached. On each side of the fora- men magnum and in front of its mid transverse diameter are the condyles (c), which articulate with the atlas, while just above these are the anterior condylar foramina, one on each side, for the exit of the hypoglossal nerves. External to the pterygoid plates the base of the skull is formed by the ali-sphenoid, which projects backward into a point, the spine of the sphenoid, and just in front of this is the small foramen spinosum for the passage of the middle meningeal artery. In front and a little internal to the foramen spinosum is a larger opening, the foramen male, through which the third division of the fifth nerve leaves the skull. Into the re-entering angle between the ali-sphenoid and basi-occipital is fitted the petrous part of the temporal, which, however, does not quite fill the gap but leaves a space on each side of the site of the basilar suture to be closed in by fibro-cartilage, and this is known as the middle lacerated foramen. On the lower surface of the petrous bone is the round opening of the carotid canal through which the internal carotid artery and its accompanying sympathetic nerves pass into the skull, while more externally the styloid process projects downward and forward and is more or less ensheatned at its root by the rampart-like ridge of the vaginal process. Between the styloid process and the occipital condyle lies the jugular or posterior lacerated foramen through which pass the lateral and inferior petrosal sinuses, and the glosso-pharyngeal, vagus and spinal accessory nerves. The bone which bounds this foramen behind, and which bears the posterior two-thirds of the occipital condyle, is the ex-occipital part of the occipital. A little behind and external to the styloid process is the tip of the mastoid process, just internal to which is the deep antero-posterior groove for the digastric muscle, and internal to that another slighter groove for the occipital artery. Behind the styloid process and between it and the mastoid is the stylo-mastoid foramen through which the facial nerve passes, while in front of the process the glenoid cavity can be seen in its entirety, bounded in front by the eminentia articularis and divided into an anterior articular part and a posterior tympanic plate by the Glaserian fissure. Just internal to the glenoid cavity is the opening of the bony Eustachian tube. The posterior part of the norma basalis behind the foramen magnum is formed by the supra-occipital part of the occipital bone, so that all the four parts of the bone, which are separate up to the "third year, help in the formation of that large opening. Between the foramen magnum and the external occipital protuberance and superior curved line already noticed, the bone attaches the deep muscles of the neck. THE INTERIOR OF THE CRANIUM. If the roof of the skull be sawn off the interior or cerebral surface of both the vault and the base SKULL may be examined. The vault shows the cerebral aspects of parts of the frontal, parietal and occipital bones, and of the sutures between them. In the mid line is a shallow antero-posterior groove for the superior longitudinal blood sinus, and on each side of this irregular depressions are often seen for the Pacchionian bodies (see BRAIN). The base (fig. 5) is divided into three fossae, anterior, middle and posterior, each being behind and on a lower level than the one in front of it. The anterior cranial fossa is formed by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid, near the mid line, freely perforated for the passage of the olfactory nerves. In the mid line, near the front, is a triangular plate rising up which attaches the falx cerebri (see BRAIN) and is called the crisis, galli. On each side of pIG - this is the nasal slit for the nasal branch of the first division of the fifth nerve. On each side 'of the cribriform plate is the orbital plate of the frontal, while the back part of the fossa has for its floor the body of the sphenoid (pre-sphenoid) near the mid line and the lesser wing (orbito-sphenoid) on each side. Each lesser wing is prolonged back into a tongue-like process, the anterior clinoid process, just internal to which is the optic foramen (fig. 5, n), and the two foramina are joined by the optic groove for the optic commissure. Behind this groove is a transverse elevation, the olivary eminence (22), which marks the junction of the pre- and basi- sphenoid parts of the body of the sphenoid bone. The middle cranial fossa is like an hour-glass placed transversely, as there is a central constricted, and two lateral expanded, parts. The central part forms the pituitary fossa (fig. 5, 3) for the pituitary body (see BRAIN) and is bounded behind by the wall-like dorsum sellae, at the sides of which are the posterior clinoid processes (5, 4). The olivary eminence, pituitary fossa and dorsum sellae together resemble a Turkish saddle and are often called the sella turcica. The lateral expanded part of the middle cranial fossa is bounded in front by the great wing of the sphenoid (alisphenoid), behind by the front of the petrous part of the temporal (periotic) and laterally by the squamous part of the temporal (squampsal). Between the ali- sphenoid and orbitosphenoid is the sphenoidal fissure ; already noticed in the orbit, and a little behind this, piercing the alisphenoid, is the posterior opening of the foramen rotundum, through which the second division of the fifth nerve passes into the spheno-maxillary fossa. Further back the alisphenoid is pierced by the foramen ovale (o) and foramen spinosum (s), both of which have been already noticed on the norma basalis. From the latter a groove for the middle meningeal artery runs forward and outward, and soon divides into anterior and posterior branches, the former of which deepens into a tunnel near the pterion. At the apex of the petrous bone and at the side of the dorsum sellae is the middle lacerated foramen (c), already noticed, and running inward to this from an aperture in the petrous bone is a groove for the great superficial petrosal nerve which is overlaid by the Casserian ganglion of the fifth nerve. The posterior cranial fossa is pentagonal in outline, having an anterior border formed by the dorsum sellae, two antero-lateral borders, by the upper borders of the petrous bones, and two postero- lateral curved borders, by the grooves for the lateral sinuses (fig. 5, ll). In the middle of this fossa is the foramen magnum, bounded by the four parts of the occipital bone, which unite during child- hood. In front of the foramen magnum the floor of the fossa is formed by the basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid bones, which unite soon after twenty and form a steep slope, downward and backward, known as the clivus (b). This is slightly grooved from side to side, and lodges the pons and medulla (see BRAIN) and the basilar artery. On each side of the basi-occipital the posterior surface of the petrous bone bounds the fossa, and lying over the suture between them is the groove for the inferior petrosal venous sinus which leads backward and outward to the jugular foramen already noticed on the norma basalis. About the middle of the posterior surface of the petrous bone is the internal auditory meatus, through which pass the facial and auditory nerves, the pars intermedia (see NERVES, CRANIAL) and the auditory artery. Close to the antero-lateral part ' of the foramen magnum is the inner opening of the anterior condylar foramen which is sometimes double for the two bundles of the hypoglossal nerve, and a little in front of and outside this is a heaping up of bone called the tuberculum jugulare, which marks the union of the basi- and ex-occipital bones. The hindmost limit of the posterior fossa in the mid line is marked by an elevation called the internal occipital protuberance, and at this point the grooves for the superior longitudinal (s), and two lateral sinuses (ll) join to form the torcular Herophili (see VEINS). Running from the internal occipital pro- tuberance toward the foramen magnum in the mid line is the internal occipital crest, which attaches the falx cerebelli (see BRAIN) and on each side of this is the cerebellar fossa. From the internal occipital protuberance the two wide grooves for the lateral venous sinuses (n) run nearly horizontally outward till they reach the posterior inferior angles of the parietal bones; here they turn downward with an S-shaped curve, grooving the mastoid portion of the temporal and later on the exoccipital bones, until they reach the jugular foramina. To the edges of the hori- zontal parts of these grooves, and to the upper edge of the petrous bones the tentorium cerebelli is attached. THE SKULL IN SAGITTAL SECTION. If the skull be sawn down just to the right of the mid line and the left half be looked at, the appear- ance will be that reproduced in fig. 6. The section of the cranial bones shows that they are formed of an outer and inner table of hard bone, while between the two is a layer of cancellous tissue called the diploe. In certain places the diploe is invaded by ingrowths from the air passage which separate the two tables and form the air sinuses of the skull, though it is important not to confuse these with the intracranial blood or venous sinuses. In the section under con- sideration two of these spaces, the frontal (fs) and the sphenoidal (PS) air sinuses are seen. Behind the frontal sinus is the crista r> •th FIG. 6. — Section through the Skull immediately to the right of the Mesial Plane (see also lettering in fig. 2) : BO, Basi-occipital. SC, Septal cartilage of nose. EO, Ex-occipital. V, Vomer. PT, Petrous-temporal. PI, Palate. BS, Basi-sphenoid. Pt, Pterygoid of sphenoid. PS, Pre-sphenoid (the letters are fs, Frontal sinus. placed in the sphenoidal Pf, Pituitary fossa. sinus). fm, Foramen magnum. OS, Orbito-sphenoid. a, Angle. ME, Mes-ethmoid. s, Symphysis of lower jaw. galli already mentioned, while below is the bony septum of the nose formed, by the mes-ethmoid plate (ME), the vomer (V), and the line of junction of the palatine processes of the two maxillae and two palate bones. The re-entering angle between the mes-elhmoid and vomer is filled in the recent state by the septal cartilage (SC). Below the face is the inner surface of the body and ramus of the mandible, and half-way down the latter is the inferior dental foramen where the inferior dental branch of the fifth nerve accompanied by its artery passes into the inferior dental canal in the substance of the bone to supply the lower teeth. Just in front of this foramen is a little tongue of bone called the lingula attaching the spheno-mandi- bular (long internal lateral) ligament, while running downward and forward from this is the mylo-hyoid ridge with the groove of the same name just below it. If the cut surface of the right half of the skull be looked at, the outer wall of the nasal cavity will be seen with the three turbinated bones each overhanging its own meatus, but the anatomy of this part has already been dealt with in the article on the olfactory system For further details see any standard anatomical textbook — §uain, Gray, Cunningham, &c. For charm of style, The Human keleton by G. M. Humphry (London, 1858), although somewhat out of date, is unsurpassed. Embryology. The notochord (see SKELETON: Axial) extends forward to the ventral surface of the middle cerebral vesicle (see BRAIN) or as far SKULL 199 as the place where the dorsum sellae will be. It is partly surrounded by the mesenchyme just as it is completely in the rest of the axial skeleton, and this mesenchyme extends dorsally on each side to wrap round the nerve cord, which is here the brain. In this way the brain becomes enclosed in a primitive membranous cranium, the inner part of which persists in its primitive condition as the dura mater, while the outer part may chondrity, chondrify and ossify, or ossify without a cartilage stage. That part of the cranium which is in front of the notochord is called prechordal, while the posterior part into which the notochord extends is chordal. On each side of the notochord chondrification takes place and a basicranial plate of cartilage is formed which soon meets its fellow of the opposite side, and forms the floor of the skull as far forward as the dorsum sellae, and as far back as the external occipital protuberance. Laterally it comes in contact with the mesenchyme surrounding the jnternal ear, which is also chondrifying to form the cartilaginous periotic capsule, and the two structures fuse together to form a continuous floor for the back of the skull. A. Froriep has shown that in the hinder occipital region of the calf there are evidences of four vertebrae having been incorporated with the basicranial plate, that is to say that the plate and its coalesced vertebrae represent five mesodermic somites (" Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Wirbelsaule, insbeson- dere des Atlas und Epistropheus und der Occipitalregion," Archiv fur Anal. u. Phys., Anat. Abth., 1886). It has more recently been shown by Levi that the same thing is true for man. K. Gegenbauer has pointed out that the primitive membranous skull shows, in the chordal region, signs of metameric segmentation in the way in which the cranial nerves pierce the dura mater one behind the other. These segments, however, had lost their distinctness even before the cartilaginous cranium had become developed, so that there is no real segmental value in the elements of this, still less in those of the bony skull. The only place in which segmental elements can be dis- tinguished is in the occipital region, which is in structure transitional between the head and vertebral column. The notochord, it has been shown, ends just behind the place where the stomodaeum pouches up through the cranial base to form the anterior part of the pituitary body (see BRAIN). Where it ends two curved bars of cartilage are formed, which run forward till they meet the olfactory capsules, which are also now chondrifying. These bars are the prechordal cartilages or trabeculae cranii and enclose between them the cranio-pharyngeal canal by which the pituitary body ascends, but later on, as they grow, they join together and cut off the pituitary body from the pharynx. By their growth outward they form the floor of the prechordal part of the chondro-cranium, so that from them is developed that part of the cartilaginous skull which will later on be part of the basisphenoid, the presphenoid, orbito- sphenoid and alisphenoid regions. It has hitherto been assumed that this process held good for man, but recent research shows that the anterior part of the base of the skull chondrifies in the same way that ice appears on a pond and that the trabeculae are at no time definite structures. Chondrification of the nasal capsules is later than that of the parts of the skull behind, so that there is a steady progress in the process from the occipital to the ethmoidal region. There is a median centre of chondrification, the mesethmoid cartilage, which projects down into the fronto-nasal process (see OLFACTORY SYSTEM), and two lateral ectethmoid cartilages which eventually join with the mesethmoid to form the cartilaginous ethmoid. The cartilaginous base of the cranium is now formed, but the vault is membranous. While -the base has been developing the two anterior visceral arches have been also forming and have gained an attachment to the cranium, but the formation and fate of these is recorded in the article SKELETON ( Visceral). About the sixth week of foetal life ossification begins at different points in the membranous vault of the skull. In this way the frontal, parietal, supra-occipital, c b a b c and a little later the squamous part of the temporal bones are formed. About the eighth week, too, the lachrymal, nasal and vomer appear in the membrane lying superficial to dif- ferent parts of the olfactory capsule. All these are dermal bones, comparable to the deeper parts of the scales of fishes, and developed in the mesenchyme lying deep to and in con- tact with the ecto- derm. It is therefore necessary to think of the primitive skull as a three-layered structure, the deepest layer persisting as the dura mater, the middle forming the chondro-cranium, which ossifies to form the base, and a super- ficial layer close to the skin or mucous membrane (ectoderm), from which the bones of the vault and superficial parts of the olfactory TeilBaok of d e d Arthur Thomson, in Cunningham'^ Anatomy. FIG. 7. — Ossification of Sphenoid. — a, Pre- sphenoid; 6, Orbito-sphenoids ; c, Ali- sphenoids; d, Internal pterygoid plates; e, Basi-sphenoid. capsules are derived. At the four angles of the parietal, ossification is checked for some time to form fontanelles, of which the bregma is the most important, and at each of these points, as well as elsewhere in the sutures, accessory centres of ossification may occur to form Wormian bones. Along the middle line of the base of the skull the same progress of ossifica- tion from behind forward ,. j^~ - - •»• \*~&3t& ' ' -i f is seen that was noticed in * 7^ 3)5 / the process of chondrifica- tion. Bilateral centres for the basioccipital appear about the sixth week, for the basisphenoid in the eighth, and for the pre- sphenoid in the tenth, while the lateral mass of the ethmoid does not ossify till the fifth month and the mesethmoid not until the first year of extra- uterine life. In the lateral part of the base the ex- occipitals and alisphenoids begin to ossify about the eighth week and the pre- sphenoids about the tenth. In connexion with the alisphenoid there is a Arthur Thomson, in Cunningham's Text-Book o] small extra centre of Anatomy. morphological interest FlG- S.-^-Ossification or Occipital Bone, only, which forms a little a> Basilar centre. Exoccipital. Ossicle of Kerkring. Supra-occipital (from cartilage). Fissure between supra-occipital and interparietal. Interparietal (from membrane). Fissure between interparietals. The auditory or periotic capsule, like the olfactory, is late in ossifying; it has four centres (pro-otic, epiotic, opisthotic and pterotic) which do not come until the fifth month. Some parts of the chondro-cranium do not ossify at all; this is the case in the anterior part of the mesethmoid, which remains as the septal cartilage of the nose, while, as has been already pointed out, a buffer of cartilage persists between the basioccipital and basi- sphenoid until the twentieth year of life. From what has been said it is evident, and it will be still more evident if the article SKELETON (Visceral) be looked at, that some of the bones of the adult skull are compounded of various contributions from the different elements which make up the adult cranium. These, recapitulated, are (i) the dura mater or entocranium, which in man does not ossify except perhaps in the crista galli. (2) The chondro-cranium or meso- cranium. (3) The superficial part of the mesenchyme (ecto- cranium) from which dermal bones are formed. (4) The olfactory and auditory sense capsules. (5) The visceral arches. (6) Some fused verte- brae posteriorly. tongue-shaped process , called the lingula, pro- c< jecting back into the "-, middle lacerated foramen e< and apparently corre- sponding to the sphenotic /» bone of lower vertebrates. b a Arthur Thomson, in Cunningham's Text- ampfe 0hCasPithae t^pit^ ^J^^^Z?** exoccipital and basal part of Right lemporal Bone at Birth. the supra-occipital derived ?' from the chondro-cranium ' and fused vertebrae, while the CJ d, Tympanift ring. Inner wall of tympanum. Fenestra rotunda. Foramen ovale. Mastoid. Mastoid process. with foramen for transmission of vessels. h, Squamo-zygomatic. latter centres have fused with the interparietal, but an indica- tion of their line of junction is seen on each side of g. The bone of Kerkring (c) is an abnormality, the meaning of which is not understood. The temporal is also a very composite bone; in it the petro- mastoid portion represents the auditory sense capsule; the tabular vault part of the supra- . occipital has four dermal $' centres of ossification corre- •'' », sponding to the interparietal «- Masto-squamosal suture, and preinterparietal bones of 2OO SKULL external auditory meatus is formed by the outgrowth of the tym- panic ring (fig. 9, a) which is probably part of the first visceral arch (see SKELETON, Visceral) ; the squamozygomatic part is a dermal bone, while the styloid process is a part of the second visceral arch. The mastoid process is not present at birth, but appears about the second year and becomes pneumatic about puberty. From what has been seen of the skull bones in the above necessarily concen- trated and abridged account, it is obvious that they do not corre- spond to the traces of segmentation as indicated by the cranial nerves, and for this and other reasons the " vertebrate theory of the skull " is no longer believed in. For further details and references see Quain's Anatomy (London, 1908) ; Cunningham's Anatomy (Edinburgh, 1906) ; The Develop- ment of the Human Body, J. P. McMurrich (London, 1906). Comparative Anatomy. In this section only those parts of the skull which form the covering for the brain and the capsules for the olfactory and auditory apparatus are considered. Those parts of the face and jaws which are developed in connexion with the visceral arches are dealt with in the article SKELETON (Visceral). In the Acrania (Amphioxus) the enlarged anterior end of the nerve cord is merely surrounded by fibrous tissue continuous with the sheath of the rest of the nerve cord; there is therefore, in a sense, no true cranium. In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) a cartilaginous cranium is developed, the anterior part of which forms an unpaired olfactory capsule connected with the rest of the cranium by fibrous tissue only. In the floor, just in front of the anterior end of the notochord, an aperture, the basi-cranial fontanelle, remains unchondrified for the passage of the pituitary diverticulum into the skull. In the Elasmobranchh (sharks and rays) and Holocephali (Chimaera) among the fishes the skull is still a complete cartilaginous box, though calcification of the cartilage often takes place. Taking the skull of the dogfish as a type, two large olfactory capsules are seen in front, and behind these the cranial brain-box is narrowed, being excavated at its sides for the great orbits. More posteriorly the auditory capsules widen the skull, and on the posterior (caudal) aspect the foramen magnum is seen with an occipital condyle on each side of it for the first vertebra to articulate with. On the upper (dorsal) surface of the skull are two apertures in the middle line; the more anterior of these is sometimes called the anterior fontanelle, though it has nothing to do with the bregma, described in man's skull, but forms a rudimentary median orbit for the pineal eye (see BRAIN). The posterior fontanelle is a depression which leads into two lateral tubes, each of which passes into the auditory capsule and is known as an aqiieductus vestibuli (see EAR). In the cartilaginous ganoid fishes (sturgeon), which, like the elasmobranchs, are of great antiquity, the chondro-cranium is partly ossified so that ali- and orbito-sphenoids are found; in addition to this a large number of dermal bones have made their appearance, such as nasals, frontals, parietals, supra and post tem- porals, while in the roof of the mouth and pharynx a long membrane bone, the parasphenoid, is formed, and lies ventral to and strengthens the cartilaginous base of the skull. It will be noticed that these fish are important morphological landmarks, because in them the almost unchanged chondro-cranium coexists with a dermal ecto- cranium. In the bony ganoids such as the " bow fin " (Amia) the dermal bones are still more numerous and, among others, squamosals, pro- otics and exoccipitals appear. These fish are also remarkable for a fusion of the anterior part of the vertebral column with the occipital region of the skull, an arrangement recalling Froriep's observations on the skull of the calf embryo mentioned in the section on em- bryology. In the bony fishes (Teleostei) the membrane or dermal bones are still more numerous, and many of them are unrepresented in the mammalian skull, while others, which are there quite rudimentary, are very large. The chondro-cranium tends to disappear in the vault, but the base is fully ossified. Among other cartilage bones the five ossifications of the auditory capsule are seen, the pro-, epi-, opisth-, pter- and sphen-otics, all of which are found as centres of ossification in man. Jn the cod, for example, the sphenotic, which is represented in man by the little lingula sphenoidahs, is larger than the alisphenpid. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) the chondro-cranium is very slightly ossified, only exoccipitals being found, but there is the same coales- cence with anterior vertebrae which was noticed in the ganoids. Dermal bones are plentiful. In the Amphibia the chondro-cranium persists and is only ossified in front by the girdle bone or sphenethmoid, and behind by the pro- otics and exoccipitals, the latter of which bear the two cpndyles. The anterior fontanelle is well marked in the chondro-cranium, but is completely overlaid and concealed by the dermal fronto-parietals. The membrane bones though large are much less numerous than in the bony fishes. In the Reptilia the skull varies immensely in the different orders, but speaking broadly, the chondro-cranium is less distinct than in the Amphibia, except in the ethmoidal region. In the base of the skull the basioccipital and basisphenoid are tending to replace the membranous parasphenoid, and instead of two exoccipital condyles only one in the mid line is present, though this in many forms (e.g. Chelonia) consists of three parts, a median borne on the basioccipital and two lateral on the exoccipitals. The parietal foramen is usually definitely marked in the dermal part of the skull and forms a median orbit for the pineal eye; this is especially the case in the Lacertilia (lizards). Except in the Ophidia (snakes) and Amphisbaenidae (worm-like lizards) there is a fibro-cartilaginous septum between the orbits so that the cranial cavity does not reach forward to the ethmoidal region. The pro-, epi- and opisth-otic bones are all developed, but the epiotic usually fuses with the supra-occipital and the opisthotic with the exoccipital. In the Crocodilia the first attempt at pneumaticity is seen in the basisphenoid, which is traversed by a complicated system of Eus- tachian passages leading eventually to the tympanum. In the class Aves the general scheme of the reptilian skull is maintained, though the bones fuse together very early, thus obliterating the sutures between them. Almost all of them have air in their interior, and so are said to be pneumatic. The single occipital condyle, if looked at in a young specimen, is seen to consist of a basioccipital and two exoccipital elements, though these are indistinguishable in the adult. The parasphenoid is represented by a broad plate which is called the basitemporal. The pro-, epi- and opisth-otic bones fuse together to form the auditory capsule. In the Mammalia the calvaria varies considerably in the different orders, the characteristic features being best marked in adult males. Usually the different bones are interlocked by sutures, as in man, until adult life, but in some orders (e.g. Monotremata, Edentata and Carnivora) they fuse together quite early. In the basicranium the cartilage bones presphenoid, basisphenoid, and basioccipital, are so well developed that the parasphenoid has disappeared. In the basisphenoid of the rabbit the cranio-pharyn- geal canal (see section on embryology) persists as a foramen at the bottom of the pituitary fossa. In the lower orders the face lies well in front of the brain case, as it does in reptiles and amphibians, but as the Primates are reached the increasing size of the calvaria causes it to overlie the face. Many of the bones are pneumatic, the process reaching its maximum in the elephant and the adult male gorilla. The periotic capsule blends with the squamosal and tympanic to form the petrous bone, though it is practically only in man that the second visceral arch ossifies on to this as a styloid process. There are usually two occipital condyles which have basi- and exoccipital elements, though there are many mammals in which there is one large crescentic condyle surrounding the anterior half of the foramen magnum. Ossification of the processes of the dura mater occurs in the tentorium cerebelli of the carnivora and in the falx cerebri of the ornithorhynchus and porpoise. The orbits are in most mammals continuous with the temporal fossae. Sometimes, as in many of the ungulates and in the lemurs, they are outlined by a bony ring, but it is not until the higher Primates are reached that the two cavities are shut off and even then a vestige of their original con- tinuity remains in the spheno-maxillary fissure. For further details see W. H. Flower, Osteology of the Mammalia (London, 1885) ; S. H. Reynolds, The Vertebrate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897); R. Wiedersheim ; C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1901). (F. G. P.) CRANIAL SURGERY Surgery of the Skull. — Fractures of the vault of the skull may occur without the bone being driven in to compress the brain, and in such cases their existence may be revealed only after death. But if there is also a severe scalp wound the line of fracture may be traced in the bare bone as a thin red crack. " Think lightly," said the old physician, " of no injury to the head." The patient with a suspected fracture of the skull is put to bed in a dark, quiet room, and he is watched. It may be that the crack has extended across a bony groove in which an artery is running, and, the artery being torn, haemorrhage may take place within the skull and the symptoms of compression of the brain may supervene. Experiments upon the lower animals have taught the surgeon how to recognize the exact spot at which the compression is situated. One set of muscles after another being thrown out of work in regular order, he knows exactly where the bleeding is going on, so, having made a hole in the skull by trephining, he turns out the clot and secures the leaking vessel. Compression of the brain may be the direct and immediate result of a head-injury, a piece of the vault of the skull being driven in, and a local or a general paralysis of muscles being at SKULL 2OI once observed. In addition to the muscular paralysis, which may enable the surgeon to localize the spot at which there is pressure upon the brain, there is the grave symptom of coma or insensibility. And, as in deep sleep, there is often loud snoring, due to the vibration of the paralysed soft-palate. The heart being loaded with imperfectly aerated blood, the face is dusky or livid, and the pulse is slow and full. No notice is taken by the man of a loud shout into his ear, and on the surgeon raising his eyelids the pupils are found dilated and fixed, which signifies that the reflex to light is lost — a very grave sign. There may be complete paralysis of one side or of both sides of the body. Not only may the pressure of a blood-clot, an abscess, a foreign body (such as a bullet) or a depressed piece of the skull- wall give rise to coma, but so may a syphilitic, a malignant or an innocent tumour, and in cases in which the administration of iodide of potassium fails to afford relief, the operation of trephining may perhaps be resorted to, as giving the only chance of recovery. As regards treatment — short of trephining — it may be advisable to relieve the heart by bleeding. Inasmuch as the reflex actions are in abeyance, it will be necessary to have the bladder regularly emptied. The man should be placed on his side in bed, so that his tongue may not fall back and choke him, and if it is thought inadvisable to bleed him, a full dose of calomel should be administered. For the operation of trephining, the head is shaved and the skin rendered aseptic, a large horse-shoe flap is then turned down and the skull laid bare. With an instrument on the principle of a centre-bit, a disk of bone of the size of a florin, a crown or a napkin-ring — or even larger — is then taken out of the skull wall, and the dura mater is opened up if the cause of the compres- sion is beneath it; otherwise, on the disk of bone being removed, the particular condition is dealt with without opening the dura mater. When the clot or the tumour, or whatever it is, has been removed, the disk of bone which, during the operation, has been kept in a warm liquid, is cut up into pieces which are put back into the opening and the skull flap is brought up into its proper position. Fractures of the base of the skull are always serious, in that they may run across important nerves and large blood-vessels; passing through the roof of the nose, or the ear, they may be compound — that is to say, they may communicate with air- cavities from which pathogenic germs may readily enter the injured tissues. Thus, the dangers of sepsis are added to those of concussion or compression of the brain. Fractures of the base of the skull are of ten associated with bleeding from the nose, mouth or ear, or with extravasation of blood over the eyeball. Facial paralysis is the result of the line of fracture passing across the bony channel in which the seventh or facial nerve is running. When the fracture passes across the temporal bone and the middle ear, and ruptures the membrane of the tympanum, not only blood may escape from the ear, but an apparently unlimited amount of cerebro-spinal fluid. In all cases the ear should be made surgically clean, and watch and guard kept against the entrance of septic micro-organisms. When the fracture extends through the anterior part of the base of the skull this same clear fluid may escape from the nose. In both cases its appearance implies that the dura mater has been lacerated and the sub-dural space opened. Concussion of the brain (stunning) may result from a blow upon the head or from a fall from a height. The symptoms may be those of a mere giddiness, and a feeling of stupidity, which may quickly pass off, or they may be those of severe shock (see SHOCK). The person may die from the concussion, or he may slowly or quickly recover. The insensibility may be for a time complete. The pulse may be small, quick and imperceptible, and, no blood being pumped up by the enfeebled heart, the face will be pale and the surface of the body cold. The respiratory move- ments are likely to be sighing and shallow, or scarcely perceptible. As a rule, the pupils react to light, contracting as the lids are raised. This shows that the light-reflex is not lost, and is a good omen. One of the first signs of returning consciousness is that the person vomits, and after this he gradually comes round. xxv. 7 a As a result of the injury, however, he may remain irritable, and liable to severe headaches or to lapses of memory. Surgery of the Brain. — Abscess of the brain is most likely to be the result of extension inwards of septic inflammation from the middle ear, or of a fracture of the skull which passes across the aural, nasal or. pharyngeal air-space, giving the opportunity for the entrance of the germs of suppuration. As the collection of pus forms, persistent headache is complained of together with, perhaps, localized pain or tenderness. A constant feature of intra-cranial pressure, whether the result of tumour or of abscess, is the presence of headache and of vomiting. Later the patient becomes drowsy. On looking into the back of the eyeball by the ophthalmoscope, it is noticed that the optic nerve is congested ("choked"), the result of the increased intra-cranial pressure. The pulse becomes strangely slow, and is apt to drop a beat now and then. The temperature is high. The patient may have attacks of giddiness, and he is subject to fits of an epileptic nature; growing steadily worse, he may be found paralysed on one side, or on both sides, and, becoming insensible, may pass away in the deep sleep known as coma. The symptoms of tumour of the brain are much like those of abscess, though they come on more slowly and steadily; and inasmuch as the disease is not septic, the temperature may be undisturbed, or but little raised above normal. In the case of the abscess or the tumour being on the left side of the brain, and involving the speech centre (Broca's convolution), the patient becomes aphasic. Tumours of the brain are likely to be sarcomatous(see CANCER) , but they may occur as the result of tuberculous or syphilitic deposit, or of infection by the ova of the dog's tape-worm — hydatid cyst. In cases of suspected cerebral tumours in which there is even a bare possibility of the patient having been the subject of syphilis, iodide of potassium is prescribed in large doses. Indeed, whilst waiting the development of further symptoms in any obscure case, it is usual to try the effect of this drug, the good influence of which is by no means confined to cases of syphilis. If in spite of the administration of the iodide the symptoms are increasing, the question of opening the skull and exploring the region may arise. Before the days of anaesthetics and of anti- septics such a procedure could scarcely have been considered, but now the operation can be undertaken in suitable cases with a good hope of success. If the case be one of abscess secondary to disease of the middle ear, the skull will probably be opened in the continuation of the operation by which the septic disease in the temporal bone was cleared away, the aperture having been enlarged by the use of the trephine, gouge or chisel. The side of the head is shaved and rendered aseptic before the operation is begun, and when the dura mater has been incised search is made for pus by the use of a grooved director. Pus having been found, the cavity is treated by gentle irrigation and drainage. When the operation is undertaken for a cerebral tumour the whole of the head is shaved and the skin duly prepared, so that the operation may be carried out with the least possible risk of the occurrence of sepsis. A large horse-shoe incision having been made, the flap of skin and muscle is turned down, and a disk of the skull-wall, about 2 in. in diameter, is removed by a trephine, worked by electricity or by the hand. The thick covering of the brain, the dura mater, is thus exposed, and if the presence of a tumour (or an abscess) has caused an excess of intra-cranial pressure, the membrane will bulge into the opening. The dura mater is then incised and turned down, and if the tumour is upon the cortex of the brain, and not too extensive, it is taken away. It may be necessary, however, to enlarge the opening made in the skull, and to break through a considerable mass of brain-tissue before the tumour can be removed. Bleeding having been arrested by pressure with a firm plug of gauze, a soft drainage tube is introduced and the dura mater is stitched in position. The disk of bone (which, since its removal, has been kept in some salted warm water) may be replaced before the horse-shoe flap is stitched in position, a notch having been cut in its border to allow for the drainage. In some 202 SKUNK— SKY cases the large horse-shoe flap is so made as to include a part of the bony wall of the skull. The flap of bone is shaped by wire saws and then forcibly broken out by elevators. The general result of operations for the removal of tumours of the brain is far from being satisfactory. But it must be remem- bered that without operation the outlook is without hope. In- asmuch as many of the tumours are destitute of a limiting wall, a considerable mass of brain-tissue has to be traversed in order to remove the growth, and the ultimate result, so far as the impairment of functions is concerned, is a serious disappoint- ment. If, however, the tumour is found to be encapsuled, its removal is sometimes quite easily effected, and perfect recovery is then likely to be the result. (E. 0.*) SKUNK (probably derived from " Seecawk," the Cree name for the skunk; another form given is " seganku "), an evil- smelling North American carnivorous mammal. Its existence was first notified to European naturalists in 1636, in Gabriel Sagard-Theodat's History of Canada, where, in commencing his account, he describes it as " enfans du diable, que les Hurons appelle Scangaresse, . . . une beste fort puante," &c. This shows in what reputation the skunk was then held, a reputation which has become so notorious that the mere name of skunk is one of opprobrium. The skunks, of whom there are several species, arranged in three genera, are members of the family Mustelidae (see CARNIVORA). The common skunk (Mephitis mephitica) is a native of North America, extending from Hudson Bay to the middle United States. It is a beautiful animal, about the size of a cat, though of a stouter and heavier build, with rich lustrous black fur, varied on the back by a patch or streak of white. The muzzle is long and pointed, the eyes are sharp and bead-like, and the grey or white tail is long and unusually bushy. The premolars number £ . The following account of the skunk is extracted from Dr C. H. Merriam's Mammals of the Adirondack Region, New York, 1884: " The skunk preys upon mice, salamanders, frogs and the eggs of birds that nest on or within reach from the ground. At times he eats carrion, and if he chances to stumble upon a hen's nest the eggs are liable to suffer; and once in a while he acquires the evil habit of robbing the hen-roost, but as a rule skunks are not addicted to this vice. Of all our native mammals perhaps no one is so uni- versally abused and has so many unpleasant things said about it as the innocent subject of the present biography; and yet no other species is half so valuable to the farmer. Pre-eminently an insect- eater, he destroys more beetles, grasshoppers and the like than all our other mammals together, and in addition to these he devours vast numbers of mice. " He does not evince that dread of man that is so manifest in the vast majority of our mammals, and when met during any of his circumambulations rarely thinks of running away. He is slow in movement and deliberate in action and does not often hurry him- self in whatever he does. His ordinary gait is a measured walk, but when pressed for time he breaks into a low shuffling gallop. It is hard to intimidate a skunk, but when once really frightened he manages to get over the ground at a very fair pace. Skunks remain active throughout the greater part of the year in this region, and hibernate only during the severest portion of the winter. They differ from most of our hibernating mammals in that the inactive period is apparently dependent solely on the temperature, while the mere amount of snow has no influence whatever upon their move- ments. " Skunks have large families, from six to ten young being com- monly raised each season; and as a rule they all live in the same hole until the following spring." The overpowering odour which has brought the skunk into such notoriety arises from the secretion of the anal glands. These glands, although present in all Mustelidae, are especially developed in skunks, but are so entirely under control that at ordinary times these animals are cleanly and free from smell. Similar glands are possessed by nearly all Carnivora, but in the skunks are enormously enlarged, and provided with thick muscular coats. The secretion — often propelled by the muscles surrounding to a distance of from 8 to 12 ft. — is a clear yellowish liquid, with a marvellously penetrating ammoniacal and nauseous smell. Dr Merriam writes, " I have known the scent to become strikingly apparent in every part of a well-closed house, in winter, within five minutes after a skunk had been killed at a distance of more than a hundred yards," and under favourable conditions it may be perceived at a distance of more than a mile. Instances are also on record of persons having become unconscious after inhaling the smell. The long-tailed skunk (M. macrura), a native of central and southern Mexico, differs from the typical species by having two white stripes along its sides, and by its longer and bushier tail. The little striped skunk (Spilogale putorius), found in the southern United States, and ranging southwards to Yucatan and Guate- mala, is smaller than M . mephitica, and marked with four inter- rupted longitudinal white stripes on a black ground. There are likewise differences in the skull; and this species is also distin- guished from other skunks by its arboreal habits. The conepatl (Conepatus mapurito) represents a third genus, with several species, confined to tropical and South America. In this group there is one pair less of premolars (p. f); the build is heavier than in Mephitis; the snout and head are more pig- like, and the nostrils open downwards and forwards instead of laterally on the sides of the muzzle. (O. T.; R. L.*) SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.), the apparent covering of the atmosphere, the overarching heaven. The Colour of the Sky. — It is a matter of common observation that the blue of the sky is highly variable, even on days that are free fronAlouds. The colour usually deepens toward the zenith and also with the elevation of the observer. It is evident that the normal blue is more or less diluted with extraneous white light, having its origin in reflections from the grosser particles of foreign matter with which the air is usually charged. Closely associated with the colour is the polarization of the light from the sky. This takes place in a plane passing through the sun, and attains a maximum about 90° therefrom. Under favourable conditions more than half the light is polarized. As to the origin of the normal blue, very discrepant views have been held. Some writers, even of good reputation, have held that the blue is the true body colour of the air, or of some in- gredient in it such as ozone. It is a sufficient answer to remark that on this theory the blue would reach its maximum develop- ment in the colour of the setting sun. It should be evident that what we have first to explain is the fact that we receive any light from the sky at all. Were the atmosphere non-existent or absolutely transparent, the sky would necessarily be black. There must be something capable of reflecting light in the wider sense of that term. A theory that has received much support in the past attributes the reflections to thin bubbles of water, similar to soap-bubbles, in which form vapour was supposed to condense. According to it, sky blue would be the blue of the first order in Newton's scale. The theory was developed by R. Clausius (Fogg. Ann. vols. 72, 76, 88), who regarded it as meeting the requirements of the case. It must be noticed, however, that the angle of maxi- mum polarization would be about 76° instead of 90°. Apart from the difficulty of seeing how the bubbles could arise, there is a formidable objection, mentioned by E. W. Briicke (Fogg. Ann. 88, 363), that the blue of the sky is a much richer colour than the blue of the first order. Briicke also brought forward an experiment of great importance, in which he showed that gum mastic, precipitated from an alcoholic solution poured into a large quantity of water, scatters light of a blue tint. He remarks that it is impossible to suppose that the particles of mastic are in the form of bubbles. Another point of great importance is well brought out in the experiments of John Tyndall (Phil. Mag. (4), 137, 388) upon clouds precipitated by the chemical action of light. Whenever the particles are sufficiently fine, the light emitted laterally is blue in colour and, in a direction perpendicular to the incident beam, is completely polarized. About the colour there can be no prima facie difficulty; for, as soon as the question is raised, it is seen that the standard of linear dimension, with reference to which the particles are called small, is the wave-length of light, and that a given set of particles would (on any conceivable view as to their mode of action) SKY 203 produce a continually increasing disturbance as we pass along the spectrum towards the more refrangible end. On the other hand, that the direction of complete polarization should be independent of the refracting power of the matter composing the cloud has been considered mysterious. Of course, on the theory of thin plates, this direction would be determined by Brewster's law; but, if the particles of foreign matter are small in all their dimensions, the circumstances are materially different from those under which Brewster's law is applicable. The investigation of this question upon the elastic solid theory will depend upon how we suppose the solid to vary from one optical medium to another. The slower propagation of light in gas or water than in air or vacuum may be attributed to a greater density, or to a less rigidity, in the former case; or we may adopt the more complicated supposition that both these quantities vary, subject only to the condition which restricts the ratio of velocities to equality with the known refractive index. It will presently appear that the original hypothesis of Fresnel, that the rigidity remains the same in both media, is the only one that can be reconciled with the facts; and we will therefore investigate upon this basis the nature of the secondary waves dispersed by small particles. Conceive a beam of plane polarized light to move among a number of particles, all small compared with any of the wave- lengths. According to our hypothesis, the foreign matter may be supposed to load the aether, so as to increase its inertia without altering its resistance to distortion. If the particles were away, the wave would pass on unbroken and no light would be emitted laterally. Even with the particles retarding the motion of the aether, the same will be true if, to counterbalance the increased inertia, suitable forces are caused to act on the aether at all points where the inertia is altered. These forces have the same period and direction as the undisturbed luminous vibrations themselves. The light actually emitted laterally is thus the same as would be caused by forces exactly the opposite of these acting on the medium otherwise free from disturbance, and it only remains to see what the effect of such force would be. On account of the smallness of the particles, the forces acting throughout the volume of any individual particle are all of the same intensity and direction, and may be considered as a whole. The determination of the motion in the aether, due to the action of a periodic force at a given point, is discussed in the article DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT (§ n). Before applying the solution to a mathematical investigation of the present question, it may be well to consider the matter for a few moments from a more general point of view. In the first place, there is necessarily a complete symmetry round the direction of the force. The disturbance, consisting of transverse vibrations, is propagated outwards in all directions from the centre; and, in consequence of the symmetry, the direction of vibration in any ray lies in the plane containing the ray and the axis of symmetry; that is to say, the direction of vibration in the scattered or diffracted ray makes with the direc- tion of vibration in the incident or primary ray the least possible angle. The symmetry also requires that the intensity of the scattered light should vanish for the ray which would be pro- pagated along the axis; for there is nothing to distinguish one direction transverse to the ray from another. The application of this is obvious. Suppose, for distinctness of statement, that the primary ray is vertical, and that the plane of vibration is that of the meridian. The intensity of the light scattered by a small particle is constant, and a maximum, for rays which lie in the vertical plane running east and west, while there is no scattered ray along the north and south line. If the primary ray is un- polarized, the light scattered north and south is entirely due to that component which vibrates east and west, and is therefore perfectly polarized, the direction of its vibration being also east and west. Similarly any other ray scattered horizontally is perfectly polarized, and the vibration is performed in the hori- zontal plane. In other directions the polarization becomes less and less complete as we approach the vertical. The observed facts as to polarization are thus readily explained, and the general law connecting the intensity, of the scattered light with the wave-length follows almost as easily from con- siderations of dimensions. The object is to compare the intensities of the incident and scattered light, for these will clearly be proportional. The number (i) expressing the ratio of the two amplitudes is a function of the following quantities: — (T) the volume of the disturbing particle; (r) the distance of the point under consideration from it; (X) the wave-length; (b) the velocity of propagation of light; (D) and (D') the original and altered densities: of which the first three depend only upon space, the fourth on space and time, while the fifth and sixth introduce the consideration of mass. Other elements of the problem there are none, except mere numbers and angles, which do not depend upon the fundamental measurements of space, time and mass. Since the ratio (i), whose expression we seek, is of no dimensions in mass, it follows at once that D and D' occur only under the form D : D', which is a simple number and may therefore be disregarded. It remains to find how i varies with T, r, X, b. Now, of these quantities, b is the only one depending on time; and therefore, as i is of no dimensions in time, b cannot occur in its expression. Moreover, since the same amount of energy is pro- pagated across all spheres concentric with the particle, we recognize that « varies as r. It is equally evident that i varies as T, and therefore that it must be proportional to T/Xr, T being of three dimensions in space. In passing from one part of the spectrum to another, X is the only quantity which varies, and we have the important law: — When light is scattered by particles which are very small com- pared with any of the wave-lengths, the ratio of the amplitudes of the vibrations of the scattered and incident lights varies inversely as the square of the wave-length, and the ratio of intensities as the inverse fourth power. The light scattered from small particles is of a much richer blue than the blue of the first order as reflected from a very thm plate. From the general theory (see INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT, § 8), or by the method of dimensions, it is easy to prove that in the latter case the intensity varies as X"2, instead of X~4. The principle of energy makes it clear that the light emitted laterally is not a new creation, but only diverted from the main stream. If I represent the intensity of the primary light after traversing a thickness x of the turbid medium, we have dl = -hl\-*dx, where h is a constant independent of X. On integration, log(I/I0) = -AX-** . . . . . (i) if I0 correspond to x=o, — a law altogether similar to that of ab- sorption, and showing how the light tends to become yellow and finally red as the thickness of the medium increases (Phil. Mag., 1871, 41, pp. 107, 274). Sir William Abney has found that the above law agrees remark- ably well with his observations on the transmission of light through water in which particles of mastic are suspended (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1886). We may now investigate the mathematical expression for the disturbance propagated in any direction from a small particle upon which a beam of light strikes. Let the particle be at the origin of coordinates, and let the expression for the primary vibration be £ = sin(nt-kx) .... (2) The acceleration of the element at the origin is — n2 sin nt; so that the force which would have to be applied to the parts where the density is D' (instead of D), in order that the waves might pass on undisturbed, is, per unit of volume, (D'-D)n2sin nt. To obtain the total force which must be supposed to act, the factor T (representing the volume of the particle) must be introduced. The opposite of this, conceived to act at the origin, would give the same disturbance as is actually caused by the presence of the particle. Thus by equation (18) of § 1 1 of the article DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT, the secondary disturbance is expressed by D'-D «2Tsin 0 sin (nt-kr) . , , . . sm(nt — kr) (3)1 The preceding investigation is based upon the assumption that in passing from one medium to another the rigidity of the aether does not change. If we forego this assumption, the question is 1 In strictness the force must be supposed to act upon the medium in its actual condition, whereas in (18), previously cited, the medium is supposed to be absolutely uniform. It is not difficult to prove that (3) remains unaltered, when this circumstance is taken into account; and it is evident in any case that a correction would depend upon the square of (D' — D). 204 SKY the component rotations in the secondary wave are necessarily more complicated; but, on the supposition that the changes of rigidity (AN) and of density (AD) are relatively small, the results are fairly simple. If the primary wave be represented by (4) . (5) . (6) where AN AD x . AN02-x2\ P=4T The expression for the resultant rotation in the general case would be rather complicated, and is not needed for our purpose. It is easily seen to be about an axis perpendicular to the scattered ray (*, y, 2), inasmuch as XWl+JpU2 + ZU3=O. Let us consider the more special case of a ray scattered normally to the incident ray, so that x = o. We have -Fi - (7). If AN, AD be both finite, we learn from (7) that there is no direction perpendicular to the primary (polarized) ray in which the secondary light vanishes. Now experiment tells us plainly that there is such a direction, and therefore we are driven to the conclusion that either AN or AD must vanish. The consequences ol supposing AN to be zero have already been traced. They agree very well with experiment, and require us to suppose that the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane ot polarization. So far as (7) is concerned the alternative supposition that AD vanishes would answer equally well, if we suppose the vibrations to be executed in the plane of polarization; but let us now revert to (5), which gives ._PAN yz_ rv .PAN . PAN z2-*8 According to these equations there would be, in all, six directions from O along which there is no scattered light, — two along the axis of y normal to the original ray, and four (y = o, z= ±jc) at angles of 45° with that ray. So long as the particles are small no such vanishing of light in oblique directions is observed, and we are thus led to the conclusion that the hypothesis of a finite AN and of vibra- tions in the plane of polarization cannot be reconciled with the facts. No form of the elastic solid theory is admissible except that in which the vibrations are supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of polarization, and the difference between one medium and another to be a difference of density only (Phil. Mag., 1871, 41, p. 447). It is of interest to pursue the applications of equation (3) so as to connect the intensity of the scattered and transmitted light with the number and size of the particles (see Phil. Mag., 1899, 47, p. 375). In order to find the whole emission of energy from one particle (T), we have to integrate the square of (3) over the surface of a sphere of radius r. The element of area being 2*r2 sin d, we have / "sin A , . , , , , 8?r !-27rr2 sin *d = — ; 3 so that the energy emitted from T is represented by (9) on such a scale that the energy of the primary wave is unity per unit of wave-front area. The above relates to a single particle. If there be n similar particles per unit volume, the energy emitted from a stratum of thickness dx and of unit area is found from (9) by the introduction of the factor ndx. Since there is no waste of energy upon the whole, this represents the loss of energy in the primary wave. Accordingly, if E be the energy of the primary wave, i dE whence where 7T2rc (D'-D)2T2 3 " D2 X4' ,_8ir2n (D'-D)2T2 *"1 D2 X4' ' (10) (n) (12) If we had a sufficiently complete expression for the scattered light, we might investigate (12) somewhat more directly by considering the resultant of the primary vibration and of the secondary vibrations which travel in the same direction. If, however, we apply this process to (3), we find that it fails to lead us to (12), though it fur- nishes another result of interest. The combination of the secondary waves which travel in the direction in question have this peculiarity : that the phases are no more distributed at random. The intensity of the secondary light is no longer to be arrived at by addition of individual intensities, but must be calculated with consideration of the particular phases involved. If we consider a number of particles which all lie upon a primary ray, we see that the phases of the secondary vibrations which issue along this line are all the same. The actual calculation follows a similar course to that by which Huygens's conception of the resolution of a wave into components corresponding to the various parts of the wave-front is usually verified (see DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT). Consider the particles which occupy a thin stratum dx perpen- dicular to the primary ray x. Let AP (fig. l) be this stratum, and O the point where the vibration is to be estimated. If AP=p, the element of volume is dx2irpdp, and the number A of particles to be found in it is deduced by the introduction of the factor n. Moreover, if OP = r, and AO = x, then r2=*2+p2, and pdp = rdr. FIG. I. The resultant at O of all the secondary vibrations which issue from the stratum dx is by (3), with sin equal to unity, ndx /"«D'-D TrT j x — jj— ^c D' — D TrT 2x ndx — g ^-sin-^-(to-x) . . . (13) To this is to be added the expression for the primary wave itself, supposed to advance undisturbed, viz. cos(2ir/\)(bt—x), and the resultant will then represent the whole actual disturbance at O as modified by the particles in the stratum dx. It appears, therefore, that to the order of approximation afforded by (3), the effect of the particles in dx is to modify the phase, but not the intensity, of the light which passes them. If this be repre- sented by 6 is the retardation due to the particles, and we have 8=nTdx(D'-D)/2D. . (14) (15) If M be the refractive index of the medium as modified by the particles, that ot the original medium being taken as unity, then d = (it — i)dx, and M-i=nT(D'-D)/2D. . . . (16) If /*' denote the refractive index of the material composing the particles regarded as continuous, D'/D=^'2, and reducing to (17) (18) in the case when (it' — l) can be regarded as small. It is only in the latter case that the formulae of the elastic sclid theory are applicable to light. On the electric theory, now generally accepted, the results are more complicated, in that when fjt'— l) is not small, the scattered ray depends upon the shape and not merely upon the volume of the small obstacle. In the case of spheres, we are to replace (D'-D)/D by 3(K'-K)/(K'+2K), where K, K' are the dielectric constants proper to the medium and to the obstacle respectively (Phil. Mag., 1881, 12, p. 98); so that instead of (17) On the same suppositions (12) is replaced by On either theory : • d9) . - (20) • • (21) a formula giving the coefficient of transmission in terms of the refraction, and of the number of particles per unit volume. As Lord Kelvin has shown (Baltimore Lectures, p. 304, 1904) (16) may also be obtained by the consideration of the mean density of the altered medium. Let us now imagine what degree of transparency of air is admitted by its molecular constituents, viz. in the absence of all foreign SKY 205 matter. We may take X=6Xlo~5 cms., /u — 1=0-0003; whence from (21) we obtain as the distance x, equal to I /h, which light must travel in order to undergo alteration in the ratio e : I, * = 4-4Xio~18X« (22) The completion of the calculation requires a knowledge of the value of n, the number of molecules in unit volume under standard conditions, which, according to Avogadro's law, is the same for all gases. Maxwell estimated I -9X10", but modern work suggests a higher 'number, such as 4-3 Xio19 (H. A. Wilson, Phil. Mag., 1903; see A. Schuster, Theory of Optics, § 178). If we substitute the latter value in (22) we find a: = 19 Xio6 cm. = 190 kilometres. Although Mount Everest appears fairly bright at loo miles' distance, as seen from the neighbourhood of Darjeeling, we cannot suppose that the atmosphere is as transparent as is implied in the above numbers; and, of course, this is not to be expected, since there is certainly suspended matter to be reckoned with. Perhaps the best data for a comparison are those afforded by the varying brightness of stars at different altitudes. P. Bouguer and others estimate about 0-8 for the transmission of light through the entire atmosphere from a star in the zenith. This corresponds to 8-3 kilometres of air at standard pressure. At this rate the transmission through 190 kilometres would be (-8)23 or 0-006 in place of e-1 or 0-37. Or again if«we inquire what, according to (21), would be the trans- mission through 8-3 kilometres, we find 1—0-044=0-956. The general conclusion would appear to be that, while as seen from the earth's surface much of the light from the sky is due to comparatively gross suspended matter, yet an appreciable proportion is attributable to the molecules of air themselves, and that at high elevations where the blue is purer, the latter part may become predominant. For a further discussion founded upon the observations of Q. Majorana and A. Sella, reference may be made to Lord Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures, p. 317, where a higher estimate of the value of n is favoured. It may be remarked that it is only the constant part of sky-light that can be due to detached molecules. Ordinary observation of the landscape shows that there is another part, highly variable from day to day, and due to suspended matter, much of which is fine enough to scatter light of blue quality. The experiments of Tyndall upon precipitated clouds have been already referred to. So long as the precipitated particles are very fine, the light dispersed in a perpendicular direction is sky-blue and fully polarized. At a further stage of their growth the particles disperse in the perpendicular direction a light which is no longer fully polarized. When quenched as far as possible by rotation of a nicol prism, it exhibits a residue of a more intense blue colour; and further it is found that the direction of the most nearly complete polarization becomes inclined to the direction of the primary rays. A discussion of these and other questions upon the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light is given in the Phil. Mag., 1881, 12, p. 8l. Here we must be content with a statement of some of the results. So long as the particles are supposed to be very small and to differ little from their environment in optical properties, there is little difference between the electric and the elastic solid theories, and the results expressing the character of the scattered light are equivalent to (5). Whatever may be the shape or size of the particles, there is no scattered light in a direction parallel to the primary electric displacements. In order to render an account of Tyndall's " residual blue " it is necessary to pursue the approximation further, taking for simplicity the case of spherical shape. We learn that the light dispersed in the direction of primary vibration is not only of higher order in the difference of optical quality, but is also of order £2c2 in comparison with that dispersed in other directions, where c is the radius of the sphere, and k = 2ir/\ as before. The incident light being white, the intensity of the component colours scattered in this direction varies as the inverse eighth power of the wave-length, so that the resultant light is a rich blue. As regards the polarization of the dispersed light as dependent on the angle at which it is emitted, we find that although, when terms of the second order are included, the scattered light no longer vanishes in the same direction as before, the peculiarity is not lost but merely transferred to another direction. The angle 9 through which the displacement occurs is measured backwards, i.e. towards the incident ray, and its value is given by AK &•* " K 25 (23) AK being the difference of specific inductive capacities. Experiments upon this subject are not difficult. In a darkened room a beam of sunlight (or electric light) is concentrated by a large lens of 2 or 3 ft. focus ; and in the path of the light is placed a glass beaker containing a dilute solution of sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite of soda). On the addition, well stirred, of a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid, a precipitate of sulphur slowly forms, and during its growth manifests exceedingly well the pheno- mena under consideration. The more dilute the solutions, the slower is the progress of the precipitation. A strength such that there is a delay of 4 or 5 minutes before any effect is apparent will be found suitable, but no great nicety of adjustment is necessary. In the optical examination we may, if we prefer it, polarize the primary light; but it is usually more convenient to analyse the scattered light. In the early stages of the precipitation the polariza- tion is complete in a perpendicular direction, and incomplete in oblique directions. After an interval the polarization begins to be incomplete in the perpendicular direction, the light which reaches the eye when the nicol is set to minimum transmission being of a beautiful blue, much richer than anything that can be seen in the earlier stages. This is the moment to examine whether there is a more complete polarization in a direction somewhat oblique; and it is found that with 8 positive there is, in fact, a direction of more complete polarization, while with 6 negative the polarization is more imperfect than in the perpendicular direction itself. The polarization in a distinctly oblique direction, however, is not perfect, a feature for which more than one reason may be put for- ward. In the first place, with a given size of particles, the direction of complete polarization indicated by (23) is a function of the colour of the light, the value of 6 being 3 or 4 times as large for the violet as for the red end of the spectrum. The experiment is, in fact, much improved by passing the primary light through a coloured glass. Not only is the oblique direction of maximum polarization more definite and the polarization itself more complete, but the observation is easier than with white light in consequence of the uniformity in the colour of the light scattered in various directions. If we begin with a blue glass, we may observe the gradually increasing obliquity of the direction of maximum polarization; and then by exchanging the blue glass for a red one, we may revert to the original condition of things, and observe the transition from perpendicularity to obliquity over again. The change in the wave-length of the light has the same effect in this respect as a change in the size of the particles, and the comparison gives curious information as to the rate of growth. But even with homogeneous light it would be unreasonable to expect an oblique direction of perfect polarization. So long as the particles are all very small in comparison with the wave-length, there is complete polarization in the perpendicular direction; but when the size is such that obliquity sets in, the degree of obliquity will va"ry with the size of the particles, and the polarization will be complete only on the very unlikely condition that the size is the same for them all. It must not be forgotten, too, that a very moderate increase of dimensions may carry the particles beyond the reach of our approximations. The fact that at this stage the polarization is a maximum, when the angle through which the light is turned exceeds a right angle, is the more worthy of note, as the opposite result would probably have been expected. By Brewster's law (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT) this angle in the case of regular reflection from a plate is less than a right angle; so that not only is the law of polarization for a very small particle different from that applicable to a plate, but the first effect of an increase of size is to augment the difference. The simple theory of the dispersion of light by small particles suffices to explain not only the blue of the zenith, but the com- parative absence of small wave-lengths from the direct solar rays, and the brilliant orange and red coloration of the setting sun and of the clouds illuminated by his rays. The hyposulphite experiment here again affords an excellent illustration. But we must not expect a simple theory to cover all the facts. It is obvious that the aerial particles are illuminated not only by the direct solar rays, but also by light dispersed from other parts of the atmosphere and from the earth's surface. On this and other accounts tl\e coloration of the sky is highly variable. The transi- tion from blue to orange or red at sunset is usually through green, but exceptional conditions may easily disturb the normal state of things. The brilliant sunset effects observed in Europe after the Krakatoa eruption may naturally be attributed to dust of unusual quality or quantity in the upper regions of the atmo- sphere (see DUST). Related to abnormalities of colour we may expect to find corre- sponding polarization effects. Of this nature are the neutral points, where the polarization changes character, observed by F. J. D. Arago, J. Babinet and Sir D. Brewster, for an account of which reference may be made to E. Mascart, Traite d'optique. The normal polarization at the zenith, as dependent upon the position of the sun, was the foundation of Sir C. Wheatstone's polar clock. (R.) 2O6 SKYE— SLADE SKYE, the largest island of the Inner Hebrides, Inverness- shire, Scotland. From the mainland it is separated by the Sound of Sleat, Kyle Rhea, Loch Alsh and the Inner Sound, and from the Outer Hebrides by the Minch and Little Minch. At Kyle Rhea and Kyleakin, on the western end of Loch Alsh, the channel is only about | m. wide, and there is a ferry at both points. The length of the island from S.E. to N.W. is 485 m., but its coast is deeply indented, so that no part of the interior is more than 5 m. from the sea. It has a total area of 411,703 acres or 643 sq. m. From 20,627 in 1821 its population had grown to 23,082 in 1841, but since that date it has steadily diminished and was 15,763 in 1891, and in 1901 only 13,833 (or 21 to the sq. m.), 2858 of whom spoke Gaelic only and 983 7 Gaelic and English. The chief arms of the sea are Lochs Snizort and Dun vegan in the N., Loch Bracadale in the W., Lochs Scavaig and Eishort in the S. and Loch Sligachan in the E. The mountains generally assume commanding and picturesque shapes. The jagged mass of the Cuillins (Coolins) dominates the view whether by land or sea. Their highest point is Sgurr na Banachdich (3234 ft.), and at least six other peaks exceed 3000 ft. To the north of Loch Slapin stands the group of Red Hills, of which the highest points are Ben Caillich (2403) and Ben Dearg More (2323 ft.), and north of Lord Macdonald's forest near Loch Ainort rises Ben Glamaig (2537 ft.). About 8 m. N. of Portree is the curious basaltic group of the Storr (2360), consisting of pinnacles and towers, the most remarkable of which, " The Old Man," forms a landmark for sailors. Towards the north of the island, not far from Staffin Bay, is Quiraing (1779 ft.), a basaltic mass with a variety of quaint shapes, of which the best known are " The Needle," " The Prison " and " The Table," the last named a plateau of level turf 1500 ft. above sea-level, measuring 120 ft. by 60 ft. In the peninsula of Duirinish are the two circular hills of Healaval More (1538 ft.) and Healaval Beg (1601), usually styled " Mac- leod's Tables," while the two pyramidal rocks rising out of the sea, near the southernmost point of Duirinish, are called " Macleod's Maidens." The only important lake is the wild and gloomy Loch Coruisk, overshadowed by the precipices of the Cuillin. It is commonly approached by boat from Loch Scavaig, from the shore of which it is about i m. distant. It is 15 m. long by J m. broad. The greater part of the island, all the western and central part, is occupied by igneous plateaux consisting of basaltic lava flows of Tertiary age alternating with intrusive sills of dolerite; they are penetrated by numerous basic dikes and by a smaller number of acid ones. The Cuillin hills owe their striking features to the intrusion of a great laccolitic mass of gabbro within the basalts. East of these hills a large area is covered by acid intrusions — granite felsite, &c. — including the Red Hills, Marsco and Glamaig. The western portion of the island has suffered the disturbances of the N.W. highland thrusting. Torridonian rocks occupy the whole of Sleat, with the exception of a strip between the Point of Sleat and Ormsay Island which is composed of Dalradian schists. In the north of Sleat the Torridonian Sandstones have been thrust on top of Cambrian Durness limestones. Soay is wholly Torridonian. In the narrow part of the island between Broadford Bay on the N.E. and Lochs Staffin, Eishart and Scavaig on the S.W., and in a narrow strip on the east coast, also in Loch Bay, there is an interesting series of Mesozoic rocks beginning with Triassic conglomerates and marls, and passing upwards through Rhaetic, Lower Lias (Broadford Bay), Middle Lias and Upper Lias (Strathaird, Portsea, Prince Charlie's Cove), to beds representing the Great Oolite and Oxford Clay (Loch Staffin, Uig, &c.). A lignite bed of Tertiary age has been worked in a small way at Portsea, and diatomite is excavated from some ancient lake deposits at Loch Cuithir, Loch Monkstadt, Loch Mealt and other places. There is abundant evidence of glacial action on the lower ground. The rainfall amounts to 80 in. for the year. The mean temperature for the year is 47°~5 F., for January 39°-5 F. and for July 56°-5 F. Most of the land is moor and hill pasture, with cultivated patches here and there, chiefly on Lochs Snizort and Bracadale, the Sound of Sleat, Kyleakin and Portree. The crofters do best with turnips and potatoes. The climate is better adapted for sheep and cattle (West Highland) than for crops, and the sheep farms include some of the finest in Scotland and carry famous stocks, principally black-faced with some Cheviots. The condition of the crofters, which was pitiable in the extreme, has been improved by the Crofters' Holdings Act of 1886. The old black huts have been replaced, in those parishes where stone is obtainable, by well-built houses. Between 1840 and 1880 ejection had certainly been carried to great lengths, and, in consequence of the emigration that followed, was mainly responsible for the serious decline of the population. The railways to Strome Ferry, Kyle of Loch Alsh and Mallaig, by rendering markets more accessible, effected an improvement in the fisheries, which have always been a mainstay of the inhabitants. The fisheries include herring, cod, ling and salmon, and oysters are reared in some places. Seals are not uncommon at certain points, but the walrus and sperm whale, once occasional visitants, are now rarely if ever seen. It is significant of the change in the circumstances of the people that recruiting is now sluggish, though once Skye supplied more soldiers to the British army than any other area of similar size and population. Whisky is distilled at several places, the Talisker brand of the distillery at Carbost, on the western shore of Loch Harport, being well known. The inhabited isles off the coast of Skye are mainly situated near the eastern shore. Of these the principal is Raasay (pop. 419). Brochel Castle, now a ruin, stands on the eastern coast. The island is 13 m. long, by about 3^ m. at its widest. Off its north-western shore lies the isle of Flodda. To the north of Raasay, separated by a narrow strait, is South Rona (Seal Island, from the Gaelic ran, a seal), 4^ m. long with a maximum breadth of i \ m., and is a lighthouse, the light of which is visible for 21 m. Scalpay, immediately south of Raasay, has a hill of 1298 ft., and the Sound of Scalpay, parting it from the mainland, abounds with oysters. The other isles are Pabbay in Broadford Bay, Ornsay in the Sound of Sleat, and Soay near Loch Scavaig. Portree (pop. 872), the capital, lies at the head of a fine harbour about the middle of the eastern seaboard. Steamers run daily in connexion with the mail train at Mallaig, and there is, besides, other communication by steamer with Oban and other ports on the mainland and in the islands. Among the buildings in the town are the Episcopal church of St'Columba, erected in 1884 to the memory of Bishop George R. Mackarness, the Ross Cottage Hospital, the Combination poorhouse and the court- house, and there is a factory for tweeds, plaids, carpets and other woollens. The exports are principally sheep, cattle, wool, salmon and other fish. The name of the town was derived from the fact that James V. landed there on the occasion of his tour in the Western Highlands. The place thus became, in Gaelic, Port-an Righ, or the King's Harbour. It was to Portree that Flora Macdonald (17 22-1 790) conducted Prince Charles Edward when he escaped from Benbecula. Prince Charlie's Cave is situated on the coast about 5 m. north of the harbour. Among other places in Skye associated with the Young Pretender are Prince Charles's Point near Monkstadt, on the west of the peninsula of Trotternish, where he landed with Flora Macdonald, and Kings- burgh, on the eastern shore of Loch Snizort. The castle at Dun- vegan, of the Macleods of Macleod, was erected in the gth century and extended by later chieftains, especially by Alastair Crotach, or the Humpback, in 1458, and by Rory (Roderick) More, who was knighted by James VI. Built on a rocky promontory which is difficult of access, the fortress must have been almost impreg- nable in the era of clan warfare. Among the interesting relics preserved in it are the Fairy Flag, a yellow silk banner captured from a Saracen general by a crusading Macleod, and Rory More's drinking-horn, which held two quarts and had to be drained at a single draught by the new chief before he could wield authority. The MacCrimmons, the famous race of hereditary pipers, hailed from this quarter of Skye and were attached to the Macleods of Dunvegan. At Duntulm is the ancient castle of the Macdonalds, another of the great Skye chieftains. Close to it is the Hill of Pleas, where, in former days, the chieftain sat dispensing justice in the fashion of primitive times. The modern seat of Lord Macdonald is Armadale Castle, a fine Gothic mansion on the shore of the Sound of Sleat. SLADE, FELIX (1790-1868), English art collector and patron, was born at Lambeth, London, in August 1790, the son of Robert Slade, a Surrey landowner, from whom he inherited considerable means. He became widely known as a purchaser of books and engravings, and made a valuable collection of glass. He died unmarried on the 2gth of March 1868, leaving personalty to the value of £160,000. He bequeathed the bulk of his art collection to the British Museum, and £35,000 for the endowment of art professorships, to be known as Slade Professorships, at Oxford, SLANDER— SLANG 207 Cambridge, and University College, London. University College received the additional bequest of six art scholarships. SLANDER, a false tale or report, defamation. The word is a doublet of " scandal " and comes through the O. Fr. esclandre, which, through the earlier forms scandele, escandele, escandre, is derived from Lat. scandalum (see further SCANDAL). In law, slander is the malicious defamation of a person in his reputation, profession or business, by words (see LIBEL AND SLANDER). SLANG, in what is now the usual sense, a general name for the class of words and senses of words, more or less artificial or affected in origin or use, which are not recognized as belonging to the standard vocabulary of the language into which they have been introduced, but have an extensive currency in some section of society either as a means of concealing secrets or as intentionally undignified substitutes for those modes of expression that are employed by persons who value themselves on propriety of speech. As thus defined, slang includes many varieties of speech, which are current respectively among different sections of the population. The one, however, which most perfectly answers to the definition, and may be regarded as the primary type, is the artificial jargon, partly cryptic and partly facetious, used by vagrants and professional thieves. It is true that the name of slang is now seldom applied to this jargon; it is more commonly designated by its older name of " cant." Nevertheless in the i8th century it was chiefly used in this particular application. The earliest example of the word hitherto discovered occurs in Toldervy's History of Two Orphans, published in 1756. One of the characters in this story is a man who, " in return for the numerous lies which he told, was called the cannon-traveller "; and it is said of him that " he had been upon the town, and knew the slang well." It is not clear whether " slang " here has its modern sense, or whether it means the ways of fast life in London. t A more unequivocal instance, two years later in date, is quoted in J. C. Hotten's Slang Dictionary (1864) from a book entitled Jonathan Wild's Advice to his Successor, apparently one of the many catchpenny publications that were called forth by the popularity of Fielding's burlesque romances. No copy of this book is in the British Museum or the Bodleian Library, and inquiries have failed to discover any trace of its existence; but there is no reason to doubt that Hotten had seen it. The passage, as quoted by him, is as follows: " Let proper Nurses be assigned to take care of these Babes of Grace (i.e. young thieves). . . . The Master who teaches them should be a man well versed in the Cant Language, commonly called the Slang Patter, in which they should by all means excel." Four years later, in 1762, the word is found with a different and now obsolete meaning, in Foote's play The Orators. A fast young Oxford man, invited to attend a lecture on oratory, is asked, " Have you not seen the bills?" He replies," What, about the lectures? ay, but that's all slang, I suppose." Here the word seems to be equivalent to " humbug." In the ist edition of Hugh Kelly's comedy, The School for Wives, there is a passage (omitted in some of the later reprints) in which one of a company of sharpers, who pretend to be foreigners and speak broken English, says: " There's a language called slang, that we sometimes talk in. ... It's a little rum tongue, that we understand among von another." Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (1785) has the entry " Slang, the cant language"; and after this instances of the word are abundant. In the early part of the ipth century it appears in literature chiefly as a general term of condemnation for " low-lived " and undignified modes of expression. It seems probable that the word came from some dialect of the north of England; but this is difficult to establish, as most of the dialect glossaries date from a time long after it had obtained general currency, so that it would escape the notice of the compilers as being outside their proper scope. The English Dialect Diction- ary mentions only the sense of " abusive language," which is said to be current in Yorkshire and the Lake Country. Some reason for believing that the word is genuinely dialectal — an inheritance from the language of the Scandinavian settlers in the north of England — is afforded by the coincidence of its uses with those of the modern Norwegian verb slengja (etymologically equivalent to the English " to sling ") and related words, as given in the dictionary of Ivar Aasen. Slengja kjeften (literally, to sling the jaw), means to pour out abuse; the compound slengje-ord (ord = word) is explained by Aasen as " a new word without any proper reason," which comes very near to the notion of a " slang word." The English word has, in cant speech, certain applica- tions to matters other than those of language; and although these have not been found recorded at any very early date, they may possibly be old, and may contribute to the determination of the primary sense. Any particular mode of thieving or of making a living by fraudulent means is called a " slang "; and the same term is applied to the particular line of business of a showman or a troupe of strolling players. Further, the word is used adjectively to designate fraudulent weights and measures, and the early slang dictionaries explain the verb slang as mean- ing " to defraud." The precise relation between these various senses cannot be determined, but they seem to agree in having some reference to what is lawless or irregular, and this general notion may be regarded as having a certain affinity to the mean- ing of the verb " to sling," with which the word is probably etymologically allied. It is unlikely that the word slang, in the senses here under consideration, has any direct connexion with the homophonous word meaning " a strip of land." The modern extended application of the term, which is closely paralleled by that of the French synonym argot, is not difficult to account for. In the first place, the boundaries of the world in which slang — in the original sense — is current are somewhat indeterminate. It is, for instance, not easy to draw the line between the peculiar language of " rogues and vagabonds " and that of the lowest order of travelling showmen and strolling players, or between this latter and the strictly analogous body of expressions common to all grades of the histrionic profession. Similarly, the prize-ring, the turf, the gaming-table and all the varieties of " fast " and " Bohemian " life have their own eccentric vocabularies, partly identical with, and in general character altogether resembling, the slang of the criminal and vagrant classes. In the second place, a little consideration is sufficient to show that thieves' cant is only one species of an extensive genus, its specific difference consisting in the unessential circumstance that its use is confined to one particular class of persons. Although the term " slang " is sometimes used with more or less intentional inexactness, and has often been carelessly defined, the notion to which it corresponds in general use seems to be tolerably precise. There are two principal characteristics which, taken in conjunction, may serve to distinguish what is properly called slang from certain other varieties of diction that in some respects resemble it. The first of these is that slang is a conscious offence against some conventional standard of propriety. A mere vulgarism is not slang, except when it is purposely adopted, and acquires an artificial currency, among some class of persons to whom it is not native. The other distinctive feature of slang is that it is neither a part of the ordinary language, nor an attempt to supply its deficiencies. The slang word is a deliberate sub- stitute for a word of the vernacular, just as the characters of a cipher art substitutes for the letters of the alphabet, or as a nickname is a substitute for a personal name. The latter comparison is the more exact of the two; indeed nicknames, as a general rule, may be accurately described as a kind of slang A slang expression, like a nickname, may be used for the purpose of concealing the meaning from uninitiated hearers, or it may be employed sportively or out of aversion to dignity or formality of speech. The essential point is that it does not, like the words of ordinary language, originate in the desire to be understood. The slang word is not invented or used because it is in any respect better than the accepted term, but because it is different. No doubt it may accidentally happen that a word which originates as slang is superior in expressiveness to its regular synonym (much as a nickname may identify a person better than his name does), or that in time it develops a shade of meaning which the ordinary language cannot convey. But when such a word comes 208 SLANG to be used mainly on account of its intrinsic merit, and not because it is a wrong word, it is already ceasing to be slang. So long as the usage of good society continues to proscribe it, it may be called a vulgarism; but unless the need which it serves is supplied in some other way, it is likely to find its way into the standard speech. The account here given of the distinctive characteristics of slang conflicts with the view of those writers who so define the term as to make it include all words and uses of words that are current only among persons belonging to some particular class, trade or profession. But such an extended application of the word is not supported by general usage. It is true that it is not uncommon to apply the name of slang to the technical language of trades and professions, or even of arts and sciences. This, however, is really a consciously metaphorical use, and is intended to convey the imputation that the employment of technical language has no better motive than the desire to be unintelligible to the uninitiated, to or excite admiration by a display of learning. If the imputation were true, the designation would be strictly applicable. Technical and scientific terms may justly be stigmatized as slang when they are used pretentiously without any good reason, but not when they are chosen because, to those who understand them, they afford a clearer, more precise, or more convenient expression of the meaning than is found in the ordinary vocabulary. At the same time, it is true that every trade or profession has a real slang of its own; that is to say, a body of peculiar words and expressions that serve as flippant or undignified substitutes for the terms that are recog- nized as correct. It happens not infrequently that words of this kind, owing to frequency of use and' the development of specific meanings, lose the character of slang and pass into the category of accepted technicalities. A class of words that has a certain affinity with slang, though admitting of being clearly distinguished from it, consists of those which are proscribed from the intercourse of reputable society because they express too plainly ideas that are deemed indelicate, or because they are brutally insulting. Such words share with slang the characteristic that they are ordinarily employed only in intentional defiance of propriety; they differ from it in being really part of the original vernacular, and not of an artificial vocabulary which is substituted for it. The customary euphem- isms which take the place of these condemned words are, of course, far removed from slang; but the name is strictly ap- plicable to those grotesque metaphors which are sometimes sub- stituted, and emphasize the offensiveness of the notion instead of veiling it. The known history of European slang begins (leaving out of account the meagre references in German documents hereafter to be mentioned) with the " Ballades " of Francois Villon in the I5th century. The French argot of these compositions contains much that is still obscure, but the origin of some of its words is evident enough. Facetious expressions relating to the destined end of the malefactor are prominent. Paroir and montjoye (for which later the less ironical monte a regret was substituted) are nicknames for the scaffold. Acollez, hanged, corresponds to the English " scragged "; the synonymous grup seems to be an onomatopoeic formation sug- gestive of choking. There are some derivatives formed with the suffix art: riflart is a police-officer, abrouart fog. A few words from foreign languages occur: audinos, prayer, is the Latin audi nos of the litanies; arton, bread, is obviously Greek, and its appearance in the I5th century is somewhat hard to account for. Matter, to eat, may perhaps be the Latin molere to grind. Anse, the ear, is no doubt the Latin ansa, handle. In the 15th century and later the ranks of vagabondage were often recruited from the class of poor students, so that the presence of some words of learned origin in the vocabulary of the vagrant and criminal classes is not surprising. Among the prominent features of later French slang may be noted the use of the suffix mare to form derivatives such as perruquemare, a wig-maker, and the practice of rendering conversation unintelligible to outsiders by tacking on some unmeaning ending to every word. In Germany the word Rotwalsch (the modern Rotwelsch, still the name for the cant of vagrants) occurs as early as the middle of the 1 3th century, and during the following century there appear lists of slang terms for various species of malefactors and begging impostors. The earliest attempt at a vocabulary of " Rotwelsch " is that of Gerold Edlibach, compiled about 1490. A second vocabulary, containing nearly the same set of words, is contained in the famous Liber vagatorum, first printed in 1510 in High German; versions in Low German and the dialect of the Lower Rhine appeared shortly afterwards. An edition of this work printed in 1529 has a preface by Martin Luther. The most remarkable feature of the jargon represented in these eady glossaries is the large number of Hebrew words that it contains. It is not clear whether this fact indicates that Jews formed a large proportion of the German vagabond class at the beginning of the 1 6th century; the explanation may be simply that the Hebrew words contributed by Jewish vagrants found acceptance because they were unintelligible to ordinary people. However this may be, the later dictionaries of " Rotwelsch " not only retain most of the Hebrew words found in the earliest authorities, but add greatly to their number. There are some words from Italian, as bregan, to beg, from pregare, and barlen, to speak, from parlare. The language of the gipsies seems to have contributed nothing, nor are there any words from Latin or Greek. Some of the words are ordinary German words used mataphorically, like wetterhan (weathercock) for a hat, zwicker (twitcher) for the hangman, brief (letter) for a playing-card. Others are descriptive compounds such as breitfuss (broad-foot) for a duck or goose, or derivatives formed by means of the suffixes -hart (or -art) and -ling, as grunhart (from gr-iin, green), a field, glathart (from glatt, smooth), a table, fluckart (horciflug, flight), a bird, funckart (fromfunke, spark), fire, flossart (from floss, stream), water, flossling, a fish, liissling (from lussnen to listen), the ear. It is noteworthy that modern Dutch thieves' cant, as presented in the dictionary of I. Teirlinck, is closely similar in its principles of formation, and in many of its actual words, to that of the early German vocabularies. The earliest English " cant " or " Pedlers' French," as exhibited in R. Copland's The Hye Waye to the Spyttel House (1517), John Awdeley's Fraternitye of Vacabondes (1561), Thomas Harman's Caueat for Cursetours (1567) and various later writers, bears a close resemblance in its general character to the German Rotwelsch of the Liber vagatorum, the most noteworthy point of difference being the absence of Hebrew words. The suffix corresponding to the -hart and -ling of German slang is -mans, as in lightmans, day, darkmans, night, ruffmans, the woods. The word cheat, a thing (whether this is etymologically connected with the verb to cheat is uncertain), is used to form a great variety of descriptive compounds, such as grunting cheat, a pig, bleting cheat, a sheep, cackling cheat, a cock or capon, mofling cheat, a napkin, smelling cheat, the nose, pratling cheat, the tongue. There are some ordinary English words used as descriptive nicknames for things, as glasyers, eyes, stampes, legs, stampers, shoes, prauncer, a horse, glymmar, fire, lap, buttermilk or whey, high pad, the highway, pek, meat. Obviously of Latin origin are grannam, corn, pannam, bread, cassan, cheese. Commission, a shirt, is from the Late Latin camisia; it afterwards appears shortened to mish. Perhaps boon and bene, good, may be Latin, but a French origin is possible. Vyle, a town, is probably French; deuse a vyle, the country, seems to be a compound of this. A few words seem to be of Dutch or Low German origin, as bung, a purse (Low Ger. pung), kinchin, a child, cranke, a malingerer, and perhaps feague or feak (Low Ger. fegen), which appears in modern slang as fake. Certainly from this source is the gambling term foist, to palm a die, which has become recognized English in a figurative sense. Harman's list includes a considerable number of words of obscure and perhaps undiscoverable origin, as towre, to see, lowre, money, wyn, a penny, trine, to hang, cofe or cove, a man, mart, a woman. Attempts to discover an etymology for some of these in Romany are unsuccessful. Ken, a house, is used by English gipsies, but may be an importation from cant. Even in later English slang the number of Romany words is surprisingly small; pal, originally meaning brother, is one of the few certain examples. From the I7th century onwards it has been more and more difficult to distinguish between the cant of thieves and vagrants and the slang of other classes more or less characterized by disorderly habits of life, such as pugilists, the lower orders of strolling players, professional gamblers and persons of all ranks addicted to low pleasures. Many words that were once peculiar to the outcasts from society are now in general slang use. While a few of the words of the " Pedlers' French " of the l6th century have survived to the present or recent times, the majority have been superseded by later inventions. The older slang names of coins or sums of money, for instance, are nearly all obsolete, and their modern synonyms, mostly of obscure origin, cannot be traced very far back. Quid, a guinea or sovereign, was used in the I7th century; bob, a shilling, bull, a crown piece, tanner, a sixpence, and others, are of 19th-century date. In recent times the vocabulary of low-class slang has ob- tained several words from Yiddish or Jewish-German, such as gonnof, a thief (Hebrew gannabh as pronounced by German Jews), foont, a pound (German Pfund), ooftish, contracted to oof, money (from the German auftischen, to regale a person with something). A peculiar growth of the 1 9th century is the so-called " back slang," current chiefly among London costermongers, which is a cryptic jargon formed by pronouncing words backwards, as in ecilop or slop for " police," " eno dunop and a flah," one pound and a half, thirty shillings. What is called " riming slang," consisting of such fantastic expressions as mutton-pie for eye, lord of the manor for " tanner," i.e. sixpence, is a jocular invention which does not seem to have had any considerable currency except in the columns of the sporting newspapers. SLANG 209 The varieties of slang that have their origin and currency in the reputable classes of society owe their existence partly to impatience with the constraint of ceremonious propriety of speech, and partly to the kind of esprit de corps which leads those who are associated in any common pursuit, or whose mutual intercourse is especially intimate, to take pleasure in the possession of modes of speech that are peculiar to their own " set." The former feeling is naturally strongest among those who are under the control of superiors in whose presence they have to observe an uncongenial formality of expression. It is therefore only what might be expected that every public school and every university has its own elaborately developed slang vocabulary, and that there is also a good deal of slang that is common to schoolboys and to undergraduates in general. Even among persons of riper years there are many to whom cere- monious speech is unwelcome. The motive for the creation of slang is therefore widely diffused throughout all classes. Besides the general slang that is current among all who rebel against the laws of conventional decorum of language, there are innumerable special varieties. As a rule, every trade and profession, and every closely associated group of persons, has its own slang; indeed, there are probably few family circles that have not certain peculiar expressions used only within the household. It may be noted that some classes of workmen — printers and tailors for example — -are more than others remarkable for the copiousness of their trade slang. The theatrical profession has in all countries an abundant vocabulary of sportively meta- phorical and allusive words and phrases. The slang current in the orderly portions of society, in England at least, does not present many insoluble puzzles of etymology, the words of obscure origin being for the most part such as have been imported from a lower level. There is no difficulty in accounting for the many jocularly similative uses of ordinary words, such as " tin " for money, " bags " for trousers, " tile " for hat. Especially characteristic of university slang is the distortion of the form of words, sometimes with the appending of a conventional termina- tion, as in the German student's " schleo " for schlecht, " Kneo " for Kneipe, " Bim " for Busen, " Respum " for Respekt, or the English " rugger " and " soccer " for the Rugby and Association varieties of the game of football, " tosher " for unattached student, " progging " for the disciplinary function of the proctor, " ekker " for exercise, " congratters " or " congraggers " for congratulations. Such shortened forms of words as " thou " for thousand, " exes " for expenses, " exam " for examination, " vac " for vacation, " photo " for photograph, " bike " for bicycle, may reasonably be classed as slang when they are used with intentional impropriety or flippancy, but many such forms, on account of their convenient brevity, have acquired a degree of currency that entitles them to rank as respectable colloquial English. It is generally admitted that in the United States the currency of slang is wider, and its vocabulary more extensive, than in other English-speaking countries. Indeed, an American encyclopaedia has the entry " Slang, see Americanisms." The two things, of course, are not identical, and some of those American expressions that are in England regarded and used as slang have no such character in their native country. But the invention of new words of grotesque sound and ludicrously descriptive point is a favourite form of "humour in America, and the freedom with which these coinages are used in many newspapers contrasts with the more sober journalistic style usual in England. Much of the current slang of America is used only in the land of its origin, and it is not uncommon to meet with newspaper articles of which an untravelled Englishman would hardly be able to understand a sentence, and on which the dictionaries of American- isms afford little light. The American contribution to the current slang of the British Isles consists mainly of words and expressions that are recommended by their oddity, such as " scallywag," " absquatulate," " skedaddle," " vamoose " (from the Span. vdmos, let us go), and words relating to political life, such as " mugwump " (originally an Indian word meaning " great chief "), " carpet-bagger," and " gerrymander." Australia, also, as may be seen from the novels of Rolf Boldrewood and other writers, possesses an ample store of slang peculiar to itself, but of this " larrikin " is the only word that has found its way into general use in the mother-country. To the philologist the most interesting question connected with slang is that relating to the importance of the share which it has in the development of ordinary language. It is probably true that the standard vocabulary of every modern European language includes some words that were originally slang; but there is certainly much exaggeration in the view that has been sometimes maintained, that slang is one of the chief sources from which languages obtain additions to their means of ex- pression. The advocates of this view point to the fact that a certain number of Italian and French words descend, not from the Latin words of identical meaning, but from other words which in vulgar Latin were substituted for these by way of jocular metaphor. Thus the Italian testa, FT. ttie, head, repre- sent the Lat. testa, pot or shell; the Fr.joue, cheek, corresponds by strict phonetic law to the Late Lat. gabata, porringer. It may be conceded that in these instances, and a few others, words of popular Latin slang have become the accepted words in the languages descended from Latin. But the number of instances of this kind is, after all, inconsiderable in comparison with the extent of the whole popular vocabulary; and the conditions under which the Romanic languages were developed (from Latin as spoken by peoples mainly of non-Latin origin) are somewhat abnormal. A consideration of the essential characteristics of slang, as previously explained in this article, will show that it is only to a limited extent that it is likely to be absorbed into the general language. It has been pointed out that slang words, for the most part, do not express notions which ordinary language cannot express quite as efficiently. This fact implies a note- worthy limitation of the capabilities of slang as a source from which the deficiencies of a language can be supplied. As the prevailing tendency of words is toward degradation of meaning, one of the most frequently recurring needs of language is that of words of dignified and serious import to take the place of those which have become cheapened through ignoble use. It is obvious that slang can do nothing to meet this demand. The less frequent want of terms of contempt or reprobation may, of course, be supplied by adoptions from slang; and in the exceptional instances in which, as has already been indicated, a slang word has no synonym in ordinary speech, it may very naturally find its way into recognized use. On the whole, the debt of modern standard English to slang of all kinds is probably smaller than most persons would suppose. A few words have been furnished by thieves' cant, and, as might be expected, most of these relate to criminal or vicious practices. No one will be surprised to learn that rogue and bully, and the verbs to filch and to foist, are derived from this source. On the other hand, one would hardly have expected to find " drawers, hosen " in Harman's vocabulary of " Pedlers' French " in 1567. The word soon came into general use, probably because (though not euphemistic in original intention) it suited the same affected notion of delicacy which led to the substitution of " shift " for " smock." There are some words, such as prig, to steal, which were once vagrant slang, but are now universally understood and widely used, without, however, losing their " slangy " character. The utmost that can be said is that they are on the debatable ground between slang and merely jocular language. Although it often happens that words belonging to the more reputable kinds of slang undergo some improvement in status — acquiring some degree of toleration in refined circles where they would once have been considered offensive — there are few in- stances in which such a word has come to be regarded as unex- ceptionable English. One example of this is prig (a distinct word from the term of thieves' cant already mentioned), which originally denoted a person over-scrupulous in his attire and demeanour, but has now acquired a different sense, in which it supplies a real need of the language. Other words that were once slang but are so no longer are mob, humbug, tandem (apparently 210 SLATE a university joke founded on " at length " as the dictionary rendering of the Latin adverb). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — English: Most of the authorities for the early history of English vagrant slang are reprinted in vol. ix. of the Extra Series of the Early English Text Society, edited by E. Viles and F. J. Furnivall (1869), which contains John Awdeley's The Fraternitye of Vacabondes (from the edition of 1575), Thomas Har- man's Caueat for Commen Cursetours (1567-1573), and The Ground- work of Conny-catching (anonymous, 1592), besides extracts from other early works which furnish glossaries. The Dictionary of the Canting Crew, by B. E. (no date, but printed at the end of the 1 7th century; photographic reprint by J. S. Farmer), is valuable as containing the earliest known record of many words still in use; while mainly treating of thieves' and vagrants' language, it includes much that belongs to slang in the wider sense. Among the many later works, only the following need be mentioned here: Francis Grose's Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (3rd ed., 1796); The Slang Dictionary, anonymous, but understood to be by the publisher, J. C. Hotten (new edition, 1874), a work of considerable merit, with an excellent bibliography; A Dictionary of Slang, Jargon and Cant, by A. Barrere and C. G. Leland (1889); and Slang and its Analogues, by J. S. Farmer and W. E. Henley (1890- 1904), which surpasses all similar works in extent of vocabulary and abundance of illustrative matter, though the dates and even the text of the quotations are often inaccurate. For the slang of public schools see The Winchester Word-book, by R. G. K. Wrench (1901) and The Eton Glossary, by C. R. Stone (1902). French: The earliest systematic treatment of argot is found in La Vie genereuse des Mattois, Gueux Bohemiems et Cagoux, by Pechon de Ruby (a pseudonym), which went through several editions in the early part of the I7th century, and has been reprinted in 1831 and 1868. The slang of the 1 5th century is discussed in Le Jargon au quinzieme siecle, by Auguste Vitu (1883), which includes an edition of the Ballades of Villon ; in Le Jargon et jobelin de F. Villon, by Lucien Schone (1887), and in L' Argot ancien, by L. Sainean (1907). Francisque Michel's Etudes de philologie comparee sur I'argot (1856) is important for its rich collection of material and its copious refer- ences to sources. Later works deserving attention are Dictionnaire de la langue verte, by AlTred Delvau (2nd ed., 1867), and Dictionnaire de I'argot, by LoreVian Larchey (1889). For modern slang, taken in a very comprehensive sense, the chief authority is Lucien Rigaud, Dictionnaire de I'argot moderne (1881). For the special slang of printers, see Eugene Boutmy, Dictionnaire de I'argot des typo- graphes (1883). German: An admirable collection of the original documents for the history of thieves' and vagrant slang from the earliest period has been published by F. Kluge, under the title Rotwelsch (1901). An earlier book of great importance is Av6-Lallemant, Das deutsche Gaunertum (1858). For modern popular slang see A. Genthe, Deutsches Slang (1892). University slang is ably treated in Deutsche Studentensprache, by F. Kluge (1895). Dutch: Isidor Teirlinck, Woprdenboek van Bargoensch (1886). Italian and Spanish: F. Michel, in Etudes de philologie comparee sur I'argot (see above), gives a vocabulary of Italian thieves' slang from Nuovo modo da intendere la lingua zerga (1619, reprinted at the end of the Trattato dei Bianti, 1828), and one of Spanish slang from Romances de Germania (ed. 6, shortly before 1800). For Spanish thieves' language see also A. Besses, Argot espanol (Barcelona, no date) ; a large proportion of the words given by this writer is gipsy. (H. BR.) SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclal, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen •also in Ger. schleissen, to split), in geology, a fissile, fine-grained argillaceous rock which cleaves or splits readily into thin slabs having great tensile strength and durability. Many other rocks are improperly called slate, if they are thin bedded and can be used for roofing and similar purposes. One of the best known of these is the Stonesfield slate, which is a Jurassic limestone occurring near Oxford and famous for its fossils. Slates properly so-called do not, except on rare occasions, split along the bedding, but along planes of cleavage, which intersect the bedding usually at high angles. The original material was a fine clay, sometimes with more or less of sand or ashy ingredients, occasionally with some lime; and the bedding may be indicated by alternating bands of different lithological character, crossing the cleavage faces of the slates, and often interrupting the cleavage, or rendering it imperfect. Cleavage is thus a superinduced structure, and its explanation is to be found in the rearrangement of the minerals, and the development of a certain degree of crystallization by pressure acting on the rock. Slates belong mostly to the older geological systems, being commonest in Pre-Cambrian, Cambrian and Silurian districts, though they may be found of Carboniferous or even of Tertiary age, where mountain-building processes have folded and compressed these more recent formations. The action of pressure is shown also by the fossils which sometimes occur in slates; they have been drawn out and distorted in such a way as to prove that the rock has undergone deformation and has behaved like a plastic mass. Evidence of the same kind is afforded by the shape of the knots and concretions sometimes present in the slate. If the bedding be traced, either in the slates or in the other rocks which accompany them, flexures will be frequently observed (the folding often being of an isoclinal type), while reversed faulting, or thrusting, is usually also con- spicuous. The origin of slaty cleavage is in some measure obscure. This structure is by no means confined to slates, though always best exemplified in them, owing prob- ably to the fine- grained, argillaceous materials of which they consist. Grits, igneous rocks, ash- beds and limestones may and often do show cleavage. Coarse rocks and rocks consisting of hard minerals are always imperfectly cleaved. The cleav- age of slates must be distinguished from cleavage of minerals, the latter being due to different degrees of cohesion along definite crystal- Sketch (by Du Noyer) of a block of varie- l«crrnr,V,iV rvlar, Bate" S'ate frOm DeVl1 S Gle"> C°" WJCMOW. lographic planes The crumpled bands raark the bedding, and Ihe connexion of the fine perpendicular striae in front are cleavage with pres- the cleavage planes; the fine lines on the sure, however is darkened side merely represent shadow, and ' • f v. 11 ' Tt must not be taken for planes of division in ^•K: A therock- It will be observed that the cleav- is never exhibited age planes do not pass through the white except by rocks bands, which have been sub- jected to the tangential stresses set up in the earth's crust by fold- ing. These stresses may operate in several ways. They will alter the shape of mineral particles by broadening them in a direction at right angles to the principal pressures, while they are thinned in the direction in which the pressure acted. Probably the size of the particle will be slightly reduced. This method of reasoning, however, does not carry us far, as the minerals of slates vary considerably in form. Pressure will also tend to produce an expansion of the rock mass in a direction (usually nearly vertical) at right angles te the compression, for such rocks as slates are distinctly plastic in great masses. This flowage will help to orientate the particles in the direction of movement, and, opera- ting conjointly with the flattening above explained, will accentuate the liability to cleave in a definite set of planes. The recrystalliza- tion induced by pressure is probably of still greater importance. Slates consist largely of thin plates of mica arranged parallel to the cleavage faces. This mica has developed in the rock as it was folded and compressed. In the moist and plastic slate the mineral particles slowly enlarged by the addition of new crystal- line molecules. Those faces which were perpendicular to the pressure would grow slowly, as the great'pressure would promote solution, and inhibit deposition; the edges or sides, on the other hand, being less exposed to the pressure would receive fresh deposits. In this way thin laminae would form, lying at right angles to the direction of greatest stress. Micas and other platy minerals (such as chlorite), which naturally grow most rapidly on their edges, would show this tendency best, and such minerals usually form a large part of the best slates; but even SLATE ISLANDS— SLATER, J. F. 21 I quartz and felspar, which under ordinary conditions form more equidimensional crystals, would assume lenticular forms. In the necessary co-operation of these three causes, viz. flattening of particles by compression, orientation of particles by flow and formation of laminar crystals, the fundamental explanation of slaty cleavage is found. The planes of cleavage will be approxi- mately perpendicular to the earth pressures which acted in the district; hence the strike of the cleavage (i.e. its trend when followed across the country) will be persistent over considerable areas. Where the rock masses are not homogeneous (e.g. slates alter- nating with gritty bands), the cleavage is most perfect in the finest grained rocks. In passing from a slate to a grit the direction of the cleavage changes so that it tends to be more nearly per- pendicular to the bedding planes. A structure akin to cleavage, often exemplified by slates especially when they have been some- what contorted or gnarled, is the Ausweichungsdivage of Albert Heim. It is produced by minute crumplings on the cleavage faces all arranged so that they lie along definite planes crossing the cleavage. These slight inflections of the cleavage may be sharp-sided, and may pass into small faults or steps along which dislocation has taken place. A secondary or false cleavage, less perfect than the true cleavage, may thus be produced (see PETROLOGY, PI. IV. fig. 7). The faces of slates have usually a slightly silky lustre due to the abundance of minute scales of mica all lying parallel and reflecting light simultaneously from their pearly basal planes. In microscopic section the best slates show much colourless mica in small, thin, irregular scales. Green chlorite is usually also abundant in flakes like those of the mica. The principal additional ingredient is quartz in minute lens-shaped grains. The size of the individual particles may be approximately one-five-hundredth of an inch. Minute rods or needles of rutile are also common in slates, and well-formed cubes of pyrites are often visible on the splitting faces. The brownish colour of some slates is due to limonite and haematite, but magnetite occurs in the darker coloured varieties. Other minerals which occur in the rocks of this group are calcite, garnet, biotite, chloritoid, epidote, tourmaline and graphite or dark carbonaceous materials. By advancing crystallization and increased size of their com- ponents, slates pass gradually into phyllites, which consist also of quartz, muscovite and chlorite. In the neighbourhood of intrusive granites and similar plutonic igneous rocks, slates undergo " contact alteration," and great changes ensue in their appearance, structure and mineral composition. They lose their facile cleavage and become hard, dark-coloured, slightly lustrous rocks, which have a splintery character or break into small cuboidal fragments. These are known as " hornfelses " (q.v.). Farther away from the granite the slates are not so much altered, but generally show small rounded or ovoid spots, which may be darker or lighter in colour than the matrix. The spots contain a variety of minerals, sometimes mainly white mica or chlorite. In these spotted slates andalusite, chiastolite, garnet and cordierite often occur; chiastolite is especially characteristic; cordierite occurs only where the alteration is intense. The chiastolite-slates show elongated, straight-sided crystals with black cores (see PETROLOGY, PI. IV. fig. 9), which, on transverse section, have the form of a cross constituting the two diagonals of the rhombic or squarish pattern of the mineral. These crystals may be half an inch to several inches in length; they are usually more or less completely weathered to white mica and kaolin. In other cases, especially near mineral veins, slates are filled with black needles of tourmaline or are bleached to pale grey and white colours, or are silicified and impregnated with mineral ores. Frequently in districts where slates are much crumpled they are traversed by numerous quartz veins, which have a thickness varying from several inches up to many feet, and may occasionally be auriferous. (J. S. F.) Slates are widely used for roofing houses and buildings of every description, and for such purposes they are unequalled, the better sorts possessing all the qualities necessary for protection against wind, rain and storm. The finer varieties are made into writing slates, and in districts where cross cleavage exists slate pencils are made. Slabs are also manufactured, and, being readily cut, planed, dressed and enamelled, are used for chimney pieces, billiard tables, wall linings, cisterns, paving, tomb-stones, ridge rolls, electrical switch-boards and various other architectural and industrial purposes. Slate rocks are quarried both above ground and below ground, according as they lie near to or distant from the surface. When they are near the surface, and their dip corresponds with the slope of the ground, they are in the most favourable position, and are worked in terraces or galleries formed along the strike of the beds and having a height of about 50 ft. The galleries are generally carried on in sections of 10 yds., worked across the beds, and may rise to any height or be sunk below the surrounding level by excavations. When the rock is much removed from the surface, or inconveniently situated for open workings, it is quarried in underground chambers reached by levels driven through the intervening mass and across or along the beds. Or it may be necessary to sink shafts as in coal-pits before the rock is arrived at, but the cost of doing so forms a serious drawback. The material is sometimes won by the aid of channelling machines which make a series of cuts at right angles to each other in the face of the rock; a block is then broken off at its base by wedges forced into the cuts, and its removal permits access to other blocks. When blasting is resorted to, advantage is taken of the natural cuts or joints, as the rock is readily thrown or worked off these. The explosive used should be of such a character as to throw out or detach masses of rock without much splintering, which would destroy the blocks for slate-making. From the mass thrown out by the blast, or loosened so as readily to come away by the use of crowbars, the men select and sort all good blocks and send them in waggons to the slate huts to be split and dressed into slates. Two men are employed at this operation — one splitting and the other dressing, performing their work in a sitting posture. The splitter places a block on end between his knees, and with chisel and mallet splits it into as many plates as possible of the usual thickness for roofing purposes — namely, a quarter of an inch more or less according to the size and strength required. These plates are then placed horizontally by the dresseron a vertical iron" stand," and cut with a sharp knife into slates of various sizes suitable for the market. For an enumeration of these sizes, see ROOFS, where also will be found an account of the different varieties of slates and of the ways in which they are fixed. SLATE ISLANDS, a group belonging to the parish of Kilbrandon and Kilchattan off the coast of Lome, Argyllshire, Scotland. They comprise Seil, Easdale, Torsay, Luing and Shuna, and owe their name to the fact that they are composed mainly of meta- morphic rocks, Easdale, Torsay and Luing being entirely slate, Seil mostly slate with some porphyrite in the north, and Shuna gneissose. The quarries provide occupation for most of the inhabitants. The steamers to and from Oban usually call at Luing and Easdale. SEIL (pop. 424), the most northerly, is con- nected with the mainland by means of Clachan bridge on its north-east side, near Rue. It measures 4 m. N. and S. by 2 m. E. and W. at its widest, and contains Kilbrandon church. Off a promontory on its west coast, divided only by a narrow strait, is the comparatively flat island of EASDALE (pop. 284), measuring roughly \ m. each way. The quarries have been worked since 1630 and yield some eight million slates every year. The experi- ment of leasing them to the workers on co-operative lines has been tried unsuccessfully. LUING (pop. 620) is situated S. of Seil, is 6 m. long and i\ m. broad. TORSAY (pop. 7), i m. long by f m. broad, lies off its north-east, and SHUNA (pop. 8), 2^ m. long by i ^ m. broad, off its south-east, shore. SLATER, JOHN FOX (1815-1884), American philanthropist, son of John Slater (Samuel Slater's brother and partner), was born in Slatersville, Rhode Island, on the 4th of March 1815. He was educated in academies at Plainfield, Connecticut, and Wrentham and Wilbraham, Massachusetts. At seventeen he entered his father's woollen mill in Hopeville, Conn., of which he took charge in 1 836. This and other mills he owned in partner- ship with his brother, William S. Slater, until 1873, when his brother took over the Slatersville Mills and he assumed sole ownership of the mills at Jewett City, Conn. In 1842 he re- moved from Jewett City to Norwich ; there he helped to endow the Norwich Free Academy, to which his son presented the Slater Memorial Hall; and there he died on the 7th of May 1884. In 1882 he had made over to a board of ten trustees, incorporated in New York state, $1,000,000 for "the uplifting of the lately emancipated population of the Southern states, 212 SLATER, S.— SLAUGHTER-HOUSE and their posterity, by conferring on them the benefits of Christian education." Among the original trustees of the Slater Fund were Rutherford B. Hayes, Morrison R. Waite, William E. Dodge, Phillips Brooks, Daniel C. Oilman, Morris K. Jesup and the donor's son, William A. Slater; and among members chosen later were Melville W. Fuller, William E. Dodge, Jr., Henry C. Potter, Cleveland H. Dodge and Seth Low. In 1909 by careful investment the fund had increased, in spite of expenditures, to more than $1,500,000. The fund has been of great value in aiding industrial schools in the South, its largest beneficiaries being the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute of Hampton, Virginia, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial In- stitute of Tuskegee, Alabama, Spelman Seminary in Atlanta, Georgia, Claflin University in Orangeburg, S.C., and Fisk University, in Nashville, Tennessee. At Winston-Salem, N.C., is the Slater State Normal and Industrial School, founded in 1892 and named after the founder of the fund. Other state normal schools for negroes have received assistance from the fund; and in some cases it has contributed directly to the school boards of Southern cities. SLATER, SAMUEL (1768-1835), American textile manu- facturer, was born in Belper, Derbyshire, England, on the 9th of June 1768. In 1783, the year after his father's death, he was apprenticed to Jedediah Strutt, his neighbour and a partner of Richard Arkwright in spinning cotton, and served under him six and a half years. Learning that the Pennsylvania legislature had granted £100 in 1789 to the inventor of a power carding machine, he removed to the United States in that year, but was unable because of British laws to bring with him drawings of cotton-spinning machinery. He wrote to Moses Brown of Providence, R.I., who had made unsuccessful attempts to manufacture cotton cloth, and in January 1790 on Brown's invitation went to Pawtucket, R.I., where he entered into a partnership with William Almy (Moses Brown's son-in-law) and Smith Brown, a kinsman of Moses Brown, designed (from memory) machines for cotton-spinning, and turned out some yarn in December of the same year. In 1799 he established in his mills one of the first Sunday Schools in America. In 1801 he built a factory in Rehoboth, Mass., and with his brother John, who joined him in 1804, established in 1806 the manufacturing village of Slatersville, in Smithfield township, Rhode Island. He began the manufacture of woollen cloth in 1815-1816 at Oxford, now Webster, Mass., where he had built cotton mills in 1812. In his later years he was interested in other textile mills and in iron foundries in Rhode Island. He died at Webster, Mass., on the 2ist of April 1835. He has been called the " father of American manufactures " and it is no exaggeration to call him the founder of American cotton manufacturing. See G.S. White, Memoir of Samuel Slater (2nd ed., Philadelphia, 1846). SLATIN, SIR RUDOLF CARL VON (1857- ), Anglo- Austrian soldier and administrator in the Sudan, was born on the 27th of June 1857 at Ober St Veit near Vienna. At the age of seventeen he made his first journey to the Sudan, reaching Khartum by the Nile route in October 1875 in company with Theodor von Heuglin (q.v.). Thence he went through Kordofan to Dar Nuba, exploring the mountains of that region. He returned to Khartum in consequence of a revolt of the Arabs against the Egyptian government. There Slatin met Dr Emin (Emin Pasha) and with him purposed visiting General C. G. Gordon at Lado, Gordon at that time being governor of the equatorial provinces. Slatin, however, was obliged to return to Austria without accomplishing his desire, but Emin went to Lado and at Slatin's request recommended the young traveller to Gordon for employment in the Sudan. In 1878, while Slatin was serving as a lieutenant in the crown prince Rudolf's regi- ment in the Bosnian campaign he received a letter from Gordon inviting him to the Sudan, of which country Gordon had become governor-general. At the close of the campaign Slatin received permission to go to Africa and he arrived at Khartum in January 1879. After a brief period during which he was financial inspector, Slatin was appointed mudir (governor) of Dara, the south-western part of Darfur, a post he held until early in 1881, when he was promoted governor-general of Darfur and given the rank of bey. While administering Dara, Slatin con- ducted a successful campaign against one of the Darfur princes in revolt, and as governor of Darfur he endeavoured to remedy many abuses. He had soon to meet the rising power of the mahdi Mahommed Ahmed (q.v.). Early in 1882 the Arabs in southern Darfur were in revolt. With insufficient resources and no succour from Khartum, Slatin gallantly defended his province. Though victorious in several engagements he lost 'ground. His followers attributing his non-success to the fact that he was a Christian, Slatin nominally adopted Islam. But all hope of maintaining Egyptian authority vanished with the news of the destruction of Hicks Pasha's army and in December 1883 Slatin surrendered, refusing to make any further sacrifice of life in a hopeless cause. In the camp of the mahdi an attempt was made to use him to induce Gordon to surrender. This failing, Slatin was placed in chains, and on the morning of the 26th of January 1885, an hour or two after the fall of Khartum, the head of Gordon was brought to the camp and shown to the captive. Slatin was kept at Omdurman by the khalifa, being treated alternately with savage cruelty and comparative indulgence. At length, after over eleven years' captivity, he was enabled, through the instrumentality of Sir Reginald (then Major) Wingate of the Egyptian Intelligence Department, to escape, reaching Egypt in March 1895. In a remarkable book, Fire and Sword in the Sudan, written in the same year and issued in English and German in 1896, Slatin gave not only, as stated in the sub-title, " a personal narrative of fighting and serving the dervishes " but a connected account of the Sudan under the rule of the khalifa. Raised to the rank of pasha by the khedive, Slatin received from Queen Victoria the Companionship of the Bath. On the eve of his surrender to the mahdi at Christmas 1883 he had resolved, if he regained his liberty, to use the know- ledge he would acquire while in captivity for the eventual benefit of the country, and after a year's rest he took part, as an officer on the staff of the Egyptian army, in the campaigns of 1897-98 which ended in the capture of Omdurman. For his services in these campaigns he was made a K.C.M.G. and in 1899 was ennobled by the emperor of Austria. In 1900 he was appointed Inspector-General of the Sudan, in which capacity his mastery of Arabic and his profound knowledge of the land and peoples proved invaluable in the work of reconstruction undertaken by the Anglo-Egyptian government in that country. In 1907 he was made an honorary major-general in the British army. SLAUGHTER-HOUSE, or ABATTOIR. In the United Kingdom slaughter-houses are of two kinds, those which belong to in- dividual butchers and those which belong to public authorities; the former are usually called private slaughter-houses, the latter public slaughter-houses. Private slaughter-houses in existence in England before the passing of the Public Health Act 1875 were established without licence by the local authority, except in those towns to which the provisions of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, relating to slaughter-houses, were applied by special Act. By the Act of 1875 these provisions were extended to all urban districts. Subse- quently to 1890 urban authorities adopting Part III. of the Public Health (Amendment Act) of that year could license for limited periods of not less than one year all slaughter-houses coming into existence after such adoption. In London, slaughter-houses have been licensed since 1855. Private slaughter-houses are fre- quently situated at the rear of the shop in which the meat is sold. Each consists of a compartment in which the animals are killed, and in association with this are the pounds in which a few animals can be kept pending slaughter. These buildings are regulated by by-laws made under the Public Health Act by the several urban sanitary authorities. The by-laws usually provide for the floor to be made of jointless paving, to ensure that the earth shall not be fouled in the process of slaughtering; for the walls to be cemented to a certain height above the floor, to provide a surface which can be easily cleaned; for the doors Private. SLAUGHTER-HOUSE 213 to be of sufficient width to enable cattle to enter the slaughter- house without difficulty; and for the poundage to have floor- space sufficient for each animal. These by-laws also provide for water-supply to the slaughter-house for cleansing, and to the pounds for the use of the animals, for the periodical lime- whiting of the premises, and for the observance of care to prevent the blood escaping into the drains. Private slaughter-houses, especially those which were established without licence, are often in too close proximity to inhabited buildings. In towns in which by-laws are not strictly enforced they are often sources of nuisance. Private slaughter-houses are also objectionable on other grounds. They lead to the driving of cattle through the towns on the way to the slaughter-house, sometimes to the danger of the inhabitants, and they render impossible any sys- tematic inspection of meat. It is in connexion with the increasing demand for such meat-inspection that the objections to private slaughter-houses are most manifested; and hence, in countries in which the law provides for the obligatory inspection of meat, private slaughter-houses are ceasing to exist, and public abattoirs are being substituted for them. Public slaughter-houses are of great antiquity and owe their beginnings to Roman civilization. In 300 B.C. animals were _ .„ slaughtered in the open air in the Forum in Rome. Later, to meet the convenience of butchers, a house on the river Tiber was given to them for the purposes of their trade. This house had been occupied by a Roman citizen named Macellus. The building appears to have retained his name, and hence the macellum of Livy's time subsequently erected in the Forum, which, inter alia, is believed to have con- tained rooms for the slaughter of animals. The rooms actually used for slaughter were lanienae, from laniare, but the word macellum has been preserved in the Italian macellare, to slaughter, and in the German metzgen or metzgeln, and in the English massacre. Public slaughter-houses existed in many large towns of Germany in medieval times under the name of Kultelhofe; they were mostly situated on the rivers, which provided an ample supply of water, and afforded rneans for the removal of blood. Some of these Kutlelhofe continued to exist within recent years. No law other than a town law governed their establishment and management. They were owned .or controlled by the butchers' corporations or gilds, but all butchers were not members of the gilds; and this appears to have led to a ministerial order in Prussia in 1826, which made it inadmissible to require every butcher to slaughter in them. Shortly after the middle of the 1 9th century the prevalence of trichinosis compelled a return to the use of public slaughter-houses; and the enactment of laws in 1868 and 1881 in Prussia, and similar laws in other German states, empowered urban authorities to require that all animals killed in towns should be slaughtered in public slaughter-houses. (Schwarz, Bau, Einrichtung mid Betrieb ofentlicher Schlacht- und Viehhofe.) In France, in the isth and i6th centuries, numerous towns were provided with public slaughter-houses. It was required that they should be used by all persons killing animals the flesh of which was to be sold; but their position and the conditions they created were such as urgently to demand amelioration, and some effort was made in this direction in 1567. It was not, however, until the time of Napoleon I. that it was decided that the atrocious nuisance which these slaughter-houses created should be removed. By decrees passed in 1807 and 1810 public slaughter-houses were required to be provided in all large towns in France, the needs of Paris being determined by a Commission, which recommended the establishment of five abattoirs or public slaughter-houses. In 1838 the requirement that public slaughter- houses should be provided in large centres was extended to all towns in France, and it was further required that the slaughter- houses should be situated at a distance from dwelling-houses. In 1867 the large abattoir of La Villette was constructed to meet the needs of Paris, two of the five constructed under the decrees of Napoleon being closed. In 1 898 the additional abattoir of Vaugirard was opened, and the remainder of the five were Regula- tions. closed except Villejuif, which was restricted in its use to the slaughter of horses for human food. In Belgium public slaughter-houses have been provided in all the large and many of the small towns. In Switzerland there are public slaughter-houses in nearly all places having more than two thousand inhabitants. In Italy a law of 1890 required that public slaughter-houses should be erected in all communities of more than six thousand inhabitants. In Austria a law of 1850 required the provision of such places in all the large and medium-sized towns. In Norway and Sweden a law of 1892 required the provision of public slaughter-houses; but it has only partially been fulfilled. In Denmark there are public slaughter- houses in a few towns, including Copenhagen. In the Nether- lands and Rumania a number of public slaughter-houses have been provided. It is in Germany, however, that the greatest progress has been made, and especially in Prussia, where, Pro- fessor Ostertag of Berlin states, they have " grown out of the ground " (Handbuch der Fleischbeschau) ; so much so that in 1897 there were 321 public slaughter-houses in the kingdom, 40 of which were provided in the period 1895-1897. A later work (Les Abattoirs publics, by J. de Loverdo, H. Martel and Mallet, 1906) gives the number of public slaughter-houses as 839 in Germany, 84 in England, 912 in France and nearly 200 in Austria. In some other countries public slaughter-houses have been provided, but they are of a primitive form. In England the power to provide public slaughter-houses was given by the Public Health Act 1848 to the local authorities of cities, towns, boroughs, &c., to which the Act was applied by Order; and later, was given to all urban sanitary authorities by section 169 of the Public Health Act 1875. These authorities have, however, suffered from the disadvantage that they have had no power to control the continuance of private slaughter-houses (except in so far as these were annually licensed), and they have therefore been unable to ensure that the public provision would be used by the butchers. In Ireland and Scotland much the same powers exist; but in Scotland, if the burgh com- missioners provide a public slaughter-house, no other slaughter- house can be used. Some English local authorities have obtained in local acts powers similar to those possessed by the burgh com- missioners in Scotland. The need for still wider control is, however, manifest. Belfast may be cited as an illustration of a town in which a public slaughter-house has been provided, and in which there are no private slaughter-houses, but which receives a quantity of meat from private slaughter-houses erected beyond the boundaries of the city. The outcome of these difficulties is that the power of local authorities to provide public slaughter-houses has been but sparingly used. There is no law requiring that meat shall be inspected before sale for human food, hence there is no obligation upon butchers to make use of public establishments for the slaughter of their cattle. This, indeed, is the position of some of the Continental slaughter- houses; but the increasing strictness of the laws as to meat-in- spection, and especially in requiring that all animals shall be inspected at the time of slaughter, is making the use of public slaughter-houses obligatory. Such a law now exists in Belgium, where it has served as a model to other countries. An Imperial German law of 1900 extends to all parts of that country the same requirement, and enacts that " neat cattle, swine, sheep, goats, horses, and dogs, the meat of which is intended to be used for food for man, shall be subjected to an official inspection both before and after slaughter." Antecedent to that year it was in force in southern Germany, in Brunswick and Saxony, but only in some parts of northern, western and central Germany. A similar law exists in Norway and Sweden, but, as already stated, provision of public slaughter-houses is still meagre; in Austria-Hungary there is a similar requirement, but Ostertag states that the administration is lacking in uniformity; in Italy, he writes, the regulation of meat-inspection having been left to provincial authorities, thorough reform is impossible. In the British colonies advance is being made. New Zealand has a number of public slaughter-houses. The Meat Supervision Act of Victoria empowers the Board of Health to make regulations for ensuring the wholesomeness of meat supplies. Regulations have been made for Melbourne. Cattle are killed in public slaughter-houses and the carcases are stamped, thus showing in which slaughter-house they have been killed. The planning and construction of public slaughter-houses have been the subject of excellent treatises by German writers, among whom may be mentioned Dr Oscar Schwarz, of Stolp, coastruc- and Herr Osthoff, a former city architect of Berlin, to of meat. The corporation of the city of London have erected a slaughter- house at their cattle market in Islington in which slaughtering is done in a large hall divided by partitions into separate compartments. The compartments are not let to separate butchers but are used in common. The partitions do not extend to the ceiling, but are sufficiently high to prevent the slaughtering in one compartment being seen by the occupants of other compartments, and thus they necessarily provide less opportunity for inspection than is afforded by the open-slaughtering halls of Germany. The fees charged are is. 6d. per head for bullocks, 4d. for calves, 2d. for sheep, and 6d. per head for pigs. The accommodation is estimated as sufficient for the slaughter of 400 cattle, 1200 sheep, and 1200 calves and pigs per day. The centralization of the slaughtering and packing industries in the United States has not required slaughter-houses on the same plan as in Europe. Acts of Congress of 1890, 1891 and 1895 endeavoured to provide some amount of inspection, but sufficient appropriations were never made to carry it out, and there were also certain loopholes in the legislation. Although there were from time to time frequent cases of sickness directly traceable to the consumption of canned meats from the great packing centres, it was not until the publication of Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906), which dealt with the conditions in the Chicago packing yards, that steps were taken adequately to guard the public against insanitary conditions. A commission of inquiry was appointed by President Roosevelt, and as a result of its report there was passed in 1906 a national meat inspection law. This act required the department of agriculture to appoint inspectors to examine and inspect all cattle, sheep, swine and goats before being allowed to enter into any slaughtering, pack- ing, meat-canning, rendering or similar establishments. All such animals found to show any symptoms of disease must be set apart and slaughtered separately. All carcases must be inspected and labelled as either " inspected and passed " or " inspected and condemned." The act also provides for the inspection (and condemnation if necessary) of all meat food products as well as for the sanitary examination of all slaughtering, packing and canning establishments. Inspection and examination is now carried out very carefully at all stages of the industry, from inspection of the animals before they enter the slaughtering establishments up to the finished product. The important feature of the Chicago and certain other western American cities slaughter-houses is their adaptation for rapidly dealing with the animals which they receive. At the Chicago slaughter-houses the cattle to be slaughtered are driven up a winding viaduct, by which, in certain of the houses, they eventually reach the roof. Each animal now passes into a narrow pen, where it is at once stunned by a blow on the head. It then falls through a trap- door in the pen into an immense slaughtering-room, where the hind legs are secured, and the animal hoisted by a wire rope suspended from a trolley-line. A knife is then plunged into its throat and the 2l6 SLAVE COAST— SLAVERY carcase made to travel along the line. The carcase is next lowered to the floor, the hide taken off, the head and feet cut off, and the internal parts removed. The carcase again travels along the trolley- line to a place where it is divided into halves, which then, after washing, travel to the refrigeration-room, being trimmed while on the way. The extent of the business may be judged by the fact that over 400 cattle are killed per hour in the slaughtering-room. The cooling-rooms are so large that 13,000 halves of beef hang there at one time. The method of dealing with sheep is very similar. The animals are driven into narrow alleys, then into the slaughter- room, where their throats are cut. They next travel along a route where their skins and the internal organs are removed, and finally pass into the cooling-rooms. Swine are raised in the slaughter- room on to the trolley-line by a chain attached to the animals' feet and to a solid disk or wheel, which in revolving carries them until a mechanical contrivance throws the chain upon the trolley-line, where a knife is plunged into their throat. In its subsequent passage the carcase is scalded, scraped by a machine through which it passes, later.decapitated, the internal parts removed, and the interior washed. The carcase then travels to the cooling-room. In 1904 a British departmental (Admiralty) committee on the humane slaughtering of animals recommended that all animals should be stunned before being bled, and, with a view to sparing animals awaiting slaughter the sights and smells of the slaughter- house, that " cattle should, when possible, be slaughtered screened off from their fellows. This can be arranged in moderate-sized abattoirs by dividing up the side of the slaughter-chamber opposite to the entrance doors into stalls somewhat similar to those in a stable, but considerably wider. For quiet home-grown cattle a width of 10 ft. is sufficient, but where wilder cattle have to be killed a wider space is probably desirable. It is important that these stalls should be so arranged as not to screen the operations of slaughter from the view of the inspecting officials. Immediately after the carcases have been bled, they should be moved on to and ' dressed ' in an adjoining room, screened off from the view of animals entering the slaughter-chamber. This is easily accomplished by hitching a rope (from the winch, if necessary) round the head or forelegs of the carcase, and by dragging it along the floor for the short distance into the ' dressing room. ' The slaughter-stall should then at once be flushed down with the hose, so as to remove all traces of blood. This method leaves the slaughter spaces clear for the next batch of animals, whereas under the existing system there is either a loss of time through the slaughter spaces being blocked up with dressing operations, or else the next batch of animals on being brought into the slaughter-chamber are confronted with mutilated and disem- bowelled carcases." The provision of public slaughter-houses enables control to be exercised over the methods of slaughtering. The above-mentioned committee state that they practically tested a large number of appliances designed for felling and stunning animals previous to " pithing," among which they mention the Bruneau and Baxter masks, the Greener patent killer, the Blitz instrument, and the Wackett punch, all ot which are suitable for quiet cattle or horses. In view of the difficulty of adjusting these instruments in the case of wild or restive animals, the committee express the opinion that the poll-axe when used by an expert is on the whole the most satis- factory implement, but they recommend that no man should be permitted to use the poll-axe on a living animal until he has gone through a thorough course of training, firstly upon a dummy animal and secondly upon dead bodies. Calves, the committee state, should be stunned by a blow on the head with a club. With respect to the method of slaughter of sheep the committee discuss the method usually adopted in England, which is " to lay the sheep on a wooden crutch and then to thrust a knife through the neck below the ears, and with a second motion to insert the point, from within, between the joints of the vertebrae, thus severing the spinal cord." Observations made for the committee by Professor Starling showed that the interval between the first thrust of the knife and complete loss of sensibility varied from five to thirty seconds, and they there- fore recommended that sheep should be stunned before being stuck, a practice required in Denmark, many parts of Germany, and Switzerland. It is necessary that the sheep should be struck on the top of the head between the ears and not on the forehead. The insensibility produced by the blow was found to last fully twenty seconds, a period sufficiently long for the killing to be completed if the animal is laid on the crutch before being stunned. The stunning of pigs, the committee recommended, should be insisted upon in all cases, and not, as sometimes at present, only practised in the case of large pigs which give trouble or with a view to the avoidance of noise. The Jewish method of slaughter by cutting the throat is con- demned by the committee after careful observation and after re- ceiving reports by Sir Michael Foster and Professor Starling, the chief objection to this method being that it fails in the primary requirements of rapidity, freedom from unnecessary pain, and instantaneous loss of sensibility. The use of public slaughter-houses has not been found to affect the prices of meat, although one of the numerous arguments used by butchers against being required to slaughter in public slaughter- houses was that they would have this effect. Inquiry on this subject by a Swedish veterinary surgeon of Stockholm, Kjerrulf, of 560 towns possessing public slaughter-houses, elicited replies from 388. Of these, 261 towns declared that as a result of the compulsory use of the abattoirs and compulsory meat inspection the price of meat had not been raised. In the case of twenty-two towns prices rose temporarily but soon reverted to their normal level. In many cases it was alleged that the temporary rise was due, not to the abattoir, but to other causes, notably the scarcity of live stock {Our Slaughter-house System by C. Cash, and The German Abattoir by Hugo Heiss, 1907). The increasing recognition in European countries of the need for inspection, at the time of slaughter, of the flesh of all cattle intended to suppy food for man, the necessity for the provision of public slaughter-houses to make such inspection practicable, the convenience which these slaughter-houses afford to those engaged in the business of butcher, combine to ensure that, at any rate in all populous places, they will in time entirely supersede private slaughter-houses, which offer none of these advantages. No doubt the provision of public slaughter-houses will continue to be opposed by the butchers' trade so long as private slaughter houses are permitted, and, as already stated, local authorities in England are discouraged from making public provision by their inability to prevent the continuance of the use of all existing private slaughter-houses. Probably the extension to English local authorities of the power which the law of Scotland gives to the commissioners of Scottish burghs of closing private slaughter-houses when a public slaughter-house has been, provided, would facilitate the much-needed substitution of public for private slaughter-houses. (S. F. M.) SLAVE COAST. The name given to that part of the coast of West Africa extending from the river Volta to the Niger delta; forming part of the Guinea coast (see GUINEA). From the beginning of the i6th to the end of the i8th century this region was a principal resort of the Europeans engaged in the slave trade. Politically the Slave Coast is divided between Germany, France and Great Britain, the German section forming part of Togoland (q.v.), the French section the seaboard of Dahomey (q.v.), and the British section the Lagos province of Nigeria (see LAGOS). SLAVERY. It appears to be true that, in the words of Dunoyer, the economic regime of every society which has recently become sedentary is founded on the slavery of the industrial professions. In the hunter period the savage warrior does not enslave his vanquished enemy, but slays him; the women of a conquered tribe he may, however, carry off and appropriate as wives or as servants, for in this period domestic labour falls almost altogether on their sex. In the pastoral stage slaves will be captured only to be sold, with the exception of a few who may be required for the care of flocks or the small amount of cultivation which is then undertaken. It is in proportion as a sedentary life prevails, and agricultural exploitation is practised on a larger scale, whilst warlike habits continue to exist, that the labour of slaves is increasingly introduced to provide food for the master, and at the same time save him from irksome toil. Of this stage in the social movement slavery seems to have been, as we have said, a universal and inevitable accompaniment. But wherever theocratic organizations established themselves slavery in the ordinary sense did not become a vital element in the social system. The members of the lowest class were not in a state of individual subjection: the entire caste to which they belonged was collectively subject. It is in the communities in which the military order obtained an ascendancy over the sacerdotal, and which were directly organized for war, that slavery (as the word is commonly understood) had its natural and appropriate place. It is not merely that in its first establishment slavery was an immense advance by substitut- ing for the immolation of captives, often accompanied by cannibalism, their occupation in labour for the benefit of the victor. This advantage, recalled by an old though erroneous l lServus is not cognate with servare, as has often been supposed; it is really related to the Homeric «p«pos and the verb elpa, with which the Latin sero is to be connected. It may be here mentioned that slave was originally a national name ; it meant a man of Slavonic race captured and made a bondman to the Germans. " From the Euxine to the Adriatic, in the state of captives or subjects, . . . they [the Slavonians] overspread the land, and the national appellation of the Slaves has been degraded by chance or malice from the significa- tion of glory to that of servitude " (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. lv.). The historian alludes to the derivation of the national name from slava, glory. See Skeat's Etym. Diet., s.v. ; see also SLAVS. SLAVERY 217 etymology, is generally acknowledged. But it is not so well understood that slavery discharged important offices in the later social evolution — first, by enabling military action to prevail with the degree of intensity and continuity requisite for the system of incorporation by conquest which was its final destination; and, secondly, by forcing the captives, who with their descendants came to form the majority of the population in the conquering community, to an industrial life, in spite of the antipathy to regular and sustained labour which is deeply rooted in human nature. As regards the latter consideration, it is enough to say that nowhere has productive industry developed itself in the form of voluntary effort; in every country of which we have any knowledge it was imposed by the strong upon the weak, and was wrought into the habits of the people only by the stern discipline of constraint. From the former point of view the free- man, then essentially a warrior, and the slave were mutual auxiliaries, simultaneously exercising different and comple- mentary functions — each necessary to the community. In modern slavery, on the other hand, where the occupations of both parties were industrial, the existence of a servile class only guaranteed for some of them the possibility of self-indulgent ease, whilst it imposed on others the necessity of indigent idleness. It was in the Roman state that military action — in Greece often purposeless and, except in the resistance to Persia, on the whole fruitless — worked out the social mission which formed its true justification. Hence at Rome slavery also most properly found its place, so long as that mission was in progress of accomplish- ment. As soon as the march of conquest had reached its natural limit, slavery began to be modified; and when the empire was divided into the several states which had grown up under it, and the system of defence characteristic of the middle ages was substituted for the aggressive system of antiquity, slavery gradually disappeared, and was replaced by serfdom. We have so far dealt with the political results of ancient slavery, and have found it to have been in certain respects not only useful but indispensable. When we consider its moral effects, whilst endeavouring to avoid exaggeration, we must yet pro- nounce its influence to have been profoundly detrimental. In its action on the slave it marred in a great measure the happy effects of habitual industry by preventing the development of the sense of human dignity which lies at the foundation of morals. On the morality of the masters — whether personal, domestic, or social — the effects of the institution were disastrous. The habit of absolute rule, always dangerous, was peculiarly corrupting when it penetrated every department of daily life, and when no external interference checked individual caprice in its action on the feelings and fortunes of inferiors. It tended to destroy the power of self-command, and exposed the master to the baneful influences of flattery. As regards domestic morality, the system offered constant facilities for libertinism, and tended to subvert domestic peace by compromising the dignity and ruining the happiness of the wife. The sons of the family were familiarized with vice, and the general tone of the younger generation was lowered by their intimate association with a despised and de- graded class. These deplorable results were, of course, not uni- versally produced; there were admirable exceptions both among masters and among slaves — instances of benevolent protection on the one side and of unselfish devotion on the other; but the evil effects without doubt greatly preponderated. Greece. — We find slavery fully established in the Homeric period. The prisoners taken in war are retained as slaves, or sold (//. xxiv. 752) or held at ransom (II. vi. 427) by the captor. Some- times the men of a conquered town or district are slain and the women carried off (Od. ix. 40). Not unfrequently free persons were kidnapped by pirates and sold in other regions, like Eumaeus in the Odyssey. The slave might thus be by birth of equal rank with his master, who knew that the same fate might befal1 himself or some of the members of his family. The institution does not present itself in a very harsh form in Homer, especially if we consider (as Grote suggests) that " all classes were much on a level ir taste, sentiment and instruction." The male slaves were employee in the tillage of the land and the tending of cattle, and the females in domestic work and household manufactures. The principal slaves often enjoyed the confidence of their masters and had important duties entrusted to them; and, after lengthened and meritorious service, were put in possession of a house and property of their own [Od. xiv. 64). Crete's idea that the women slaves were in a more jitiable condition than the males does not seem justified, except perhaps in the case cf the aletrides, who turned the household mills jvhich ground the flour consumed in the family, and who were some- times overworked by unfeeling masters (Od. xx. 110-119). Homer marks in a celebrated couplet his sense of the moral deterioration commonly wrought by the condition of slavery (Od. xvii. 322). It is, however, in historic Greece, where we have ample docu- mentary information, that it is most important to study the system. The sources of slavery in Greece were: (i) Birth, the condition neing hereditary. This was not an abundant source, women slaves jeing less numerous than men, and wise masters making ms.) had issued the preliminary emancipation proclamation, followed on the ist of January 1863 by the emancipation of all slaves in the states in arms against the Union; and in December 1865 a constitutional amendment was ratified abolishing and forever prohibiting slavery through- out the United States. The Spanish slave code, promulgated in 1789, is admitted on all hands to have been very humane in its character; and, in con- sequence of this, after Trinidad had become an English Cuba. possession, the anti-slavery party resisted — and success- fully— the attempt of the planters (1811) to have the Spanish law in that island replaced by the British. But notwithstanding this 226 SLAVERY mildness of the code, its provisions were habitually and glaringly violated in the colonies of Spain, and in Cuba particularly the con- ditions of slavery were very bad. The slave population of the island was estimated in 1792 at 84,000; in 1817 at 179,000; in 1827 at 286,000; and in 1843 at 436,000. An act was passed by the Spanish legislature in 1870, providing that every slave who had then passed, or should thereafter pass, the age of sixty should be at once free, and that all yet unborn children of slaves should also be free. The latter, however, were to be maintained at the expense of the proprietors up to their eighteenth year, and during that time to be kept, as apprentices, to such work as was suitable for their age. This was known as the Moret Law, having been carried through the house of representatives by Senor Moret y Prendergast, then minister for the colonies. By the census of 1867 there was in Cuba a total popula- tion of 1,370,211 persons, of whom 764,750 were whites and 605,461 black or coloured; and of the latter number 225,938 were free and 379.523 were slaves. In 1873 the Cubans roughly estimated the population at 1,500,000 — of whom 500,000, or one-third, were slaves. Mr Crowe, consul-general in the island, in 1885, stated that " the institution was rapidly dying, — that in a year, or at most two, slavery, even in its then mild form, would be extinct." There was a convention between Great Britain and Brazil in 1826 for the abolition of the slave trade, but it was habitually Brazil. violated in spite of the English cruisers. In 1830 the traffic was declared piracy by the emperor of Brazil. England asserted by the Aberdeen Act (1845) the right of seizing suspected craft in Brazilian waters. Yet by the connivance of the local administrative authorities 54,000 Africans continued to be annually imported. In 1850 the trade is said to have been decisively put down. The planters and mine proprietors cried out against this as a national calamity. The closing of the traffic made the labour of the slaves more severe, and led to the employment on the planta- tions of many who before had been engaged in domestic work; but the slavery of Brazil had always been lighter than that of the United States. On 28th September 1871 the Brazilian chambers decreed that slavery should be abolished throughout the empire. Though existing slaves were to remain slaves still, with the exception of those possessed by the government, who were liberated by the act, facilities for emancipation were given; and it was provided that all children born of female slaves after the day on which the law passed should be free. They were, however, bound to serve the owners of their mothers for a term of 21 years. A clause was in- serted to the effect that a certain sum should be annually set aside from fines to aid each province in emancipating slaves by purchase. Seven years before the passing of this act the emperor, whose influence had always been exerted in favour of freedom, had liberated his private slaves, and many Brazilians after 1871 followed his example. Finally, in 1888 the chambers decreed the total abolition of slavery, some 700,000 persons being accordingly freed. In the colonies of more than one European country, after the prohibition of the slave trade, attempts were made to replace it Disguised ky a system of importing labourers of the inferior races slave under contracts for a somewhat lengthened term; and ffgjg this was in several instances found to degenerate into a sort of legalized slave traffic. About 1867 we began to hear of a system of this kind which was in operation between the South Sea Islands and New Caledonia and the white settlements in Fiji. It seems to have begun in really voluntary agreements; but for these the unscrupulous greed of the traders soon substituted methods of fraud and violence. The natives were decoyed into the labour ships under false pretences, and then detained by force; or they were seized on shore or in their canoes and carried on board. The nature of the engagements to go and work on the plantations was not fully explained to them, and they were hired for periods exceeding the legal term. The area of this trade was ere long further extended. In 1884 attention was drawn in a special degree to the Queensland traffic in Pacific Islanders by the " Hopeful " trials, and a government commission was appointed to inquire into the methods followed by labour ships in recruiting the natives of New Guinea, the Louisiade Archipelago, and the D'Entrecasteaux group of islands. The result of the investigations, during which nearly five hundred witnesses were examined, was the disclosure of a system which in treachery and atrocity was little inferior to the old African slave trade. These shameful deeds made the islanders regard it as a duty to avenge their wrongs on any white men they could entice upon their shores. The bishop of Melanesia, John Coleridge Patteson, fell a victim to this retaliation on the island of Nukapu 2Oth September 1871. We have seen that the last vestiges of the monstrous anomaly of modern colonial slavery are disappearing from all civilized states and their foreign possessions. It now remains to consider the slavery of primitive origin which has existed within recent times, or continues to exist, outside of the Western world. In Russia, a country which had not the same historical ante- cedents with the Western nations, properly so called, and which is in fact more correctly classed as Eastern, whilst slavery had dis- appeared, serfdom was in force down to our own days. The rural population of that country, at the earliest period accessible to our inquiries, consisted of (l) slaves, (2) free agricultural labourers, and (3) peasants proper, who were small farmers or cottiers and members of a commune. The sources of slavery were there, „ ss, as elsewhere, capture in war, voluntary sale by poor . , , , freemen of themselves, sale of insolvent debtors, and the action of the law in certain criminal cases. In the l8th century we find the distinction between the three classes named above effaced and all of them merged in the class of serfs, who were the property either of the landed proprietors or of the state. They were not even adscripts glebae, though forbidden to migrate; an imperial ukase of 1721 says, " the proprietors sell their peasants and domestic servants, not even in families, but one by one, like cattle." This practice, at first tacitly sanctioned by the government, which received dues on the sales, was at length formally recognized by several imperial ukases. Peter the Great imposed a poll-tax on all the members of the rural population, making the proprietors responsible for the tax charged on their serfs; and the " free wandering people " who were not willing to enter the army were required to settle on the land either as members of a commune or as serfs of some proprietor. The system of serfdom attained its fullest development in the reign of Catherine II. The serfs were bought, sold, and given in presents, sometimes with the land, sometimes without it, sometimes in families and sometimes individually, sale by public auction being alone for- bidden, as " unbecoming in a European state." The proprietors could transport without trial their unruly serfs to Siberia or send them to the mines for life, and those who presented complaints against their masters were punished with the knout and condemned to the mines. The first symptoms of a reaction appear in the reign of Paul (1796-1801). He issued an ukase that the serfs should not be forced to work for their masters more than three days in each week. There were several feeble attempts at further reform, and even abortive projects of emancipation, from the commencement of the igth century. But no decisive measures were taken before the accession of Alexander II. (1855). That emperor, after the Crimean War, created a secret committee composed of the great officers of state, called the chief committee for peasant affairs, to study the subject of serf-emancipation. Of this body the grand-duke Con- stantine was an energetic member. To accelerate the proceedings of the committee advantage was taken of the following incident. In the Lithuanian provinces the relations of the masters and serfs were regulated in the time of Nicholas by what were called in- ventories. The nobles, dissatisfied with these, now sought to have them revised. The government interpreted the application as im- plying a wish for the abolition of serfdom, and issued a rescript authorizing the formation of committees to prepare definite pro- posals for a gradual emancipation. A circular was soon after sent to the governors and marshals of the nobility all over Russia proper, informing them of this desire of the Lithuanian nobles, and setting out the fundamental principles which should be observed " if the nobles of the provinces should express a similar desire." Public opinion strongly favoured the projected reform ; and even the masters who were opposed to it saw that, if the operation became necessary, it would be more safely for their interests intrusted to the nobles than to the bureaucracy. Accordingly during 1858 a committee was created in nearly every province in which serfdom existed. From the schemes prepared by these committees, a general plan had to be elaborated, and the government appointed a special imperial commission for this purpose. The plan was formed, and, in spite of some opposition from the nobles, which was suppressed, it became law, and serfdom was abolished (igth February = 3rd March 1861). (See RUSSIA.) The total number of serfs belonging to proprietors at the time of the emancipation was 21,625,609, of whom 20,158,231 were peasant serfs and 1 ,467,378 domestic serfs. This number does not include the state serfs, who formed about one-half of the rural population. Their position had been better, as a rule, than that of the serfs on private estates; it might indeed, Mr (afterwards Sir) R. D. M. Wallace says, be regarded as " an intermediate position between serfage and freedom." Amongst them were the serfs on the lands formerly belonging to the church, which had been secularized and transformed into state demesnes by Catherine II. There were also serfs on the apanages affected to the use of the imperial family ; these amounted to nearly three and a half millions. Thus by the law of 1861 more than forty millions of serfs were emancipated. The slavery of the Mahommedan East is usually not the slavery of the field but of the household. The slave is a member of the family, and is treated with tenderness and affection. The Mahom- Koran breathes a considerate and kindly spirit towards tnedaa the class, and encourages manumission. The child of a slave slavery. girl by her master is born free, and the mother is usually raised to be a free wife. The traffic in slaves has been repeatedly declared by the Ottoman Porte to be illegal throughout its dominions, and a law for its suppression was published in 1889, but it cannot be said to be extinct, owing to the laxity and too often the complicity of the government officials. In Egypt it has practically died out. In the days of the colonial slave trade its African centre was the region about the mouths of the rivers Calabar and Bonny, whither the captive negroes were brought from great distances Africa, in the interior. As many slaves, Clarkson tells us, came annually from this part of the coast as from all the rest of Africa besides. The principal centres from which the supply was furnished SLAVONIC, OLD 227 to Egypt, Turkey, Arabia, and Persia were three in number, (i) The central Sudan appeared to be one vast hunting-ground. Captives were brought thence to the slave market of Kuka in Bornu, where, after being bought by dealers, they were, to the number of about 10,000 annually, marched across the Sahara to Murzuk in Fezzan, from which place they were distributed to the northern and eastern Mediterranean coasts. Their sufferings on the route were dreadful ; many succumbed and were abandoned. Rohlfs informs us that " any one who did not know the way " by which the caravans passed 41 would only have to follow the bones which lie right and left of the track." Negroes were also brought to Morocco from the Western Sudan and from Timbuktu. The centre of the traffic in Morocco was Sidi Hamed ibn Musa, seven days' journey south of Mogador, where a great yearly fair was held. The slaves were forwarded thence in gangs to different towns, especially to Marrakesh, Fez and Mequinez. About 4000 were thus annually imported, and an ad valorem duty was levied by the sultan, which produced about £4800 of annual revenue. The control now exercised by the French over the greater part of the western Sudan has deprived Morocco of its chief sources of supply. Slavery, however, still flourishes in that empire. (2) The basin of the Upper Nile, extending to the great lakes, was another region infested by the slave trade; the slaves were either smuggled into Egypt or sent by the Red Sea to Turkey. The khedive Ismail in 1869 appointed Sir Samuel Baker to the command of a large force with which he was " to strike a direct blow at the slave trade in its distant nest." The work begun by him was continued by Colonel C. G. Gordon (1874 to 1879), but under the Mahdi and the Khalifa the slave trade was revived. Since the reconquest of the eastern Sudan by an Anglo-Egyptian force in 1898 effective measures have been taken to suppress slave raiding and as far as possible slavery itself. The conquest of the central Sudan states by France — completed in 1910 by the subjugation of Wadai — has practically ended the caravan trade in slaves across the Sahara. (3) There was for long a slave trade from the Portuguese possessions on the East African coast. The stream of supply came mainly from the southern Nyasa districts by three or four routes to Ibo, Mozambique, Angoche and Quilimane. Madagascar and the Comoro Islands obtained most of their slaves from the Mozambique coast. It was believed in 1862 that about 19,000 passed every year from the Nyasa regions to Zanzibar, whence large supplies were drawn for the markets of Arabia and Persia up to 1873. The mission of Sir Bartle Frere to the sultan of Zanzibar in 1873 brought about a treaty for the suppression of the slave trade. It is said that, whereas 10,000 slaves formerly passed the southern end of the Nyasa every year, in 1876 not more than 38 were known to have been conveyed by that route. Lieutenant O'Neill, British consul at Mozambique, writing in 1880, fixed at about 3000 the number then annually ex- ported from the coast between the rivers Rovuma and Zambesi. With the establishment of a British protectorate at Zanzibar, and of British and German protectorates on the mainland of East Africa and in the region of the head-waters of the Nile, the East African slave trade received its death-blow. Slavery itself has been abolished in the Zanzibar, British, German and Portuguese dominions, and had ceased in Madagascar even before its conquest by the French. The complete control of the seaboard by European powers has rendered the smuggling of slaves to Arabia and Persia a difficult and dangerous occupation. A new era was opened up by the discovery of the course of the Congo by H. M. Stanley, the founding of the Congo Free State by Leopold II. of Belgium and the partition of the greater part of Africa between various European powers. Though the history of the Congo Free State affords a painful contrast to the philanthropic professions of its founder, in other parts of the continent the establish- ment of protectorates by Great Britain, France and Germany was followed by strenuous, and largely successful, efforts to put down slave raiding. In parts where European authority remained weak, as in the hinterland of the Portuguese province of Angola and the adjacent regions of Central Africa, native potentates continued to raid their neighbours, and from this region many labourers were (up to 1910) Forcibly taken to work on the cocoa plantation in St Thomas (q.v.). With the accession of Albert I. to the Belgian throne in 1909 a serious endeavour was made to improve the state of affairs in the Congo. At the close of the first decade of the 2Oth century it might be said that over the greater part of Africa slave raiding was a thing of the past. Clarkson first, and Buxton afterwards, whilst they urged all other means for the suppression or discouragement of the slave trade and slavery, saw clearly that the only thoroughly effectual method would be the development of legitimate commerce in Africa itself. When Buxton published in 1840 his book entitled The Slave Trade and its Remedy, this was the remedy he contem- plated. The unfortunate Niger expedition of 1841 was directed to similar ends; and it has been more and more felt by all who were interested in the subject that here lies the radical solution of the great problem. It was for some time thought that from Sierra Leone as a centre industry and civilization might be diffused amongst the nations of the continent; and in 1822 the colony (which in 1847 became the independent republic) of Liberia had been founded by Americans with a similar object; but in neither case have these expectations been adequately fulfilled. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — On the several branches of the subject of slavery and serfdom information may be obtained from the following works : — On Ancient Slavery: H. Wallon, Histoire de I'esclavage dans I'antiquite (3 vols., 1847; 2nd ed., 1879) ; A. Boeckh, Public Economy of Athens, Eng. trans, by G. Cornewall Lewis (1828; 2nd ed., 1842); William Blair, Inquiry into the State of Slavery among the Romans, from the Earliest Period to the Establishment of the Lombards in Italy (1833) ; Dureau de la Malle, iLconomie politique des Remains (2 vols., 1840); M. Troplong, De I' influence du Christianisme sur le droit civil des Remains (2nd ed., 1855); Ebeling, Die Sklaverei von den dltesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart (Paderborn, 1889); W. W. Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery (Cambridge, 1909) ; A. Calderini, La Manomissione dei liberti in Grecia (Milan, 1908). On Medieval Slavery and Serfdom : G. Humbert, article " Colonat " in the Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines of Daremberg and Saglio; J. Yanoski, De I'abolition de I'esclavage ancien au moyen dge et de sa transformation en servitude de la glebe (Wallon and Yanoski had jointly composed a memoir to compete for a prize offered by the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in 1837; Wallon's portion of the memoir became the foundation of his Histoire de I'esclavage dans I'antiquite above mentioned; Yanoski's part, the expansion of which was prevented by his early death, was posthu- mously published in 1860; it is no more than a slight sketch); Benjamin Guerard, Prolegomenes au Polyptyque d'Irminon (1844); Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des institutions politiques de I'ancienne France (2nd ed., 1877), and Recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire (1885) (the latter work contains an admirable discussion of the whole subject of the colonatus, founded throughout on the original texts) ; Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874-1878). On the Colonial Slave Trade and Slavery: Washington Irving, Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), several times reprinted; Arthur Helps, Life of Las Casas (1868); Bryan Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, of the British West Indies (1793; 5th ed. in 5 vols., 1819); Thomas Clarkson, History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade by the British Parliament (2 vols., 1808) ; T. Fowell Buxton, African Slave Trade (2nd ed., 1838), and The Remedy, a Sequel (1840); Memoirs of Sir T. F. Buxton, edited by his son Charles Buxton (3rd ed., 1849). On North American Slavery: G. M. Stroud, Laws relating to Slavery in America (2nd ed., 1856); H. Greeley, The American Conflict (1865); John E. Cairnes, The Slave Power, its Character, Career, and Probable Designs (1862; 2nd ed., 1863); H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (Boston, 1872); Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore, 1889—1902); Du Bois, Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States (New York, 1896) ; Merriam, The Negro^ and the Nation (New York, 1906) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, The Negro in the New World (London, 1910); Ballagh, A History of Slavery in Virginia (Baltimore, 1902); B. B. Munford, Virginia's Attitude toward Slavery (London, 1909), and A. Johnston, History of American Politics (New York, 4th ed., 1898); H. E. von Hoist, The Constitutional and Political History of the United States (Chicago, 1899). On Brazilian: Fletcher and Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians (gth ed., 1879). On Russian Serfdom: D. Mackenzie Wallace, Russia (1877). For the African slave trade, and Egyptian and Turkish slavery, the Ismailia of Sir S. Baker, the writings of Livingstone, and the biographies of Gordon may be consulted, besides the many documents on these subjects published by the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society. There are two volumes by A. Tourmagne, entitled respectively Histoire de I'esclavage ancien et moderne (1880) and Histoire du servage ancien et moderne (1879), which bring together many facts relating to slavery and serfdom; but they are somewhat loose and uncritical; the author, too, repeats himself much, and dwells on many topics scarcely if at all connected with his main themes; see also H. I. Nieboer, Slavery as an Industrial System (The Hague, 1900); W. H. Smith, Political History of Slavery (London, 1903). The largest and most philosophi- cal views on slavery generally will be found in Hume's essay On the Populousness of Antient Nations," and in Comte's Philosophic positive, vol. v., and Politique positive, vol. iii. For its economic effects, when it is regarded as an organization of labour, reference may be had to Smith's Wealth of Nations, book iii. chap. 2, J. S. Mill's Political Economy, book ii. chap. 5, and J. E. Cairnes's Slave Power, chap. 2. (J- K- !•! X.) SLAVONIC, OLD. In the article SLAVS (under Languages) will be found a fairly complete account of Old Slavonic in its first form, as it is taken as representing, save for a few peculiarities noticed in their place, the Proto-Slavonic. The reasons are there given for believing it to be the dialect of Slavs settled somewhere between Thessalonica and Constantinople and represented now by the Bulgarians and Macedonians. After the language had been fixed by the original translations of the New Testament and other Church books it was no more consciously adapted to the dialects of the various peoples, but was used equally among the Croats (whose books were accom- modated to the Roman use and written in Glagolitic), Serbs and 228 SLAVS Russians. These insensibly altered them to make the words easier and allowed their native languages to show through; and the same was the case with the Bulgarians, whose language soon began to lose some of the characteristics of O.S. Hence our earliest MSS. already show departure from the norm which can be established by comparison; about a dozen (8 Glagolitic) MSS. and fragments afford trustworthy material dating from the loth and nth centuries, but even then the S. Slavs were weak in distinguishing i and y, the Russians mixed up c- 55° A.D.): Dacia . . . ad coronae spenem arduis Alpibus emunita, iuxta quorum sinistrum latus, qui in aquilone vergit, ab ortu Vistulae fluminis per immensa spatia Venetharum populosa natio consedit. Quorum nomina licet nunc per varias familias et loca mutentur, principaliter tamen Sclaveni et Antes nominantur. Sclaveni a civilate Novietunense (Noviodunum, IsakCa on the Danube Delta) . . . usque ad Danastrum et in bar earn Viscla tenus commorantur . . . Antes vero, qui sunt corum fortissimi, qua Ponticum mare curiialur a Danastro exten- duntur usque ad Danaprum; cf. xxiii. 119, where these tribes are said to form part of the dominions of Hermanrich. Sclaveni, or something like it, has been the regular name for the Slavs from that day to this. The native form is Slovene; in some cases, e.g. in modern Russian under foreign influence, we have an a instead of the o. The combination si was difficult to the Greeks and Romans and they inserted /, th or most commonly c, which continues to crop up. So too in Arabic Saqaliba, Saqldb. The name has been derived from slow, a word, or slava, glory, either directly or through the -slav which forms the second element in so many Slavonic proper names, but no explanation is satisfactory. The word " slave " and its cognates in most European languages date from the time when the Germans supplied the slave-markets of Europe with Slavonic captives. The name Antes we find applied to the Eastern Slavs by Jordanes; it may be another form of Wend. Anlae is used by Procopius (B.C. iii. 14). He likewise distinguishes them from the Sclaveni, but says that both spoke the same language and both were formerly called Spori, which has been identified with Serb, the racial name now surviving in Lusatia and Servia. Elsewhere he speaks of the measureless tribes of the Antae; this appellation is used by the Byzantines until the middle of the 7th century. The sudden appearance in the 6th-century writers of definite names for the Slavs and their divisions means that by then the race had made itself familiar to the Graeco-Roman world, that it had spread well beyond its original narrow limits, and had some time before come into contact with civilisation. This may have been going on since the ist century A.D., and evidence of it has been seen in the southward movement of the Costoboci into northern Dacia (Ptolemy) and of the Carpi to the Danube (A.D. 200), but their Slavonic character is not established. A few ancient names on the Danube, notably that of the river Tsierna (Cerna, black), have a Slavonic look, but a coincidence is quite possible. The gradual spread of the Slavs was masked by the wholesale migrations of the Goths, who for two centuries lorded it over the Slavs, at first on the Vistula and then in south Russia. We hear more of their movements because they were more immediately threatening for the Empire. In dealing with Ptolemy's location of the Goths and Slavs we must regard the former as superimposed upon the latter and occupying the same territories. This domination of the Goths was of enormous importance in the development of the Slavs. By this we may explain the presence of a large number of Germanic loan words common to all the Slavonic languages, many of them words of cultural significance. " King, penny, house, loaf, earring " all appear in Slavonic; the words must have come from the Goths and prove their strong influence, although the things must have been familiar before. On the other hand " plough " is said to be Slavonic, but that is not certain. When the Huns succeeded the Goths as masters of central Europe, they probably made the Slavs supply them with contingents. Indeed their easy victory may have been due to the dissatisfaction of the Slavs. Priscus (Miiller, F.H.G. iv. p. 69, cf. Jord. Get. xlix. 258) in his account of the camp of Attila mentions words which may be Slavonic, but have also been explained from German. After the fall of 230 SLAVS the Hunnish power the Eastern Goths and Gepidae pressed southwards and westwards to the conquest of the Empire, and the Lombards and Heruli followed in their tracks. When next we get a view of northern Germany we find it full of Slavs, e.g. from Procopius (B.C. ii. 15) we know that they held the Mark of Brandenburg by 512; but this settlement was effected without attracting the attention of any contemporary writer. Modern historians seem to adopt their attitude to the process according to their view of the Slavs; German writers, in their contempt for the Slavs, mostly deny the possibility of their having forced German tribes to leave their homes, and assume that the riches of southern Europe attracted the latter so that they willingly gave up their barren northern plains; most Slavonic authors have taken the same view in accordance with the idealistic picture of the peaceful, kindly, democratic Slavs who contrast so favourably with the savage Germans and their war-lords; but of late they have realised that their ancestors were no more peaceful than any one else, and have wished to put down to warlike pressure from the Slavs all the southward movements of the German tribes, to whom no choice was left but to try to break through the Roman defences. A reasonable view is that the expansion of the Eastern Germans in the last centuries B.C. was made at the expense of the Slavs, who, while no more peaceful than the Germans, were less capable than they of combining for successful war, so that Goths and others were dwelling among them and lording it over them; that the mutual competitions of the Germans drove some of these against the Empire, and when this had become weakened, so that it invited attack, some tribes and parts of tribes moved forward without any pressure from behind; this took away the strength of the German element, and the Slavs, not improbably under German organization, regained the upper hand in their own lands and could even spread westwards at the expense of the German remnant. Almost as uncertain is the exact time when the Southern Slavs began to move towards the Balkans. If already at the time of Trajan's conquests there were Slavs in Dacia, it would account for the story in Ps. Nestor that certain Volchi or Vlachi, i.e. Romance speakers, had conquered the Slavs upon the Danube and driven them to the Vistula, for the place that the name of Trajan has in Slavonic tradition, and for the presence of an agricultural population, the Sarmatae Limigantes subject to the nomad Sarmatae (q.v.), on the Theiss. In any case, we cannot say that the Slavs occupied any large parts of the Balkan Penin- sula before the beginning of the 6th century, when they appear in Byzantine history as a new terror; there seems to have been an invasion in the time of Justin, and another followed in 527 (Procopius, B.C. iii. 40 and Hist. Arc. 18). At the same time as the Slavs, the Huns, the Bulgars, and after 558 the Avars, were also making invasions from the same direction. The first and last disappeared like all nomads, but the Bulgars, making them- selves lords of one section of the Slavs, gave it their own name. By 584 the Slavs had overrun all Greece, and were the worst western neighbours of the Eastern Empire. Hence the directions how to deal with Slavs in the Strategicum of the emperor Maurice (c. 600) and the Tactics of Leo. By the end of the following century they were permanently settled throughout the whole of the Balkan Peninsula. (For their further history see SERVIA, BULGARIA, BOSNIA, DALMATIA, CROATIA-SLAVONIA.) These Southern Slavs, though divided into nationalities, are closely akin to one another. There is no reason to think the Serbo-Croats an intrusive wedge, although Constantine Porphyrogenitus (De adm. Imp. 30-33) speaks of their coming from the north in the time of Heraclius — the middle of the 7th century. Their dialects shade into one another, and there is no trace of any influence of 'the North-Western group. Constantine was probably led astray by the occurrence of the same tribal names in. different parts of the Slavonic world. Meanwhile the Southern Slavs were cut off from the rest of the race by the foundation in the 6th century of the Avar kingdom in Pannonia, and after its destruction in the 7th, by the spread of the Germans south-eastwards, and finally by the incursion of another Asiatic horde, that of the Magyars, who have maintained themselves in the midst of Slavs for a thousand years. Their conquests were made chiefly at the expense of the Slovenes and the Slovaks, and from their languages they have borrowed many words in forms which have now disappeared. Of the history of the Eastern Slavs, who were to become the Russian people, we know little before the coming of the Swedish Rus, who gave them their name and organization; we have but the mention of Antae acting in concert with the other Slavs and the Avars in attacking the Empire on the lower Danube, and scattered accounts of Mussulman travellers, which show that they had reached the Don and Volga and stretched up northward to Lake Ilmen. The more southerly tribes were tributary to the Khazars. An exact definition of the territory occupied by each Slavonic people, and a sketch of its history from the time that it settled in its permanent abode, will be found either under its own name or under that of its country. Culture and Religion. — For all the works treating of Slavonic antiquities we cannot draw a portrait of the race and show many distinguishing features. Savage nations as described by the Greeks and Romans are mostly very much alike, and the testimony of language is not very easy to use. The general impression is one of a people which lived in small communistic groups, and was so impatient of authority that they scarcely combined for their own defence, and in spite of individual bravery only became formidable to others when cemented together by some alien element: hence they all at one time or another fell under an alien yoke; the last survivals of Slavonic licence being the vece of Novgorod, and the Polish diet with its unpractical regard for any minority. The Slavs were acquainted with the beginnings of the domestic arts, and were probably more given to agriculture than the early Germans, though they practised it after a fashion which did not long tie them to any particular district — for all writers agree in telling of their errant nature. They were specially given to the production of honey, from which they brewed mead. They also appear to have been notable swimmers and to have been skilled in the navigation of rivers, and even to have indulged in maritime piracy on the Aegean, the Dalmatian coast and most of all the Baltic, where the island of Riigen was a menace to the Scandinavian and German sea-power. The Oriental sources also speak of some aptitude for commerce. Their talent for music and singing was already noticeable. Of their religion it is strangely difficult to gain any real information. The word Bogu, " god," is reckoned a loan word from the Iranian Baga. The chief deity was the Thunderer Perun (cf. Lith. Perkunas) , with whom is identified Svarog, the god of heaven ; other chief gods were called sons of Svarog, Dazbog the sun, Chors and Veles, the god of cattle. The place of this latter was taken by St Blasius. A hostile deity was Stribog, god of storms. There seem to have been no priests, temples or images among the early Slavs. In Russia Vladimir set up idols and pulled them down upon his conversion to Christianity; only the Polabs had a highly developed cult with a temple and statues and a definite priesthood. But this may have been in imitation of Norse or even Christian institutions. Their chief deity was called Triglav, or the three-headed; he was the same as Sv^tovit, appar- ently a sky god in whose name the monks naturally recognized Saint Vitus. The goddesses are colourless personifications, such as Vesna, spring, and Morana, the goddess of death and winter. The Slavs also believed, and many still believe, in Vily and Rusalki, nymphs of streams and woodlands; also in the Baba- Jaga, a kind of man-eating witch, and in Besy, evil spirits, as well as in vampires and werewolves. They had a full belief in the immortality of the soul, but no very clear ideas as to its fate. It was mostly supposed to go a long journey to a paradise (raj) at the end of the world and had to be equipped for this. Also the soul of the ancestor seems to have developed into the house or hearth god (Domovoj, Kfet) who guarded the family. The usual survivals of pagan festivals at the solstices and equinoxes have continued under the form of church festivals. Christianity among the Slavs. — The means by which was effected the conversion to Christianity of the various Slavonic SLAVS 231 nations has probably had more influence upon their subsequent history than racial distinctions or geographical conditions. Wherever heathen Slavonic tribes met Christendom missionary effort naturally came into being. This seems first to have been the case along the Dalmatian coast, where the cities retained their Romance population and their Christian faith. From the 7th century the Croats were nominally Christian, and subject to the archbishops of Salona at Spalato and their suffragans. From the beginning of the gih century Merseburg, Salzburg and Passau were the centres for spreading the Gospel among the Slavonic tribes on the south-eastern marches of the Prankish empire, in Bohemia, Moravia, Pannonia and Carinthia. Though we need not doubt the true zeal of these missionaries, it was still a fact that as Germans they belonged to a nation which was once more encroaching upon the Slavs, and as Latins (though the Great Schism had not yet taken place) they were not favourable to the use of their converts' native language. Still they were probably the first to reduce the Slavonic tongues to writing, naturally using Latirf letters and lacking the skill to adapt them satisfactorily. Traces of such attempts are rare; the best are the Freisingen fragments of Old Slovene now at Munich. In the eastern half of the Balkan Peninsula the Slavs had already begun to turn to Christianity before their conquest by the Bulgars. These latter were hostile until Boris, under the influence of his sister and of one Methodius (certainly not the famous one), adopted the new faith and put to the sword those that resisted conversion (A.D. 865). Though his Christianity came from Byzantium, Boris seems to have feared the influence of the Greek clergy and applied to the Pope for teachers, submitting to him a whole series of questions. The Pope sent clergy, but would not grant the Bulgarians as much independence as they asked, and Boris seems to have repented of his application to him. He raised the question at the Council of Constantinople (A.D. 870), which decided that Bulgaria was subject to the Eastern Church. Cyril and Methodius. — In the same way Rostislav, prince of Greater Moravia, fearing the influence of Latin missionaries, applied to Byzantium for teachers who should preach in the vulgar tongue (A.D. 861). The emperor chose two brothers, sons of a Thessalonian Greek, Methodius and Constantine (generally known as Cyril by the name he adopted upon becoming a monk). The former was an organizer, the latter a scholar, a philosopher and a linguist. His gifts had been already exercised in a mission to the Crimea; he had brought thence the relics of S. Clement, which he finally laid in their resting-place in Rome. But the main reason for the choice was that the Thessalonians, surrounded as they were by Slavonic tribes, were well known to speak Slavonic perfectly. On their arrival in Moravia the brothers began to teach letters and the Gospel, and also to translate the necessary liturgical books and instruct the young in them. But soon (in 864) Rostislav was attacked by Louis the German and reduced to complete obedience, so that there could be no question of setting up a hierarchy in opposition to the dominant Franks, and the attempts to establish the Slavonic liturgy were strongly opposed. Hearing of the brother's work Pope Nicholas I. sent for them to Rome. On their way they spent some time with Kocel, a Slavonic prince of Pannonia, about Flatten See, and he much favoured the Slavonic books. In Venice the brothers had disputes as to the use of Slavonic service- books; perhaps at this time these found their way to Croatia and Dalmatia. On their arrival in Rome Nicholas was dead, but Adrian II. was favourable to them and their translations, and had the pupils they brought with them ordained. In Rome Constantine fell ill, took monastic vows and the name of Cyril, and died on the i4th of February 869. Methodius was conse- crated archbishop of Pannonia and Moravia, about 870, but Kocel could not help him much, and the German bishops had him tried and thrown into prison; also in that very year Rostislav was dethroned by Svatopluk, who, though he threw off the Prankish yoke, was not steadfast in supporting the Slavonic liturgy. In 873 Pope John VIII. commanded the liberation of Methodius and allowed Slavonic services, and for the next few years the work of Methodius went well. In 879 he was again called to Rome, and in 880 the Pope distinctly pronounced in his favour and restored him to his archbishopric, but made a German, Wiching, his suffragan. Methodius died in 885, and Wiching, having a new pope, Stephen V. (VI.), on his side, became his successor. So the Slavonic service-books and those that used them were driven out by Svatopluk and took refuge in Bulgaria, where the ground had been made ready for them. Boris, having decided to abide by the Greek Church, welcomed Clement, Gorazd and other disciples of Methodius. Clement, who was the most active in literary work, laboured in Ochrida and others in various parts of the kingdom. In spite of the triumph of the Latino-German party, the Slavonic liturgy was not quite stamped out in the west; it seems to have survived in out-of-the-way corners of Great Moravia until that principality was destroyed by the Magyars. Also during the life of Methodius it appears to have penetrated into Bohemia, Poland and Croatia, but all these countries finally accepted the Latin Church, and so were permanently cut off from the Orthodox Servians, Bulgarians and Russians. These details of ecclesiastical history are of great importance for understanding the fate of various Slavonic languages, scripts and even literatures. From what has been said above it appears that Cyril invented a Slavonic alphabet, translated at any rate a Gospel lectionary, perhaps the Psalter and the chief service- books, into a Slavonic dialect, and it seems that Methodius translated the Epistles, some part of the Old Testament, a manual of canon law and further liturgical matter. Clement continued the task and turned many works of the Fathers into Slavonic, and is said to have made clearer the forms of letters. What was the alphabet which Cyril invented, where were the invention and the earliest translations made by him, and who were the speakers of the dialect he used, the language we call Old Church Slavonic (O.S.)? As to the alphabet we have the further testimony of Chrabr, a Bulgarian monk of the next genera- tion, who says that the Slavs at first practised divination by means of marks and cuts upon wood; then after their baptism they were compelled to write the Slavonic tongue with Greek and Latin letters without proper rules; finally, by God's mercy Constantine the Philosopher, called Cyril, made them an alphabet of 38 letters. He gives the date as 855, six or seven years before the request of Rostislav. If we take this to be exact Cyril must have been working at his translations before ever he went to Moravia, and the language was presumably that with which he had been familiar at Thessalonica — that of southern Macedonia, and this is on the whole the most satisfactory view. At any rate the phonetic framework of the language is more near to certain Bulgarian dialects than to any other, but the vocabulary seems to have been modified in Moravia by the inclusion of certain German and Latin words, especially those touching things of the Church. These would appear to have been already familiar to the Moravians through the work of the German missionaries. Some of them were superseded when O.S. became the language of Orthodox Slavs. Kopitar and Miklosich maintained that O.S. was Old Slovene as spoken by the subjects of Kocel, but in their decision much was due to racial patriotism. Something indeed was done to adapt the language of the Trans- lations to the native Moravian; we have the Kiev fragments, prayers after the Roman use in which occur Moravisms, notably c and z where O.S. has it and zd, and fragments at Prague with Eastern ritual but Cech peculiarities. Further, the Freisingen fragments, though their language is in the main Old Slovene and their alphabet Latin, have some connexion with the texts of an O.S. Euchologium from Sinai. Alphabets. — Slavonic languages are written in three alphabets according to religious dependence; Latin adapted to express Slavonic sounds either by diacritical marks or else by conven- tional combinations of letters among those who had Latin services; so-called Cyrillic, which is the Greek Liturgical Uncial of the gth century enriched with special signs for Slavonic letters— this is used by all Orthodox Slavs; and Glagolitic, in the " spec- tacled " form of which certain very early O.S. documents were written, and which in another, the " square," form has survived 232 SLAVS as a liturgical script in Dalmatia, where the Roman Church still allows the Slavonic liturgy in the dioceses of Veglia, Spalato, Zara and Sebenico, and in Montenegro; the Croats now employ Latin letters for civil purposes. The annexed table gives these alphabets— the Glagolitic in both forms with numerical values (columns 1-3); the Cyrillic in its fullest development (4, 5), with the modern version of it made for Russian (6) by Peter the Great's orders; Bulgarian uses more or less all the Russian letters but the reversed e and the last two, while keeping more old Cyrillic letters, but its orthography is in such a confused state that it is difficult to say which letters may be regarded as obsolete; Servian (7) was reformed by Karadzid (Karajich (q.v.)) on the model of Russian, with special letters and ligatures added and with unnecessary signs omitted. The old ways of writing Slavonic with Latin letters were so con- fused and variable that none of them are given. The Cechs first attained to a satisfactory system, using diacritical marks in- vented by Hus; their alphabet has served more or less as a model for all the other Slavonic languages which use Latin letters, and for that used in scientific grammars, not only of Slavonic but of Oriental languages. Column 8 gives the system as applied to Croat, and corresponding^ exactly to Karadzic's reformed Cyrillic. Column 9 gives the Cech alphabet with the exception of the long vowels, which are marked by an accent; in brackets are added further signs used in other Slavonic languages, e.g. Slovene and Sorb, or in strict transliterations of Cyrillic. Polish (10) still offers a compromise between the old arbitrary combinations of letters and the Cech principle of diacritical marks. The last column shows a convenient system of transliterating Cyrillic into Latin letters for the use of English readers without the use of diacritical marks; it is used in most of the non- linguistic articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica which deal with Slavs. With regard to Glagolitic (derived from Glagol, a word) and Cyrillic, it is clear that they are closely connected. The language of the earliest Glagolitic MSS. is earlier than that of the Cyrillic, though the earliest dated Slavonic writing surviv- ing is a Cyrillic inscription of Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria (A.D. 993). On the whole Glagolitic is likely to be the earlier, if only that no one would have made it who knew the simpler Cyrillic. It certainly bears the impress of a definite mind, which thought out very exactly the phonetics of the dialect it was to express, but made its letters too uniformly complicated by a love for little circles. A sufficiently large number of the letters can be traced back to Greek minuscules to make it probable that all of them derive thence, though agreement has not yet been reached as to the particular combinations which were modified to make each letter. Of course the modern Greek phonetic values alone form the basis. The numerical values were set out according to the order of the letters. Some subsequent improvement, especi- ally in the pre-iotized vowels, can be traced in later documents. The presumption is that this is the alphabet invented by Cyril for the Slavs who formerly used Greek and Latin letters without system. When brought or brought back to Bulgaria by Clement and the other pupils of Methodius, Glagolitic took root in the west, but in the east some one, probably at the court of Simeon, where everything Greek was in favour, had the idea of taking the arrangement of the Glagolitic alphabet, but making the signs like those of the Uncial Greek then in use for liturgical books, using actual Greek letters as far as they would serve, and for specifically Slavonic sounds the Glagolitic signs simplified and made to match the rest. Where this was impossible in the case of the complicated signs for the vowels, he seems to have made variations on the letters A and B. With the uncials he took the Greek numerical values, though his alphabet kept the Glagolitic order. Probably the Glagolitic letters for $ and U have exchanged places, and the value 800 belonged to 5, as the order in Cyrillic isu,, N, ui, Ul. Who invented Cyrillic we know not; Clement has been said to have made letters clearer, but only in a secondary source and he seems to have been particularly devoted to the tradition of Methodius, and he was bishop of Ochrida, just where Glagolitic survived longest. GLAGOLITIC Old New Num. I a 3 * A ' v on 3 cft> Ui) 5 3- 3 6 [ft 7 $ 3l 8 Oo PD 9 8 S 2° /Vi HP 30 \ 3 40 €ft> [ft] 50 •2? rti 60 70 3 a P fi "> » P 90 b ioo fl 200 an 300 *tt a) 400 500 Jit ':',: 700 \y 800 V 900 III ill •>* 4 I A & T ? •€ If. >€ •e- fr i » 3 CYRILLIC Old Num. Ruse. 456 A ' Aa B E6 BB B r A €', 3 r 4 AA (Buif-.Ee) 5 g3 Ee S 6 Z3 3s H S 11.11 I.T 10 I i ("Fj Serbian) K 20 KK A Jin M 40 MM N 50 HH 70 Oo 80 Tin ioo Pp 0 n f C 200 CC T 300 TT 500 600 Xx Roo 4> x ID ¥ 9°o YS « Ui 2 H.1H b t K) HM mm 1.1 1.1 bb •bt IQlO A.A ^v (Bulg.* ) v (Bulg.r*) C? 60 ^ 700 •0- q 0e V 'jo Vv 456 LATIN Serb. Croat Cech&c. Polish 9 10 7 8 Aa a a a B6 b b b BB v v w TT S g g An d d d Ee e e .e (je,e)je,ie TKx z z z (dz) dz hard (dz)dz«oft 3 3 Z Z Z hard Z Z soft j I \ \ \ \ I i i i i t)li dj.dd.d' KK k k k Jlx 1 PHONETIC VALUES g d eor ye zh-Frj dz IfortHhard (0 Isoft U in endue k 1 labialized 1 mouille" MM m m m m HH n in nard ft>H> nj.ii n n soft Oo o o o U O Tin p Pp r Cc s TT t Yy u $ f Xx h P P (to' r rz S S hard (s) S soft. t t hard t' soft U U n Span, ft O U for older o. P between r&2 S f f ch ch h h O UJT 5t St U C C C hard fl C (c) C soft » k.a M di it. c cz mm 5 s sz (o) (i) CO je.njee.je e ic jy ju ju iu.ju ja ja ja ia.ja je je je ieje (?) a (j?) j? (j?) j? x ks ps ps t u f kh-Germ.ch horgh Gr. to sht I SZCZ 'shL-h in Abhchurch- ts between e&c.t ini Eng.j creacure Ch in church sh U in but mute .. between i&u / cr.liny.rbythm mute, softens preceding conson. VC in yes veiling into yas yu ya ye in in Fr. fin ya On in Fr sun ion in Fr. action yfj 9 to Gr.9but pron.f Gr.uand so pron. i or v II Mention must be made of Bruckner's theory that Cyril invented Cyrillic first, but degraded it into Glagolitic to hide its Greek origin from the Latin clergy, the whole object of his mission SLAVS 233 being hostility to Rome, whereas in Orthodox countries this caution was soon seen to be unnecessary. The Glagolitic alphabets in the table are copied from Codex Marianus (nth century) and the Reims gospel, an O.S. MS. of the i4th century, on which the kings of France took their coronation oath. As to the special sounds which these various scripts expressed, we may notice in the vocalism a tendency to broaden the short vowels and to narrow the long ones, a process which has left results even where distinctions of quantity no longer exist; further, the many changes which can be followed in historic time and are due to the destruction of the old rule of open syllables by the disappearance of the half vcwels 1 and u, or to their developing into full vowels where indispensable for pronunciation (No. I. inf.). But the ruling principle which has determined the physiognomy of Slavonic speech is the degree in which consonants have been affected by the following vowel. Where this has been broad a, o, u, y, a, u, this has resulted only in an occasional labialization most noticeable in the case of /; where it has been narrow, i, e, I, (once ea or e), f, I, and I, the result has been palatal- ization or " softening " in various degrees, ranging from a slight change in the position of the tongue producing a faint j sound in or just after the consonant — expressed in column 9 by the sign ', and in Cyrillic by the pre-iotizing of the following vowel — to the development out of straightforward mutes and sibilants of the sibilants, palato-sibilants and affricates z, s, £, S, f, dz, c, dz, i, $c, &c. (see No. 9 and V. inf.). Slavonic Languages. — The Slavonic languages belong to the Indo-European (I.E.) family. Within that family they are very closely connected with the Baltic group, Old Prussian, Lithuanian (Lithu.) and Lettish, and we must regard the linguistic ancestors of both groups as having formed one for some time after they had become separated from their neighbours. If the original home of the I.E. family is to be set in Europe, we may take the Balto-Slavs to have represented the north-eastern extension of it. The Balto-Slavs have much in common with the northerly or German group, and with the easterly or Aryan group, their next neighbours on each side. The Aryans likewise split into two divisions, Iranian and Indian, whereof the former, in the Sar- matians, remained in contact with the Slavs until after the Christian era, and gave them some loan words, e.g. Bogfi — Pers. Baga (god); Russian, Sobaka; Median, Qpaka (dog). The south- eastern or Thracian group (Armenian) and beyond it the Illyrian (Albanian) made up the four groups which have sibilants for I.E. non-velar gutturals (see inf. No. 9), and in this stand apart from most European groups, but in other respects the Balto- Slavs were quite European. The Baltic group and the Slavs were separated by the marshes of White Russia, and after their early oneness did not have much communication until the Slavs began to spread. Since then the Baltic languages have borrowed many Slavonic words. After the Aryans had moved eastwards Slavonic was left in contact with Thracian, but we know so little about it that we cannot measure their mutual influence. On the other side the Germans, beginning as the next group to the Balto-Slavs, and having thereby much in common with them (so much so that Schleicher wanted to make a Germano-Slavo-Baltic group), have never ceased to influence them, have given them loan words at every stage and have received a few in return. After the Baltic group had separated from the Slavonic, we must imagine a long period when Slavonic (SI.) was a bundle of dialects, showing some of the peculiarities of the future languages, but on the whole so much alike that we may say that such and such forms were common to them all. This stage may be called Proto-Slavonic. Except for the few cases where Old Church Slavonic (O.S.) has either definitely South Slavonic characteristics or peculiar characteristics of its own, as written down by Cyril it represents with wonderful completeness Proto- Slavonic at the moment of its falling apart, and words cited below may be taken to be O.S. unless otherwise designated. Some of the main characteristics of the Slavonic languages as a whole' in relation to I.E. are indicated below; restrictions and secondary factors are necessarily omitted. As a rule O.S. xxv. 8 a represents the Slavonic languages fairly well, while Latin or Greek equivalents are given as the most familiar examples of I.E. Hypothetical forms are starred. 1. I.E. I becomes (>) i, gosti: hostis (ace. pi.); I.E. f>f, vfdova: vidua; I.E,.j>j,jucha:jus (broth). 2. I.E. e becomes e, slmq: semen; I.E. &> & bera: fero. 3. I.E. a and ti are alike o in SI., orati: arare; 'osmf: octo; I.E. 0 in end syllables, >u; wzu: Sxos; I.E. a and o are alike a, bratru: f rater; d&va: duo. 4. I.E. u becomes y, ty: tu; I.E. ti>u, snucha: nurus, Sanskr. snuSa : I.E. u>v, iieza: veho. 5. I.E. r and / both long and short survived as vowels, *vlk& written vttku, Sanskr. vr.kas, " wolf "; consonantal r and I sur- vived unchanged. 6. I.E. m and n both long and short: the former gave I or -A; suto: centum; the latter g or a, desetl: decem. Consonantal m and n mostly survived before a vowel, after it they coalesced with it to make the nasal vowels a and f; pali: pontis; pqtu: 7. I.E. Aspirates are represented by corresponding sonants, bera: fero; medu ("honey," "mead"): p&Qv; mlgla: 6/itx^1?- 8. I.E. 5 often becomes ch; veinchu: vetus; not always, synu: Lithu. sunus, " son "; otherwise ch generally renders Gothic h in loan words; chlebu: hlaibs, " loaf "; chyzti: hus, " house." 9. I.E. velar gutturals k, g, gh and labio-velars, 1, g. gh become in SI. k, g, g, kljuci: clavis; qglti: angulus; mlgla: ojuxXi?; kulo: quis, govedo: jSoOs, Sanskr. gauS; snegu: nix, nivem, but the Palato-gutturals k, g, gh become SI. s, z, z; desftf: decem; zrfno: granum; zima: hiems; Lithu. S, £, Z; deszimlis, zirnis, zema. 10. (a) Gutturals k, g, ch (for s) before e, e (for e}, i, I, q and j early in the Proto-Sl. period became c, z, S, vlfce, voc. of vttku: XvKe; zeladi: glandis; pluSf, 3rd pi. fr. pluchu: tir\ev c, dz (z), s. Vlice loc. cf. oi/cot; l$zi, imperat. of l$ga, " lie ": Xeyois; dusi, duscchu, nom. loc. pi. of duchu, " spirit "; kunezf: Ger. kuning: " king." (c) I.E. or Proto-Sl. sj, zj became S, z, siti, Lithu. siuti, Lat. suo, " sew "; nozl for *nozjo, " knife." (d) Non-guttural consonants followed by j (tj, dj, nj; pj, bj, tij, mj) gave different results (except nj) in different languages (see below No. V.), but in Proto-Sl. there was already a tendency for the.;' to melt into and so change the consonant. n. Proto-Sl. gradually got rid of all its closed syllables, hence — (a) Final consonants were dropped, Domu: domus. (b) Diphthongs became simple vowels ai, oi > e; levu: laevus; vide: ol8a; ei > i; vidu: «t5os; au, eu, ou> u; ucho: auris. 1 2. Proto-Slavonic had long, short and very short or half vowels (those expressed above by I and u). It had a musical accent, free in its position with different intonations when it fell upon long syllables. (For the fate of these in different modern languages see below, No. VIII.) 13. The phenomena of vowel gradation (Ablaut) as presented by Slavonic are too complicated to be put shortly. In the main they answer to the I.E., e.g. O.S. birati, bera, su- born: 5i-0pos, epco, pos. In their morphology the SI. languages have preserved or developed many interesting forms. Nouns have three genders, three numbers in O.S., Slovene, Serbo-Croat and Sorb (other tongues have more or less numerous traces of the Dual), and, except Bulgarian, seven cases — Nom., Voc. (not in Gt. Russian or Slovene), Ace., Gen., Dat., Instrumental and Locative. The Abl. has coincided with the Genitive. The -o, -a and -i declensions have gained at the expense of the consonantal stems, and phonetic change has caused many cases to coincide especially in the -i decl. The comparative of the Adj. is formed on I.E. models with S < sj corresponding to Latin r < s, mlnti, gen. mlnlSa, cf. minus, minoris. The pro- nominal declension is less well preserved. There is no article, but i (6s) has been added to the adj. to make it definite; also in Bulgarian and in some dialects of Russian tu is postfixed as a real article. The SI. verb has lost most of the I.E. voices, moods and tenses. 234 SLAVS The passive only survives in the pres. and past participles; of the finite moods there are but the ind. and opt. (almost always used as an imperat.) left; its only old tenses are the pres. and the aor., to which it has added an impf. of its own. There is an inf. (in -ti, being an old dat.) and a supine in -tu, an accusative. Of active participles there are a pres. and a past and a second past part, used in making compound tenses. There are a solitary perfect form, ved£: olSa, and a solitary fut. part, byie, gen. byifsta: vaui>, ucrovTos. The verb has two stems; from the pres. stem is formed the ind. pres. and impf., the imperat. and the act. and pass. pres. participles. All other forms are based upon the infinitive stem. Personal Endings: — PRIMARY. Non-Thematic. Sing. Du. Plur. 1. -ml -ve -mu 2. -si -ta -te 3. -tt -te -fit Thematic. Sing. Du. Plur. -(m) -ve -mu -Si -ta -te -If -te -(n)tf SECONDARY. Sing. Du. Plur. -(m) -tie -mii -(s) -ta -te -(/) -te -(«/) ist Sing. In thematic verbs the vowel + m has given a, but there has been a tendency to replace it according to the non- thematic analogy, which has necessitated changes in ist plur. 2nd Sing. -Si has given -Sf everywhere but in O.S. 3rd Sing, -ti has been dropped everywhere but in Russian, where the literary language has tu. The Dual only survives in Serb, Sorb, Slovene and O.S., and in these the forms are confused. ist plur. -mil, has developed a.full vowel where the ist sing, has replaced the -m. The secondary endings have lost their -m, -s, -t and-w/ by phonetic change. Non-thematic presents are, jesml, tlpl, sum; damf (redupl. for *dadmf), 5i5o;/it; jam!, edo; nemf, Sanskr. vedmi, "I wit"; imamf (new form of emo), " I have." The aorist has no augment; it is sigmatic and non-sigmatic. The latter or 2nd aor. (cf . Horn. impf. tfipov, 4>tpt) survived only in consonant stems and that in O.S. and Old Cech, peku = tmaaov. It was common in the 2nd and 3rd sing, (where the -s- forms would not be clear) pece<*peke-s,*peke-t=tincrcrts, tirtaae. The sigmatic aorist very rarely and only in consonant stems in O.S. keeps its -s-, vesii <*vedsu. In stems ending in k, r or a vowel, s > ch; bychu = tyvaa and this ch >s before e. The ordinary later form for consonant stems inserts a vowel, vedochu. The aorist has survived in S. Slavonic and in Sorb, and is found in the older stages of the other tongues. The same languages (except Slovene) have kept the impf. which was present in Proto-Sl. but does not go back to I.E., being formed on the analogy of the aor. With the aor. has coalesced the opt. bimt, " be," used with the 2nd past part, to make a conditional. Stem of pres. part. act. ends in -nt- but the consonant decl. has become an -{o- decl., so we have vezy < I.E. *ueghonts = txlavi 8en- wzq-sta < *vezonlja as against 'IXOVTOS. Pres. part. pass, ends in -mu; it has survived more or less in Russian, elsewhere is obsolescent. Past part. act. I. is formed with I.E. -ues-; nom. sing. masc. -yds («i5cos) gave u, vedu, having led, byvii, having been; but in fern, and oblique cases formed as from -io- stem i remained, hence Russian vedsij, byvsij. Past part. act. II. in -/- cf. Lat. bibulus from bibo, used with an auxiliary to form past and conditional. Past part. pass, in -t- or -n-; terlu = lrilus. Znanu = known. I.E. future having been lost, futurity is expressed by an auxiliary bada (era) chosta (will), &c. with the inf. or by the pres. form of the perfective verb. The passive is expressed either by the use of the passive participles or by the reflexive s$, which can refer to the ist and 2nd persons as well as to the 3rd. Syntactical peculiarities of the Slavonic languages that may be noted are a tendency to use the genitive instead of the accu- sative (which has often coincided in form with the nominative) in the case of living beings, masculine -o- stems, and in the plur. ; the use of the genitive for the accusative or even nominative in negative clauses; the dative absolute and the dative as subject to an infinitive; the instrumental instead of the nominative as a predicate, and in oratio obliqua the preservation of the tense of the original statement instead of our way of throwing it into the past. In the use of the verbs the development of " aspects " makes up for the few tenses. Actions (or states) expressed by a verbal form have a beginning, a continuance and an end. There are, however, some (momentaneous) actions whose beginning and end come together and allow no continuance. All verbs fall into two great divisions, imperfective, which express the continuance of an action, without regard to its beginning or end, and perfective, which express the points of beginning or ending. The continuance of an action may be unbroken or may consist of like acts which are repeated. So imperfective verbs are divided into durative, as nesti, " to be carrying," and iterative, as nosili, " to be wont to carry "; the repeated acts of the iterative can either be each of them momentaneous, e.g. Cech, stfileti, " to shoot," i.e. " be firing single shots," or each have some continuance, e.g. nositi above, or we can even express the occasional repetition of groups of momentaneous actions, e.g. Cech. stfilivati, " to have the habit of going out shooting." Among perfective verbs we have (i) momentaneous, expressing action which has no continuance, kriknati, " to give a cry," ststi, " to take a seat "; (2) finitive, expressing not the continu- ance of the action, though that there has been, but its end or completion, napluniti, "to fill to the brim"; (3) ingresshe, expressing the moment of beginning an action, vuzl' ubiti, " to fall in love with." As perfective verbs do not express continuance, an idea implied in the present, they cannot require a present form, so this is used for perfective futures; e.g. sfda (pres. form from perfective sesti) = " I shall take a seat," as opposed to imperfective bada sideti, " I shall be sitting." If a preposition is compounded with a durative verb as nesti, " to carry " (in general), " to be carrying," it makes it perfective, as iznesti, " to carry out " (one single action brought to a conclusion), so Eng. "sit" is usually imperfective, " sit down " perfective. If an iterative has a preposition it is mostly used as a durative; iznositi can mean "habitually to carry out" but more of ten = " to be carrying out," that is, it supplies the imperfective form to iznesti. The development of this system has enabled some Slavonic languages, e.g. Russian, to do with only two tenses, pres. and past, to each verb morphologically considered, per- fective and imperfective verbs supplementing each other; e.g. if we take a Greek verb, the pres. (ind. and infin.) and imperf. correspond to the present, inf. and past of a Russian imperfective verb; the aor. indie, and inf. are represented by the perfective past and infin., which has also to do duty for the Greek perfect and plup.; the future and the future perfect in Greek do not express the same distinctions as the imperfective future and perfective future (in form a present) in SI., the Greek giving chronological order of action, but not giving the distinction of aspect, though the future perfect is naturally perfective. The prepositions are very much like those in other I.E. lan- guages both in actual forms and in use. The formation of the sentence is not naturally complicated; but SI. has in times past been largely influenced by Greek, Latin and German with their involved periods; latterly there has been a tendency to follow the simpler models of French and English. Such being the Slavonic languages as a whole and regarded in their relationship to I.E., they may now be considered in their relationship to each other, and some of the principal character- istics enumerated upon which their internal classification has been founded. More or less complete accounts of each language will be found under its name. Distinctive Points of Different SI. Languages.1 — I. (it, £)• The fate of the Proto-Sl. half vowels u, 1, still preserved in O.S., e. g. sunu, " sleep," dint, " day," is various; as a rule they disappear, u entirely (though when final still written in R.), f leaves a trace by softening the preceding consonant. But if needed to eke out 1 Bulg. = Bulgarian ; C. = Cech ; Kas. = Kasube ; Lit. R. = Little Russian; P. = Polish; R. = Russian, i.e. Great Russian; Ser. = Servian; Wh. R. = White Russian. SLAVS 235 consonants, in Sorb, Slovak, Lit. R. and mostly in Gt. R., H, f develop into full vowels o, e — R. sonu, gen. sna; d'enf, gen. dn'a. In Polish and Cech both > e, but in P. I softens the preceding cons., in C. it usually does not — P. sen, dzien; C. sen, den; in Slovene and Ser. they are not distinguished, Slovene M, a or e, san, dan or den = Ser. a, san, dan, gen. dana, Ser. keeping the middle vowel which is elsewhere dropped. Bulgarian varies dialectically. II. (y.) y only remains in Gt. Russian, Polish and Sorb though still written in Cech; it has elsewhere become i, but in Polish it becomes i after k and g, in Sorb and R. after k, g, ch — O.S. kysnati, " go sour," gybnati, " perish," chytrii, " cunning "; P. kisnal, ginac, chyler; R. kisnutf, gibnuti, chit'erii. III. (r, I.) The treatment of the liquids varies greatly. (a) r is always a lingual trill, never alveolar. In S. Slav, it is only softened before.;' and jf — O.S. zorja, " dawn." In N.W. and E. Slav, r became r' before f, i, e, f, e and.;. Russian and Slovak have remained at this stage, C., Polish, Kas. have made r into r (rz) in which r and z are run into one. (See Table I.) But C. srdce, trh, vlk, since; P. serce, targ, wilk, sionce; R. s'erdce, torgu, volkti,, solnce. (e) Proto-Sl. ru, ri, lit, U had in S. Slav, and partly in C. the same fate as r, /; in Polish and R. the vowel comes after the liquid. O.S. bruvf, " brow," krtstft, " cross," plW, " flesh," sltea, " tear"; Ser. brv, krst, put, suza; Slovene, brv, krst, poll, solza; C. brv, but plet'; P. brew, krzest, ptec, (s]lza; R. brovt, kr'estu, plott, sl'eza. (/) Proto-Sl. -or-, -ol-, -er-, -el- before a consonant. (i.) Type art, oil (ert, elt are not certain) beginning a word. — The liquid mostly comes first, sometimes the same vowel persists in all languages, e.g. Proto-Sl. *ordlo (Lithu. drklas, aratrum),O.S., Bulg., Ser., Slovene, R. ralo, C. Polab. P., radio. But Proto-Sl. *eldii (Lithu. eldija), O.S. aludiji, ladiji, "boat," Ser., Slovene, ladja, R. lodlja, C. lodi, Polab, liid'a and *onm (Pruss. arms), O.S. ravtnii, " even," Ser. rdvan, Bulg. Slovene, rdven, R. rov'enu, C. rovny,P. rdwny show Russian agreeing with N.W. Slav against S. Slav. The difference probably depends on intonation. (ii.) Type tort, toll, tert, telt with a consonant before as well: TABLE I. I i e • ? S j O.S. . . . Russian zvert, " beast " zvirf veriti, "believe " •oer'itl remeni, " strap " r'em'enf trfsa trfsesi, " Iremo " tr'asu tr'as'oll reka, " river " r'eka zorja, " dawn " zor'a Polish . . . zwierz wierzyt rzemien trzas$ trzfsiesz rzeka zorza P. f for orig. a does not soften — P. r$ka: O.S. raka, " hand." In Sorb such a change only happened after k, p, t, in which case High S. has S (written f), Low S. £, but in Low S., r after k, p, t becomes i even before hard vowels: Proto-Sl. tri, "three," High S. tSi, Low S. tsi; Proto-Sl. kraj, " edge," High S. kraj, Low S. ksaj. (b) I occurs in three varieties, I, I, I', but each language has generally either middle / alone or else i and /'. Lit. R. and Bulg. have all three. / has been arrived at in C. and Slovene by the loss of the distinctions, perhaps under German influence; Ser. has / and /', final i>o; but I occurs in dialects of all lan- guages and was no doubt in O.S., Proto-Sl. and even Balto-Slav. It has a velar and a labial element and in most languages tends to appear as o, u, v or w, though this is only written in Ser. and Lit. R. O.S. dalu, " gave," R. dalii, Lit. R. dav, Wh. R. dav,^daw, P. dal (dialect dau), C. dal, Ser. dao. I' is very soft, like Fr. mile. (c) N.W. Slav, keeps -//- -dl- whereas S. Slav, (except some cases of Slovene padl, pletla, the va rious treatments of this combination are among the chief criteria for classification, esp. the Russian speciality called full vocalism (polnoglasie) torot, tolot, leret, telet (or tolot, telot) which is probably archaic, is one of the chief reasons for putting Russian in a separate division; Polish and Sorb come nearest to it, with trot, tlot, tret, (let, but the N.W. division is not uniform as Kasube and the extinct Polab have the interesting forms tort, tlat, Irit, llat, which are partly archaic, partly a transition to the most novel forms of the southern group to which Cech and Slovak in this particular accede, trat, tlat, tret, tlet, but after I and z Cech has tlat for tlet. Deviations due to intonation have not been set forth. (See Table II.) TABLE II. Proto-Sl. Stem. R. P. Polab, Kas. C. S. SI. e.g. O.S. *gord- " hortus," " town " gorodii grdd gord hrad gradii *molt- " hammer " mololii mfot mlat mlat mlatu *berg- Ger. " berg," " shore" Ver'egu brzcg brig brch brigu *melk- " milk "... moloko mleko mlak — mleko mleko *helm- " helm " . . . Hel'emu or selomu Slemil *gelb- " groove " . zclobii zlob (Kas.) zlob zlab zlebu &c.) and R. drop the / and d— C. padl, " fell,"' radio, " aratrum," pletl, " plaited" ; O.S. and R. palft, ralo, plelu, but R. drops / of masc. sing, past part. II. after other consonants. O.S. neslfi, C. nesl, R. n'esA, " carried." (d) Proto-Sl. r, I or perhaps fir, tr, HI, tl gave S. Slav., C. and Slovak f, I written in O.S. ru, rf, lu, ll indifferently, though soft IV. The Proto-Slavonic nasals a and f could be either long or short. This distribution is fairly kept in languages which have quantity and governs the results in Polish in which the nasal sound is preserved. The examples below show the main repre- sentatives. Traces of nasal pronunciation survive in Bulgarian, Slovene and Kasube. (See Table III.) TABLE III. Proto-Sl. O.S. Bulg. usu. Ser. Slovene. C. Sorb, High, Low. R. P. Kasube. 6n, on; en, en. a; ?• H, or &; e. M; e. 8, o; e, e. u, ou; e, e. «; aJe; e, e. u;ja. e,a;je,ja. a; i, i. *m3nka, " pain " maka mtika muka mdka, monka, muka muka muka mqka maka *monkd, " flour " maka mftnka muka moka, muka mouka muka mukd maka maka *desimtt, " ten " desflt desetf deset deset deset dzesac, zaseS d'es'att dziesiqt dzesic *pentt, " five " pelf pM pet pet pet pjec, pfs p'atl piac>piq£ pic or pSinc and hard may once have been distinguished. Of this group Slovene and Ser. later allowed the I to become ol, ou or u. Sorb, Polish and R. developed various vowels, partly according to the original quality, partly according to other influences, e.g. O.S. srWce,"}\ezrt,"trugu, "market," vttku," woli," slunlce, "sol"; Ser. srdce, trg, vuk, sunce; Slovene srdce, trg, volk, solnce; In Kasube a remains; ( becomes nasalized i or i and this may lose the nasal or restore it as a full n or m; it has also nasalized all the other vowels and has the power of using nasals in loanr words, e.g. testamat, as did O.S. e.g. kolfda, kalendae,sadu = sund. Polab has o, and f — ronka, O.S. raka, " hand," mengsie " carnis," but swante = sv$tu, " holy." 236 SLAVS V. Softening (Palatalization, &c.). — Nothing has so much affected Slavonic speech as the effect of i, i, e, I, $ and j on pre- ceding consonants, and the variations produced are among the chief points of difference between the languages. (a) The gutturals felt this first of all, k, g, ch, become (I.) I, z, S and (II.) c, dz(z), s, and these changes are universal (see 10, tv rv a' * ab°ve) except that after the separation of the Slavs the same process was continued in the S. and E. branches even when a 11 intervened, whereas the N.W. branch remained untouched. Proto-Sl. *kvlt&, " flower," *gvizda, " star " (vfilchvi), magi; O.S. cvltA, dzvesda, (vlusvi) ; R. cvltu, zvezda; but Cech kvet, hvlzda; P. kwiat, gwiazda. (b) The action of j was the most general, influencing the dentals in all languages and in some the labials as well, whereas .. .. the narrow vowels act on the dentals only and that not in all languages. The results of Proto-Sl. tj, dj in O.S. and Bulg. are the most surprising, giving St? ', zd' , by way of $c and zdz (as is shown by their agreeing with the results of Proto-Sl. VII. Common Slav je and ju beginning a word appear in R. as o and «; O.S. jedinu, " one," jucha, " broth "; R. odinti, ucha. VIII. Proto-Sl., as we have seen, had long, short and very short or half vowels and a musical accent with differing intonations. O.S. was probably similar, but we have no sufficient materials for determining its quantities or accents as systematic writing of the latter only came in from the I4th century. The fate of the half vowels we have seen (I.). Traces of former long vowels are very clearly to be seen in Sorb, Polish and Lit. R., and less clearly in Bulg. and Gt. R., all of which have lost distinctions of quantity; Slovene can have long vowels only under the accent. In Kasube, C., Slovak and Serbo- Cr. there are also unaccented long syllables. Russian has kept the place of the original accent best, next to it Bulgarian; conse- quently it seems very capricious, appearing on different syllables in different flexions, but it has become merely expiratory. In Slovene it is still musical, but is, so to speak, steadier. For the Proto-Slav. O.S. Bulg. Mac. Serbo-Croat and Slovene. C. P. R. *svetja, " candle " . . sveU'a svllla svek'a svijet'a svjeta sveca svlce Swieca sveca *medja, " boundary " . mezd'a mtzda meg'a med'a medza meja meze miedza m'eza *pektj, "stove" . . peM peltl pet pel pec piec p'eif *mogtj, " power " . moSti moltl mot mot moc moc moct slj, skj, e.g. prelist'enu, " deceived," ist'a, " I seek," cf. R. IticenH, ilcu). Some Macedonians have the strange result k' and g'. Among the Serbo-Croats we find every grade between t', d', and c','dz',orc, dz, the Slovenes having c', j (our y), the Cechs and Sorbs c, z, the Poles and Polabs c, dz, and the Russians £and£; the fate of ktj and gtj has been the same as that of tj throughout. (c) Before the narrow sounds i, i, e, e and the descendants of ? there has resulted a later softening which has gone farthest in f a Low Sorb, producing S and z, and in High Sorb and Polish, t and dz, not so far in Gt. R. where /' d' remain, Wh. R. is intermediate with now c, dz, now /', d'; in C. even t' d' only come before f, i and £. In S. Slavonic this effect is dialectical. C. ttto, "body," dilali, "make," deset, "ten"; P. cialo, dzieto, dziesiff; High Sorb, dzesac; Low Sorb, zaseS; Wh. R. telo, dzelo, dzesac; Gt. R. t'elo, d'elo, d'es'att. (d) S, z, n, before.;' gave S, z, n' throughout (No. 10, c, d, above). Before the narrow vowels they give S, z, n in Sorb, Polish, Slovak and Russian, but Cech has no S or z or A before e nor always before t; S. Slavonic has n' before j. Other- wise in it such softening is only dialectical, but Bulgarian forms a transition to Russian. (e) In Polish and Sorb we have the labials p' ', b' (J'),v',mr softening before j and the narrow vowels, in Cech only before e, in Slovak nowhere. In S. Slavonic they only soften p. b. f. v. before j and tnen they appears as ;' (^ j/'t vi>t mi>^ invariably in Serb, generally in Slovene, generally too in Russian, but there before the narrow sounds of newer for- mation they can all be softened in the ordinary way (p', b', /', v', m'), in Bulgarian this / has disappeared and we have p', b', v', m'. But O.S. followed the S. Slav, rule; and the / was probably once present in N.W. Slav. It remains everywhere in one or two roots — O.S. pl'ujq. (TTTIKO for spjufo) , R. pl'uju, P. plujf, otherwise O.S. zeml'a, R. z'eml'a, P. ziemia, " humus." On the whole the various languages do not differ much in principle in the treatment of j, but softening before f, i, e, I, f, seems to have its extreme point in P., KaS. and Polab, spreading from them to Sorb, White Russian and Gt. Russian; Cech, Slovak and Lit. Russian have it in a far less degree, and in S. Slavonic it is very little developed. VI. Right across the Slavonic world from W. to E. g has h become h, leaving the N. and the S. untouched. This change is found in Cech, Slovak, High but not Low Sorb, is 'traceable in Polish, and characteristic in White, South Gt. Russian and Lit. Russian, also in the Russian pronunciation of Ch. Slavonic. The h produced is rather the spirant gh than the true aspirate. Low Sorb, R., O.S., &c., gora, P. gdra, "moun- tain." C., Slovak, High Sorb, Wh. and Lit. R. hora. intonations Serbo-Croat is the chief guide, but here the accent intonation is spread over two syllables, in Croatian (ca dialect), the main stress is usually on the old place, in Servian (Uo dialect) it has shifted back one. In N.W. Slavonic, with the exception of Kasube, in which it is free, the accent is fixed, in C., Slovak and Sorb on the first syllable of the word, in Polish on the penultimate. On the whole it may be said that the geographical classification of the Slavs into N.W., S. and E. Slavs is justified linguistically, though too much stress must not be laid upon it as the lines of division are made less definite by the approximation of the languages which come next each other, the special characteristics of each group are generally represented in dialects of the others if not in the written languages; also some peculiarities (e.g. VI., g>h) run right across all boundaries, and secondary softening runs from N. to S., becoming less as it goes away from Poland (V., c). In fact, the triple division might be purely arbitrary but for the fact that the belt of Germans, Magyars and Rumanians has made impossible the survival of transitional dialects con- necting up Cech with Slovene, Slovak with Servian, Russian with Bulgarian. Slovak, as it were, just fails to be a universal link : in the north Russian and Polish have much in common, but Lithuania made some sort of barrier and the difference of religion favoured separate development. In the north Polish is closely connected with Kasube, and this with Polab, making the group of L'ach dialects in which the nasals survived (IV.). The two Sorb dialects link the L'achs on to the Cechs and Slovaks, the whole making the N.W. group with its preference for c, z, s as against I, z, S (which were perhaps unknown to Polab, V. b), its b' as against bl' (V. e), its keeping kv' and gv' (V. a), tl and dl (III. c), its f (III. a, not in Slovak) and the fixed accent (VIII. not in Kas.). The whole group (except Sorb) agrees with R. in having lost the aor. and impf. Yet C. and Slovak agree with S. Slav, in trat, trll (III./, ii.) in survival of r and I (III. d) and of quantity (VIII.). Again, Slovene has occasional //, dl (III. c), and its accent and quantity are not quite southerly, but its many dialects shade across to Croat and Servian, and they must all be classed together for the fate of tj, dj (V. J) and a, f (I V.) . The Sopcy and Macedonians, among their numer- ous dialects, make a bridge between Servian and Bulgarian. The special mark of the latter is tj, dj>!>t, id, which is the main philological argument for making O.S. Bulgarian. In general S. Slav, shows less soft letters than N.W. and E. (V. c and d). It shares with Russian bl < bj (V. e), tl, dl > / (III. c), kv', gv'>cv zv (V. a) and the general loss of a, f (IV.), and is closer to it in the fate of tj, dj (V. b). Bulgarian, especially in some dialects, is, as it were, a transition to Russian, e.g. in accentuation. Russian stands by itself by its torot, tolot (III. /, ii.) and its SLAVYANSK— SLEEMAN 237 treatment of tj and dj (V. b) and the place of its accent (VIII.) in all of which it is rather archaic, while je>o, ju>u (VII.) is its own innovation. In its secondary softenings Lit. R., Gt. R. and Wh. R. make a gradual bridge between S. Slav and Polish (V. c-e). In common with Polish, R. further has the retention of y (II.) and the loss of the aor. and impf. Finally, within historic time certain dialects have influenced others through literary and political intercourse. O.S. has influenced all the Orthodox Slavs and the Croats, so that Russian is full of words with O.S. forms pronounced a la Russe (q>u, $ >ja, $t'>!>c, &c.). Cech has almost overshadowed Slovak and early afforded literary models to Polish. Polish has overshadowed Kasube and much influenced Little and White Russian and Great Russian in a less degree. Russian has in its turn supplied modern Bulgarian with a model. Again, other tongues have contributed something; in common Slavonic there are already German loan words, and others have followed in various periods, especially in Cech and Polish, while the very structure of Slovene and Sorb has been affected. Polish has adopted many Latin words. Bulgarian and Servian received many Turkish words. Russian took over many Eastern words in the Tatar period, and the common vocabulary of Western civilization since the time of Peter the Great, but on the whole, though the Slav easily takes to a fresh language, he has kept his own free from great admixture. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. Ethnography: M. F. Mirkovic and A. S. Budilovic, Etnograficeskaja Karta Slavjanskich Narodnostej (Ethno- graphical Map of SI. Peoples) (St Petersburg, 1875); Le Monnier, Sprachenkarte von Osterreich- Ungarn (Vienna, 1888); Osterreich- Ungarn im Wort und Bild (Vienna and Teschen). 2. Antiquities and Early History: P. J. Safarik, Slovanske Starozitnosti (Slavonic Antiquities: German and Russian Translations) (Prague, 1862- 1863); A. Th. Hilferding, Collected Works (St P., 1868); A. Harkavy, Skazania Musul'manskich Pisatelei o Slavjanach i Russach (Information of Musulman writers about the SI. and Rus.) (St P., 1870); M. Drinov, Zaselenie Balkanskago Poluostrova Slavjanami (Occupation of the Balkan Peninsula by the SI.) (Moscow, 1873); G. Krek, Einleitung in die slavische Literaturgeschichte (Graz, 1886); Th. Braun, Razyskania v oblasti Goto- Slavjanskich Otnosenij (Investi- gations into the province of Gotho-Slavonic Relations) (St P., 1899) ; J. Marquart, Osteuropaische und ostasiatische Streifziige (Leipzig, 1903); L. Niederle, Lidstvo v dobe pfedhistoricke (Prague, 1893), " Man in Prehistoric Time," Russian Trans. (St P., 1898), Slovanske Starozitnosti (Slavonic Antiquities, a splendid review of the whole subject) (Prague, 1902 ). 3. Proto-Slavonic and Comparative Grammars, &c. : A. Schleicher, Vergleichende Grammatik der indo- germanischen Sprachen (Weimar, 1866); J. Schmidt, Die Ver- wandschaftsverhdltnisse der I.-G. Sprachen (Weimar, 1872); O. Schrader, Reallexikon d. I.-G. Altertumskunde (Strassburg, 1907); V. Jagic, " Einige Streitfragen : 3. Eine einheitliche slavische Ur- sprache," in Arch. f. slav. Phil. xxii. (1900); Fr. Miklosich, Ver- gleichende Grammatik der si. Spr. (Vienna, 1875-1883) ; T. Florinskij, Lekcii po Slavjanskomy Jazykoznaniu (Lectures on Slavonic Linguistics. Both Miklosich and Florinskij give short grammars of each language) (Kiev, 1895-1897); V. Vondrak, Vergleichende slavische Grammatik (a true comparative grammar) (Gottingen, 1906-1908) ; F. Miklosich, Etymologisches Worterbuch der slavischen Sprachen (Vienna, 1886); R. Th. Brandt, Nacertanie Slavjanskoj Akcentologii (Outline of SI. Accentuation) (St P., 1880); E. Berneker, Slavische Chrestomathie mil Glossaren (specimens of all SI. tongues) (Strassburg, 1902). The central organ for Slavonic studies is Archiv fur slavische Philologie, conducted by V. Jagic (Berlin, 1876 ). 4. Literary History: A. N. Pypin and Spasowicz, Isloria slavjanskich Literatur (2nd ed., St P., 1879); W. R. Morfill, Slavonic Literature (S.P.C.K., London, 1883). 5. O.S. Grammar, &c.: F. Miklosich, Altslovenische Formenlehre in Paradigmen (Vienna, 1874); A. Leskien, Handbuch der altbulgarischen (alt- kirchenslavischen) Sprache (with Texts) (4th ed., Weimar, 1905), Russian trans, with account of Ostromir Gospel by Scepkin and Sachmatov (Moscow, 1890); V. Vondrak, Altkirchenslavische Grammatik (Berlin, 1900) ; F. Miklosich, Lexicon Palaeoslovenicum- Graeco-Lalinum (Vienna, 1862-1865). 6. 0.5. Texts: Evangelium Zographense (glag.), ed. Jagic (Berlin, 1879); Evangelium Marianum (glag.), ed. Jagic (St P., 1883) ; Evangelium A ssemani (glag.), ed.Crncic (Rome, 1878); Psalterium et Eucholpgium Sinaitica (glag.), ed. Geitler (Agram, 1882-1883); Glagolita Clozianus, ed. Vondrak (Prague, 1893) ; " Fragmenta Kieviana " (glag.), ed. Jagid, Denkschr. k. Akad. d. W., phil.-hist. Kl. xxxviii. (Vienna, 1890); Codex Suprasliensis (cyr.), ed. Miklosich (Vienna, 1851); Evangelium Sawae (cyr.), ed. Scepkin (St P., 1900); Evangelium Ostromiri (cyr.), ed. Sawinkov (St P., 1889). 7. Alphabets: P. J. Safafik, Ober den Ursprung und Ileimat des Glagolismus (Prague, 1858); I. Taylor, The Alphabet, vol. ii. (London, 1883); L. Geitler, Die albanesischen und slavischen Schriften (facsimiles) (Vienna, 1883) ; V. Jagic, Cetyre Paleograficeskia Statji (Four Palaeographical Articles) (St P., 1884); Id. " Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der kirchenslavi- schen Sprache," in Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss., phil.-hist. Kl. xlvii. (Vienna, 1902); id. " Einige Streitfragen 5." (numerical value and nasals in glag.), in Arch. f. si. Phil, xxiii. (1901); A. Leskien, " Zur glagolitischen Schrift, ib. xxvi. (1905) ; A. Bruckner, " Thesen zur Cyrillo-Methodianischen Frage," ib. xxvii. (1906); E. Th. Karskij, Ocerk Slavjanskoj Kirillovskoj Paleografii (Outline of SI. Cyrillic Palaeography) (Warsaw, 1901). (E. H. M.) SLAVYANSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 158 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Kharkov, on the Torets river and close by several salt lakes, from which salt is extracted. Pop. (1897) 15,644. There are soap, candle and tallow-works. Slavyansk carries on a brisk trade in salt, cattle and tallow. The ancient name of Slavyansk was Tor. The town, which is supposed to occupy the site of a former settlement of the Torks (Turks), who inhabited the steppes of the Don, was founded in 1676 by the Russians to protect the salt marshes. Having an open steppe behind it, this fort was often destroyed by the Tatars. Its salt trade became insignificant in the 1 8th century and only revived towards the end of the igth century. SLEAFORD, a market town in the North Kesteven or Sleaford parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, in a fertile and partly fenny district on the river Slea. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5468. It is 112 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern railway, being the junction for several branch lines and for the March-Doncaster joint line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern companies. The church of St Denis is one of the finest in the county, exhibiting transitional Norman work in the base of the western tower, which is crowned by an Early English spire, which, however, is mainly a copy of the original. The nave is of beautiful late Decorated work with an ornate south porch. There is a splendid carved rood screen of oak. The chancel is Perpendicular. There are a few picturesque old houses. The district is very fertile, and the trade of the town is principally agricultural, while malting is also carried on. The discovery of numerous coins of the Constantine period, the earthworks of the castle-area, and its proximity to the ford by which Ermine Street crossed the Witham, point to the prob- ability of Sleaford (Slaforde, Lajford) being on the site of a Roman settlement or camp, and that the Saxons occupied the site before their conversion to Christianity is evident from the large cemetery discovered here. Domesday Book records that the manor had been held from the time of Edward the Confessor by the bishops of Lindsey, whose successors, the bishops of Lincoln, retained it until it was surrendered to the Crown in 1 546. It soon after- wards passed to the family of Carr and from them, by marriage, in 1688 to John Hervey, afterwards earl of Bristol. The quadri- lateral castle, with its square towers and massive keep, was built by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, and became one of the chief episcopal strongholds. King John rested here in 1216 after his disastrous passage of the Wash, and in 1430 Bishop Richard Fleming died here. The castle was in good repair on its surrender in 1 546, but was dismantled before 1600. Sleaford never became a municipal or parliamentary borough, and the government was manorial, the bishops possessing full jurisdiction. The towns- folk were, however, largely organized in the gilds of Corpus Christi, St John and Holy Trinity, accounts for which are extant from the year 1477. The origin of the markets and fairs is un- known, but in answer to a writ of quo warranto of the reign of Edward I., the bishop declared that they had been held from time immemorial. See Victoria County History, Lincolnshire; G. W. Thomas, " On Excavations in an Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Sleaford, Lincolnshire," Archaeologia, vol. i. (London, 1887); Edward Trollope, Sleaford and the Wapentakes of Flax-well and Aswardhurn in the county oj Lincoln (London, 1872). SLEEMAN, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1788-1856), Indian soldier and administrator, was born at Stratton, Cornwall, on the 8th of August 1788. He was the son of Philip Sleeman, yeoman and supervisor of excise. In 1809 he joined the Bengal army, served in the Nepal War(i8i4-i8i6),and in 1820 became assistant to the governor-general's agent in the Saugor and Nerbudda SLEEP territories. He is best known for his suppression of the Thugs or religious murderers in India, becoming superintendent of the operations against them in 1833, and commissioner for the suppression of Thuggi and Dacoity in 1839. During these operations more than 1400 Thugs were hanged or transported for life, one of whom confessed to having committed over 700 murders. Detection was only possible by means of informers, for whose protection from the vengeance of their associates a special gaol was established at Jubbulpore. Sleeman was resident at Gwalior 1843-1849, and at Lucknow 1849-1856. He was opposed to the annexation of Oudh by Lord Dalhousie, but his advice was disregarded. He died at sea on his way home on the loth of February 1856. See Sir H. Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official (1844; 2nd edition, 1893), and A Journey through Oudh (1858). SLEEP (O. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip "), a normal condition of the body, occurring periodic- ally, in which there is a greater or less degree of unconsciousness due to inactivity of the nervous system and more especially of the brain and spinal cord. It may be regarded as the condition of rest of the nervous system during which there is a renewal of the energy that has been expended in the hours of wakefulness; for in the nervous system the general law holds good that periods of physiological rest must alternate with periods of physiological activity, and, as the nervous system is the dominating mechanism in the body, when it reposes all the other systems enjoy the same condition to a greater or less extent. Rest alternates with work in all vital phenomena. After a muscle has contracted frequently at short intervals, a period of relaxation is necessary for the removal of waste products and the restitution of energy; the pulsating heart, apparently working without intermission, is in reality not doing so, as there are short intervals of relaxation between individual beats in which there is no expenditure of energy; the cells in a secreting gland do not always elaborate, but have periods when the protoplasm is comparatively at rest. Nervous action also involves physico-chemical changes of matter and the expenditure of energy. This is true even of the activity of the brain associated with sensation, perception, emotion, volition and other psychical phenomena, and therefore the higher nervous centres require rest, during which they are protected from the stream of impressions flowing in from the sense-organs, and in which waste matters are removed and the cerebral material is recuperated for another time of wakeful activity. (See also HYPNOTISM, and the physiological sections of the articles BRAIN, and MUSCLE AND NERVE.) The coincidence of the time of sleep with the occurrence of the great terrestrial phenomena that cause night is more apparent than real. The oscillations of vital activity are not correlated to the terrestrial revolutions as effect and cause, but the occurrence of sleep, in the majority of cases, on the advent of night is largely the result of habit. Whilst the darkness and stillness of night are favourable to sleep, the state of physiological repose is deter- mined more by the condition of the body itself. Fatigue will normally cause sleep at any time of the twenty-four hours. Thus many of the lower animals habitually sleep during the day and prowl in search of food in the night; some hibernate during the winter season, passing into long periods of sleep during both day and night; and men whose avocations require them to work during the night find that they can maintain health and activity by sleeping the requisite time during the day. The approach of sleep is usually marked by a desire for sleep, or sleepiness, embracing an obscure and complicated group of sensations, resembling such bodily states of feeling as hunger, thirst, the necessity of breathing, &c. All of these bodily states, although on the whole ill-defined, are referred with some precision to special organs. Thus hunger, although due to a general bodily want, is referred to the stomach, thirst to the fauces, and breath- ing to the chest; and in like manner the desire for sleep is referred chiefly to the region of the head and neck. There is a sensation of weight in the upper eyelids, intermittent spasm of the sub-hyoid muscles causing yawning, and drooping of the head. Along with these signs there is obscuration of the intelligence, depression both of general sensibility and of the special senses, and relaxation of the muscular system. The half- closed eyelids tend more and more to close; the inspirations become slower and deeper; the muscles supporting the lower jaw become relaxed, so that the mouth opens; the muscles of the back of the neck that tend to support the head also relax and the chin droops on the breast; and the limbs relax and tend to fall into a line with the body. At the same time the hesitating utterances of the sleepy man indicate vagueness of thought, and external objects gradually cease to make an impression on the senses. These are the chief phenomena of the advent of sleep. After it has supervened there are many gradations in its depth and character. In some cases the sleep may be so light that the individual is partially conscious of external impressions and of the disordered trains of thought and feeling that pass through his mind, constituting dreams, and these may be more or less vivid, according to the degree of consciousness remaining. On thejother hand, the sleep may be so profound as to abolish all psychical phenomena: there are no dreams, and when the sleeper awakes the time passed in this unconscious state is a blank. The first period of sleep is the most profound. After a variable period, usually from five to six hours of deep sleep, the faculties awaken, not simultaneously but often fitfully, so that there are transient periods of consciousness. This is the time of dreaming. As the period of waking approaches the sensibility becomes more acute, so that external impressions are faintly perceived. These impressions may influence and mould the flow of images in the mind of the sleeper, frequently altering the nature of his dreams or making them more vivid. The moment of waking is usually not instantaneous, but is preceded by an intermediate state of partial consciousness, and a strange play of the mental faculties that has more of the character of an " intellectual mirage " than of consecutive thought. The intensity of sleep has been measured by Kohlschutter by the intensity of the sound necessary to awaken the sleeper. This intensity increases rapidly during the first hour, then decreases, sometimes rapidly, sometimes slowly, during the next two or three hours, and then very slowly until the time of waking. This statement agrees generally with experience. As a rule the deeper the sleep the longer it lasts. Various physiological changes have been observed during sleep, but much remains to be done in this direction. The pulse becomes less frequent; the respiratory movements are fewer in number and are almost wholly thoracic, not abdominal; all the secretions are reduced in quantity; the gastric and intestinal peristaltic movements are less rapid; the pupils of the eye are contracted and during profound sleep are not affected by light; and the eyeballs are rotated upwards. The pupils dilate slightly when strong sensory or auditory stimuli are applied, and they dilate the more the lighter the sleep; at the moment of waking they become widely dilated. Whilst muscular relaxation is general, there seems to be increased contraction of certain sphincter muscles, as the circular fibres of the iris and the fibres concerned in closing the eyelids. The state of the circulation of the brain has been frequently investigated. The older view was that there was a degree of plethora or congestion of the vessels of the brain, as is the state of matters in coma, to which the state of sleep has a superficial resemblance. Coma, however, is not sleep, but a condition of inactivity of the cerebral matter owing to the accumulation of dark venous blood in its vessels. This has been actually observed in cases where it was possible to see the brain. During sleep the surface of the exposed brain has been observed to become pale and to shrink somewhat from the sides of the opening (Johann Blumenbach, 1752-1840). A careful experimental research was conducted by Arthur E. Durham in 1860, in which he trephined a portion of bone as large as a shilling from the parietal region of a dog, and, to obviate the effects of atmospheric pressure, inserted a watch glass into the aperture so that the surface of the brain could be seen. His results are summarized thus: — " (i) Pressure of distended veins on the brain is not the cause of sleep, for during sleep the veins are not distended; and, when they SLEEP 239 are, symptoms and appearances arise which differ from those which characterize sleep. (2) During sleep the brain is in a comparatively bloodless condition, and the blood in the encephalic vessels is not only diminished in quantity, but moves with diminished rapidity. (3) The condition of the cerebral circulation during sleep is, from physical causes, that which is most favourable to the nutrition of the brain tissue; and, on the other hand, the condition which prevails during waking is associated with mental activity, because it is that which is most favourable to oxidation of the brain sub- stance, and to various changes in its chemical constitution. _ (4) The blood which is derived from the brain during sleep is distri- buted to the alimentary and excretory organs. (5) Whatever in- creases the activity of the cerebral circulation tends to preserve wakefulness; and whatever decreases the activity of the cerebral circulation, and, at the same time, is not inconsistent with the general health of the body, tends to induce and favour sleep. Such circumstances may act primarily through the nervous or through the vascular system. Among those which act through the nervous system may be instanced the presence or absence of impressions upon the senses, and the presence or absence of exciting ideas. Among those which act through the vascular system may be men- tioned unnaturally or naturally increased or decreased force or frequency of the heart's action." Dr William A. Hammond and Dr Silas Weir Mitchell (b. 1830) repeated and extended Durham's observations, with the same general results (1866), and Ehrmann, Salathe (1877), Francois Franck (1877) and Mosso (1881), by more refined methods of observation arrived at the same general conclusions. Angelo Mosso (b. 1846) in particular applied with great success the graphic method of registration to the study of the movements of the brain and of the circulation during sleep. He made observa- tions on three persons who had lost a portion of the cranial vault and in whom there was a soft pulsating cicatrix. They were a woman of thirty-seven years of age, a man of thirty-seven years and a child of about twelve years. By special arrangements, Mosso took simultaneous tracings of the pulse at the wrist, of the beat of the heart, of the movements of the wall of the chest in respiration, and of the movements of the denuded brain. Further, by means of the plethysmograph — an instrument of Mosso's own invention — he obtained tracings showing changes in the volume of the hand and forearm; and he succeeded in showing that during sleep there is a diminished amount of blood in the brain, and at the same time an increased amount in the extremities. He showed further that there are frequent adjust- ments in the distribution of the blood, even during sleep. Thus a strong stimulus to the skin or to a sense organ — but not strong enough to awaken the sleeper — caused a contraction of the vessels of the forearm, an increase of blood pressure, and a determination of blood towards the brain; and, on the other hand, on suddenly awakening the sleeper, there was a contraction of the vessels of the brain, a general rise of pressure, and an accelerated flow of blood through the hemispheres of the brain. So sensitive is the whole organism in this respect, even during sleep, that a loudly spoken word, a sound, a touch, the action of light or any moderate sensory impression modified the rhythm of respiration, determined a contraction of the vessels of the forearm, increased the general pressure of the blood, caused an increased flow to the brain, and quickened the frequency of the beats of the heart. These observations show how a physiological explanation can be suggested of the influence of external impressions in modifying the dreams of a sleeper. Further, Mosso found that during very profound sleep these oscillations disappear: the pulsatory movements are uniform and are not affected by sensory impres- sions, and probably this condition exists when there is the absolute unconsciousness of a " dead " sleep. By such methods as have been employed by Mosso, three movements of the brain have been observed — (i) pulsations, corresponding to the beats of the heart; (2) oscillations, or longer waves, sometimes coincid- ing with the heart beats, or more generally consisting of longer festoons, carrying each a number of smaller waves, and believed to correspond generally to the respiratory movements; and (3) undulations, still longer and less marked elevations and depressions, first clearly observed by Mosso, and believed by him to indicate rhythmic contractions of the vessels of the pia mater and of the brain. This view is in keeping with the observa- tions of Franz Cornelius Bonders (b. 1818), Adolf Kussraaul (b. 1822), Tenner and others on changes of calibre observed in the cerebral vessels, and with the experiments of many physio- logists, showing that the vessels of the pia mater, like other vessels, are controlled by the vaso-motor system of nerves. It may therefore be considered certain that during sleep there is an anaemia, or partially bloodless condition, of the brain, and that the blood is drawn off to other organs, whilst at the same time this anaemic condition may be modified by changes in the circulation or in the respiratory mechanism caused by position, by sensory impressions or by sudden changes in the state of repose of the muscles. The examination of the retina (which may be regarded as a cerebral outwork) by the ophthalmoscope during sleep also shows a comparatively bloodless condition. Such are the facts; the deficiency in the way of a theoretical explanation is that physiologists cannot satisfactorily account for the anaemic cdndition causing unconsciousness. Sudden haemorrhage from the brain and nerve-centres, or a sudden cessation of the supply of blood to the brain, as occurs in syncope (failure of the heart's action— a faint), no doubt causes uncon- sciousness, but in these circumstances there is a tendency to convulsive spasm. Such spasm is usually absent in sleep, but sudden jerks of the limbs may sometimes be observed during the time when there is the confusion of ideas preceding the passage into sleep. During sleep the amount of carbonic acid eliminated is very much reduced, indicating that molecular changes in the tissues do not occur to the same extent as in the waking state. This is also shown by the fact that less heat is produced. Hermann von Helmholtz (b. 1821) states that the amount of heat produced by a man weighing 67 kilogrammes (147-410) is about 40 calories per hour during sleep, as against 112 calories per hour while awake. This diminished production of heat may be largely accounted for by the quiet condition of the muscles of locomotion, but it also indicates diminished tissue changes throughout the body. In profound sleep the bodily temperature may fall from -6° to -2° Fahr. In consequence of diminished oxidation changes during sleep, it is not improbable that excess of nutrient matter may then be stored up in the form of fat, and that thus the proverb " He who sleeps dines " is based on a correct appreciation of the fact that sleep tends to produce plethora or obesity. Whilst it is easy to state that sleep is caused by fatigue of the nervous system, it is more difficult to explain what the precise changes are that produce the state of unconsciousness. Various hypotheses have been advanced, but it cannot be said that any one is wholly satisfactory. Aware that the fatigue of muscle is associated with the accumulation of sarcolactic acid, Thierry William Preyer (b. 1841) surmised that the activity of nervous matter might be interfered with by the accumulation in the nerve- centres of some such acid, or of its soda salt (lactate of soda), but this view has not been supported by the results of experiment, as the injection into the blood of a dose of lactate of soda has not produced sleep. Pfliiger has observed that frogs deprived for a considerable time of oxygen passed gradually into a state resembling profound sleep, and he has advanced the theory that there is no organ of the body so quickly affected by deprivation of oxygen as the brain. According to Eduard F. W. Pfliiger (b. 1829), the phenomena of life depend on a dissociation of living matter, and in particular the activity of the cerebral substance connected with psychical states depends on dissociation changes in the grey matter. To excite the dissociation, however, oxygen is necessary. The oxygen unites with certain of the compounds set free by the dissociation, forming, amongst other substances, carbonic acid. If such matters as these that unite with oxygen are in sufficient amount to use up all the oxygen, the grey matter of the brain suffers from a deficiency of oxygen (or from its absence), and also from the accumulation of carbonic acid. According to such a theory, cerebral activity depends on cerebral respiration, and sleep is a kind of cerebral asphyxia. Some such condition is not improbable, but it must be stated that the evidence at present in support of it is meagre. Possibly, in attempting to account for the phenomenon of sleep, too much importance has been attributed to the changes occurring in the 240 SLEEPER— SLEET brain, forgetting that not merely brain matter but every tissue of the body becomes exhausted by work, and that sleep may be partly due to phenomena occurring throughout the body and not in the brain alone. All the phenomena of sleep point to a diminished excitability of the cerebral nerve-centres and of the spinal cord. Contrary to what is often stated, there can be no doubt that reflex action is in partial abeyance and that the spinal cord is in a state of partial inactivity as well as the brain. The only nerve-centres that do not sleep are those absolutely essential to life, such as those connected with the heart, with respiratory movements, and with the distribution of blood by the vaso-motor arrange- ments; and Mosso's experiments indicate that even these have a certain amount of repose in profound sleep. There is little doubt that all living beings require periods of repose alternating with periods of activity. Many plants close their flowers and bend their petioles at certain times of the day. These phenomena, called " the sleep of plants," depend apparently on changes in solar radiation, and there is no reason to believe that during the time of quiescence any reparative processes go on, as during the sleeping period of animals. Naturalists have observed many of the lower animals apparently in a state of sleep. Insects, crustaceans, fishes, reptiles, may all be observed occasionally to be almost motionless for considerable periods of time. The sleeping of birds is familiar to all, and in these there are anatomical arrangements by which the bird may, like the crane, sleep perched on one leg, or grasping a branch with both feet, like perching birds generally, without any muscular effort and consequently without fatigue. The amount of sleep required by man varies according to age, sex and habit. The popular notion that a child sleeps --half its time, an adult one-third, whilst an old person may do little except eat and sleep is not far wrong. In early life the cerebral faculties appear to be easily exhausted and during the frequent and prolonged sleeps of infancy the brain rests and the vegetative changes connected with nutrition and growth go on actively. As life advances, less sleep is required, until in adult life a period of seven or eight hours is sufficient. As a rule, women require more sleep than men; but much depends on habit. Thus most women bear the loss of sleep in the first instance better than men, because they have been accus- tomed more to loss or irregularity of sleep. The effect of habit is well seen in nurses, both male and female, who will often be able to work for weeks continuously with snatches of sleep, not amounting to more than two or three hours daily. Sooner or later, however, even in these cases nature asserts her demands, and prolonged sleep is necessary to maintain health and vigour. Wakefulness during the time when one ought to be asleep is frequently a distressing con- dition, undermining the strength and incapacitating for active and efficient work (see INSOMNIA). It is a matter of common observation not only that certain persons require more sleep than others but that they have less power of resisting its onset and of awaking. This condition may become morbid, constituting a veritable nervous disease, to which the name " maladie du sommeil " or hypnosia may be given. It may be described as invincible sleep, and it may continue for weeks and for months, terminating in convulsive seizures, and even death. A persistent drooping of the upper eyelid has been observed even during waking hours. Dr W. Ogle has observed in such cases an engorgement of the cervical ganglia of the sympathetic; but this may nave nothing to do with the condition. Cases of very pro- longed sleep are not uncommon, especially amongst hysterical persons, lasting four, seven or ten days. On awaking the patient is exhausted and pale, with cold extremities, and not infrequently, after a brief interval of waking, passes off into another lethargic sleep. Something similar to this may be seen in very aged persons towards the close of life. (See also DREAMS, SOMNAMBULISM and HYPNOTISM.) Among older works, see article " Sommeil " in the Dictionnaire encyclopedique des sciences medicates, where a bibliography is given and where also there is an account of the medico-legal questions connected with sleep and somnambulism; Macnish, Physiology of Sleep; Durham, " On the Physiology of Sleep," in Guy's Hospital Reports (1860); Kohlschiitter, "Die Mechanik des Schlafes," in Z. f. ration. Med., vol. xxxiii. (1869) ; Pfliiger, " Theorie des Schlafes," in Pfliiger's Archiv, vol. x. (1875); Mpsso, Uber den Kreislauf des Blutes im menschlichen Gehirn (Leipzig, 1881). Also Manace'i'ne, Sleep, its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene and Psychology (Eng. trans. 1897), with bibliography. (J. G. M.) SLEEPER, a term used with many technical applications for a piece of timber, metal, &c., used as a support; in carpentry it is such a piece of timber laid on low cross walls as a plate to receive ground joists; in shipbuilding, a strengthening timber for the bows and stern frame; the most frequent use of the term is for a timber or steel support on which the chairs are fixed for carrying the rails on a railway; in America these are called " ties " (see RAILWAYS). The common explanation of the origin of the word is to connect it with " sleep," the timbers supposed to be lying at rest. The real source of the word is the Norwegian ship, a piece of timber used for dragging things over, a roller, especially used of timbers laid in a row in making a road. This word Skeat (Etymol. Diet., 1898) connects with " slab," a flat piece of stone or wood. The French term dormant is used in carpentry, but as part of the frame of a window or door. SLEEPING-SICKNESS ( Trypanosomiasis) , a remarkable para- sitic disease, familiar among West African natives since the beginning of the igth century, and characterized by protracted lethargy, fever and wasting. It is attributed to the trypanosoma gambiense, a parasite which was discovered in the frog by Gruby in 1847, and in 1880 by Griffith Evans in horses afflicted with the disease called " surra " in India. In 1895 Surgeon-Major (afterwards Sir) D. Bruce found a trypanosoma similar to Evans's in cases of what was known in cattle as " tsetse-fly disease "; and though the trypanosoma had not then actually been found in man, Bruce suggested that this was akin to the human " sleeping-sickness " which had now extended into the Congo Free State, Uganda and elsewhere, and was causing great mortality, many Europeans having died of the disease. In 1903 Castelani found the trypanosoma in the cerebro-spinal fluid of human patients afflicted with the disease. The question of the pathology of " sleeping-sickness " wag vigorously taken up, and in June 1907 an international conference was held in London for the purpose of organizing research on the subject. As was pointed out by Lord Fitzmaurice (i8th of June), in his opening address, it was already accepted that trypanosoma gambiense was the cause of the disease, and it was even then " all but proved " that the parasite was conveyed by at least one species of tsetse fly (glossina palpalis), the distribution of which was limited to the neighbourhood of open water. It had further been ascertained, experimentally in animals, and therapeutically in man, that the infection once acquired could be controlled, to some extent, by various substances — arsenic, certain colours,, dyes, in combinations of arsenic and colour dyes, e.g. atoxyl — and by mercury. It remained a question how far certain un- ascertained factors were at work in the spread of the disease, and for this purpose the British government invited the co-operation of all the powers interested in tropical Africa in considering certain problems, annual or biennial conferences being suggested, and the formation of a central bureau, in order to organize the research. These problems were: (i) to determine whether the tsetse fly (glossina palpalis) was a direct or indirect conveyor of the parasite; (2) whether the parasite underwent necessary developmental changes in the tsetse fly; .(3) if so, whether the' developed germs were conveyed by the original fly or its larva when arrived at the imago stage; (4) how long an infected glossina palpalis remained infected; (5) whether other species of glossina were concerned; (6) the geographical -distribution and habits of the fly; (7) whether and how far the spread of infection was the work of any of the vertebrate fauna (other than man) ; (8) to suggest preventive methods for exterminating the glossina, or protecting uninfected districts by segregation or otherwise; (9) to study the therapeutics of the disease. In the history of modern pathology, this organization of research in respect of " sleeping-sickness " must hold an important place as the application of state effort on behalf of the advancement of science. (See NEUROPATHOLOGY and PARASITIC DISEASES.) AUTHORITIES. — Sir P. Manson, Lane Lectures on Tropical Diseases (1905) ;W. F. M. Marshall, " Trypanosomiasis or Sleeping-Sickness," in Review of Neurology and Psychiatry (February 1906) ; F. W. Mott, A rchives of Neurology, vol. iii. (1907) ; Reports of the Sleeping-Sickness Commission; Castelfani, " Researches on the Aetiology of Sleeping- Sickness," Journal of Tropical Medicine (June 1903). SLEET (either from Nor. sletla, of the same meaning, or related to Ger. Schlosse, hailstone), that form of precipitation of water vapour condensed from the atmosphere, which reaches the ground in a partly frozen condition. Sleet may originate in the upper atmosphere either as rain, in which case, to become partly frozen, it must have fallen into a stratum of air colder than that in which it originated, or as snow, when the opposite must have SLEEVE— SLIGO 241 taken place, i.e. the snow in its descent must have encountered an air-temperature slightly above the freezing-point. SLEEVE (O. Eng. slieve, slyf, a. word allied to " slip," cf. Dutch sloof, apron), that part of a garment which covers the arm, or through which the arm passes or slips. The pattern of the sleeve is one of the characteristics of fashion in dress, varying in every country and period. Various survivals of the early forms of sleeve are still found in the different types of academic or other robes (q.v.). Where the long hanging sleeve is worn it has, as still in China and Japan, been used as a pocket, whence has come the phrase " to have up one's sleeve," to have something con- cealed ready to produce. There are many other proverbial and metaphorical expressions associated with the sleeve, such as " to wear one's heart upon one's sleeve," " to laugh in one's sleeve," &c. In technical usage a " sleeve " is a tube into which another tube is inserted, which in the case of small tubes is called a thimble. SLEIDANUS, JOHANNES (1506-1556), German historian, the annalist of the Reformation, was born at Schleiden near Aix-la- Chapelle. He studied ancient languages and literatures at Liege and Cologne, and law and jurisprudence at Paris and Orleans. Whilst among the humanists of Liege, he had adopted Protestant opinions, and entering the service of Cardinal du Bellay, was employed in the futile negotiations of the French court to make an alliance with the German Protestants against the emperor Charles V. In 1542 he settled at Strassburg. Sleidanus had been accustomed to copy all papers bearing upon the Reformation to which he had access, and Martin Bucer, who had seen his collection, proposed to Philip of Hesse to appoint him historian of the Reformation, giving him a salary and access to all necessary documents. After some delay the heads of the league of Schmalkalden agreed to the proposal, and Sleidanus began his great work, finishing the first volume in 1545. In that year he was recalled to diplomacy, and went to England in a French embassy to Henry VIII. While there he collected materials for his history. On his return he represented Strassburg at the diets of Frankfort and Worms, and went on to Marburg to explore the archives of Philip of Hesse. The war of the league of Schmalkalden interfered with this work, and also prevented the payment of Sleidanus, who in his difficulties applied to England for aid, and at Cranmer's intercession received a yearly pension from Edward VI., which, however, was not long continued. In 1551 Sleidanus went to the council of Trent as representative from Strassburg, charged also with full powers to act for the imperial cities of Esslingen, Ravensburg, Reutlingen, Biberach and Lindau. He was afterwards appointed professor of law in Strassburg, and finished his great task in 1554, though lack of money and other misfortunes compelled him to delay printing. Sleidanus died in poverty at Strassburg in October 1556. The book appeared in the preceding year — Commentariorum de statu religionis el reipublicae, Carolo V. Caesare, libri XXVI.; it was translated into English by John Daws in 1560 and by G. Bohum in 1689. It was so impartial that it pleased no one, not even Melanchthon. It remains the most valuable contemporary history of the times of the Reformation, and contains the largest collection of important documents. See H. Baumgarten, ffber Sleidanus Leben und Briefwechscl (1878), and Sleidans Briefwechsel (1881); and A. Hasenclever, Sleid.an-Stud.ien (Bonn, 1905). SLEIGH, SLED or SLEDGE (Dan. slaede, Dutch slede, akin to "slide"), a vehicle on runners instead of wheels, for travelling over snow or ice. Various forms are used according as the object is utility or sport. The sleighs used in COASTING are referred to in the article under that heading; but for ordinary means of conveyance horse-drawn sleighs are employed as carriages in countries such as Russia, Scandinavia, and North America, where the roads are snow-bound in the cold season; and in the Arctic regions dogs are harnessed to them. SLIDELL, JOHN (1793-1871), American political leader and diplomatist, was born in New York City in 1793. He graduated from Columbia College in 1810, engaged in business for a short time, then studied law, and became one of the leaders of the bar at New Orleans, Louisiana, where he settled permanently in 1825. He was a member of the national House of Repre- sentatives as a state's rights Democrat from 1843 to 1845, when he resigned and was sent by President Polk on a secret mission to Mexico, with power to adjust the difficulties growing out of the annexation of Texas to the United States, and to acquire by purchase both New Mexico (including the present Arizona,) and Upper California. He was not, however, received by the Mexican government. From 1853 to 1861 he was a representative of Louisiana in the United States Senate, and was an influential working member of important committees, though he seldom took part in debate. During this period he was intimately associated with James Buchanan, and is supposed to have had an important part in bringing about Buchanan's nomination for the presidency in 1856. When Louisiana seceded in 1861, Slidell withdrew from the Senate, and late in 1861 was sent by the Confederate Government as commissioner to France. With James M. Mason (q.v.), the Confederate commissioner to England, he was taken from the British steamer " Trent " by Captain Charles Wilkes of the United States navy, and was imprisoned at Fort Warren in Boston harbour. In January 1862, at the demand of England, the Confederate commissioners were released, and Slidell proceeded to France. His mission there was to secure the recognition of the Confederate States; in this he was unsuccessful, but he was able to keep France sympathetic, and to help to secure supplies for the Confederate army and navy. After the war he remained abroad, settling in England, and his daughter married a French nobleman. He died in London on the 2gth of July 1871. SLIGO, a county of Ireland in the province of Connaught, bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by Leitrim, S.E. by Roscommon, and S. and W. by Mayo. The area is 452,356 acres or about 707 sq. m. The coast-line is very irregular, and in some places rises into grand escarpments and terraces. The principal inlets are Killala Bay and Sligo Bay, the latter subdivided into Brown Bay, Drumcliffe Bay and Ballysadare Bay. Near the coast are the islands of Inishmurray and Coney and other smaller islets. Though Sligo cannot be compared for scenery with the western parts and north coast of County Mayo, it is well wooded and possesses several beautiful lakes and rivers and some ranges of hills finely situated and grouped. In the north are the lime- stone elevations of Ben Bulbin (1712 ft.) and Knocknarea (1078), contrasting with the adjacent rugged gneiss mountains, among which are King's Mountain (1527) and Gullogherboy (1430). On the boundary with Leitrim, Truskmore reaches a height of 2113 ft. In the west are the ranges of the Slieve Gamph and Ox Mountains, upwards of 1300 and 1600 ft. respectively. The Curlew Mountains, an abrupt ridge of limestone gravel, upwards of 800 ft. in height, with flattened summit, separate Sligo from Roscommon. The principal rivers are the Moy, forming for a part of its course the boundary with Mayo, and flowing south- westward and then northward into Killala Bay; the Easky, flowing northward from Lough Easky; and Ballysadare, with its branches the Owenmore, Owenbeg, and Arrow, or Unshin; and the Garvogue, or Garavogue, flowing from Lough Gill. Except the finely-situated Lough Gill (extending into Leitrim), Lough Arrow, and Lough Gara, all of which exceed 3000 acres in extent, none of the lakes has so large an area as 400 acres. The salmon, sea-trout and trout fishing is generally excellent in these waters, especially during the autumn, but Lough Arrow also provides sport during the Mayfly season. This county essentially consists of Carboniferous Limestone, broken by the Dalradian axis of the Ox Mountains. The gneisses of this range, which obviously result from the intermingling of granite and a seriesof schists and quartzites, form a ridge of rocky hills, smoothed by glaciation, on the flanks of which Carboniferous shales rest. Above these, the limestone is boldly developed, forming great scarped tablelands north of Sligo, with some sandstone on the summit of Truskmore. Knocknarea, conspicuous from Sligo, is an outlier of the Upper Limestone. Lough Gill Is picturesquely bounded by the gneissic range on the south and these high carboniferous masses on the north. The limestone also produces fine features in the south of the county, in Keishcorran and round Lough Arrow. East of this point, it forms the slopes of the Leitrim and Roscommon SLIGO— SLING coalfield, the summits being capped by the Millstone Grit series; while on the south, bounded by a fault, rises the Old Red Sandstone range of the Curlew Hills. Lead was mined at Ballysadare, and the clay-ironstone from the east of the county was at one time smelted. Industries. — There is considerable variety both in the character of the soil and in the agricultural advancement in different parts of the county. In some parts it is a light sandy loam resting on a freestone bottom, and in the lower districts a rich and deep mould prevails resting on a substratum of limestone. Owing to the moist- ness of the climate cattle feeding is found to be the most remunerative method of farming, as may be gathered from the increasing or well- maintained numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but the acreage devoted to them decreases, and the proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as I to 3$. Coarse woollens and linens are manufactured for home consumption, and there are tanneries, distilleries, and breweries in the principal towns. A considerable general trade is carried on at the ports of Ballina (on the Moy) and Sligo. The fisheries on the coast are valuable, and there are important salmon fisheries at the mouths of the rivers. The town of Sligo is the chief centre. The Sligo branch of the Midland Great Western railway enters the county from the S.E., with a branch S.W. from Kilfree to Ballaghaderreen in county Mayo; the Limerick and Sligo line of the Great Southern and Western enters from S.W. ; and the Sligo, Leitrimand Northern counties, from Enniskillen (county Fermanagh), and Manor Hamilton (county Leitrim), from the N.E. These lines unite at Cpllooney and share the railway from this junction to the town of Sligo. Population and Administration. — The population (94,416 in 1891, 84,083 in 1901) decreases at a rate considerably above the average of the Irish counties, and emigration is heavy. Of the total about 90 % are Roman Catholics and about 7 % Protestant Episcopalians. About 88% is rural population. The county town is Sligo (pop. 10,870) ; Ballymote and Tobercurry (or Tubbercurry) are small inland market towns. The county is divided into six baronies. Assizes are held at Sligo and quarter-sessions at Ballymote, Easky and Sligo. For parliamentary representation the county has since 1885 formed two divisions (North and South), each returning a member. The county is mainly in the Protestant diocese of Kilmore, and in the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh, Achonry, Elphin and Killala. History. — The county was created by Sir Henry Sydney in 1579. On Carrowmore, between Sligo and Ballysadare, there is a remarkable collection of ancient stone monuments (see SLIGO, town). At Drumcliffe (5 m. N. of Sligo) are the only round tower remaining in the county and a beautiful Celtic cross 13 ft. in height. The principal monastic ruins are the abbey of St Fechan at Ballysadare, with a church of the nth or 1 2th century; the abbey of Sligo; and a remarkable group of buildings on the island Inishmurray, which include a cashel or walled enclosure; three oratories, one of which contains an oaken figure in ecclesiastical garb; two holy wells; and also altars, pillar stones, inscribed slabs (one of which is unique among those of its kind in Ireland in having an inscription partly in Latin), and several examples of beehive cells. This settlement is associated with Molaise, a saint of the early 6th century (not identical with the Molaise of Devenish in Loch Erne), and the remains still attract pilgrims, who revere the oaken figure mentioned as an image of the saint, though it is more probably the figurehead of a vessel. SLIGO, a municipal borough, seaport and market town, and the county town of county Sligo, Ireland. Pop. (1901) 10,870. It lies at the head of an arm of Sligo Bay on the north-west coast, on the river Garvogue, 1345 m. N.W. from Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway. This company shares with the Great Southern and Western and the Sligo, Leitrim, and Northern Counties railways the line to Collooney Junction, 65 m. S., from which the former runs S. to Limerick and the latter E. to Ennis- killen. The situation of Sligo is beautiful; the bay is separated from the fine Lough Gill by less than 4 m. of a richly wooded valley, with flanking hills exceeding 1000 ft. in elevation. Sligo takes rank with Galway and Limerick as one of the three principal ports of the west coast of Ireland. Regular communication by steamer is maintained with Liverpool and Glasgow, and a con- siderable export trade is carried on in grain, flour, pork and cattle; while coals, iron, timber and provisions are imported. There is a depth on the harbour bar of 16 ft. at low water, and there are commodious quays and basins. Harbour commissioners control the port. Brewing, flour-milling and saw-milling are the chief industries, and there is an important butter-market. Monthly fairs are held. Sligo is a centre of salmon and sea- fishing industries. The Dominican Abbey, founded in 1252 by Maurice Fitzgerald, Lord-Justice, is one of the finest monastic ruins in Ireland. It was partly destroyed by fire in 1414 and again in 1642. Three sides of the cloisters remain, and the lofty quadrangular tower at the junction of the nave and chancel is entire. The east window is of the date of the original structure. The principal modern church is the Roman Catholic cathedral (1869) for the diocese of Elphin in the Norman style with a finely sculptured doorway. There is also a Roman Catholic college. A castle was built at Sligo by Maurice Fitzgerald in 1242, which in 1270 was taken and destroyed by O'Donnel; in 1310 it was rebuilt by Richard, earl of Ulster, and was again partly destroyed in 1369 and 1394. Of this and the walls with which the town was fortified there are no remains. Early in the reign of James I. the town received a market and two annual fairs; in 1613 it was incorporated and received the privileges of a borough; and in 1621.11 received a charter of the staple. In 1641 it was besieged by the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote, but was afterwards evacuated, and occupied by the Royalists till the termination of the war. In 1688 it declared in favour of James II., and, after being captured by the Ennis- killeners, was retaken by General Sarsfield, but ultimately surrendered to the earl of Granard. The borough was dis- franchised in 1870. Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act, 1898 it retains its mayor and corporation, but the latter has practically the status of an urban district council. The country neighbouring to Sligo presents fine coast scenery, west coast of Ireland, while inland it is wild and mountainous. Three m. S.W. of the town, on Carrowmore, is a remarkable collection of megalithic remains, including cromlechs, stone circles, and burial cairns, which has been taken to mark the site of the traditional battle of North Moytura. On Knocknarea (1078 ft.), south of Sligo, is a huge cairn, which tradition sets down as the burial-place of Queen Mab (Meave of Connaught). Five m. N. of Sligo is Drumcliffe, with its round tower and Celtic cross. Rosses, on Sligo Bay, is a favourite resort. Sligo is a centre for salmon and trout fishing. SLING (from M. Eng. slingen, to fling, throw with a jerk, Icel. slyngva, cf. Ger. schlingen, to twist), an implement for casting missiles, also from its resemblance in form to the implement, a hanging loop used as a support for a wounded limb, a chain with hooks used for raising or lowering heavy goods or objects, &c. The sling as a weapon is probably the earliest form of device known to mankind by which an increase of force and range was given to the arm of a thrower of missiles. Sling stones from the stone age have been frequently found (see ARMS AND ARMOUR) . The form of the weapon is of two kinds; the sling proper consists of a small strap or socket of leather or hide to which two cords are attached; the slinger holds the two ends in one hand, whirls the socket and missile rapidly round the head and, loosing one cord sharply, despatches the missile; the other type is the staff sling, in which the sling itself is attached to a short staff, held in both hands. This was used for heavier missiles especially in siege operations during the middle ages. There are many refer- ences to slings and to slingers in the Bible; the left-handed slingers of Benjamin were famous (Judges xx. 16). The Assyrian monuments show the sling of the ordinary type and slingers were used in the ancient Egyptian army, but not before the 8th century B.C. The sling (Gr. afavbbvT), Lat. fitnda) is not men- tioned in Homer; Herodotus (vii. 158) speaks of the slingers in the army offered by Gelon to serve against the Persians; it seems to have been a weapon chiefly used by barbarian troops. The Acarnanians, however, were expert slingers (Thuc. ii. 81), and so also were the Achaeans, who later invented the sling which discharged a shaft with an iron bolt head (Livy xlii. 65, from Polybius). In the Roman army by the time of the Punic Wars the slingers (jundilores) were auxiliaries from Greece, Syria and Africa. The Balearic islanders, who were in Hannibal's army, were always famous as slingers. In medieval times the sling was much used in the Prankish army, especially in defending trenches,, while the staff-sling was used against fortifications SLIVEN— SLODTZ 243 in the uth century. They were used down to the i6th and lyth centuries to throw grenades. SLIVEN, SLIVNO or formerly SELIMNIA (Turk. Islimye), a town of Bulgaria, in Eastern Rumelia, at the southern foot of the Balkan Mountains, 105 m. E.N.E. of Philippopolis and near the southern entrance of the defile known as the Iron Gate. Pop. (1906), 25,049. There are numerous mosques in the town, but the greater part of the Turkish population emigrated after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. Sliven contains the govern- ment factory, founded in 1834, for the manufacture of military clothing; it is the chief centre in Bulgaria for the rough and fine homespuns known as aba and shayak, and its wine is locally celebrated. Extensive mulberry orchards have been planted in connexion with the silk industry. Sliven, the Stlifanos of the Byzantine writers, owed its former strategic importance to its position on one of the trans-Balkan highways to Adrianople and the south. In the middle ages it was a subject of dispute between Byzantium and Bulgaria. After its capture by the Turks (1388) it was one of the voinik towns which remained exempt from taxes and were allowed to elect their own voivode; but these privileges were lost in the i6th century. In 1829 Sliven was occupied by the Russian army under Rudiger and Gorchakov. SLOANE, SIR HANS (1660-1753), British collector and physician, was born on the i6th of April 1660 at Killyleagh in county Down, Ireland, where his father had settled at the head of a Scotch colony sent over by James I. He had as a youth a taste for collecting objects of natural history and other curiosities. This led him to the study of medicine, which he went to London to pursue, directing his attention to botany, materia medica and pharmacy. His collecting propensities made him useful to John Ray and Robert Boyle. After four years in London he travelled through France, spending some time at Paris and Montpellier, and taking his M.D. degree at the university of Orange in 1683. He returned to London with a considerable collection of plants and other curiosities, of which the former were sent to Ray and utilized by him for his History of Plants. Sloane was quickly elected into the Royal Society, and at the same time he attracted the notice of Thomas Sydenham, who gave him valuable introductions to practice. In 1687 he became fellow of the College of Physicians, and proceeded to Jamaica the same year as physician in the suite' of the duke of Albemarle. The duke died soon after landing, and Sloane's visit lasted only fifteen months; but during that time he got together about 800 new species of plants, the island being virgin ground to the botanist. Of these he published an elaborate catalogue in Latin in 1696; and at a later date (1707-1725) he made the experiences of his visit the subject of two folio volumes. He became secretary to the Royal Society in 1693, and edited the Philosophical Transactions for twenty years. His practice as a physician among the upper classes was large. In the pamphlets written concerning the sale by Dr William Cockburn (1669-1739) of his secret remedy for dysentery and other fluxes, it was stated for the defence that Sloane himself did not disdain the same kind of professional conduct; and some colour is given to that charge by the fact that his only medical publication, an Account of a Medicine for Soreness, Weakness and other Distempers of the Eyes (London, 1745) was not given to the world until its author was in his eighty-fifth year and had retired from practice. In 1716 Sloane was created a baronet, being the first medical practitioner to receive an hereditary title, and in 1719 he became president of the College of Physicians, holding the office sixteen years. In 1722 he was appointed physician-general to the army and in 1727 first physician to George II. In 1727 also he suc- ceeded Sir Isaac Newton in the presidential chair of the Royal Society; he retired from it at the age of eighty. Sloane's memory survives more by his judicious investments than by anything that he contributed to the subject matter of natura" science or even of his own profession. His purchase of the manor of Chelsea in 1712 has perpetuated his memory in the name of a " place, " a street, and a square. His great stroke as a collector was to acquire (by bequest, conditional on paying off certain debts) in 1701 the cabinet of William Courten, who had made collecting the business of his life. When Sloane retired rom active work in 1741 his library and cabinet of curiosities, which he took with him from Bloomsbury to his house in Chelsea, lad grown to be of unique value. On his death on the nth of [anuary 1753 he bequeathed his books, manuscripts, prints, drawings, pictures, medals, coins, seals, cameos and other curiosities to the nation, on condition that parliament should pay to his executors £20,000, which was a good deal less than .he value of the collection. The bequest was accepted on those terms by an act passed the same year, and the collection, together with George II.'s royal library, &c., was opened to the public at Bloomsbury as the British Museum in 1759. Among his other acts of munificence may be mentioned his gift to the Apothecaries' Company of the botanical or physic garden, which they had rented from the Chelsea estate since 1673. See Weld, History of the Royal Society, i. 450 (London, 1848); and Munk, Roll of the College of Physicians, and ed., i. 466 (London, 1878). SLOCUM, HENRY WARNER (1827-1894), American general, was born at Delphi, Onondaga county, New York, on the 24th of September 1827, and graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1852. He resigned from the army in 1856 to practise law at Syracuse, N.Y., and in 1859 he was a member of the state Assembly. When the Civil War broke out he became colonel (May 1861) of the 27th New York Volunteers, and was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers (August 1861) and major-general of volunteers (July 1862). He fought in all the Virginia cam- paigns from the first battle of Bull Run, where he led a regiment, to Gettysburg, where he commanded the XII. corps. With that corps he was transferred in the autumn of 1863 under Hooker's command to the Tennessee Valley, and took part in the battle of Chattanooga. He remained with the Army of the Cumberland after his corps was merged into that of Hooker, took part in the Atlanta campaign, and after Hooker's retirement succeeded to the command of the XX. corps (late XI. and XII.). He com- manded the Atlanta garrison, and with Sherman took part in the " march to the sea," and subsequently in the Carolinas campaign from Savannah to Goldsboro, as commander of the left wing. He resigned from the army in September 1865, resumed professional practice at Brooklyn, and was a Democratic representative in Congress in 1860-1873 and again in 1883-1885. In 1876-1884 he was president of the Brooklyn city board of public works. He died at Brooklyn on the i4th of April 1894. A monument of General Slocum by Frederick MacMonnies was unveiled at Brooklyn, N.Y., on the 3oth of May 1905. SLODTZ, RENE MICHEL or MICHEL ANGE (1705-1764), French sculptor, was born at Paris. He passed seventeen years at Rome, where he was chosen to execute a statue of St Bruno, one of the best modern works of the class in St Peter's. He was also the sculptor of the tomb of Marquis Capponi in St John of the Floren- tines. Other works of his are to be seen at the church of St Louis of France and at Santa Maria della Scala. After his return to France in 1747, Slodtz, in conjunction with his brothers, Antoine Sebastien and Paul, produced many decorative works in the churches of Paris, and, though much has been destroyed, his most considerable achievement — the tomb of Languet de Gergy in St Sulpice (commissioned in 1750) — still exists. Slodtz was, like his brothers, a member of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and many particulars of his life are preserved in a memoir written by Cochin, and also in a letter from the same to the Gazette litteraire, which was reproduced by Castilhon in the Necrologe of 1766. Slodtz's father, Sebastien (1655-1726), was also a sculptor, born at Antwerp; he became a pupil of Girardon and worked mostly under him at Versailles and the Tuileries. His chief works were " Hannibal " in the Tuileries garden, a statue of St Ambrose in the Palais des Invalides, and a bas-relief " Saint Louis sending missionaries to India." See C. N. Cochin, Mem. ined. (Paris, 1881); Barbet de Jouy, Sculpture moderne du Louvre (Paris, 1856); Duissieux, Artistes francflis a I' Stranger (Paris, 1852). 244 SLOGAN— SLOVAKS SLOGAN, the war-cry of the Highland clans. It was the gathering call of the clan, often the name of the clan, the place of meeting, and the like, and was uttered when charging in battle. The Gaelic word, of which " slogan " is the English adaptation, is sluagk-ghairm, from sluagh, army, host, and gairm, call, cry. A variant form of " slogan " is " slogorne," which has given rise to an invented word " slughorn," used by Chatterton (BaMeof Hastings, ii. 10) and by Browning (Childe Roland) as if the term meant some kind of war-trumpet or horn. Skeat (Etym. Diet. 1898, Errata and Addenda) has shown that Chatterton used an edition of Gavin Douglas's translation of Virgil, where " slogorne " is spelled " slughorne," and the context, " The deaucht trumpet blawis the brag of were; the slughorne, enseule or the wache cry went for the battall all suld be reddy," misled him. SLONIM, a town of Russia, in the government of Grodno, 1 5 5 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Grodno and 20 m. from the railway from Moscow to Warsaw, on the high craggy banks of the Shchara. Pop. (1883), 21,110; (1897) 15,893, including many Jews. It derives its importance from the river, which is navigable and joins the Oginsky canal, connecting the Niemen with the Dnieper. Corn, tar, and especially timber are exported. Slonim is mentioned in 1040, when Yaroslav, prince of Kiev, defeated the Lithuanians in its neighbourhood. In 1241 the Mongols pillaged it and burned its wooden fort. Owing to its position between Galician Russia and Lithuania it often changed hands, until it was conquered by the Lithuanians in the i4th century. From 1631 to 1685 it was the seat of the Lithuanian diet and became a flourishing city. In the i8th century, under the hetman Oginsky, a canal was dug to connect the Shchara with the Dnieper. Oginsky embellished the city and founded there a printing-office. Russia annexed the town in 1795. SLOOP, a type of small sailing-vessels which have one mast rigged " fore and aft," carrying a mainsail, gaff-topsail, jib and fore staysail. There is little in rig to distinguish a sloop from a " cutter," and the terms are used indiscriminately; sometimes a distinction is drawn by a sloop having a fixed and a cutter a running bowsprit. In the sailing and early steam days of naval warfare, a " sloop " was a small corvette, ship-rigged, with all the guns mounted on the upper deck. Like so many nautical terms the word was borrowed from the Dutch, viz. sloep, boat. This is generally taken to be an adapta- tion of the Fr. chaloupe, Span, and Port, chalupa, cf. Ital. scia- luppa, Eng. " shallop," a light boat. These probably represent some native word borrowed by Spanish or Portuguese sailors in the East or American Indies. Other etymologists distinguish the Dutch and French words and refer sloep to the common Teutonic root, meaning to glide, to creep, seen in " slip," Ger. schleifen, schliefen, &c. , SLOTH, the name for the various representatives of a group of arboreal tropical American mammals belonging to the order Edentata (q.v.). Sloths are some of the most completely arboreal of all mammals, living entirely among the branches of trees; and usually hanging beneath them, back downwards, and clinging with the hook-line organs to which the terminations of their limbs are reduced. When obliged to descend to the ground, which they rarely, if ever, do voluntarily, sloths — owing to the unequal length of their limbs and the peculiar conforma- tion of their feet, which allow the animals to rest only on the outer edge — crawl along a level surface with considerable diffi- culty. Though generally slow and inactive, even when in their natural haunts, they can on occasions travel with considerable rapidity along the branches, and as they do not leap, like, most other arboreal creatures, they avail themselves of the swaying of the boughs by the wind to pass from tree to tree. They feed on leaves and young shoots and fruits, which they gather in their mouth, the fore-limbs aiding in dragging boughs within reach, but not being used as hands. When sleeping, sloths roll themselves up in a ball, and, owing to the dry shaggy character of their hair, are inconspicuous among the mosses and lichens with which the trees of their native forests abound. The con- cealment thus afforded is heightened in some species by the peculiar greenish tint of the hair, due not to the colour of the hair itself, but to the presence upon its surface of an alga, the lodgment of which is facilitated by the fluted or rough surface of the exterior, and its growth is promoted by the dampness of the atmosphere in the gloomy tropical forests. Sloths are The Unau or Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni). nocturnal, silent, inoffensive and solitary animals, and produce usually but one young at birth. They appear to show an almost reptilian tenacity of life, surviving the most severe injuries and large doses of poisons, and exhibiting longer persistence of irritability of muscular tissue after death than other mammals. Several other animals, such as the African potto-lemurs, and the Asiatic lorises, are popularly called sloths. SLOUGH, a market town in the Wycombe parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 18 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,453. It lies in the flat valley of the Thames, nearly 2 m. from the river at Eton and Windsor, and is wholly modern in appearance. The chief public building is the Leopold Institute and Public Hall (1887), a memorial of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany. The British Orphan Asylum is also in the town. The parish church of Upton-cum-Chalvey, St Laurence, has a Norman doorway and other portions of the same period. It is the burial- place of Sir William Herschel, who lived in the vicinity, set up his great telescope here, and made many of his astronomical discoveries. SLOVAKS (Slovak, fern. Slovenka, adj. slovensk$, formerly called Slovene, but to be distinguished from the Slovenes of Carinthia, in Magyar T6t), a Slav people numbering about 2,500,000 and mostly living in the northern counties of Hungary. On the west they extend into the neighbouring districts of Lower Austria and Moravia where they march with the Germans and the kindred Moravians, being bounded by the river Morava and the Jablunka Mountains; on the north they touch the Poles along the frontiers of Silesia and Galicia; on the east about 22° E. they meet the Little Russians along an indented boundary; on the south they have the Magyars as neighbours along a line joining Pressburg and Zemplin. Within these limits, save for the Germans in the towns, the Slovaks are not much mixed: they have isolated settlements throughout the western half of Hungary extending far enough south to meet similar settlements of Servians. Their chief centre is S. Marton on the Turocz. The Slovaks seem to have occupied this territory in the sth or 6th century A.D. and also to have stretched far to the south; they formed part of Same's empire (middle of 7th century), but were subject to the Avars and the Franks, and then formed part of Great Moravia until that kingdom was in 907 conquered by the Magyars, who displaced or assimilated the southern Slovaks and have ever since been lords of the rest, save for a short time when they were under Boleslav the Brave (A.D. 973) of Poland, and early in the i4th century when a local SLOVENES 245 magnate, Count Matthew of TrenCin, made himself an independent ruler. In 1848-1849, when the Magyars rose against Austria, the Slovaks rose against the Magyars, but were handed back to them on the conclusion of peace. The Magyars have always treated the Slovaks as an inferior race and have succeeded in assimilating many districts where the prefix Tot in place-names shows the former presence of Slovaks: those who take the Magyar language and attitude are called Magyarones. The Magyars, in pursuance of this policy, do their best to suppress the Slovak nationality in every way, even to the extent of taking away Slovak children to be brought up as Magyars, and denying them the right to use their language in church and school. The result is a large emigration to America. (See letters by Scotus Viator in Spectator, 1906 sqq.) The Slovaks are a peaceful, rather slow race ot peasants (their aristocracy is Magyarized) , living almost exclusively upon the land, which they till after the most primitive methods. Where this does not yield sufficient, they wander as labourers and especially as tinkers all over Austria-Hungary and even into South Russia. They are fond of music, and their songs have been collected. The Slovak language is most closely connected with tech, the difference being bridged by the transitional dialects of Moravia: though Miklosich has classed it as a variety of tech, it is better to take it separately, since it has not been subjected to the special changes which have in that language assimilated the vowels to the foregoing palatal consonants, nor developed the r which is char- acteristic of the other North-Western Slavonic tongues, but has remained in a more primitive stage and preserved (as might be expected from its central position in the Slavonic world) many points of agreement, phonetic, morphological and lexical, with South Slavonic and Russian. The alphabet is founded on the tech, the accent is always on the first syllable, long vowels are indicated by acute accents. There are usually reckoned to be three groups of dialects, Western, Central and Eastern; the first being nearest to tech, the last to Little Russian; the Central dialects exhibit less decided features. The Slovak dialects spoken in Moravia have been well investigated by Bartos, the others still await satisfactory treat- ment, as does the question of the relation of Slovak to other Slavonic groups. From the time of the Hussites and still more after the Reformation, tech missionaries, colonists and refugees had brought with them their Bible and service books; tech became the literary language, and is still the church language of the Slovak Protestants. The use of the local tongue was the result of a desire on the part of the Roman Catholic clergy to get at their people. A. Bernolak (1762-1813), who first systematized the orthography and made a dictionary, taking Western Slovak as his basis, was a priest, and so was Jan Holly (1785-1849), who wrote epics and odes in the classical taste. A new start was made in the 'forties by L'udevit Stur, Josef Hurban and M. Hodza who adopted the central dialect, united the Catholic and Protestant Slovaks in its use and successfully opposed the attempts to keep the Slovaks to the use of tech. However, Safarik the great Slavist and the poet Kollar continued to write in tech, the argument being that. Slavs should unite to oppose the enemies of the race: but without their language the Slovaks, haying no traditions of inde- pendent political life, would have nothing to cling to. The chief Slovak writers since Stur (mostly poets) have been O. Sladkovic, S. Chalupka, V. Pauliny-T6t, and at present Orszag-Hviezdoslav and Svetozar Hurban-Vajansky. During the 'sixties the Slovaks founded three gymnasia and a Matica, or literary, linguistic and educational society, such as has been the centre of revival for the national life of other Slavonic nations. These were all closed and their property confiscated by the Magyars in the early 'seventies, but the struggle continues, and national self-consciousness is too strong for the attempts at Magyarization to have much probability of success. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — R. W. Seton-Watson, Racial Problems in Hungary: a History of the Slovaks (1909), gives all that can be re- quired, with special chapters on Popular Art, Poetry and Music by D. Jurkovic the architect, S. Hurban-Vajansky and M. Lichard the composer. See also T. Capek, The Slovaks (New York, 1906) ; Dr E. Stodola, Prispevok ku Statistike Slovenska (contribution to statistics of Slovakland) (Turocz S. Marton, 1902) ; Fr. Sasinek, Die Slovaken (Prague, 1875); S. Czambel, in Die osterreichische Monarchic in Wort una Bild; Ungarn; vol. v. pp. 434 sqq. (Vienna); K. Kalal, Die Unterdruckung der Slovaken (Prague, 1903) ; J. Borbis, Die evangelisch-lutheranische Kirche Ungarns (Nordlingen, 1861), gives the religious history; J. Vlcek, Dejiny Literatury Slovenskej (history of Slovak literature) (Turocz S. Marton, 1889; Russian trans., Kiev, 1889); Sbornik Slovenskych Ndrodnich piesni (collection of Slovak Popular Songs, &c.), published by the Matica (1870-1874) ; Slovenske Spevy (Slovak Ballads) (Tur. S. Mart., 1882); D. Jurkovig, Les Ouyrages populaires des Slovaques, text in tech, headings in French (Vienna, 1906); J. Loos, Worterbuch der slovakischen, ungarischen und magyarischen Sprache (Budapest, 1871); L. Stur, Nauka reli Slovenskej (Science of Slovak Speech) (Pressburg, 1846) ; J. Victorin, Grammatik der slovakischen Sprache (Practical) (Budapest, 1878); S. Czambel, Prispeyky k dejindm jazyka Slovenskeho (Budapest, 1887); Rukoval Spisovnej reci Slovenskej (Handbook of Literary Slovak) (Tur. S. Mart., 1902); Slovdci a ich rec (Slovaks and their speech) (Budapest, 1903), cf. a review in Archiv f. Slav. Phil. xxvi. p. 290; Fr. Pastrnek, Beitrage zur Lautlehre der slovakischen Sprache (Vienna, 1888); Fr. Barto, Dialektologie Moravskd with specimens (Brunn, 1886) ; A. Sembera, Zdkladove Dialektologie Cecho-slovenske (Foundations of techo-Slovak Dialectology) (Vienna, 1864). (E. H. M.) SLOVENES [Slavenci, Ger. Winden, to be distinguished from the Slovaks (q.v.) and from the Slovinci (see KASHUBES) west of Danzig], a Slavonic people numbering about 1,300,000. The chief mass of them lives in Austria, occupying Carniola (Krajina, Krain), the southern half of Carinthia (Chorutania, Korosko, Karnten) and Styria (Stajersko, Steiermark) and some of the northern part of Istria; a small division of them is found over the Italian border in the vale of Resia; others in the extreme south-west of Hungary. Their neighbours on the south-west are Italians, on the west and north Germans: history and place- names point to Slovenes having formerly held parts of Tirol, Salzburg and Austria Proper; and on the east they have given up south-west Hungary to the Magyars; to the south they have the kindred race of the Croats. The boundary on this side is difficult to fix, as the transition is gradual and a certain dialect of Croatian (marked by the use of kaj = " what ") is by some con- sidered to have been originally Slovene (see CROATIA-SLAVONIA). Even within the limits above defined the Slovenes are much mixed with Germans, especially in the towns; only in Carniola are they fairly solid. Here they call themselves Krajinci rather than Slovenes, in fact everywhere the general term gives place to local names, because the race is so much split up geographically, dialectically and politically that consciousness of unity is of rather recent growth. The main intellectual centre has been Laibach (Ljubljana) and next to it Klagenfurt (Celovec); in Graz (Gradec) the German element, and in Gorz (Gorica) the Italian, predominates. The Slovenes arrived in these parts in the 7th century, appar- ently pressed westwards by the Avars. By A.D. 595 they were already at war with the Bavarians, later they formed part of Same's great Slavonic empire and were not quite out of touch with other Slavs. On its collapse they fell under the yoke of the Bavarians and Franks. At first they had their own princes, but in time these gave place to German dukes and margraves, who had, however, to use the native tongue on certain occasions. These fiefs of the empire finally fell to the Habsburgs and never gave them any trouble, hence their language has had freer play than that of most of the Austrian Slavs: they have been allowed to use it in primary and secondary schools and to some extent in local administration. The Slovenes were very early (beginning with the 8th century) Christianized by Italian and German missionaries; to them we owe the Freisingen fragments, confessions and part of a sermon, the earliest monuments, not merely of Slovene but of any Slavonic. The MS. dates from c. 1000, but the composition is older. The language is not pure Slovene, but seems to be an adaptation of an Old Slavonic trans- lation. Yet it is enough to show that Old Slavonic is not Old Slovene. Kocel, a prince on the Flatten See, to whom Cyril and Methodius (see SLAVS) preached on their way to Rome, was probably a Slovene, but no traces of their work survive in this quarter. Except for a few isth-century prayers and formulae we do not find any more specimens of Slovene until the Reforma- tion, when Primus Truber translated a catechism, the New Testament and other works (Tubingen, 1550-1582), and J. Dalmatin issued a splendid Bible (Wittemberg, 1584), with an interesting vocabulary to make his work intelligible to any Slovene or Croat: at the same time and place A. Bohorizh (zh = i) issued a good grammar (Arcticae Horulae, &c.). To counteract this the Roman Catholics translated the work of their English apologist Stapleton, but their final policy was to burn all the Slovene books they could find, so that these are extremely rare. The policy was successful and only about 15% of the 246 SLUM— SMALL ISLES Slovenes are Protestants. Slovene woke to a new life in the latter part of the i8th century. Valentin Vodnik was the first poet (see Arch. f. Slav. Phil. (1901), xxiii. 386, xxiv. 74), but his successor France Preseren (1800-1849) appears to have been really great, worthy of a larger circle of readers. Other poets have been A. Janezic, S. Gregorcic and Murn-Aleksandrov; Erjavec was a story-teller, Jurcic a novelist, but as usual with these beginnings of literature the same man may make a grammar, issue an almanack, and try all kinds of poetry. The two great Slavists Kopitar and Miklosich were Slovenes, but were led astray by race feeling to insist upon Old Slavonic being Old Slovene. They were succeeded by G. Krek and V. Oblak. The chief centres of Slovene letters are the Matica or Linguistic and Literary Society and the Lyceum at Laibach. The Matica publishes a chronicle (Letopis) and there are many periodicals, chief of which are the Ljubljansky Zwn and Kres, the latter published at Klagenfurt. The liberal and clerical organs carry on a lively polemic. The Slovene language is the most westerly of the South Slavonic group. It is very closely allied to Serbo-Croatian, but shows some points of resemblance to tech (retaining dl and //, loss of aorist, &c). It is split into eight dialects which differ among themselves widely. The people of Resia are sometimes classed quite apart. In phonetics Slovene is remarkable for the change of the original /;' dj into I and j (our y) respectively, of f into u, and for the coincidence of the old half vowels i and u in a dull e. In morphology it has retained the dual of both nouns and verbs more perfectly than any other living language, also the supine and several periphrastic tenses: it has lost its aorist and imperfect, and its participles have mostly been fixed as so-called gerunds or verbal adverbs. The language has suffered much from Germanisms and even developed an article which has since been purified away. There is a free accent and the accented syllables may be long or short. The Resia dialect has preserved the Proto-Slavonic accent very exactly. The Slovenes have always used the Latin alphabet more or less clumsily: recently the orthography has been reformed after the manner of Cech, but uniformity has not yet been reached. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. Suman, " Die Slovenen " in Die Vplker Osterreich-Ungarns, vol. x. (Vienna, 1881); J. Sket, Slovenisches Sprach- und Ubungsbuch (Klagenfurt, 1888); Slovenska Slovstvena Citanka ("Slovene literary reading-book") (2nd ed., 1906); C. Pecnik, Praktisches Lehrbuch der slovenischen Sprache (Leipzig, 1890); M. Pletersnik, Slovensko-Nemtki Slovar (SI. Ger. Diet.) (Laibach, 1894-1895); Freisingen Fragments, bested. V. Vondrak, Cech Akad., pt. iii. (Prague, 1896); V. Oblak, many articles on SI. Grammar in Archiv f. slav. Philologie (1889 sqq.) ; J. Baudouin de Courtenay, Opytfonetiki Rezjanskich Govorov (" Attempt at phonetics of the dialects of Resia," Russian) (Warsaw, 1875); K. Strekelj, Slovenske narodne Pesmi (" Slovene popular songs ") (Laibach, 1895 sqq.). (E. H. M.) SLUM, a squalid, dirty street or quarter in a city, town or village, inhabited by the very poor, destitute or criminal classes; over-crowding is frequently another characteristic (see HOUSING). The word is a comparatively recent one and is of uncertain origin. It has been doubtfully connected with a dialectal use of " slump " in the sense of a marshy, swampy place; cf. Ger. Schlamm, mud, and Eng. dialect slammock, slattern (Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1910). SLUYS, BATTLE OF, fought on Saturday the 24th of June 1330, one of the two sea-fights in which King Edward III. of England commanded in person, the other being that called Espagnols-sur-Mer (q.v.). The place of the encounter was in front of the town of Sluis, Sluys, or in French Ecluse, on the inlet between West Flanders and Zeeland. In the middle of the 1 4th century this was an open roadstead capable of holding large fleets. It has now been silted up by the river Eede. A French fleet, which the king, in a letter to his son Edward the Black Prince, puts at 190 sail, had been collected in preparation for an invasion of England. It was under the command of Hue Quieret, admiral for the king of France, and of Nicholas Behuchet, who had been one of the king's treasurers, and was probably a lawyer. Part of the fleet consisted of Genoese galleys serving as mercenaries under the command of Barbavera. Although English historians speak of King Edward's fleet as inferior in number to the French, it is certain that he sailed from Orwell on the 22nd of June with 200 sail, and that he was joined on the coast of Flanders by his admiral for the North Sea, Sir Robert Morley, with 50 others. Some of this swarm of vessels were no doubt mere transports, for the king brought with him the house- hold of his queen, Philippa of Hainault, who was then at Bruges. As, however, one of the queen's ladies was killed in the battle, it would appear that all the English vessels were employed. Edward anchored at Blankenberghe on the afternoon of the 23rd and sent three squires to reconnoitre the position of the French. The Genoese Barbavera advised his colleagues to go to sea, but Behuchet, who as constable exercised the general command, refused to leave the anchorage. He probably wished to occupy it in order to bar the king's road to Bruges. The disposition of the French was made in accordance with the usual medieval tactics of a fleet fighting on the defensive. Quieret and Behuchet formed their force into three or four lines, with the ships tied to one another, and with a few of the largest stationed in front as outposts. King Edward entered the road, stead on the morning of the 24th, and after manoeuvring to place his ships to windward, and to bring the sun behind him, attacked. In his letter to his son he says that the enemy made a noble defence " all that day and the night after." His ships were arranged in two lines, and it may be presumed that the first attacked in front, while the second would be able to turn the flanks of the opponent. The battle was a long succession of hand-to-hand conflicts to board or to repel boarders. King Edward makes no mention of any actual help given him by his Flemish allies, though he says they were willing, but the French say that they joined after dark. They also assert that the king was wounded by Behuchet, but this is not certain, and there is no testimony save a legendary one for a personal encounter between him and the French commander, though it would not be improbable. The battle ended with the almost total destruc- tion of the French. Quieret was slain, and Behuchet is said to have been hanged by King Edward's orders. Barbavera escaped to sea with his squadron on the morning of the 25th, carrying off two English prizes. English chroniclers claim that the victory was won with small cost of life, and that the loss of the French was 30,000 men. But no reliance can be placed on medieval estimates of numbers. After the battle King Edward remained at anchor several days, and it is probable that his fleet had suffered heavily. AUTHORITIES. — The story of the battle of Sluys is told from the English side by Sir Harris Nicolas, in his History of the Royal Navy, vol. ii. (London, 1847); and from the French side by M. C. de la Ronciere, Hisloire de la marine fran<;aise, vol. i. (Paris, 1899). Both make copious references to original sources. (D. H.) SLYPE, a variant of " slip " in the sense of a narrow passage; in architecture, the name for the covered passage usually found in monasteries between the transept and the chapter-house, as at Winchester, Gloucester, Exeter and St Albans. SMACK, a general term for a small decked or half-decked vessel, sailing under various rigs and used principally for fishing. The word, like so many sea terms, was borrowed from the Dutch, where smak, earlier smacke, is the name of a coasting vessel; it is generally taken as a corruption of snack, cf. Swed. snacka, Dan. snackke, a small sailing-vessel, and is to be referred to the root seen in " snake," " snail," the original meaning a gliding, creeping thing. " Smack," taste, and " smack," a smart sounding blow or slap, also used of the sound of the lips in kissing or tasting, must be distinguished. In the first case the word is in O.E. smaec and is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dan. smag, Ger. schmecken, &c.; the second word is onomatopoeic, cf. " smash," and is also found in other Teutonic languages. It is not connected with the word meaning " taste," though no doubt confused owing to the sense of smacking the lips. SMALL ISLES, a parish of islands of the Inner Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scotland. It consists of the islands of Canna, Sanday, Rum, Eigg and Muck, lying, in the order named, like a crescent with a trend from N.W. to S.E., Canna being the most northerly and Muck the most southerly. They are separated from Skye by Cuillin Sound and from the mainland by the Sound of Ardnamurchan. The surface is moorland, pasture and mountain. They are rich in sea-fowl, the most common being the eider duck, puffin, Manx shearwater, black SMALLPOX 247 guillemot, kittiwake and herring gull. The fisheries include cod, ling and herring. The rainfall amounts to 56 in. for the year, and the temperature is fairly high, the mean for the year being 47° 5' F. Steamers call at Eigg at regular intervals and less often at Rum and Canna. Canna (pop. 49), an island of basaltic rock, is situated about 10 m. from the nearest point of Skye, and measures 45 m. from E. to W. and ij m. from N. to S. Potatoes, barley and a little oats are grown, and the pasture being good the cattle are larger than most of the Hebridean breeds. The harbour is screened from south-westerly gales by the isle of Sanday. The antiquarian remains include a weather-worn sculptured stone cross and the ruins of a chapel of St Columba. Compass Hill (450 ft.) on the E. is so named from the alleged disturbance of the compasses of vessels passing within its sphere of influence. Sanday (pop. 44), another basaltic island, lies close to the S.E. of Canna. It measures if m. from E. to W. and 3j m. from N. to S. Some 35 m. S.E. of Canna is the island of Rum (pop. 149), which is situated 8| m. from the nearest point of Skye, and measures 8j m. N. to S. and 8 m. from E. to W. Geologically, its northern half is composed of Torri- donian sandstone, with basalt at points between the West coast and the centre, of gabbro in the south-east, with a belt of gneis- sose rocks on its east seaboard and of quartz-porphyry in the south-west. It is mountainous in the south. Among the higher peaks are Askival (2659 ft.), Ashval (2552), Sgor-nan-Gillean (2503) and Allival (2368). On the north-west shore is a cliff where bloodstones are quarried. The mountains are a haunt of red deer. The harbour of the village of Kinloch, at the head of Loch Scresort, is resorted to during gales from the N.W. and S. Fully 4 m. S.E. and 7^ m. from the nearest point of the mainland lies the island of Eigg, or Egg (pop. 211), measuring from N. to S. s m. and from E. to W. 35 m. It is in the main basaltic, but a band of quartz-porphyry runs from the centre in a north-westerly direction to the coast, and there is some oolitic rock on the north shores. On the north-east coast is a cave with a narrow mouth, opening into a hollow 255 ft- long. In it Macleod of Skye, towards the end of the i6th century, ordered 200 Macdonalds, inhabitants of the isle — men, women and children — to be suffocated, their bones being found long afterwards. The people are chiefly engaged in fisheries and cattle-rearing. Three m. S.W. is the island of Muck (pop. 42), which is about 15 m. long by 25 m. broad and lies fully 5 m. from the nearest point of Ardnamurchan. It is almost wholly basaltic, but has some oolite at the head of the bay on its north side. SMALLPOX, or VARIOLA (varus, " a pimple "), an acute infectious disease characterized by fever and by the appearance on the surface of the body of an eruption, which, after passing through various stages, dries up, leaving more or less distinct cicatrices. (For pathology see PARASITIC DISEASES.) Few diseases have been so destructive to human life as smallpox, and it has ever been regarded with horror alike from its fatality, its loathsome accompaniments and disfiguring effects, and from the fact that no age and condition of life are exempt from liability to its occurrence. Although in most civilized countries its ravages have been greatly limited by the protection afforded by vaccination, yet epidemic outbreaks are far from uncommon, affecting especially those who are unprotected, or whose pro- tection has become weakened by lapse of time. Much obscurity surrounds the early history of smallpox. It appears to have been imported into Europe from Asia, where it had been known and recognized from remote antiquity. The earliest accounts of its existence reach back to the middle and end of the 6th century, when it was described by Procopius and Gregory of Tours as occurring in epidemic form in Arabia, Egypt and the south of Europe. In one of the narratives of the expedition of the Abyssinians against Mecca (c. 550) the usual miraculous details are combined with a notice of smallpox break- ing out among the invaders.1 Not a few authorities, however, 'See Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser . . . aus Tabari (Leiden, 1879), p. 218. Noldeke thinks that this notice may be taken from genuine'historical tradition, and seems to find an allusion to it in an old poem. regard these accounts as referring not to smallpox, but to plague. The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the gth-century Arabian physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment. During the period of the Crusades smallpox appears to have spread extensively through Europe, and hospitals for its treatment were erected in many countries. But at this period and for centuries after- wards the references to the subject include in all likelihood other diseases, no precise distinction being made between the different forms of eruptive fever. Smallpox was known in England as early as the i3th century, and had probably existed there before. It appears to have been introduced into America by the Spaniards in the early i6th century, and there, as in Europe and throughout the known world, epidemics were of frequent occurrence during succeeding centuries. The only known factor in the origin of smallpox is contagion — this malady being probably the most contagious of all diseases. Its outbreak in epidemic form in a locality may frequently be traced to the introduction of a single case from a distance. The most direct means of communicating smallpox is inoculation. By far the most common cause of conveyance of the disease, however, is contact with the persons or the immediate surround- ings of those already affected. The atmosphere around a small- pox patient is charged with the products of the disease, which likewise cling to clothing, furniture &c. The disease is probably communicable from its earliest manifestations onwards to its close, but it is generally held that the most infectious period extends from the appearance of the eruption till the drying up of the pustules. Smallpox may also readily be communicated by the bodies of those who have died from its effects. No age is exempt from susceptibility to smallpox. Infants are occasion- ally born with the eruption or its marks upon their bodies, proving that they had undergone the disease in utero. Dark-skinned races are said to suffer more readily and severely than whites. One attack of smallpox as a rule confers immunity from any re- currence, but there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Over- crowding and all insanitary surroundings favour the spread of smallpox where it has broken out ; but the most influential con- dition of all is the amount of protection afforded to a community by previous attacks and by vaccination (q.ii.). Such protection, although for a time most effectual, tends to become exhausted unless renewed. Hence in a large population there is always likely to be an increasing number of individuals who have become susceptible to smallpox. This probably explains its occasional and even apparently periodic epidemic outbreaks in large centres, and the well-known fact that the most severe cases occur at the beginning — those least protected being necessarily more liable to be first and most seriously attacked. Symptoms. — While the symptoms of smallpox are essentially the same in character in all cases, they are variously modified according to the form which the disease may assume, there being certain well-marked varieties of this as of most other infectious maladies. The following description applies to an average case. After the reception into the system of the smallpox contagion the onset of the symptoms is preceded by a period of incubation, during which the patient may or may not complain. This period is believed to be from about ten to fourteen days. In cases of direct inoculation of the virus it is considerably shorter. The invasion of the symptoms is sudden and severe, in the form of a rigor followed by fever (the primary fever) , in which the tempera- ture rises to 103° or 104° Fahr. or higher, notwithstanding that perspiration may be going on. A quick pulse is present, together with thirst and constipation, while intense headache accompanied with vomiting and pain in the back is among the most char- acteristic of the initial symptoms. Occasionally the disease is ushered in by convulsions. These symptoms continue with greater or less intensity throughout two entire days, and during their course there may occasionally be noticed on various parts of the body, especially on the lower part of the abdomen and inner sides of the thighs, a diffuse redness accompanied by 248 SMALLPOX slight spots of extravasation (pelechiae), the appearance some- what resembling that of scarlet fever. These " prodromal rashes," as they are termed, appear to be more frequent in some epidemics than in others, and they do not seem to have any special signifi- cance. They are probably more frequently seen in cases of the mildest form of smallpox (formerly termed varioloid), referred to below as modified smallpox. On the third day the character- istic eruption begins to make its appearance. It is almost always first seen on the face, particularly about the forehead and roots of the hair, in the form of a general redness; but upon this surface there may be felt by the finger numerous elevated points more or less thickly set together. The eruption, which is accompanied by heat and itching, spreads over the face, trunk and extremities in the course of a few hours — continuing, however, to come out more abundantly for one or two days. It is always most marked on the exposed parts; but in such a case as that now described the individual " pocks " are separated from each other (discrete). On the second or third day after its appearance the eruption undergoes a change — the pocks becoming vesicles filled with a clear fluid. These vesicles attain to about the size of a pea, and in their centre there is a slight depression, giving the char- acteristic umbilicated appearance to the pock. The clear contents of these vesicles gradually become turbid, and by the eighth or ninth day they are changed into pustules containing yellow matter, while at the same time they increase still further in size and lose the central depression. Accompanying this change there are great surrounding inflammation and swelling of the skin, which, where the eruption is thickly set, produce much disfigurement and render the features unrecognizable, while the affected parts emit an offensive odour, particularly if, as often happens, the pustules break. The eruption is present not only on the skin, but on mucous membranes, that of the mouth and throat being affected at an early period; and the swelling produced here is not only a source of great discomfort, but even of danger, from the obstruction thus occasioned in the upper portion of the air-passages. The voice is hoarse and a copious flow of saliva comes from the mouth. The mucous membrane of the nostrils is similarly affected, while that of the eyes may also be involved, to the danger of permanent impairment of sight. The febrile symptoms which ushered in the disease undergo marked abatement on the appearance of the eruption on the third day, but on the eighth or ninth, when the vesicles become converted into pustules, there is a return of the fever (secondary or suppuratiiie fever), often to a severe extent, and not in- frequently accompanied by prominent nervous phenomena, such as great restlessness, delirium or coma. On the eleventh or twelfth day the pustules show signs of drying up (desiccation), and along with this the febrile symptoms decline. Great itching of the skin attends this stage. The scabs produced by the dried pustules gradually fall off and a reddish brown spot remains, which, according to the depth of skin involved in the disease, leaves a permanent white depressed scar — this " pitting " so characteristic of smallpox being specially marked on the face. Convalescence in this form of the disease is as a rule uninterrupted. Varieties. — There are certain varieties of smallpox depending upon the form it assumes or the intensity of the symptoms. Confluent smallpox (variola conflittns), while essentially the same in its general characters as the form already described, differs from it in the much greater severity of all the symptoms even from the onset, and particularly in regard to the eruption, which, instead of showing itself in isolated pocks, appears in large patches run together, giving a blistered aspect to the affected skin. This confluent condition is almost entirely confined to the face, and produces shocking disfigurement, while subsequently deep scars remain and the hair may be lost. The mucous membranes suffer in a similar degree of severity, and dangerous complications may arise from the presence of the disease in the mouth, throat and eyes. Both the primary and secondary fevers are extremely severe. The mortality is very high, and it is generally estimated that at least 50% of such cases prove fatal, either from the violence of the disease or from one or other of the numerous complications which are specially apt to attend upon it. Convalescence is apt to be slow and interrupted. Another variety is that in which the eruption assumes the haemorrhagic form owing to bleeding taking place into the pocks after their formation. This is apt to be accompanied with haemorrhages from various mucous surfaces (particularly in the case of females), occasionally to a dangerous degree and with symptoms of great prostration. Many of such cases prove fatal. A still more serious form is that termed malignant, toxic or purpuric smallpox, in which there is intense streptococcus septi- caemia, and the patient is from the onset overwhelmed with the poison and quickly succumbs — the rash scarcely, if at all, appearing or showing the haemorrhagic or purpuric character. Such cases are, however, comparatively rare. The term modified smallpox is applied to cases occurring in persons constitutionally but little susceptible to the disease, or in whom the protective influence of vaccination or a previous attack of smallpox still to some extent exists. Cases of this mild kind are of very common occurrence where vaccination has been systematically carried out. As compared with an average case of the unmodified disease as above described this form is very marked, the dif- ferences extending to all the phenomena of the disease, (i) As regards its onset, the initial fever is much milder and the pre- monitory symptoms altogether less in severity. (2) As regards the eruption, the number of pocks is smaller, often only a few and mostly upon the body. They not infrequently abort before reaching the stage of suppuration: but should they proceed to this stage the secondary fever is extremely slight or even absent. There is little or no pitting. (3) As regards complications and injurious results, these are rarely seen and the risk to life is insignificant. Various circumstances affect the mortality in ordinary smallpox and increase the_ dangers attendant upon it. The character of the epidemic has an important influence. In some outbreaks the type of the disease is much more severe than in others, and the mortality consequently greater. In 1901 and 1903 there were epidemics in the United States in which it was only 2 %. The mortality in the Philadelphia epidemic is given by Welch and Schamberg as 26-89 % >n 7204 cases, while in the Glasgow epidemic of 1900-1901, it reached 51-6% in the un- vaccinated and 10-4% in the vaccinated. Below are some particu- lars of the annual death rate. Smallpox Death Rate, England and Wales. Years. Number of Deaths from Smallpox.* Deaths from Smallpox to every Million living. 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 2464 760 5°l 116 21 IO 12 75 23 15 4 0-6 o-3 0-3 *Deaths entered as being from chicken-pox are not included, though many are probably due to the graver disease. Smallpox is most fatal at the extremes of life, except in the case of vaccinated infants, in whom there is immunity from the disease. Again, any ordinary case with discrete eruption is serious, and a case of confluent or even semi-confluent character is much more grave, while the haemorrhagic variety is frequently, and the toxic always, fatah Numerous and often dangerous complications, although liable to arise in all cases, are more apt to occur in the severer forms, and in general at or after the supervention of the secondary fever. The most important are inflammatory affections of the respiratory organs, such as bronchitis, pleurisy or pneumonia, diphtheritic conditions of the throat, and swelling of the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea. Destructive ulceration affecting the eyes or ears is a well- known and formidable danger, while various affections of the skin, in the form of erysipelas, abscess or carbuncles, are of not infrequent occurrence. The prophylaxis of smallpox'depends on successful vaccination and re- vaccination (see VACCINATION), together with the estab- lishment of smallpox hospitals for the treatment of the disease when it has broken out, to which the patient should be at once removed, and those who have been in contact with the patient should be promptly re-vaccinated. The efficiency of the SMALRIDGE— SMART, C. 249 protection given by vaccination and systematic re-vaccination is demonstrated by the almost entire suppression of the disease in Germany (see Dr Bruce Low's Report to the Local Govern- laxlsaaa ment Board, 1903-1904). MrsGarrettAnderson,writing treatment, to The Times in September 1903, showed the enormous expense laid on the rates in England for the main- tenance of smallpox hospitals in order to counteract inefficient vaccination. London with a population of 65 millions reserves 2500 beds in a hospital removed from the city; Berlin with a population of 2 millions reserves 12 beds in the pavilion of a general hospital; Dresden with a population of 500,000 reserves 20 beds in the Friedrichstadt Hospital, but no case was admitted for 10 years previous to the Report. In Stuttgart (population 200,000) a hut of six beds is set aside for smallpox, but it has fallen into bad repair from disuse. Smallpox cases in Germany are usually sporadic cases introduced by foreigners. Where persons have been exposed to the infection of smallpox, if immediate vaccination fails to protect them from the disease, it has been shown to considerably modify the type. The plan of identification and surveillance of all contact cases has given good results. In the Bristol epidemic of 1908 there were 35 cases and 9 deaths. The contacts numbered 1354, and 16,398 visits of inspection were paid. The patient should lie on a soft bed in a well-ventilated but somewhat darkened room and be fed with the lighter forms of nutriment, such as milk, soups, &c. The skin should be sponged occasionally with tepid water, and the mouth and throat washed with an antiseptic solution. In a severe case, with evidence of much prostration, stimulants may be advantageously employed. The patient should be always carefully watched, and special vigilance is called for where delirium exists. This symptom may sometimes be lessened by sedatives, such as opium, bromides or chloral. With the view of preventing pitting many applica- tions have been proposed, but probably the best are cold or tepid compresses of light weight kept constantly applied over the face and eyes. The water out of which these are wrung may be a weak solution of carbolic or boracic acid. When the pustules have dried up the itching this produces may be much relieved by the application of oil or vaseline. What is known as the red light treatment, in which the actinic or chemical rays are excluded, has been advocated by Prof. Niels Finsen of Copenhagen and others. He considers it valuable only in that it protects the pustule from the deleterious effects of light, and he and other observers claim that if resorted to early it abolishes suppuration in the pustules, lessens scarring and shortens the course of the disease. Medical opinion in England is divided as to its merit. Herbert Peck of Chesterfield, in 244 cases so treated in 1902-1905, had only 6 deaths, a mortality of 2-4%, while the case mortality during the same period was, Lancashire 5-8%, Derbyshire 6%, Cheshire 6-4%, Liverpool 2-7% and Manchester 5-6% in cases treated without red light. An interesting fact in connection with the treatment is its great antiquity in China and Japan, while in England in the middle ages smallpox patients wore red garments and lay in beds where the light filtered through red curtains. Complications are to be dealt with as they arise, and the severer forms of the disease treated in reference to the special symptoms presented. In cases where the eruption is tardy of appearing and the attack threatens to assume the toxic form, marked benefit attends the use of the wet pack. Disinfectants should be abundantly employed in the room and its vicinity, and all clothing, &c., in contact with the patient should be exposed to the vapour of formalin. Beclere, Thomson and Brownlee have advocated the use of the serum of immunized heifers. The dose, however, requires to be very large, being equivalent to one-fiftieth part of the body weight in adults and one-twentieth part in children. Inoculation. — Previously to the introduction of vaccination (q.v.) the method of preventive treatment by what was known as inoculation had been employed. This consisted in introducing into the system — in a similar way to the method now commonly employed in vaccina- tion— the smallpox virus from a mild case with the view of repro- ducing the disease also in a mild form in the person inoculated, and thus affording him protection from further attack. This plan had apparently been resorted to by Eastern nations from an early period in the history of the disease. During the latter part of the Ming dynasty there was introduced into China a system of inoculation in which the method was to blow the pulverized germ-laden crusts from a small-pox pustule through a silver tube into the nostril, the left being chosen in a male, the right in a female. Inoculation was known to be extensively practised in Turkey in the beginning of the 1 8th century, when, chiefly through the letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, it became known and was speedily adopted in England. There is no doubt, both from the statistics of the Smallpox and Inoculation Hospital, London, and from the testimony of physicians throughout the country, that this practice made a marked impression upon the fatality of the disease, and was itself attended with ex- tremely little risk to life. The objections to it, however, were great, for, although usually conveying the smallpox in a mild form, it not infrequently took effect severely, and, while death might be averted, the disfiguring results of the disease remained. Further, each inocu- lated person upon whom the operation took effect became for the time being a possible source of infection to others, and in point of fact the practice tended to spread the disease and so to increase the general mortality. Although inoculation continued to be practised for a number of years subsequently to Jenner's great discovery, it gradually became displaced by vaccination, and in 1840 an Act of Parliament was passed rendering smallpox inoculation unlawful in England. SMALRIDGE, GEORGE (1663-1719), English bishop, was born at Lichfield, where he received his early education, this being completed at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford. His political opinions were largely modelled on those of his friend Francis Atterbury, with whom he was associated at Oxford and elsewhere. After being a tutor at Christ Church, he was minister of two chapels in London, and for six or seven years he acted as deputy for the regius professor of divinity at Oxford ; his Jacobite opinions, however, prevented him from securing this position when it fell vacant in 1707. In 1711 he was made dean of Carlisle and canon of Christ Church, and in 1713 he succeeded Atterbury as dean of Christ Church. In the following year he was appointed bishop of Bristol, but retained his deanery. In 1715 Smalridge refused to sign the declaration against the pre- tender, James Edward, defending his action in his Reasons for not signing the Declaration. In other ways also he showed animus against the house of Hanover, but his only punishment was his removal from the post of lord almoner to the king. He died on the 27th of September 1719. The bishop was esteemed by Swift, Steele, Whiston and other famous men of his day, while Dr Johnson declared his sermons to be of the highest class. His Sixty Sermons, preached on Several Occasions, was published in 1726; other editions 1827, 1832, 1853 and 1862. SMALTITE, a mineral consisting of cobalt diarsenide (CoAs2). It crystallizes in the cubic system with the same hemihedral symmetry as pyrites; crystals have usually the form of cubes or cubo-octahedra, but are imperfectly developed and of some- what rare occurrence. More often the mineral is found as compact or granular masses. The colour is tin-white to steel- grey, with a metallic lustre; the streak is greyish black. Hard- ness 55; specific gravity 6-5. The cobalt is partly replaced by iron and nickel, and as the latter increases in amount there is a passage to the isomorphous species chloanthite (NiAs2). It occurs in veins with ores of cobalt, nickel, copper and silver: the best known locality is Schneeberg in Saxony. The name smaltite was given by F. S. Beudant, in 1832, because the mineral was used in the preparation of smalt for producing a blue colour in porcelain and glass. (L. J. S.) SMART, CHRISTOPHER (1722-1771), English poet, son of Peter Smart, of an old north country family, was born at Ship- bourne, Kent, on the nth of April 1722. His father was steward for the Kentish estates of William, Viscount Vane, younger son of Lord Barnard of Raby Castle, Durham. Christopher Smart received his first schooling at Maidstone, and then at the grammar school of Durham. He spent part of his vacations at Raby Castle, and his gifts as a poet gained him the patronage of the Vane family. Henrietta, duchess of Cleveland, allowed him a pension of £40 which was paid until her death in 1742. Thomas Gray, writing to his friend Thomas Wharton in 1747, warned him to keep silence about Smart's delinquencies lest they should 250 SMART, SIR G. T.— SMEATON come to the ears of Henry Vane (afterwards earl of Darlington) , and endanger his allowance. At Cambridge, where he was entered at Pembroke College in 1 739, he spent much of his time in taverns, and got badly into debt, but in spite of his irregularities he became fellow of his college, praelector in philosophy and keeper of the common chest in 1745. . In November 1747 he was compelled to remain in his rooms for fear of his creditors. At Cambridge he won the Seaton prize for a poem on " one of the attributes of the Supreme Being " in 1750 (he won the same prize in 1751, 1752, 1753 and 1755); and a farce entitled A Trip to Cambridge, or The Grateful Fair, acted in 1747 by 'the students of Pembroke, was from his pen. In 1750 he contributed to The Student, or The Oxford and Cambridge Monthly Miscellany. During one of his visits to London he had made the acquaintance of John Newbery, the publisher, whose step-daughter, Anna Maria Carman, he married, with the result of forfeiting his fellow- ship in 1753. About 1752 he permanently left Cambridge for London, though he kept his name on the college books, as he had to do in order to compete for the Seaton prize. He wrote in London under the pseudonym of " Mary Midnight " and " Pent- weazle." He had edited The Midwife, or the Old Woman's Magazine (1751-1753), and had a hand in many other " Grub Street " productions. Some criticisms made by " Sir " John Hill (i7i6?-i775) on his Poems on Several Occasions (1752) provoked his satire of the Hilliad (1753), noteworthy as providing the model for the Rolliad. In 1756 he finished a prose transla- tion of Horace, which was widely used, but brought him little profit. He agreed in the same year to produce a weekly paper entitled The Universal Visitor, for which Samuel Johnson wrote some numbers. In 1751 Smart had shown symptoms of mental aberration, which developed into religious mania, and between 1 7 56 and 1 7 58 he was in an asylum. Dr Johnson visited him and thought that he ought to have been at large. During his confine- ment he conceived the idea of the single poem that has made him famous, " A Song to David," though the story that it was indented with a key on the panels of his cell, and shaded in with charcoal, may be received with caution. It shows no trace of morbid origin. After his release Smart produced other religious poems, but none of them shows the same inspiration. His wife and children had gone to live with friends as he was unable to support them, and for some time before his death, which took place on the 2ist of May 1771, he lived in the rules of King's Bench, and was supported by small subscriptions raised by Dr Burney and other friends. Of all that he wrote, " A Song to David " will alone bear the test of time. Unlike in its simple forceful treatment and impressive directness of expression, as has been said, to anything else in 18th- century poetry, the poem on analysis is found to depend for its unique effect also upon a certain ingenuity of construction, and the novel way in which David's ideal qualities are enlarged upon. This will be more readily understood on reference to the following verse, the first twelve words of which become in turn the key-notes, so to speak, of the twelve succeeding verses: — " Great, valiant, pious, good, and clean, Sublime, contemplative, serene, Strong, constant, pleasant, wise ! Bright effluence of exceeding grace ; Best man ! — the swiftness, and the race, The peril, and the prize." The last line is characteristic of another peculiarity in " A Song to David," the effective use of alliteration to complete the initial energy of the stanza in many instances. But in the poem throughout is revealed a poetic quality which eludes critical analysis. From the Poems of the late Christopher Smart (1791) the " Song to David " (pr. 1763) was excluded as forming a proof of his mental aberration. It was reprinted in 1819, and has since received abundant praise. In an abridged form it is included in T. H. Ward's English Poets, vol. iii., and was reprinted in 1895, and in 1901 with an introduction by R. A. Streatfeild. Smart's other poems are in- cluded in Anderson's British Poets. Christopher Smart is one of Robert Browning's subjects in The Parleyings with Certain People (1887). See also the contributions to Notes and Queries of March 25th and May 6th, 1905, by the Rev. D. C. Tovey, who has read, and in some places revised, the above article. SMART, SIR GEORGE THOMAS (1776-1867), English musician, was born in London, his father being a music-seller. He was a choir-boy at the Chapel Royal, and was educated in music, becoming an expert violinist, organist, teacher of singing and conductor; and in 1811 he was knighted by the lord- lieutenant of Ireland, having conducted a number of successful concerts in Dublin. Sir George Smart was, from that time onwards, one of the chief musical leaders and organizers in England, conducting at the Philharmonic, Covent Garden, the provincial festivals, &c., and in 1838 being appointed com- poser to the Chapel Royal. He was a master of the Handelian traditions, was personally acquainted with Beethoven and a close friend of Weber, who died in his house. His church music and glees include some well-known compositions. He died in London on the 23rd of February 1867. His brother Henry (1778-1823), father of the composer Henry Smart ( on the 8th of November 1876. SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861), British engineer officer, son of a surgeon in the royal navy, was born on the 3ist of December 1818. He was educated at Lasswade and Addis- combe, and joined the Madras Engineers in 1838. Being transferred to the Bengal Engineers, he served through the second 268 SMITH, R.— SMITH, SYDNEY Sikh war, and was present at the battles of Badiwal, Aliwal and Sobraon. He was then for some years employed on canal work, and when the Mutiny broke out was in charge of Roorkee. He promptly concentrated the Europeans in the workshops, and though the native sappers deserted, his forethought pre- vented any loss of life. When Delhi was invested he was ap- pointed chief engineer in charge of the siege works. He reached Delhi on the 2nd of July, and immediately advised General Barnard to assault the city. Barnard died while the advice was still under consideration, and his successor, General Reed, could not be induced to follow it; and when Reed in turn was succeeded by Archdale Wilson, the besiegers were so weakened by losses that the moment for a successful attack had passed. Baird Smith, however, prevented Wilson from relaxing his hold on Delhi until the arrival of John Nicholson with reinforce- ments from the Punjab, and of the siege train from Phillour. Nicholson then joined Baird Smith in compelling Wilson to make the assault, which proved successful, on the i4th of September. Baird Smith was ably assisted by Captain Alexander Taylor, but Nicholson was unjust to Baird Smith in assigning to Taylor the chief credit for the siege operations. After the capture of Delhi he returned to Roorkee and to civil employment, and for a time the value of his military services was insufficiently recognized. After the Mutiny he was made A.D.C. to Queen Victoria, became secretary to the government of India in the public works department, and gained well-deserved credit in the famine of 1861. But the onerous character of this work, following a wound and illness at Delhi, broke down his constitu- tion, and he died at sea on the i3th of December 1861. He married a daughter of De Quincey, who long survived him. See Colonel H. M. Vibart, Richard Baird Smith (1897). SMITH, ROBERT (1680-1768), English mathematician, was born in 1689, probably afLea near Gainsborough. After attend- ing Leicester grammar school he entered Trinity College, Cam- bridge, in 1708, and becoming minor fellow in 1714, major fellow in 1715 and senior fellow in 1739, was chosen master in 1742, in succession to Richard Bentley. From 1716 to 1760 he was Plumian professor of astronomy, and he died in the master's lodge at Trinity on the 2nd of February 1768. Besides editing two works by his cousin, Roger Cotes, who was his predecessor in the Plumian chair, he published A Compleat System of Opticks in 1738, which gained him the sobriquet of " Old Focus," and Harmonics, or the Philosophy of Musical Sounds in 1749. He was the founder of the Smith's prizes at Cambridge, having by his will left £3500 South Sea stock to the university, a portion of the interest from which was to be divided yearly between the two junior B.A.'s who had made the greatest progress in mathematics and natural philosophy. SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845), English writer and divine, son of Robert Smith, was born at Woodford, Essex, on the 3rd of June 1771. His father, a man of restless ingenuity and activity, " very clever, odd by nature, but still more odd by design," who bought, altered, spoiled and sold about nineteen different estates in England, had talent and eccentricity enough to be the father of such a wit as Sydney Smith on the strictest principles of heredity; but Sydney himself attributed not a little of his constitutional gaiety to an infusion of French blood, his maternal grandfather being a French Protestant refugee of the name of Olier. Sydney was the second of a family of four brothers and one sister, all remarkable for their talents. While two of the brothers, Robert Percy, known as " Bobus," after- wards advocate-general of Bengal, and Cecil, were sent to Eton, Sydney was sent with the youngest to Winchester, where he rose to be captain of the school, and with his brother so dis- tinguished himself that their schoolfellows signed a round-robin " refusing to try for the college prizes if the Smiths were allowed to contend for them any more, as they always gained them." At some time during his Oxford career he spent six months in France, being duly enrolled for safety's sake in the local Jacobin club. In 1789 he had become a scholar of New College, Oxford; he received a fellowship after two years' residence, took his degree in 1792 and proceeded M.A. in 1796. It was his wish then to read for the bar, but his father would add nothing to his fellowship, and he was reluctantly compelled to take holy orders. He was ordained priest at Oxford in 1 796, and became a curate in the small village of Nether Avoi^, near Amesbury, in the midst of Salisbury Plain. The place was uncongenial enough, but Sydney Smith did much for the inhabitants, providing the means for the rudiments of education, and thus making better things possible. The squire of the parish, Michael Hicks-Beach, invited the new curate to dine, was astonished and charmed to find such a man in such a place, and engaged him after a time as tutor to his eldest son. It was arranged that they should proceed to the university of Weimar, but, before reaching their destination Germany was disturbed by war, and " in stress of politics " said Smith, " we put into Edinburgh." This was in 1798. While his pupil attended lectures, Smith was not idle. He studied moral philosophy under Dugald Stewart, and devoted much time to medicine and chemistry. He also preached in the Episcopal chapel, where his practical brilliant discourses attracted many hearers. In 1800 he published his first book, Six Sermons, preached in Charlotte Street Chapel, Edinburgh, and in the same year, married, against the wishes of her friends, Catharine Amelia Pybus. They settled at No. 46 George Street, Edinburgh, where, as everywhere else, Smith made numerous friends, among them the future Edinburgh Reviewers. It was towards the end of his five years' residence in Edinburgh, in the eighth or ninth storey or flat in a house in Buccleuch Place, the elevated residence of the then Mr Jeffrey, that Sydney Smith proposed the setting up of a review as an organ for the young malcontents with things as they were. " I was appointed editor," he says in the preface to the collection of his contributions, " and remained long enough in Edinburgh to edit the first number (October 1802) of the Edinburgh Review. The motto I proposed for the Review was ' Tenui musam meditamur avena.' — ' We cultivate literature on a little oatmeal.' But this was too near the truth to be admitted, and so we took our present grave motto1 from Publius Syrus, of whom, none of us, I am sure, had ever read a single line." He continued to write for the Review for the next quarter of a century, and his brilliant articles were a main element in its success. He left Edinburgh for good in 1803, when the education of his pupils was completed, and settled in London, where he rapidly became known as a preacher, a lecturer and a social lion. His success as a preacher, although so marked that there was often not Standing-room in Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair, where he was morning preacher, was not gained by any sacrifice of dignity. He was also " alternate evening preacher " at the Foundling Hospital, and preached at the Berkeley Chapel and the Fitzroy Chapel, now St Saviour's Church, Fitzroy Square. He lectured on moral philosophy at the Royal Institution for three seasons, from 1804 to 1806: and treated his subject with such vigour, freshness and liveliness of illustration that the London world crowded to Albemarle Street to hear him. He followed in the main Dugald Stewart, whose lectures he had attended in Edinburgh; but there is more originality as well as good sense in his lectures, especially on such topics as imagination and wit and humour, than in many more pretentious systems of philosophy. He himself had no high idea of these entertaining performances, and threw them in the fire when they had served their purpose^providing the money for furnishing his house. But his wife rescued the charred MSS. and published them in 1850 as Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy. With the brilliant reputation that Sydney Smith had acquired in the course of a few seasons in London, he would probably have obtained some good preferment had he been on the powerful side in politics. Sydney Smith's elder brother " Bobus " had married Caroline Vernon, aunt of the 3rd Lord Holland, and he was always a welcome visitor at Holland House. His Whig friends came into office for a short time in 1806, and presented him with the living of Foston-le-Clay in Yorkshire. He shrank from this banishment for a time, and discharged his parish duties through a curate; but Spencer Perceval's Residence Act was lJudex damnatur cum nocens absolvitur. SMITH, SIR THOMAS 269 passed in 1808, and after trying in vain to negotiate an exchange, he quitted London in 1809, and moved his household to York- shire. The Ministry of " All the Talents " was driven out of office in 1807 in favour of a " no popery " party, and in that year appeared the first instalment of Sydney Smith's most famous production, Peter Plymley's Letters, on the subject of Catholic emancipation, ridiculing the opposition of the country clergy. It was published as A Letter on the Subject of the Catholics to my brother Abraham who lives in the Country, by Peter Plymley. Nine other letters followed before the end of 1808, when they appeared in collected form. Peter Plymley's identity was a secret, but rumours got abroad of the real authorship. Lord Holland wrote to him expressing his own opinion and Grenville's, that there had been nothing like it since the days of Swift {Memoir, i. 151). He also pointed out that Swift had lost a bishopric for his wittiest performance. The special and temporary nature of the topics advanced in these pamphlets has not prevented them from taking a permanent place in literature, secured for them by the vigorous, picturesque style, the generous eloquence and clearness of exposition which Sydney Smith could always command. In his country parish of Foston, with no educated neighbour within 7 m., Sydney Smith accommodated himself cheerfully to his new circumstances, and won the hearts of his parishioners as quickly as he had conquered a wider world. There had been no resident clergyman in his parish for 150 years; he had a farm of 300 acres to keep in order; a rectory had to be built. All these things were attended to beside his contributions to the Edinburgh Review. " If the chances of life ever enable me to emerge," he nevertheless writes to Lady Holland, " I will show you I have not been wholly occupied by small and sordid pur- suits." He continued to serve the cause of toleration by ardent speeches in favour of Catholic emancipation ; his eloquence being specially directed against those who maintained that a Roman Catholic could not be believed on his oath. " I defy Dr Duigenan,"1 he pleaded, addressing a meeting of clergy in 1823, " in the full vigour of his incapacity, in the strongest access of that Protestant epilepsy with which he was so often convulsed, to have added a single security to the security of that oath." At this time appeared one of his most vigorous and effective polemics, A Letter to the Electors upon the Catholic Question (1826). Sydney Smith, after twenty years' service in Yorkshire, obtained preferment at last from a Tory minister, Lord Lynd- hurst, who presented him with a prebend in Bristol cathedral in 1828, and afterwards enabled him to exchange Foston for the living of Combe Florey, near Taunton, which he held conjointly with the living of Halberton attached to his prebend. From this time he discontinued writing for the Edinburgh Review on the ground that it was more becoming in a dignitary of the church to put his name to what he wrote. It was expected that when the Whigs came into power Sydney Smith would be made a bishop. There was nothing in his writings, as in the case of Swift, to stand in the way. He had been most sedulous as a parochial clergyman. Doctoring his parishioners, he said, was his only rural amuse- ment. His religion was wholly of a practical nature, and his fellow-clergy had reasons for their suspicion of his very limited theology, which excluded mysticism of any sort. " The Gospel," he said, " has no enthusiasm." His scorn for enthusiasts and dread of religious emotion found vent in middle life in his strictures on missionary enterprise, ;and bitter attacks on Method- ism, and later in many scoffs at the followers of Pusey. Still, though he was not without warm friends at headquarters, the opposition was too strong for them. One of the first things that Lord Grey said on entering Downing Street was, " Now I shall be able to do something for Sydney Smith "; but he was not able to do more than appoint him in 1831 to a residentiary canonry at St Paul's in exchange for the prebendal stall he held at Bristol. He was as eager a champion of parliamentary reform as he had been of Catholic emancipation, and one of his best fighting speeches was delivered at Taunton in October 1831 when he made his well-known comparison of the House of Lords, who •Patrick Duigenan, M.P. for the city of Armagh, a Protestant agitator. had just thrown out the Reform Bill, with Mrs Partington of Sidmouth, setting out with mop and pattens to stem the Atlantic in a storm. Some surprise must be felt now that Sydney Smith's reputation as a humorist and wit should have caused any hesitation about elevating him to an episcopal dignity, and perhaps he was right in thinking that the real obstacle lay in his being known as " a high-spirited, honest, uncompromising man, whom all the bench of bishops could not turn upon vital ques- tions." With characteristic philosophy, when he saw that the promotion was doubtful, he made his position certain by resolv- ing not to be a bishop and definitely forbidding his friends to intercede for him. On the death of his brother Courtenay he inherited £50,000, which put him out of the reach of poverty. His eldest daughter, Saba (1802-1866), married Sir Henry Holland. His eldest son, Douglas, died in 1829 at the outset of what had promised to be a brilliant career. This grief his father never forgot, but nothing could quite destroy the cheerfulness of his later life. He retained his high spirits, his wit, practical energy and powers of argu- mentative ridicule to the last. His Three Letters to Archdeacon Singleton on the Ecclesiastical Commission (1837-38-39) and his Petition and Letters on the repudiation of debts by the- state of Pennsylvania (1843), are as bright and trenchant as his best contributions to the Edinburgh Review. He died at his house in Green Street, London, on the 22nd of February 1845 and was buried at Kensal Green. Sydney Smith's other publications include: Sermons (2 vols., 1809); The Ballot (1839); Works (3 vols., 1839), including the Peter Plymley and the Singleton Letters and many articles from the Edin- burgh Review; A Fragment on the Irish Roman Catholic Church (1845) ; Sermons at St Paul's . . . (1846) and some other pamphlets and sermons. Lady Holland says (Memoir, i. 190) that her father left an unpublished MS., compiled from documentary evidence, to exhibit the history of English misrule in Ireland, but had hesitated to publish it. This was suppressed by his widow in deference to the opinion of Lord Macaulay. See A Memoir of the Reverend Sydney Smith by his daughter. Lady Holland, with a Selection from his Letters edited by Mrs [Sarah] Austin (2 vols., 1855); also A Sketch of the Life and Times of . . . Sydney Smith (1884) by Stuart J. Reid; a chapter on " Sydney Smith " in Lord Houghton's Monographs Social and Personal (1873) ; A. Chevrillon, Sydney Smith et la renaissance des idees liberates en Angleterre au XIX" siecle (1894); and especially the monograph, with a full description of his writings, by G. W. E. Russell in Sydney Smith (English Men of Letters series, 1905). There are numerous references to Smith in contemporary correspondence and journals. SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577), English scholar and diplomatist, was born at Saffron Walden in Essex on the 23rd of December 1513. He became a fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge, in 1530, and in 1533 was appointed a public reader or professor. He lectured in the schools on natural philosophy, and on Greek in his own rooms. In 1 540 Smith went abroad, and, after studying in France and Italy and taking a degree of law at Padua, returned to Cambridge in 1542. He now took the lead in the reform of the pronunciation of Greek, his views after con- siderable controversy being universally adopted. He and his friend Sir John Cheke were the great classical scholars of the time in England. In January 1543/4 he was appointed first regius professor of civil law. He was vice-chancellor of the university the same year, and became chancellor to the bishop of Ely, by whom he was ordained priest in 1546. In 1547 he became provost of Eton and dean of Carlisle. He early adopted Protestant views, a fact which brought him into prominence when Edward VI. came to the throne. During Somerset's protectorate he entered public life and was made a secretary of state, being sent on an important diplomatic mission to Brussels. In 1548 he was knighted. On the accession of Mary he was deprived of all his offices, but in the succeeding reign was promin- ently employed in public affairs. He became a member of parlia- ment, and was sent in 1562 as ambassador to France, where he remained till 1566; and in 1572 he again went to France in the same capacity for a short time. He remained one of Elizabeth's most trusted Protestant counsellors, being appointed in 1572 chancellor of the order of the Garter and a secretary of state. He died on the i2th of August 1577. In 1661 the grandson of his 2JO SMITH, T. S.— SMITH, SIR W. brother George was created a baronet, and from him the title has descended to the Smith family of the present day. His best-known work, entitled De Republica Anglorum: the Maner of Government or Policie of the Realme of England, was pub- lished posthumously in 1583, and passed through many editions. His epistle to Gardiner, De recta et emendata linguae Graecae pro- nunciatione, was printed at Paris in 1568; the same volume includes his dialogue De recta et emendata linguae Anglicanae scriptione. A number of his letters from France are in the foreign state papers. See A. F. Pollard's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life by Strype was published in 1698 (Oxford edition, 1820). SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861), English physician and sanitary reformer, was born at Martock, Somerset- shire, on the 2ist of December 1788. While a medical student in Edinburgh he took charge of a Unitarian congregation. In 1816 lhe took his M.D. degree, and began to practice at Yeovil, Somer- set, also becoming minister at a chapel in that town, but removed in 1820 to London, devoting himself principally to medicine. In 1824 he was appointed physician to the London Fever Hospital, and in 1830 published A Treatise on Fever, which was at once accepted as a standard authority on the subject. In this book he established the direct connexion between the impoverishment of the poor and epidemic fever. He was frequently consulted in fever epidemics and on sanitary matters by public authorities, and his reports on quarantine (1845), cholera (1850), yellowfever (1852), and on the results of sanitary improvement (1854) were of international importance. He died at Florence on the loth of December 1861. SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596), English sonneteer. He published in 1596 a sonnet sequence entitled Chloris, or the Complaint of the passionate despised Shepheard. He was a disciple of Spenser, to whom the two first sonnets and the last are addressed. He signed his name W. Smith, and has sometimes been confused with the playwright Wentworth Smith, who collaborated with John Day, William Haughton and others (1601-1603). SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819), English actor, the son of a city tea merchant, was educated at Eton and went up to Cam- bridge, but his wild pranks soon ended his college career and brought him back to London. His first stage appearance was in 1753 at Covent Garden, where he remained for twenty years, playing important parts. In 1774 he was at Drury Lane under Garrick's management. His forte was gay comedy, and he was the original, indeed unrivalled, Charles Surface. It was in this part that he made his farewell appearance in 1788. He died on the i3th of September 1819. His sporting tastes and social connexions — he married the sister of a peer — led to his being called " Gentleman Smith," a sobriquet his manners seem to have justified. He is to be distinguished from an older English actor, William Smith (d. 1696), the friend of Betterton. SMITH, WILLIAM (1760-1839), English geologist, appropri- ately termed " the Father of English geology," and known among his acquaintances as " Strata Smith," was born at Churchill in Oxfordshire on the 23rd of March 1769. Deprived of his father, an ingenious mechanic, before he was eight years old, he depended upon his father's eldest brother, a farmer at Over Norton, who was but little pleased with his nephew's love of collecting " pundibs " (Terebratulae) and "pound-stones" (the large Echinoid Clypeus, then frequently employed as a pound weight by dairywomen), and with his propensity for carving sundials on soft brown " oven-stone " of his neighbour- hood. The uncle was, however, better satisfied when the boy, after studying the rudiments of geometry and surveying, began to take interest in the draining of land; and there is no doubt that William Smith profited in after life by the practical experi- ence he gained with his relative. At the age of eighteen he became assistant to Edward Webb, surveyor, of Stow-on-the- Wold, and traversed the Oolitic lands of Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, the Lias clays and red marls of Warwickshire and other districts, studying their varieties of strata and soils. In 1791 his observations at Stowey and High Littleton in Somersetshire first impressed him with the regularity of the strata. In 1793 he executed the surveys and .levellings for the line of the Somerset Coal Canal, in the course of which he con- firmed a previous supposition, that the strata lying above the coal were not horizontal, but inclined in one direction — to the E. — so as to terminate successively at the surface. On being appointed engineer to the canal in 1794 he was deputed to make a tour of observation with regard to inland navigation. During this tour, which occupied nearly two months, he journeyed to York and Newcastle and returned through Shropshire and Wales to Bath; he carefully examined the geological structure of the country, and corroborated his general- ization of a settled order of succession in the strata. After residing for two or three years at High Littleton he removed in 1795 to Bath, and three years later purchased a small estate at Tucking Mill, Midford, about 3 m. distant from the city, where he engaged in the last duties he performed as resident engineer to the Coal Canal (1798-1799). His numerous journeys had satisfied him of the practicability of making a map to show the ranges of the different strata across England, and in 1794 he coloured his first geological map) — that of the vicinity of Bath. At this time he made acquaintance with the Rev. Benjamin Richardson (d. 1832), from 1796 rector of Farleigh Hungerford, who possessed a good collection of local fossils, but knew nothing of the laws of stratification. He had a sound knowledge of natural history, and he greatly aided Smith in learning the names and true nature of the fossils, while Smith arranged his specimens in the order of the strata. By this new friend Smith was introduced to the Rev. Joseph Townsend (1738-1816), rector of Pewsey, and on a notable occasion in 1799 Smith dictated his first table of British Strata, written by Richardson and now in the possession of the Geological Society of London. It was headed Order of the Strata, and their imbedded Organic Remains, in the neighbourhood of Bath; examined and proved prior to 1799. In 1813 Townsend published, with due acknow- ledgment, much information on the English strata communicated by William Smith, in a work entitled The Character of Moses established for veracity as an historian, recording events from the Creation to the Deluge. Meanwhile Smith was completing and arranging the data for his large Geological Map of England and Wales, with part of Scotland, which appeared in 1815, in fifteen sheets, engraved on a scale of 5 m. to i in. The map was reduced to smaller form in 1819; and from this date to 1822 twenty-one separate county geological maps and several sheets of sections were published in successive years, the whole constituting a Geological Atlas of England and Wales. Smith's collection of fossils was purchased in 1816-1818 by the British Museum. In 1817 a portion of the descriptive catalogue was published under the title of a Stratigraphical System of Organized Fossils. Prior to this, in 1816, he commenced the publication of Strata Identified by Organized Fossils, with figures printed on paper to correspond in some degree with the natural hue of the strata. In this work (of which only four parts were published, 1816-1819) is exemplified the great principle he established of the identifica- tion of strata by their included organic remains. In January 1831 the Geological Society of London conferred on Smith the first Wollaston medal; on which occasion Sedgwick in an eloquent address referred to Smith as " the Father of English Geology "; and the government conferred upon him a life- pension of £100 per annum. The degree of LL.D. he received from Dublin, at the meeting of the British Association in that city in 1835. In 1838 he was appointed one of the commissioners to select building-stone for the new Houses of Parliament. The last years of his life were spent at Hackness (of which he made a good geological map), near Scarborough, and in the latter town. His usually robust health failed in 1839, and on 28th August of that year he died at Northampton. He was buried at St Peter's church, and a bust by Chan trey was placed in the nave. In 1891 the earl of Ducie erected a monument to his memory at his native place, Churchill. His Memoirs, edited by his nephew, John Phillips, appeared in 1 844. SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893), English lexicographer, was born at Enfield in 1813 of Nonconformist parents. He was originally destined for a theological career, but instead was articled to a solicitor. In his spare time he taught himself SMITH, W. F.— SMITH, W. R. 271 classics, and when he entered University College he carried off both the Greek and Latin prizes. He was entered at Gray's Inn in 1830, but gave up his legal studies for a post at University College school, and began to write on classical subjects. He next turned his attention to lexicography. His first attempt was the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, which appeared in 1842. The greater part of this was written by himself. In 1849 followed the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, and the Greek and Roman Geography in 1857. In this work some of the leading scholars of the day were associated with him. In 1850 he published the first of the school diction- aries; and in 1853 he began the Principia series, which marked a distinct step in the school teaching of Greek and Latin. Then came the Students' Manuals of History and Literature, in which the Greek history was the editor's own work. In carrying out this task Smith was most ably seconded by John Murray, the publisher, who, when the original publishers of the dictionaries got into difficulties, volunteered to take a share in the under- taking. The most important, perhaps, of the books edited by William Smith were those that dealt with ecclesiastical subjects. These were the Dictionary of the Bible (1860-1865) ; the Dictionary #f Christian Antiquities (1875-1880), undertaken in collaboration with Archdeacon Cheetham; and the Dictionary of Christian Biography (1877-1887), jointly with Dr Henry Wace. The Atlas, on which Sir George Grove collaborated, appeared in 1875. From 1853 to 1869 Smith was classical examiner to the University of London, and on his retirement he became a member of the Senate. He sat on the Committee to inquire into questions of copyright, and was for several years registrar of the Royal Literary Fund. He edited Gibbon, with Guizot's and Milman's notes, in 1854-1855. In 1867 he became editor of the Quarterly Review, which he directed with marked success until his death on the ~th of October 1893, his remarkable memory and accuracy, as well as his tact and courtesy, specially fitting him for such a post. He was D.C.L. of Oxford and Dublin, and the honour of knighthood was conferred on him the year before his death. SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824-1903), American general, was born at St Albans, Vermont, on the i7th of February 1824, and graduated from West Point in 1845, being assigned to the engineer branch of the army. He was twice assistant professor of mathematics at West Point (1846-1848 and 1855-1856). During the first campaign of the Civil War he was employed on the staff, in August 1861 became brigadier-general of volunteers, and was breveted lieutenant-colonel U.S.A. for his gallantry at the action of White Oak Swamp. In July 1862 he received promotion to the rank of major-general U.S.V. Smith led his division with conspicuous valour at Antietam, and was again breveted in the regular army. On the assignment of General Franklin to a superior command Smith was placed at the head of the VI. corps of the Army of the Potomac, which he led at the disastrous battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.). The recriminations which followed led to the famous general order in which several of the senior officers of the army were dismissed and suspended by General Burnside. Smith was one of these, but it is to his credit that he did not leave the army, and as a brigadier-general he commanded troops in Pennsylvania during the critical days of the Gettysburg campaign. Later in 1863 he was assigned to duty as chief engineer of the Army of the Cumberland. As such he conducted the engineer operations which reopened the " cracker-line " from Chattanooga (q.v.) to the base of supplies. Of this action the House Committee on military affairs reported in 1865 that " as a subordinate, General W. F. Smith had saved the Army of the Cumberland from capture, and afterwards directed it to victory." Smith was now again nominated for the rank of major-general U.S.V., and Grant, who was much impressed with Smith's work, insisted strongly that the nomina- tion should be confirmed, which was accordingly done by the Senate in March 1864. Grant, according to his own statement, " was not long in finding out that the objections to Smith's promotion were well grounded," but he never stated the grounds of his complaint, and Smith, in the " Battles and Leaders " series, maintained that they were purely of a personal character. For the Virginian campaign of 1864 Smith was specially assigned by Grant to command the XVIII. corps, Army of the James, and he took part in the battle of Cold Harbor and the first operations against Petersburg, after which, while absent on leave, he was suddenly deprived of his command by Grant. He resigned from the volunteers in 1865, and from the U.S. army in 1867. From 1864 to 1873 he was president of the International Telegraph Company, and in 1875-1881 served on the board of police commissioners of New York, becoming president of this in 1877. After 1 88 1 he was engaged in civil engineering work. He died at Philadelphia on the 28th of February 1903. SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808-1872), English author, was born at Hammersmith, London, in 1808. He was educated at Radley School, and in 1821 was sent to Glasgow University. In 1823 he entered a lawyer's office, in which he remained for five years. He was called to the bar, but had no practice. He contributed to the Literary Gazette and to the Athenaeum, under the name of " Wool-gatherer," attracting some attention by the delicacy and finish of his style. Ernesto, a philosophical romance, appeared in 1835, two poems, Guidone and Solitude, in 1836, and in 1839 he formed a connexion with Blackwood's Magazine, for which he acted as philosophical critic for thirty years. In 1846 a visit to Italy led to the writing of a tale entitled Mildred, which was too purely reflective to be successful. In 1851 he declined the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh, being unwilling to abandon his quiet, studious life in the Lake District. There he completed his philosophic romance Thorndale (1857), which was considered at the time to be a work of real intellectual value. A similar production, Gravenhiirsl, appeared in 1862; a second edition contained a memoir of the author by his wife. Smith died at Brighton on 28th March 1872. He also wrote two plays, one of which, Athelwold, was produced by Macready in 1843. It was published with his other tragedy, Sir William Crichton, in 1846. SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825-1891), English man of business and statesman, was born in London on the 24th of June 1825. His father was the founder of the great distributing firm of W. H. Smith & Son, in the Strand, and at an early age he became a partner and devoted himself to the business. He betrayed no political aspirations until 1865, when he came for- ward as a Conservative to contest Westminster against John Stuart Mill and the Hon. Mr Grosvenor. Defeated on that occasion, he triumphed in 1868, winning a victory when his party was in general vanquished on all sides. The prestige thus obtained combined with wealth and his business abilities to recommend him to Disraeli, who in 1874 made him secretary to the Treasury. In 1877 he gained cabinet rank as first lord of the Admiralty; in 1885 he was successively secretary for War and chief secretary for Ireland; in 1886 he was again at the War Office; and when late in that year Lord Randolph Churchill's resignation necessitated a reconstruction of the ministry, Mr Smith found himself first lord of the Treasury and leader of the House of Commons. He was no orator, and made no pretence to genius, but his success in these high offices was complete, and was admittedly due, not merely to business ability, but to the universal respect which was gained by his patience, good temper, zeal for the public service, and thorough kindness of heart. He died at Walmer Castle (which he occupied as Warden of the Cinque Ports) on the 6th of October 1891. In recognition of his services a peerage in her own right was conferred on his widow, with the title of Viscountess Hambleden. Lady Hamble- den (b. 1828) had been a Miss Danvers, and before marrying Mr Smith had been the wife of Mr B. A. Leach, by whom she had a family. Her eldest son by the second marriage, the Hon. W. F. D. Smith (b. 1868), rowed in the Oxford boat, and on his father's death became head of the business; in 1891 he was elected Conservative M.P. for the Strand (London), and was re-elected in 1892, 1895, 1900 and 1906. He married in 1894 Lady Esther Gore, daughter of the earl of Arran. SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-1894), Scottish philo- logist, physicist, archaeologist, Biblical critic, and editor, from 1881, of the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia, was born on the SMITH, SIR W. S. 8th of November 1846 at Keig in Aberdeenshire, where his father was Free Church minister. He was educated at home and at Aberdeen University, where he attained the highest academic distinctions, winning among other things the Ferguson mathe- matical scholarship, which is open to all graduates of Scottish universities under three years' standing. In 1866 he entered the Free Church College at Edinburgh as a student of theology. During two summer sessions he studied philosophy and theology at Bonn and Gottingen, making friends in all branches of learning. From 1868 to 1870 he acted as assistant to the professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh University. During this period he was not only most successful as a teacher, but produced much original work — especially in the experimental and mathe- matical treatment of electricity — which is still regarded as standard. In 1870 he was appointed and ordained to the office of professor of Oriental languages and Old Testament exegesis at the Free Church College, Aberdeen, and here he began that series of theological investigations which, characterized as they were by learned research and the use of the most scientific methods, were destined to make his name famous. He was the pupil and personal friend of many leaders of the higher criticism in Germany, and from the first he advocated views which, though now widely accepted, were then regarded with apprehension. The articles on Biblical subjects which he contributed to the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica distressed and alarmed the authorities of the Free Church. In 1876 a committee of the General Assembly of that Church reported on them so adversely that Smith demanded a formal trial, in the course of which he defended himself with consummate ability and eloquence. The indictment dropped, but a vote of want of confidence was passed, and in 1881 Smith was removed from his chair. During this long struggle he was sustained by the conviction that he was fighting for freedom, and at the end of the trial he was probably the most popular, if not the most powerful, man in Scotland. Marks of sympathy were showered on him from all sides. In 1875 he was appointed one of the Old Testament revisers; in 1880-1882 he delivered by invitation, to very large audiences in Edinburgh and Glasgow, two courses of lectures on the criticism of the Old Testament, which he afterwards published ( The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, first edition 1881 , second edition 1892, and The Prophets of Israel, 1882, which also passed through two editions) ; and soon after his dismissal from his chair he joined Professor Baynes in the editorship of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and after Professor Baynes's death remained in supreme editorial control till the work was completed. His versa- tility, firmness combined with tact, width of view, and pains- taking struggle for accuracy were largely responsible for the maintenance of its high standard. But he did not let his other duties interfere with his Semitic studies. He visited Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Tunis and southern Spain, and had an intimate knowledge of, and personal acquaintance with, not only the literature, but the life of the East. His early friendship with J. F. McLennan, that most original student of primitive marriage, had a great influence on Smith's studies, and his attention was always strongly attracted to the comparative study of primitive customs and their meaning. His chief con- tributions to this branch of learning were his article SACRIFICE in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, his Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (Cambridge, 1885), and above all his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (ist edition 1889, 2nd edition 1894). His originality and grasp of mind enabled him to seize the essential among masses of details, and he had in a marked degree the power of carrying a subject farther than his predecessors. In 1883 Robertson Smith was appointed Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic at Cambridge, which henceforth became his home. He occupied rooms in Trinity College till 1883, when he was elected to a professorial fellowship at Christ's College. In 1886 he became university librarian, and in 1889 Adams Pro- fessor of Arabic. In 1888-1891 he delivered, as Burnett lecturer, three courses of lectures at Aberdeen on the primitive religion of the Semites. Early in 1890 grave symptoms of constitutional disease manifested themselves, and the last years of his life were full of suffering, which he bore with the utmost courage and patience. He never ceased to work, and when near his end was actively engaged in planning the Encyclopaedia Biblica, which he had hoped to edit. He died at Cambridge on the 3ist of March 1894, and was buried at Keig. Small and slight in person and never robust in health, Robertson Smith was yet a man of ceaseless and fiery energy; of an intellect extraordinarily alert and quick, and as sagacious in practical matters as it was keen and piercing in speculation; of an erudition astonishing both in its range and in its readiness; of a temper susceptible of the highest enthusiasm for worthy ends, and able to inspire others with its own ardour; endowed with the warmest affections, and with the kindest and most generous disposition, but impatient of stupidity and ready to blaze out at whatever savoured of wrong and injustice. The sweetness and purity of his nature combined with his brilliant conversational powers to render him the most delightful of friends and companions. See also James Bryce, Studies in Contemporary Biography (1903). (A. E. S.) SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840), English admiral, was the second son of Captain John Smith of the Guards, and was born at Westminster on the 2ist of July 1764. He entered the navy, according to his own account, " at the beginning of the American War," being only about eleven years of age. For his bravery under Rodney in the action near Cape St Vincent in January 1780, he was on the 2$th of September appointed lieutenant of the " Alcide," 74. After serving in the actions against the French fought by Graves off Chesapeake in 1781 and by Rodney at the Leeward Islands in 1782, he was on the 6th of May of the latter year promoted to be commander of the " Fury " sloop, and on the i8th of October advanced to the rank of captain. His ship having been paid off in the beginning of 1784, he spent two years in France and afterwards visited Spain. From 1790 to 1792 he advised the king of Sweden in the war with Russia, receiving for his services the honour of knighthood. After his re- turn to England he was sent on a mission to Constantinople, and having joined Lord Hood at Toulon from Smyrna in December 1793, he, though only on half pay, was actively employed in the attempt to burn the enemy's ships and arsenal. In the following years he was engaged in the Channel hunting French privateers; but, having with the boats of his squadron boarded in Havre-de- Gra.ce harbour a lugger which was driven by the tide above the French forts, he was on the igth of April 1796 compelled to surrender and sent a prisoner to Paris. By means of forged orders for his removal to another prison he made his escape from the Temple, and, crossing the Channel in a small skiff picked up at Havre, arrived in London on the 8th of May 1798. In October he was appointed to the command of the " Tigre," 80, and was sent to the Mediterranean. By a very curious decision of the govern- ment he was joined in commission with his brother Spencer Smith, minister at Constantinople. Learning of Bonaparte's approach to St Jean d'Acre, he hastened to its relief, and on the i6th of March 1799 captured the enemy's flotilla, after which he successfully defended the town, compelling Napoleon on the 2oth of May to raise the siege and retreat in disorder, leaving all his artillery behind. For this brilliant exploit he received the special thanks of the Houses of Parliament and was awarded an annuity of £1000. On the 24th of January 1800 he took upon himself to make the convention of El Arish, by which the French were to have been allowed to evacuate Egypt. His action was disallowed by his superiors, who insisted that the French must surrender. Sub- sequently he co-operated with Abercromby, under whom he commanded the naval brigade at the battle of Aboukir, where he was wounded. On his return to 'England he was in 1802 elected M.P. for the city of Rochester. In March 1803 he was commissioned to watch the preparations of the French for an invasion of England. Having on the 9th of November 1805 been promoted to be rear-admiral of the blue, he was in the following January despatched on secret service for the protection of Sicily and Naples. His conduct was as usual brilliant, but, also as usual, his vanity and self-assertion led him into quarrels with the military officers. He relieved Gaeta and captured Capri, but SMITH— SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 273 on the 25th of January 1807 received orders to proceed to Malta, whence he joined Sir John Duckworth, who was sent to act against the Turks. On the yth of February, with the rear division of the squadron, he destroyed the Turkish fleet and spiked the batteries off Abydos. In November following he was sent to blockade the Tagus, and was mainly instrumental in embarking the Portuguese prince regent and royal family for Rio de Janeiro, after which he was sent as commander-in-chief to the coast of S. America in February 1808. At Rio he was entangled in another quarrel with the British minister, Lord Strangford, and was summarily recalled in 1809. On the 3ist of July 1810 he was made vice-admiral of the blue, and on the i8th of July 1812 was despatched as second in command under Sir Edward Pellew (afterwards Viscount Exmouth) to the Mediterranean, but the expedition was uneventful. His term of active service practically closed in 1814. He was made K.C.B. in 1815 and in 1821 admiral. The later years of his life were spent at Paris, where he died on the 26th of May 1840. His restless self- assertion brought him into collision with many of his contempor- aries, including Nelson and Sir John Moore. Colonel Bunbury's Narrative of some Passages in the Great War with France contains a most amusing account of his theatrical vanity. But though by nature a boaster he was both daring and ingenious. See Barrow, Life of Admiral Sir W. S. Smith (2 vols., 1848). SMITH, a worker in metals. The O. Eng. smid, Du. smid, Ger. Schmied, &c., are from an obsolete Teut. verb smeilhan, to forge. The root is seen in Gr. o>iiX'?, a graver's tool. It is apparently not connected with " smooth," where an original m has been lost. There is no foundation for the old etymological guess which identifies " smith " with " to smite, " as the one who smites or beats iron. When used without such qualification as appears in " goldsmith," " silversmith," &c., the term means a worker in iron, especially as indicating a " blacksmith," one who forges iron, as opposed to " whitesmith," the finisher and polisher of iron, or " tinsmith," a worker in tin. The word has originated one of the commonest of English surnames, sometimes taking various archaic forms (Smyth, Smythe, Smigth, &c.; also German Schmidt). SMITH COLLEGE, an American institution for the higher education of women, at Northampton, Massachusetts. It was founded by the will of Sophia Smith (1796-1870) of Hatfield, who gave money to Smith Academy in Northampton and to Andover Theological Seminary, and who left about $365,000 " for the establishment and maintenance of an institution for the higher education of young women, with the design to furnish them means and facilities for education equal to those which are afforded in our colleges for young men "; she chose Northampton as the site of the college and selected the trustees. The college was chartered in 1871 and was opened in 1875. On the college campus in the central part of Northampton are College Hall, with administrative offices, an assembly hall, and lecture rooms; Seelye Hall, with department offices and recitation rooms; a library, completed in 1910 and containing 30,000 volumes in that year; an auditorium, with a large organ and a seating capacity of 2500; the Lilly Hall of Science; Chemistry Hall; an astronomica observatory; Music Hall; the Hillyer Art Gallery, with an en dowment of $50,000 for the increase of its collections; the Students Building for the social life of the students; the Lyman Plant House and the Botanic Garden; the Alumnae Gymnasium; the Allen Recreation Field; sixteen (in 1910) dwelling-houses for the student on the plan of private homes, not dormitories; an infirmary; am Sunnyside, a home for convalescents. Entrance requirements diffc little from those of the College Entrance Examination Board. Al undergraduate courses are largely elective and lead to the degrei of Bachelor of Arts. Graduate courses lead to the degrees o Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy, the latter degree being rarely conferred and " only in recognition of high scholarly attain ment and of ability to carry on original research." In igog-igK there were 104 teachers and 1635 students (of whom 8 were graduati students), and the college had an endowment of about $1,300,000 The annual tuition charge was $100 until 1909, when it became $150 There are six fellowships, of $500 each.whichare granted for gradual research ; and there are many undergraduate scholarships, and loan are made to needy students by the Smith Students' Aid Societi (1897). The College contributes to the American Classical Schools a Athens and Rome, to the Zoological Station at Naples, and to th Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Th irst president of the college from 1873 to September 1910 was ..awrenus Clark Seelye (b. 1837), a graduate of Union College and of Andover Theological Seminary. SMITH'S FALLS, a town and outport of Lanark county, Ontario, Canada, on the Rideau river and canal, and the Canadian 'acific railway, 28 m. N.W. of Brockville. Pop. (1901) 5155. t contains saw, shingle, woollen and planing mills, and large agricultural implement works, and has regular steamer connexion with Kingston and Ottawa by the Rideau river and canal. SMITHSON, HENRIETTA CONSTANCE (1800-1854), Irish actress, was the daughter of a theatrical manager. She made icr first stage appearance in 1815 at the Crow Street theatre, Dublin, as Albina Mandeville in Reynolds's Will. Three years ater she made her first London appearance at Drury Lane as •etitia Hardy. She had no particular success in England; but in Paris, in 1828 and 1832, whither she first went with Vlacready, she aroused immense enthusiasm as Desdemona, Virginia, Juliet and Jane Shore. She had a host of admirers, among them Hector Berlioz (q.v.), whom she married in 1833. They separated in 1840. At the time of her marriage her popularity was already over and she was deeply in debt. A jenefit was given her, but she had the mortification of seeing rival applauded when she herself was coldly received. She retired from the stage, and died on the 3rd of March 1854. SMITHSON, JAMES (1765-1829), British chemist and mineral- ogist and founder of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, natural son of Hugh Smithson, ist duke of Northumberland, by Mrs Elizabeth Keate Macie, a granddaughter of Sir George Hungerford of Studley, was born in France in 1765. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1786, and was known in early life as James Lewis (or Louis) Macie. He took the name of James Smithson about the year 1800. His attention was given to chemistry and mineralogy, and he published analyses of calamines and other papers in the Annals of Philosophy and Phil. Trans. The mineral name ' smithsonite " was originally given in his honour by Beudant to zinc carbonate, but having also been applied to the silicate, the name is now rarely used. In 1784 he accompanied Faujas St Fond in his journey to the Western Isles, and in the English translation of the Travels in England, Scotland and the Hebrides (1799) Smithson is spoken of as " M. de Mecies of London." He was elected F.R.S. in 1787. He died at Genoa 'on the 27th of June 1829. By his will he bequeathed upwards of £100,000 to the United States of America to found the Smithsonian Institution. The institution (see below) was founded by act of Congress on the loth of August 1846. See " James Smithson and his Bequest " (with portraits), by W. J. Rhees, and " The Scientific Writings of James Smithson," edited by W. J. Rhees, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. xxi. (1879- 1880). SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an American institution of learning in Washington, D.C., founded by the bequest of James Smithson (q.v.), who seems to have known of Joel Barlow's plan for a national institution of learning in the city of Washing- ton in accordance with George Washington's recommendation in his farewell address of 1796. His estate was left to a nephew, Henry James Hungerford, with the stipulation that should Hungerford die without issue the whole estate should go " to the United States of America to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Hunger- ford died without issue in 1835. There was much opposition in America to the acceptance of Smithson's bequest, especially by John C. Calhoun and others who held that Congress had no power under the Constitution to accept such a gift, but the gift was accepted, largely through the efforts of John Quincy Adams; and Richard Rush, sent to England as agent for the United States, quickly obtained a verdict for the American claim to the estate. In September 1838 £104,960 in gold sovereigns was delivered from the clipper " Mediator " to the Philadelphia mint, where it was recoined into American money, $508,318-46; in 1867, after the death of Hungerford's mother, a residuary legacy of $26,210 was received and the fund then 274 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION amounted to $650,000. An act of the 7th of July 1838 (repealed in 1841) directed the investment of the money in state bonds, and $500,000 was invested in Arkansas bonds which proved worthless, but Congress, considering that it was a trustee of the fund, made an appropriation to cover the loss. By other gifts, notably that of $216,000 from Thomas George Hodgkins (d. 1892) of Setauket, Long Island, New York, the fund was increased: in 1910 it amounted to $944,918, drawing interest at 6%. There were many different suggestions as to how the fund should be used. The character of the National Institute (called National Institution before 1843), which was organized in 1840 " to promote science and the useful arts and to establish a national museum of history," had a great influence in shaping the act (approved on the loth of August 1846) establishing the Smithsonian Institution and providing for an " establishment " by this name composed of the president, vice-president, secretaries of state, treasury, war and navy, the postmaster- general, the attorney-general,1 the chief-justice of the supreme court and the commissioner of the patent office of the United States, the mayor of the city of Washington (amended in 1871 to read: governor of the District of Columbia), and such other persons as they may elect honorary members.2 The same act provided for the government of the Institution by a Board of Regents composed of the vice-president of the United States, the mayor of the city of Washington (amended in 1871 as above), three members of the Senate (appointed by its president), three members of the House of Representatives3 (appointed by its speaker), two members of the National Institute of the City of Washington (chosen by joint resolution of the Senate and House of Representatives), and four others, inhabitants of four different states; the Board chose from its members a chancellor (in practice the vice-president of the United States until 1 850 and since then the chief -justice). The act provided for the delivery to the Board of Regents and the maintenance in the buildings, which were to be erected according to the act, of " all objects of art and of foreign and curious research, and all objects of natural history," &c., belonging to the United States, including the collections of Smithson; and it enacted that any applicant for copyright should deliver one copy of the work to be copyrighted to the librarian of the Smithsonian Institution and another to the Librarian of Congress.4 Thanks to the efforts of J. Q. Adams, provision was made for the use of the income of the fund only and the principal was permanently invested. The Regents met on the 7th of September 1846. Those appointed were: George Evans, Sidney Breese and Isaac S. Pennybacker, senators; Robert Dale Owen, William J. Hough and Henry W. Hilliard, members of the House of Repre- sentatives; Rufus Choate, Gideon Hawley, Richard Rush and William C. Preston, by joint resolution, from four different states; and Alexander Dallas Bache and General Joseph G. Totten, from the National Institute. They elected (Dec. 1846) as first secretary and director of the Institution, Joseph Henry, then professor of natural philosophy in the College of New Jersey tPnnceton University), who presented in his first annual report (Dec. 1847) a "program of organization."6 The first paragraph contained the following: — " To Increase Know- ledge: It is proposed (i) to stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offering suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and (2) to appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular researches, under the direction of 1 The Secretary of the Interior was added in 1877 and the Secretary of Agriculture in 1894. 2 No honorary members have been chosen since 1873, and an amendment of 1894 omits the provision for their election. 3 In January 1847 James D. Westcott objected to the constitution- ality of the act because by it members of Congress were appointed (contrary to section 6, part ii. of the Constitution) to civil offices under the authority of the United States created during their term of office in Congress. 4 In 1865 the actual granting of copyright was transferred from the Smithsonian Institution to the Library of Congress. 5 Reprinted in Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections, vol. xxi. pp. 399-406. suitable persons. To Diffuse Knowledge: It is proposed (i) to publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of different branches of knowledge; and (2) to publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general interest." Henry was executive head (secretary) of the Institution from 1846 until his death in 1878 and its organization is due largely to him. He opposed the scheme for the gradual formation of a general library under the charge of the Institution, and in 1855 committed the Board of Regents to a repeal of the previous practice of spending one-half of the annual income on the museum and library, and this action was approved by an investigating congressional committee.6 Partly because of the prominence given to meteorological research when Henry was at the Albany Academy, and partly through the influence of James Pollard Espy (1785-1860), in 1846 a plan was presented for the unification and systematization of weather observation under the Institution, and in December 1847 an appropriation was made for such meteorological research; in 1849 telegraphic transmission of meteorological intelligence collected by the Institution was begun; in 1850 a standard " Smithsonian barometer " (Arnold Guyot's improvement of Ernst's improved Fortin " cistern barometer ") was first distributed; weather maps were successfully made in 1856; and in 1870 the meteorological work of the Institution was incorpor- ated as the Weather Bureau, independent of the Institution. After 1854 Henry's annual reports contained a " general appendix " with reports of lectures, such as were held under the auspices of the Institution until 1865, summaries of correspondence, special papers, &c. Before 1870 meteorology bulked largely in these reports; after that year there was more North American archaeology and ethnology. Spencer F. Baird, Henry's successor, incorporated in the general appendix annual reports on the progress of the sciences, and he perfected Henry's system of " international exchanges," under which the Institution, through agents in the principal cities of Europe, ex- changes its own publications, those of other departments of the United States government, and those of learned societies for foreign publications. Baird had been at the head of the United States National Museum, a branch of the Institution, before he became secretary of the Institution, and it was particularly developed during his administration. It was built up around the collections of the United States Patent Office, which were turned over to it in 1858, and those of the National Institute, transferred to the Smithsonian Institution in 1861, when the Institute was dissolved. A part of the collection (including Smithson's collection) was destroyed^ by fire in 1865. The small art collection which remained was exhibited in the Corcoran Gallery until 1896. A new building for the Museum was erected in 1881. Mrs Harriet Lane Johnston (1833-1903) left her art collection to a national gallery of art, when such a gallery should be established, and in 1906 the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia decreed that the art collection of the National Museum was a " National Gallery " and turned this collection over to the National Museum, whose art collections have been called since that time the National Gallery of Art and have been enlarged by the gift from Charles L. Freer of Detroit of more than 2300 pieces (since 1904) , including the work of American artists (especially Whistler, Tryon and T. W. Dewing) and of Japanese and Chinese masters, and by the gift of about 90 American paintings from W. T. Evans of New York City. The museum gained much valuable archaeological and ethno- logical material from the exploring parties sent out under J. W. Powell, excellent ichthyological specimens through Baird's position as United States Fish Commissioner, and general collections from the exhibits made at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 by the United States government; and it has a good herbarium. The Bureau of American Ethnology was established as a branch of the Institution in 1879, when the various organizations doing survey work in the West united as the United States Geological Survey and anthropo- logical and ethnological research was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution. The director of the Bureau of Ethnology in 1879-1902 was J. W. Powell; he was succeeded by William H. Holmes. Secretary Baird planned an astrophysical observatory and in 1887 appointed as assistant secretary of the Institution, to take charge of the observatory, Samuel P. Langley (q.v.), who succeeded as secretary 7 upon Baird's death in the same year. In 1890 a small observatory was built in the Smithsonian Park; in 1891 an appropriation was made for astrophysical work and $5000 was contributed by the executors of Dr J. H. Kidder (1842-1889). Langley's principal research in the observatory was on the nature of the infra-red portion of the spectrum. His name is also closely connected with his paper entitled Experiments in Aerodynamics (1891), and with the experiments and mathematical studies carried on under the Institu- tion which proved that a machine other than a balloon could be made which would produce enough mechanical power to support itself and fly. Under the terms of the Hodgkins bequest prizes were 6 Congress was long jealous of the power of the Board of Regents; and in Congress there was for many years open opposition notably on the part of Andrew Johnson, to the very existence of the Institu- tion. 7 In January 1907, after Langley's death, Charles Doolittle Walcott (b. 1850), a geologist, director of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1894-1907, became secretary of the Institution. SMOHALLA— SMOKE 275 offered in 1893 for research and investigation of atmospheric air in connexion with the welfare of mankind; in 1895 an award of $10,000 was made to Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay for their discovery of argon ; and a medal was awarded to Sir James Dewar in 1899 and one to Sir J. J. Thomson in 1901. During Langley's administration the American Historical Association was incorporated in 1889 as a branch of the Institution, to whose secretary it makes its annual reports ; and the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution was similarly incorporated in 1896. By acts of Congress of the 2nd of March 1889 and the 3oth of April 1890 the National Zoological Park was established under the Institution; and in a park of 266 acres in the valley of Rock Creek a small collec- tion was installed. In Langley's Annual Reports the summaries of the advance of science were omitted in 1889 and thereafter special papers of interest to professional students were published in their place. The Smithsonian Park occupies a square equivalent to nine city blocks, almost exactly the same size as the Capitol grounds. The oldest building, that of the Institution proper, was erected in 1847-1855; it is Seneca brown stone in a mingled Gothic and Romanesque style, designed by James Renwick, and occupies the S.W. corner of the grounds. E. of it is the building of the United States National Museum (330 ft. sq.), erected in 1881 ; and on the N. side of the park is the new building of the National Museum (1903). On the grounds is a bronze statue of Joseph Henry by W. W. Story. The Institution publishes : Annual Reports (1846 seq.), in which the Reports of the National Museum were included until 1884 — since then they appeared as " part ii." of that Report; The Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (quarto, 1848 sqq.); The Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections (octavos, 1862 sqq.); Proceedings of the United States National Museum (1878 sqq.); Bulletin of the United States National Museum (1875 sqq.), containing larger monographs than those printed in the Proceedings; and occasional Special Bulletins; Annual Reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology (1880 sqq.); Bulletin (1877 sqq.), including The Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico (1907), part i. being Bulletin 30; and Contributions to North American Ethnology (1877 sqq.); Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory (1900 sqq.) ; and Annual Reports of the American Historical Association (1890 sqq.). AUTHORITIES. — See Wm. J. Rhees, A List of Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1903 (Washington, 1903), being No. 1376 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections; also The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896: The History of its First Half- Century (Washington, 1897), edited by George Brown Goode, assistant secretary of the Institution; Wm. J. Rhees, Smithson and His Bequest (ibid. 1880), and The Smithsonian Institution, 1846- 1899 (ibid. 1901) ; and Richard Rathbun, The National Gallery of Art (ibid. 1909), being Bulletin 70 of the U.S. National Museum. SMOHALLA, or SHMOQUALA (i.e. " preacher "), chief of the Wanapum tribe of North American Indians and founder of the religious sect called Dreamers, was born about 1820. On one occasion after a tribal fray he was left for dead, but recovered and journeyed through California, Mexico, Arizona and Nevada to his old home on the upper Columbia, Washington, where he announced that he had been in the spirit world and had returned with a new revelation. This consisted in a return to primitive Indian customs, and a priesthood and ritual based on the Roman Catholic type. Besides Sunday services the Dreamers hold a service for the commemoration of the dead in early spring, and thanksgivings for salmon and for berries in April and in October respectively. Smohalla had frequent trances and his influence extended over most of the tribes of eastern Washington, and Oregon and western Idaho. The sect gave some trouble in 1870 by refusing to come under reservation restrictions. A church was established at Priest's Rapids on the upper Columbia, and one at Union Gap on the Yakima reservation. See James Mooney, " The Ghost-dance religion," in I4th Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1896). SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch smook, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. afj.vx.eiv), the vapour or volatile matter which escapes from a burning substance during combustion, especially the visible vapour produced by the burning of coal, wood, peat or vegetable substances generally. In this article the various legislative and other measures recom- mended or adopted for the abating of the nuisance caused by the excessive production of smoke are dealt with. For smoking of tobacco see TOBACCO and PIPE, and for opium-smoking OPIUM. Smoke Abatement. — The nuisance created by coal .smoke seems to have been recognized in London since 1306, when a citizen was tried, condemned and executed for burning " sea cole " in the city of London; but it is only in more modern times that the question has been regarded as one of real practical importance. In 1785 the first smoke-abating invention was patented by James Watt, and in 1800 a mechanical stoker was patented by Robertson. In 1815 Cutler patented the first would-be smokeless grate for domestic purposes; and his principle of feeding underneath was afterwards adopted by Dr Neil Arnott. In 1819 a parliamentary select committee was appointed " to inquire how far persons using steam-engines and furnaces could erect them in a manner less prejudicial to public health and comfort." In 1843 another select committee recommended the introduction of a bill prohibiting the produc- tion of smoke from furnaces and steam-engines. In 1845 yet another select committee reported that such an act could not in the existing state of affairs be made to apply to dwelling- houses. The Acts of 1845 and 1847 followed as the results of these inquiries; and since then there has been much legislation brought to bear on factories and railways. The Public Health Act 1875 contains the statutory law as to the emission of smoke and applies throughout the country, except to London and a few large provincial towns such as Manchester, Liverpool, Sheffield, Leeds, Bradford and Nottingham, where smoke nuisances are controlled by special local acts. The law applying to the Metropolis is identical with that which governs the country at large, and is contained in the Public Health (London) Act 1891. Section 91, sub-section 7, of the Public Health Act 1875 enacts: " Any fireplace or furnace which does not, as far as practicable, consume the smoke arising from the combustible used therein, and which is used for working engines by steam, or in any mill, factory, dyehouse, brewery, bakehouse or gaswork, or in any manufacturing or trade process whatsoever " ; and sub-sec. 8, " any chimney (not being the chimney of a private dwelling-house) sending forth black smoke in such quantity as to be a nuisance, shall be deemed to be a nuisance liable to be dealt with summarily in manner provided by this act." A further clause provides that for the purposes of sub-sec. 7 the offence is not merely the emission of smoke, but the use of a fire- place or furnace " which does not as far as practicable consume the smoke," and this enables a technical defence to be raised which in practice has been found to destroy the efficacy of sub-sec. 7. Under sub-sec. 8 the mere fact of sending forth black smoke in such quantity as to be a nuisance is an offence, unless it be emitted from the chimney of a private dwelling-house. This sub-section is therefore always resorted to by sanitary authorities who initiate prosecutions for smoke nuisances. It has been decided that where black smoke issued from a chimney several times a day for varying periods the magistrate was justified in finding that the smoke issued in " such quantity as to be a nuisance," although it was not shown that any particular person, or property, was injuriously affected thereby (South London Electric Supply Corporation v. Perrin (1901) 2 K.B. 186). It has also been held that smoke need not be injurious to health in order to be a nuisance (Gaskell v. Bayley, 30 L.T.N.S. 316). It therefore follows that the issue of black smoke from ordinary factory chimneys is per se a nuisance. From a practical point of view, however, it is often found difficult to identify exactly the colour of the smoke, the appearance of which varies in accordance with the position of the observer, and the light behind or in front of the smoke. To aid inspectors various smoke charts and instruments have been devised, none of which is wholly satisfactory. The best chart is the Ringlemann smoke scale, made by ruling black lines at right angles on a white background. It has six shades, numbered 0-5, obtained by graduating the thickness of the lines. The difficulty of accurately denning the colour of smoke has led to a movement, initiated by the London County Council, for securing the deletion of the word " black " from the Public Health Act, so as to leave to magistrates the duty of deciding a question of fact — whether the smoke complained of constituted a nuisance. The Nottingham Improvement Act 1874 (sec. 74) contains the most efficacious provisions in regard to smoke nuisances which are to be met with in England. It enables steps to be taken in cases where the engines or furnaces are not suitable, and if they are properly constructed, but negligently used, it enables the fireman or other responsible employee to be fined. Although steam-engines and factories consume individually much more coal than dwelling-houses, they alone are not respon- sible for the smoke nuisance, for there is little doubt that domestic fires are mainly responsible for the smoky condition of the atmosphere of our towns, for they continue to evolve smoke undeterred by legislation. In 1881, however, a movement was begun by the National Health Society and the Kyrle Society, which resulted in a smoke abatement exhibition being held at 276 SMOKE South Kensington. At the close of the exhibition a national smoke abatement institution, with offices in London, was formed. In the United Kingdom the subject takes an important place in the programme of the Royal Sanitary Institute, whilst the Coal Smoke Abatement Society is devoted to improving the prevailing conditions, especially in the Metropolis, and has organized a number of exhibitions and conferences on the subject. Several smoke abatement committees exist in the provinces. A knowledge of the nature of coal and of its combustion is essential for an understanding of the smoke problem. For the purposes of this article coals may be classified as smoke-producing or bituminous, and smokeless, the former including all those varieties most commonly used as fuel. The elementary constituents of such coals are carbon (generally about 80%), hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur, and they also contain a varying quantity of earthy impurity or ash. The process which occurs in a coal fire consists of two distinct operations. The first, which requires a comparatively low tempera- ture and is independent of the presence of air, is one of destructive distillation, similar to that which occurs in the retorts of gasworks. It results in the decomposition of the coal, and the formation of the following substances: — (l) hydrogen, marsh-gas, carbon monoxide, ethylene, benzene, other hydrocarbons of the paraffin and benzenoid series, water — all of which are either gaseous at the temperature at which they are formed or capable of being converted into gas at some- what higher temperatures, and all of which are combustible except the water; (2) ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds and certain compounds of sulphur, which are also volatile and com- bustible; (3) coke, which consists of carbon (and ash) and is non- volatile but combustible. It is these products of distillation, not the coal itself, that burn, in the strict sense of the word ; and this second process requires the presence of air and also a much higher tempera- ture than the first. If the combustion is perfect, the only products sulphur, while the nitrogen is liberated as such together with the very much larger volumes of nitrogen derived from the air which has supplied the necessary oxygen. These products are discharged through the chimney. Two things are necessary for ensuring such complete combustion, viz. an adequate, but not too large, supply of air, properly ad- ministered, and the maintenance of the requisite temperature. In practice, however, these conditions are never perfectly fulfilled, and consequently the combustion of coal is always more or less imperfect and gives rise to a complex mixture of vapours. This mixture con- tains not only the combustion products already mentioned, but also the following unburnt or partly burnt distillation products: — (5) hydrogen, (6) hydrocarbons, (7) carbon monoxide, (8) unburnt carbon in a very finely divided state, and also considerable volumes of unused air. Usually the name " smoke " is applied to this vaporous mixture discharged from a chimney only when it contains a sufficient amount of finely divided carbon to render it dark- coloured and distinctly visible. The quantity, however, of this particular ingredient is apt to be overrated. It always bears an extremely small proportion to the vast volumes of water-vapour, carbon dioxide and nitrogen with which it is mixed; it probably never amounts, even in the worst cases, to 3% of the weight of the coal from which it is formed ; and its importance, reckoned in terms of so much fuel wasted, is certainly not greater than that of the unburnt hydrogen and hydrocarbons. It is perhaps best to use the name " smoke " for all the products of imperfect combustion (5 to 8) which are avoidable, as contrasted with the necessary and unavoidable ingredients (i to 4). The problem of smoke abatement is thus seen to resolve itself into the problem of the production of perfect combustion. The solution of this problem would lead to an important saving in fuel. It has been calculated that at least twice as much coal is used in boiler fires and six times as much in domestic fires as is theoretically required for the production of the effects obtained. A considerable portion of this loss is certainly un- avoidable; nevertheless, much of this enormous waste could be prevented by improved methods of combustion. Another advantage is the gain in cleanliness and public convenience; not only would there be an end to sooty chimneys, but the atmosphere of towns would no longer be polluted by unburnt carbon, whose total quantity is enormous, though the amount contained in any given puff of smoke is very small. The " London " or " pea-soup " fog would be avoided, not because fogs would become any less frequent than now in London and other large cities, but because they would lose their distinctive grimy opacity. An investigation of London fogs was made in 1901-1903 by the Meteorological Council with the assistance of the London County Council, from which it appeared that 20% of fogs were entirely due to smoke, and that in every case the density and duration of fogs was enormously added to by smoke. It is often stated that these fogs are caused by the smoke that blackens them; but this is an error. The combustion of coal is certainly responsible for-their existence, but it is the sulphur of the coal (oxidized ultimately to sulphuric acid), and not the carbon, that is the active agent. So long as coal is burnt at all this manu- facture of sulphuric acid and of fogs must continue; it is not to be got rid of by improved methods of combustion, though the character of the fogs may be materially improved. The evil effects of town air on plant life and human lungs, also often attributed to preventible smoke, are in like manner due to this non-preventible sulphuric acid. Sixteen million tons of coal are annually used in London for heating purposes, and it has been shown by Dr Rideal that, as the sulphur content of this coal ranges from I to 2 %, there is diffused in the air of the metropolis from half a million to a million tons of sulphuric acid every year. The extent to which smoke and fog affect life and injure property is, perhaps, a matter of opinion. It has, however, been proved that the death-rate enormously expands in foggy weather, and the Hon. Rollo Russell has made a careful calculation showing the extra cost which the smoke nuisance annually imposes upon London. The figure at which he has arrived is £5,470,000, including damage to buildings, fabrics and works of art. The amount of coal consumed each year in the country was calculated by the Royal Commission on coal supplies to amount to 160,000,000 tons, of which 36,000,000 or 19-2 % are consumed for domestic purposes, and 53,000,000 tons are used in ordinary factories. Thirteen million tons are taken by railways, 15,000,000 by gasworks and 28,000,000 tons by the iron and steel industries. The methods that have been suggested for the abolition of smoke may be divided into two great classes, viz. those that seek to attain this end by improving the appliances for the burning of bituminous coal, and those that propose to abolish its use and substitute for it some other kind of fuel. The proposals of the first class may be divided into those applicable to domestic purposes and those appli- cable to boiler fires and other large-scale operations. Those of the second class may be divided according to the nature of the fuel which they suggest. The innumerable inventions of the first class depend for their success (so far as they are successful) on the attention bestowed on the scientific requisites for complete combustion, viz. a sufficient but not too great supply of air, the thorough admixture of this air with the products of the destructive distillation of the coal, and the maintenance of a high temperature within the fire. In the old and crude methods the facts which most militate against the attainment of these desiderata are — (l) that large masses of fresh fuel are thrown on at the top, which cool down the fire where the highest temperature is required; (2) that the products of the distillation of this fresh fuel, heated from below, do not get properly mixed with air till they have been drawn up the chimney ; (3) that unduly large volumes of cold air are continually being sucked up through the fire, cooling it and carrying its heat away from where it is wanted, and yet without remedying the second evil. In the improved methods regularity of supply of both fuel and air is sought so as to maintain a steady evolution of distillation products, a steady temperature, and a steady and complete combustion. In many cases it is sought to warm fresh air before it enters the room by a regenerative system, the heat being taken from the escaping gases which would otherwise carry it up the chimney ; and in some cases the air which feeds the fire is heated in the same way. Tests applied at the South Kensington Exhibition of 1882 and in recent years by the Coal Smoke Abatement Society acting in con- junction with the Office of Works, for domestic grates and stoves, have included a chemical examination of the chimney gases, ob- servations of the " smoke-shade " as indicating the proportion of unburnt carbon, and a record of the amount of coal burnt, of the rise of temperature produced, of the radiation, and of the amount of heat lost by being carried away through the chimney. Domestic grates and stoves are divided into six classes : — (i) open grates having ordinary bottom grids and upward draught; (2) open grates having solid floors (adapted for " slow combustion ") and upward draught; (3) open grates fed from below, supplied with fresh fuel beneath the incandescent fuel; (4) open grates fed from the back or from the sides or from hoppers; (5) open grates having downward or backward or lateral draught; (6) close stoves. Each of these classes is subdivided according as the apparatus is " air-heating " or " non-air-heating," i.e. according as an attempt is or is not made to save heat on the regenerative principle. The following conclusions, among others, have been arrived at:— (a) the air-heating principle has not been applied with success except in class 5; (6) close stoves (class 6) are superior to open grates (total average of classes 1-5) in respect of freedom from smoke and of general heating effect, but SMOLENSK 277 they are greatly inferior in radiating power; (c) the "slow-com- bustion " principle gives a high radiation factor, with a lower consumption of fuel, but is otherwise not successful; (d) the class of air-heating grates with downward, backward, or lateral draughts and with a large surface of fire-brick for radiating heat is, on the whole, most efficient (see HEATING). In boiler fires, both for locomotives and for fixed appliances, the desiderata are essentially the same as in the case of domestic fires ; the principles involved are consequently also the same, though the appliances are necessarily different. These improvements may be all classed under one or other of two heads, according as the mode of supplying the fuel or the mode of supplying the air is the subject of the improvement. These two kinds of improvement may of course be combined. In the old forms of furnace fresh fuel, as it is wanted, is supplied by hand labour, the furnace doors being opened and large quantities of coal thrown in. One result of this is the inrush of great volumes of cold air, which, aided by the equally cold fuel, lowers the general temperature of the furnace. Mechanical stokers meet this difficulty by supplying the coal regularly in small quantities at a time. They may be divided into " coking " stokers, which deliver the coal at the front and gradually push it backward; " sprinkling " stokers, which scatter it generally over the surface of the grate; and " underfeed " stokers, which raise it from below so that the products of its dis- tillation pass through the already incandescent fuel. The mechanism by which these results are attained is often of a complex nature. It is generally recognized that air cannot be efficiently supplied to the furnace if admitted only in front, and accordingly many plans have been devised for supplying it also at the back and sides. In some cases currents of air are induced by steam-jets ; but this plan has not always proved successful. The inventions on the regenerative principle are more generally satisfactory. In them the air, before entering the furnace, is made to circulate through chambers heated externally by the products of combustion, and, having thus acquired a high temperature and absorbed heat that would otherwise have been lost, is admitted through openings at the bridge. Many of these appliances are almost absolutely smokeless, and they are much in use, as they have been shown to effect great economy in coal consumption. It must not be forgotten, however, that with the use of trained stokers a high degree of boiler efficiency is reached by hand-firing alone. Indeed, it has been proved by actual tests that, when pitted against untrained men, skilled stokers have raised the thermal efficiency of their plant by over 16%, without creating smoke nuisances. In Germany stokers are trained under careful state super- vision, and similar work has been started at the Borough Polytechnic Institute by the London County Council. The advocates of the total or partial disuse of smoke-producing coals are variously in favour of anthracite, coke, electric power, liquid fuel or gas. In some factories, such as malting works, anthracite and other coals containing a high percentage of carbon may be and have long been advantageously used as fuel. They yield a much smaller percentage of distillation products than ordinary coals, and produce no smoke or almost none. But they are difficult to ignite, and in small fires difficult to keep burning without forced draught; they give very little flame, and are comparatively expensive, so that they are under considerable disadvantage as compared with the usual kinds of coal. Many grates and stoves have been devised for burning anthracite for domestic heating, and some of them are successful and economical ; but, in view of the national prejudice in favour of a bright and open fire, it is not likely that anthracite will ever replace bituminous coal to any great extent in the British Isles, where the great coal-fields undoubtedly are the natural sources of fuel. This remark, however, does not apply to the use of coke and of gas, which are themselves made from coal. Coke is produced in large quantities, both for its own sake and as a by-product in the manu- facture of gas for lighting purposes, and is largely used in various kinds of furnaces It gives no smoke; but it resembles anthracite also in being but ill adapted for use in open grates on account of the difficulty of ignition and the absence of flame. One of the most notable features of the smoke abatement movement in recent years has been the manufacture of smokeless fuels capable of being readily and satisfactorily burnt in ordinary household grates. The use of such fuels is growing and will, in conjunction with the enormous expansion in the use of gas- cookers and heating appliances, do much to eliminate smoke nuisances from private houses. Over 750,000 gas-cookers are in use in the metropolis alone, and their aggregate effect in preventing the emission of smoke from kitchen chimneys must be very great. Liquid fuel or natural petroleum, which has come into excep- tional prominence during recent years as a heating agent, owes its success to its relatively smokeless combustion and high efficiency. The same applies to gaseous fuel, which includes in addition to ordinary coal gas other mixtures of gases which burn with a high heating value and with no deleterious vapours or smoke (see FUEL : Liquid and Gaseous) . Electricity is now also being largely utilized in factories for power purposes, and is thus bearing its share in solving the problem of smoke abatement. See Official Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee (London 1882); W. C. Popplewell, The Prevention of Smoke (1901); W. Nicholson, Smoke Abatement (1905); also the publications of the London Coal Smoke Abatement Society; Booth and Kershaw, Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy (1904); Reports of the Laws in certain Foreign Countries in regard to Emission of Smoke from Chimneys (Foreign Office Return),Cd. 2347 (1905) ; LondonFoglnquiry (1901-1902) (Reports to and by the Meteorological Council). (O. M.; L. W. CH.) SMOLENSK, a government of middle Russia, belonging partly to Great Russia and partly to White Russia, bounded by the governments of Moscow and Kaluga on the E., Orel and Cherni- gov on the S., Mogilev and Vitebsk on the W., and Pskov and Tver on the N. It covers an area of 2 1 ,63 2 sq. m. in the W. of the great central plateau, its N. districts extending towards the hilly region of the Valdai. The rivers being deeply cut in the plateau, the surface is also hilly in the W. districts (Smolensk, Doro- gobuzh), whence it slopes away gently towards vast plains on the E. and S. Carboniferous limestones, containing a few deposits of coal (in Yukhnov) and quarried for building purposes, occupy the E. of Smolensk; chalk appears in the S. extremity; while tertiary sands, marls and ferruginous clays cover all the W. The whole is overlain with a thick sheet of boulder clay, with irregular extensions to the N.; post-tertiary sands are spread over wide surfaces; and peat-bogs fill the marshy depressions. The soil, mostly clay, is generally unfertile, and stony and sandy in several districts. The rivers Vazuza and Gzhat, both flowing into the Volga, and the Moskva and the Ugra, tributaries of the Oka, are channels for floating timber. The two tributaries of the Dvina — the Kasplya and the Mezha — are of much more import- ance, as they and their affluents carry considerable numbers of boats to Riga. The Dnieper takes its origin in Smolensk and drains it for more than 300 m. ; but neither this river nor its tributaries (Vop, Vyazma, Sozh and Desna), whose upper courses belong to Smolensk, are navigable; timber only is floated down some of them. Many small lakes and extensive marshes occur in the N.W. More than one-third of the area is under forests. The climate is like that of middle Russia generally, although the moderating influence of the damp climate of.W. Europe is felt to some extent. The average yearly temperature at the city of Smolensk is 45-5° Fahr. (January, 13-5°; July, 67-2°). The estimated population in 1906 was 1,762,400. It is chiefly composed of White Russians (55%) in the W., 'and Great Russians (43%) in the E. Most of the inhabitants (98%) belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; the rest are Noncon- formists. The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Smolensk, Byelyi, Dorogobuzh, Dukhov- shina, Elnya, Gzhatsk, Krasnyi, Poryechie, Roslavl, Sychevka, Vyazma and Yukhnov. Notwithstanding the unproductive soil and the frequent failures of crops (especially in the N.W.), the chief occupation is agriculture. Out of the total area 38J% is held by the village communities, 52% by private persons and 2|% by the crown; 7% is uncultivable. Nearly 30% of the surface is arable land, and over 20% is under meadows. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley, buck- wheat and potatoes. Grain has to be imported. Improved agri- cultural implements are beginning to be manufactured within the government, and to be used by the landlords, and partly also by the peasants. Flax and hemp are important crops, and some tobacco is grown. The live stock of the peasantry suffer from a want of meadow and pasture land, which is chiefly in private ownership. The peasantry are mostly very poor, in consequence not only of the French invasion in 1812, the effects of which are still felt, but also of insufficient allotments and want of meadows. In the way of mining phosphorite only is extracted. The most important industries are cotton, oil and paper mills, distilleries and breweries. The timber trade and boat-building are important sources of income, but more than one-half of the male population of west Smolensk leave their homes every year in search of work, principally as navvies throughout Russia. A lively traffic is carried on on the rivers, principally the Kasplya, the Obzha and the Ugra, corn, hemp, hempseed, linseed and especially timber being shipped. A considerable quantity of corn is imported into the W. districts. SMOLENSK— SMOLLETT Smolensk is crossed by two important railways, from Moscow to Warsaw and from Riga to Saratov ; a branch line connects Vyazma with Kaluga. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) SMOLENSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on both banks of the Dnieper, at the junction of the railways from Moscow to Warsaw and from Riga to Orel, 252 m. by rail W.S.W. of Moscow. Pop. (1900) 57,405. The town, with the ruins of its old kreml, or citadel, is built on high crags on the left bank of the Dnieper. Its walls, built during the reign of Boris Godunov (1598-1605), are rapidly falling into decay. But the city has much improved of late years. It has monuments in commemoration of the war of 1812 and of the Russian musical composer, M. I. Glinka (1885). It has three public libraries, an historical and archaeological museum, a people's palace, and several scientific societies. The cathedral was erected in 1676-1772, on the site of a more primitive building (dating from 1101), which was blown up in 1611 by the defenders of the city during a siege by the Poles. The picture of the Virgin brought to Russia in 1046, and attributed to St Luke, which is kept in this cathedral, is much venerated throughout central Russia. Two other churches, built in the I3th century, have been spoiled by recent additions. Smolensk is neither a com- mercial nor a manufacturing centre. Smolensk is one of the oldest towns of Russia, and is mentioned in Nestor's Chronicle as the chief town of the Slav tribe of the Krivichis, situated, on the great commercial route " from the Varyaghs to the Greeks." It maintained a lively traffic with Constantinople down to thenth century, when the principality of Smolensk included Vitebsk, Moscow, Kaluga and parts of the present government of Pskov. The princes of Kiev were often recognized as military chiefs by the iiyeche (council) of Smolensk, who mostly preferred Mstislav and his descendants and Rostislav, son of Mstislav, became the ancestor of a series of nearly inde- pendent princes of Smolensk. From the i4th century these fell under the influence of the Lithuanian rulers, and in 1408 Smolensk was annexed to Lithuania. In 1449 the Moscow princes re- nounced their claims upon Smolensk; nevertheless this im- portant city, with nearly 100,000 inhabitants, was a constant source of contention between Moscow and Lithuania. In 1514 it fell under Russian dominion; but during the disturbances of 161 1 it was taken by Sigismund III. of Poland, and it remained under Polish rule until 1654, when the Russians retook it. In 1686 it was definitely annexed to Russia. In the i8th century it played an important part as a basis for the military operations of Peter the Great during his wars with Sweden. In 1812 it was well fortified; but the French, after a two days' battle, defeated the Russians here and took the city, when it suffered much. SMOLENSKIN, PEREZ [PETER] (1842-1885), Russian Jewish novelist, was born near Mogilev (Russia) in 1842; he died at Meran (Austria) in 1885. His story is the Odyssey of an erring son of the Ghetto. He joined and left the opposite parties of the rationalists and the mystics, and followed a variety of precarious occupations. He settled in Odessa, where he familiarized himself with several European languages, and became an anti- nomian in religion, though he never left the Jewish fold. He became the rallying-point for the revolt of young Jewry against medievalism, the leader, too, in a new movement towards Jewish nationalism. His Hebrew periodical, the Dawn (Ha-shahar), exercised a powerful influence in both directions. Shortly before his death he became deeply interested in schemes for the coloniza- tion of Palestine, and was associated with Laurence Oliphant. Smolenskin was the first to dissociate Messianic ideals from theological concomitants. Smolenskin's literary fame is due to his Hebrew novels. He may be termed the Jewish Thackeray. In style and method his work resembles that of the English novelist. There is little doubt but that Smolenskin, had he written in any language but Hebrew, would be regarded as one of the great novelists of the igth century. Of his novels only the best need be named here. A Wanderer on the Path of Life (Ha-to'eh be-darkhe ha-flayim) is the story of an orphan, Joseph, who passes through every phase of Ghetto life; the work (1868-1870) is an autobiography, the form of which was sug- gested by David Copperfield, but there is no similarity to the manner of Dickens. More perfect in execution is the Burial of the Ass (Qeburath gamor) which appeared in 1874. A third novel, The Inheritance (Ha-yerushah), issued in 1880-1881, depicts life in Odessa and Rumania. See N. Slouschz, The Renascence of Hebrew Literature, chs. ix., x., xi. (I. A.) SMOLLETT, TOBIAS GEORGE (1721-1771), British novelist, was born in the old grange of Dalquhurn, near Bonhill, in the vale of Leven, parish of Cardross, Dumbartonshire, and was christened on the igth of March 1721. His father Archibald (youngest son of Sir James, the laird of Bonhill, a zealous Whig judge and promoter of the Union of 1707) had made what was deemed in the family an improvident marriage. Archibald died in 1723, and Sir James did what he could for the widow and her family during his lifetime. The elder son James was sent into the army. Tobias was sent to Dumbarton school, then in excellent repute under the grammarian John Love. When the grandfather died in 1731 there was no further provision, and after qualifying for a learned profession at Glasgow University, Tobias was apprenticed in 1736 for five years to a well-known surgeon in that city. This early " deception " conspired to make him angry, resentful and suspicious of motive; but he was neither vindictive nor ungenerous. If his tendency to satire and caricature made him enemies, his enthusiasm for Scottish history made him friends, and, in spite of peccadilloes, the " bubbly-nosed callant with a stane in his pouch," as Dr Gordon called him, seems as an apprentice to have won his master's regard. The lad's ambition would not allow him to remain in Glasgow. The example of Thomson and Mallet was contagious, and at the age of eighteen Smollett crossed the border in set form to conquer England with a tragedy, The Regicide, based on Buchanan's description of the death of James I. The story of the journey is told with infinite spirit in the early chapters of Roderick Random. The failure of the play, his darling composition and certainly the worst thing he ever wrote, became the stock grievance of Smollett's life. For some months no one could be induced to read it, and the unrequited author would have been reduced to starvation had not a friend of the family procured him the position as surgeon's mate on H.M.S. " Cumberland. " The fleet was ordered to attack Cartagena, the great stronghold of Spanish America, and the siege, which occupied most of the year 1741, proved the Walcheren expedition of the i8th century. Smollett as an eye-witness has left us a memorable picture of the miseries endured by soldiers and sailors, which historians have been content to accept as a first-hand authority in spite of the fact that it is embedded in the pages of a licentious novel. When the enterprise was abandoned the fleet returned to Jamaica. There Smollett fell in love with the daughter of a planter, Nancy Lascelles, whom he married on returning to England. Before this, having removed his name from the navy books (May 1744), he had set up as a surgeon in Downing Street ; but he attracted attention more as a wit than as a leech. " Jupiter " Carlyle testifies to his brilliant accom- plishments, and to the popularity he attained by his indignant verses " The Tears of Scotland," resenting Culloden. In the same year (July 1746) his name appeared upon the title-page of a political satire entitled Advice, followed characteristically in 1747 by Reproof, both of them "imitations from Juvenal" in the manner of Pope. He revenges himself in his satires on the should-have-been patrons of his play. Disappointed alike in the drama, his profession and his wife's dowry, Smollett devoted his attention in a happy hour to fictitious adventure. Richardson had published the first part of Pamela in 1741, and Fielding his Joseph Andrews in 1742. But Smollett owed less to these models than to his studies in Cervantes, Swift, Defoe and above all Le Sage. His hero, who gives his first novel its capital name, Roderick Random, recounts like Gil Bias a life of varied adventure in the company of a servant, in which he enters the service of a physician and meets with old schoolfellows, thieves, notes of the bank of engraving, prison, semi-starvation and in the end an unexpected fortune. The author draws on SMOLLETT 279 his adventures on the English highway and in the cockpit of a king's ship. Virtually he revealed the seaman to the reading world — divined jhis character, sketched his outlines, formulated his lingo, discovered his possibilities to such purpose that, as Scott says, every one who has written about the navy since seems to have copied more from Smollett than from nature. Pungent observation allied to a vigorous prose, emancipated to a rare degree from provincialism or archaism, were perhaps the first of Smollett's qualifications as a novelist. Such coherence as his novels have owes more to accidental accumulation than to constructive design. The wealth of amusing incident, the rapidly moving crowd of amusing and eccentric figures, atones for a good many defects. Smollett's peculiar coarseness and ferocity were gradually eliminated from English fiction, but from Tom Jones right down to Great Expectations his work was regularly ransacked for humour. There was no author's name on the title of the two small volumes of Random; Lady Mary Wortley Montagu thought a work so delightful could only be by Fielding, in whose name it was actually translated into French. But Smollett made no secret of the authorship, went to Paris to ratify his fame, and published his derelict play as " by the author of Roderick Random," hoping thus, as he said, to intimidate his discarded patrons. The incident well reveals the novelist's " sy sterna nervosum maxime irritabile," of which his medical advisers spoke. Smollett now became a central figure among the group of able doctors who hailed from north of the Tweed, such as Clephane, Macaulay, Hunter, Armstrong, Pitcairne and William Smellie, in the revision of whose system of Midwifery the novelist bore a part. He must have still designed to combine medicine with authorship, for in June 1750 he obtained the degree of M.D.from Marischal College, Aberdeen. But in the autumn of this year he already had another novel in prospect, and went over to Paris with a new acquaintance, Dr Moore (author of Zeluco), who soon became his intimate and was destined to become his biographer. The influence of this visit is marked in Smollett's second novel, The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (4 vols., 1731). Like its predecessor, a loosely constructed string of episodes and adven- tures in which a still greater scope is afforded to the author for eccentric display, Pickle proved from the first a resounding success, both in England and France. The chief centres of attraction are the grotesque misanthrope of Bath, Cadwallader Crabtree, the burlesque scenes afforded by the physician (a caricature of Akenside) and Pallet the painter in Paris, and the so-called " garrison," with its inhabitants, Hatchway and Pipes and the inimitable Trunnion— whose death-scene fully exhibits Smollett's powers for the first time-the prototype of so many cha'racter portraits from Uncle Toby to Cap'n Cuttle. Trunnion's grotesque ride to church reappears in John Gilpin; the misan- thrope, practising satire under cover of feigned deafness, reappears in the Mungo Malagrowther of Scott, who frankly admits further debts to Smollett in the preface to the Legend of Montrose. The " garrison " unquestionably suggested the " castle " of Tristram Shandy and the " fortress " of Mr Wemmick. Indeed it is no exaggeration to say that the tideway of subsequent fiction is strewn on every hand with the disjecta membra of Smollett's happy phrases and farcical inventions. Pickle himself is if possible a bigger ruffian than Random; in this respect at any rate Smollett clings to the cynical tradition of the old romances of roguery. The novel is marred to an even greater extent by interpolations and personal attacks than its predecessor; the autobiographical element is slighter and the literary quality in some respects inferior. Smollett's third novel, Ferdinand Count Fathom, appeared in J753I by which time the author, after a final trial at Bath, had definitively abandoned medicine for letters, and had settled down at Monmouth House, Chelsea, a married man, a father and a professional writer, not for patronage, but for the trade. In this capacity he was among the first to achieve a difficult inde- pendence. In Fathom Smollett endeavours unquestionably to organize a novel upon a plan elevated somewhat above mere agglomeration. It looks as if he had deliberately set himself to show that he too, as well as the author of Tom Jones, could make a plot. The squalor and irony of the piece repel the reader, but it is Smollett's greatest feat of invention, and the descriptive power, especially in the first half, reveals the latent imaginative power of the author. Few novels have been more systematically plundered, for Fathom was the studio model of all the mystery and terror school of fiction commencing with Radcliffe and Lewis. With Fathom the first jet of Smollett's original invention was spent. The novel wras not' particularly remunerative, and his expenses seem always to have been profuse. He was a great frequenter of taverns, entertained largely, and every Sunday threw open his house and garden to unfortunate " brothers of the quill," whom he regaled with beef, pudding and potatoes, port, punch and " Calvert's entire butt-beer." To sustain these expenses Smollett consented to become a literary impresario upon a hitherto unparalleled scale. His activity during the next six years was many-sided, chiefly in the direction of organizing big and saleable " standard " works for the booksellers and contracting them out to his " myrmidons." Thus we see him almost simultaneously editing Don Quixote, making a triumphant visit to Scotland, inaugurating a new literary periodical the Critical (Feb. 1756) by way of corrective to Griffith's Monthly Review, organizing a standard library History of England in quarto and octavo, with continuations, and a seven-volume compendium of Voyages, for which he wrote a special narrative of the siege of Cartagena, supplementary to his account in Roderick Random. In 1758 he projected and partly wrote a vast Universal History, and in January 1760 he brought out the first number of a new sixpenny magazine, the British, to which he contributed a serial work of fiction, the mediocre Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves. By these Herculean labours as a compiler Smollett must have amassed a considerable sum, to which the £200 received from the now forgiven " Mar- mozet " (Garrick) for the sixth performance of the patriotic extravaganza, The Reprisal, or the Tars of Old England, must have come as a welcome addition. The Critical Review was already responsible for plenty of thorns in the editorial cushion when in 1762 Smollett undertook the additional task of editing the Briton. He had already been ridiculed, insulted, fined and imprisoned in the Marshalsea (this last for an attack on Admiral Sir Charles Knowles). He was now to support the North British favourite of George III. in the press against all comers, not we may reasonably suppose without substantial reward. Yet after incurring all this unpopularity, at a time when the London mob was more inflamed against Scotsmen than it has ever been before or since, and having aroused the animosity of such former allies as Wilkes and his friend Churchill, Smollett was to find himself unceremoniously thrown over by his chief, Lord Bute, on the ground that his paper did more to invite attack than to repel it. The Briton expired or was killed by the North Briton in February 1763, and for the moment Smollett allowed himself to be beckoned back by the booksellers to such tasks as a universal gazetteer and a translation of Voltaire in 38 volumes, and we hear of him prescribing work to his minions or receiving their homage and demanding their copy as of old. In April, however, his only daughter died at the age of fifteen, and, already over-wrought and almost broken down from sedentary strain, the tension proved too much and Smollett was never the same man again. His wife earnestly begged him to " convey her from a country where every object seemed only to nourish grief," and he followed her advice. The result was two years' sojourn abroad, mainly upon the Riviera, which Smollett, who may be termed the literary discoverer of Nice, turned to such excellent purpose in his Travels (2 vols., 1766), remarkable alike for their acidity and for their insight. On his arrival from Italy, where he had provided material for Sterne's oortrait of the distressful " Smelfungus," Smollett seemed at first decidedly better and appeared to be getting over some of the symptoms of his pulmonic complaint. But his health was thoroughly undermined by rheumatism, and the pain arising from a neglected ulcer which had developed into a chronic sore helped to sap his strength. As soon, therefore, 28o SMUGGLING as the Travels were out of hand Smollett resolved on a summer journey to Scotland. The society of Edinburgh, then at the apogee of its brilliance, paid due attention to the famous Dr Smollett. He was visited by Hume, Home, Robertson, Adam Smith, Blair, Carlyle, Cullen and the Monros. He went to Glasgow to see Dr Moore (where he patted the head of the future hero of Corufia), and stayed with his cousin, James Smollett, in his newly built mansion of Cameron. His mother, who hardly knew his toil-worn visage until it relaxed into his old roguish smile, died in this autumn, and he was still in a pre- carious state of health when he proceeded to Bath, spending the Christmas of 1766 in Gay Street, where his complaint at last took a turn for the better, and where it is possible that he may have commenced a rough draft of Humphrey Clinker. In 1768 he was again in London, and with a return of his vital energy came a recrudescence of the old savagery. The History and Adventures of an Atom is a very clever, but abominably coarse, Rabelaisian satire upon the whole conduct of public affairs in England from the beginning of the Seven Years' War down to the date of publication. He lashes out on all sides without fear or favour. The king, Chatham, Bute and North are bespattered with filth, the acridity of which owes something to Gulliver, with aid as to local colour from the Jesuit and other accounts of Japan which had come under his ken as a compiler of travels. After its publication in 1769, without other serious consequences, Smollett's health completely relapsed, and in December (a consulate in the Mediterranean having been refused him) he left England finally, and settled first at Pisa and then near Antignano, a few miles out of Leghorn. There, during the autumn of 1770, he penned his immortal Humphrey Clinker, in which he reverts to his favourite form of itinerant letters, a rare example of late maturity of literary power and fecundity of humour. The sardonic humour, persistent curiosity and keen faculty of observation shown in the Travels are here combined with the mellow contentment of the voyager who has forgotten the small worries of transport and with the enthusiasm of the veteran who revisits the scenes of his youth. The character drawing, too, though still caustic, seems riper and more matured. Smollett's speculative and informing iSth-century mind is here content for the most part, like Goldsmith's, merely to amuse. Smollett died at Leghorn aged fifty on the 1 7th of September 1771, and was buried in the old English cemetery there. Three years later the Smollett obelisk was put up at Renton (it now stands in the parish school-ground) , half-way between Dumbarton and Balloch. The best portrait belongs to the Smollett family, Cameron House, Loch Lomond (engraved by Freeman, 1831). The genuineness of the others, if we except that in the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, is doubtful. The novelist has been confused with the Dr Smollett, the contemporary of Dr William Hunter, who figures in Rowlandson's " Dissecting Room " (Royal Coll. of Surgeons Cat., 1900). Hume said that Smollett was like a coco-nut, rough outside, but full of human kindness within. He was easily ruffled by the rubs of fortune of which he had more than his fair share. Hence the adjectives corrosive and splenetic so often applied to a nature essentially both generous and tender. After Fielding, Smollett counts as the greatest purveyor of comic prose-epic of con- temporary life to his generation, if not to his century. Scott and Dickens regarded him as fully Fielding's equal. Hazlitt and Thackeray thought otherwise. Equally rationalist and pagan with Fielding, Smollett is more of a pedagogue and less of the instinctive scholar and wit than his predecessor. His method in its broad outlines is similar, historic and ambulant rather than philosophic or poetic, but he has more potential romance or poetry about his make-up than the mystery-hating Fielding. In the recognized requirements of prose-epic such as plot, character, scene, reflection and diction, Smollett could fairly hold his own. His prose, which carries on the robust tradition from Swift and Defoe to Johnson and Jeffrey, is more modern in tone than that of his great rival. In fictions such as Tom Jones, Roderick Random and the like, England could at length feel that it possessed compositions which might claim kinship and comparison with Cervantes and Le Sage. Much that these writers attempted has been done again in a style better adjusted to the increasing refinement of a later age. But Smollett's great powers of observation and description, his caustic and indignant turn of speech, will long render him an invaluable witness in the century which he so well represents. Much that he did was mere hackwork, but at his best he ranks with the immortals. The estimate formed of Smollett's work during the past generation has probably been a diminishing one, as we may infer in part from the fact that there is no standard Life and no definitive edition of the works. The chief collective editions are as follows: 6 vols Edinburgh, 1790; 6 vols., London, 1796, with R. Anderson's Memoir; Works, ed. J. Moore, 1797 (re-edited J. P. Browne, 8 vols., 1872); Works, ed. Henley and Seccombe, Constable (12 vols., 1899- 1902). To which must be added a one- volume Miscellaneous Works, ed. Thomas Roscoe (1841); Selected Works (with a careful life by David Herbert) (Edinburgh, 1870); Ballantyne's edition of the Novels with Scott s judicious memoir and criticism (2 vols., 1821); and Professor G. Samtsbury's edition of the Novels (12 vols 1895) There are short Lives by Robert Chambers (1867), David Hannay (1887) and O. Smeaton (1897). Additional information of recent date will be found in the article on Smollett in the Diet. Nat.Biog., Masson's British Novelists (and other books on the development of English Fiction), H. Graham's Scottish Men of Letters in the Eighteenth Century, Blackwood's Mag. for May 1900; and the present writer's introduction to Smollett's Travels through France and Italy (World's Classics, 1907). (T- SE ) SMUGGLING (O. Eng. smeogan, smugan, to creep, with the idea of secrecy), a breach of the revenue laws either by the importation or the exportation of prohibited goods or by the evasion of customs duties on goods liable to duty. Legislation on the subject in England has been very active from the i4th century down- wards. In the reign of Edward III. the illicit [introduction of base coin from abroad led to the provision of the Statute of Treasons 1351, making it treason to import counterfeit money as the money called " Lushburgh." Such importation is still an offence, though no longer treason. After the Statute of Treasons a vast number of acts dealing with smuggling were passed, most of which will be found recited in the repealing act of 1825. In the i8th and the early years of the ioth century, smuggling (chiefly of wine, spirits, tobacco and bullion) was so generally practised in Great Britain as to become a kind of national failing. The prevalence of the offence may be judged f rom the report of Sir J. Cope's committee in 1732 upon the frauds on the revenue. The smuggler of the i8th century finds an apologist in Adam Smith, who writes of him as " a person who, though no doubt highly blamable for violating the laws of his country, is frequently incapable of violating those of natural justice, and would have been in every respect an excellent citizen had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature never meant to be so." The gradual reduction of duties brought the offence in the United Kingdom into comparative insignific- ance, and it is now almost confined to tobacco, though the sugar duty has led to smuggling of saccharin. Most of the existing legislation on the subject of smuggling is contained in the Customs Consolidation Act 1876. The main provisions are as follows. Vessels engaged in smuggling are liable to forfeiture and their owners and masters to a penalty not exceeding £500. Smuggled and prohibited goods are liable to forfeiture. Officers of customs have a right of search of vessels and persons. Fraudulent evasion or attempted evasion of customs duties renders the offender subject to forfeit either treble the value of the goods or £100 at the election of the commissioners of customs. Heavy penalties are incurred by resistance to officers of customs, rescue of persons or goods, assembling to run goods, signalling smuggling vessels, shooting at vessels, boats, or officers of the naval or revenue service, cutting adrift customs vessels, offering goods for sale under pretence of being smuggled, &c. Penalties may be recovered either by action or information in the superior courts or by summary proceedings. In criminal proceedings the defendant is competent and compellable to give evidence. The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 makes any seaman or apprentice, after conviction for smuggling whereby loss or damage is caused to the master or owner of a ship, liable to pay to such master or owner such a sum as is sufficient to reimburse the master or owner for such loss or damage, and the whole or a proportional part of his wages may be retained in satisfaction of this liability. Additional provisions as to smuggling are also contained in the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1879, and the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881. A smuggling contract is generally illegal. But it may be valid, and the SMYBERT— SMYRNA 281 vendor may recover the price of goods, even though he knew the buyer intended them to be smuggled, unless he actually aids in the smuggling so as to become particeps criminis. Contracts to defraud the revenue of a foreign state are, according to English decisions, not illegal. There is a German decision, more consonant with international morality, to the opposite effect. The penalties for smuggling in the United States will be found mainly in tit. xxxiv. ch. 10 of the Revised Statutes. The seaman guilty of smuggling is liable to the same penalty as in England, and in addition to imprisonment for twelve months, s. 4596. See Stephen Dowell's History of Taxation (2nd ed., 1888), and Luke Owen Pike's History of Crime in England (1873-1876) ; and for general accounts of smuggling see W. D. Chester, Chronicles of the Customs Department (1885) ; H. N. Shore, Smuggling Days and Smuggling Ways (1892) ; Alton and Holland, The King's Customs (1908); C. G. Harper, The Smugglers: Picturesque Chapters in the Story of an Ancient Craft (1909). SMYBERT (or SMIBERT), JOHN (1684-1751), Scottish American artist, was borna, was retained even in the Attic dialect, and the epithet " Aeolian Smyrna " remained long after the conquest. The situation of Smyrna 'on the path of commerce between Lydia and the west raised it during the 7th century to the height of power and splendour. It lay at the head of an arm of the sea, which reached far inland and admitted the Greek trading ships into the heart of Lydia. One of the great trade routes which cross Anatolia descends the Hermus valley past Sardis, and then diverging from the valley passes S. of Mt Sipylus and crosses a low pass into the little valley, about 7 m. long and 2 broad, where Smyrna lies between the mountains and the sea. Miletus, and later Ephesus, situated at the sea end of the other great trade route across Anatolia, competed for a time successfully with Smyrna, but both cities long ago lost their harbours and Smyrna remains without a rival. When the Mermnad kings raised the Lydian power and aggressiveness Smyrna was one of the first points of attack. Gyges (c. 687-652) was, however, defeated on the banks of the Hermus; the situation of the battlefield shows that the power of Smyrna extended far to the E., and probably included the valley of Nymphi (Nif). A strong fortress, the ruins of whose ancient and massive walls are still imposing, on a hill in the pass between Smyrna and Nymphi, was probably built by the Smyr- naean lonians to command the valley of Nymphi. According to Theognis (about 500 B.C.), " pride destroyed Smyrna." Mimner- mus laments the degeneracy of the citizens of his day, who could no longer stem the Lydian advance. Finally, Alyattes III. (600-560) conquered the city, and Smyrna for 300 years lost its place in the list of Greek cities. It did not cease to exist, but the Greek life and political unity were destroyed, and the Smyrnaean state was organized on the village system (cjkeTro Kw/jiridov) . It is mentioned in a fragment of Pindar, about 500 B.C., and in an inscription of 388 B.C. A small fortification of early style, rudely but massively built, on the lowest slope of a hill N. of Burnabat, is perhaps a fortified village of this period. Alexander the Great conceived the idea of restoring the Greek city; the two Nemeses who were worshipped at Smyrna are said to have suggested the idea to him in a dream. The scheme was, according to Strabo, carried out by Antigonus (316-301), and Lysimachus enlarged and fortified the city (301-281). The acropolis of the ancient city had been on a steep peak about 1250 ft. high, which overhangs the N.E. extremity of the gulf; its ruins still exist, probably in much the same condition as they were left by Alyattes. The later city was founded on the modern site partly on the slopes of a rounded hill called Pagus near the S.E. end of the gulf, partly on the low ground between the hill and the sea. The beauty of the city, clustering on the low ground and rising tier over tier on the hillside, is frequently praised by the ancients and is celebrated on its coins. The " crown of Smyrna " seems to have been an epithet applied to the acropolis with its circle of buildings. Smyrna is shut in on the W. by a hill now called Deirmen Tepe, with the ruins of a temple on the summit. The walls of Lysimachus crossed the summit of this hill, and the acropolis occupied the top of Pagus. Between the two the road from Ephesus entered the city by the " Ephesian gate," near which was a gymnasium. Closer to the acropolis the outline of the stadium is still visible, and the theatre was situated on the N. slopes of Pagus. The line of the walls on the E. side is unknown; but they certainly embraced a greater area than is included by the Byzantine wall, which ascends the castle hill (Pagus) from the Basmakhane railway station. Smyrna possessed two harbours — the outer, which was simply the open roadstead of the gulf, and the inner, which was a small basin, with a narrow entrance closed by a rope in case of need, about the place now occupied by bazaars. The inner harbour was partially filled up by Timur in 1402, but it had not entirely disappeared till the beginning of the igth century. The modern quay has encroached considerably on the sea, and the coast-line of the Greek time was about 90 yds. farther S. The streets were broad, well paved and laid out at right angles; many were named after temples: the main street, called the Golden, ran across the city from W. to E., beginning probably from the temple of Zeus Akraios on the W. side of Pagus, and running round the lower slopes of Pagus (like a necklace on the statue, to use the favourite terms of Aristides the orator) towards Tepejik outside the city on the E., where probably the temple of Cybele, the Metroon, stood. Cybele, worshipped under the name of Meter Sipylene, from Mt Sipylus, which bounds the Smyrna valley on the N., was the tutelar goddess of the city. The plain towards the sea was too low to be properly drained and hence in rainy weather the streets were deep with mud and water. The river Meles,which flowed by Smyrna, is famous in literature 282 SMYTH, C. P.— SMYTH, J. and was worshipped in the valley. The most common and consistent tradition connects Homer with the valley of Smyrna and the banks of the Meles; his figure was one of the stock types on Smyrnaean coins,' one class of which was called Homerian; the epithet " Melesigenes " was applied to him; the cave where he was wont to compose his poems was shown near the source of the river; his temple, the Homereum, stood on its banks. The steady equable flow of the Meles, alike in summer and winter, and its short course, beginning and ending near the city, are celebrated by Aristides and Himerius. The description applies admirably to the stream which rises from abundant fountains, now known as Diana's bath, E. of the city, and flows into the S.E. extremity of the gulf. The belief that the torrent, almost dry except after rains, which flows by Caravan bridge, is the ancient Meles, flatly contradicts the ancient descriptions. In the Roman period Smyrna was the seat of a conventus which included S. Aeolis and great part of the Hermus valley. It vied with Ephesus and Pergamum for the title " First (city) of Asia." A Christian church existed here from a very early time, having its origin in the considerable Jewish colony. Poly- carp was bishop of Smyrna and was martyred there A.D. 155. The bishops of Smyrna were originally subject to the metropolitan of Ephesus; afterwards they became independent (a6roKe<#>aXot) , and finally were honoured with metropolitan rank, having under them the bishops of Phocaea, Magnesia ad Sipylum, Clazomenae, Sosandrus (Nymphi?), Archangelus (Temnos?) and Petra (Menemen?). When Constantinople became the seat of government the trade between Anatolia and the W. lost in importance, and Smyrna declined apace. A Turkish freebooter named Tsacha seized Smyrna in 1084, but it was recovered by the generals of Alexius Comnenus. The city was several times ravaged by the Turks, and had become quite ruinous when the emperor John Ducas Vatatzes about 1222 rebuilt it. But Ibn Batuta found it still in great part a ruin when the famous chieftain Aidin had conquered it about 1330 and made his son Amur governor. It became the port of the Aidin amirate. Soon afterwards the Knights of Saint John established themselves in the town, but failed to conquer the citadel. In 1402 Timur stormed the town and massacred almost all the inhabitants. The Mongol conquest was only temporary, but Smyrna was resumed by the Seljuks of Aidin and has remained till the present day in Mahommedan hands. Until the reign of Abdul Mejid it was included for administrative purposes in the eyalel of Jezair (the Isles) and not in that of Anadoli. The represen- tative of the Capitan Pasha, who governed that eyalel, was, however, less influential in the city than the head of the Kara Osman Oglu's of Manisa (see MANISA). From the early i7th century till 1825, Smyrna was the chief provincial factory of the British Turkey Company, as well as of French, Dutch and other trading corporations. The passages with gates at each end within which most Frank shops in modern Smyrna lie, are a survival of the semi-fortified residences of the European merchants. 2. The Modern City, capital of the Aidin vilayet, and the most important town of Asia Minor. Pop. more than 250,000, of which fully a half is Greek. It is one of the principal ports of the Ottoman empire, and has a large trade, of which the greater part is with Great Britain. The chief items of export are figs, tobacco, valonia, carpets, raisins and silk, to the value of some three million sterling. The imports are estimated at a million more. About 7000 steamships visit the port annually. Until 1894 the two railways from Smyrna to the interior belonged to British companies; but in 1897 the Smyrna-Alashehr line passed into the hands of a French syndicate, which completed an extension to Afium Kara-hissar and virtually (though not actually) effected a junction with the Anatolian railway system. This line has branches to Burnabat and Soma. The Smyrna- Aidin line has been extended to Dineir, and powers have been obtained to continue to Isbarta and Egerdir. It has branches to Buja, Seidikeui, Tireh, Odemish, Sokia, Denizli and Ishekli. Modern Smyrna is in all but government a predominantly Christian town (hence the Turks know it as giaour Ismir). There is a large European element (including about 800 British subjects), a great part of which lives in two suburban villages, Burnabat and Buja, but has business premises in the city. The European and Greek quarters rapidly increase, mainly to the N. ; while the fine quays, made by a French company, are backed by a line of good buildings. The streets behind, though clean and well kept, are very narrow and tortuous. A fine new Konak (govern- ment offices) has been built, and another important new structure is the pier of the Aidin Railway Co. at Point. The development of this railway is the most conspicuous sign of progress. Smyrna is a headquarters of missions of all denominations and has good schools, of which the International College is the best. There is a British consul-general, with full consular establishment, including a hospital. See general authorities for Asia Minor, especially the travellers, almost all of whom describe Smyrna. Also B. F. Slaars, Etude sur Smyrne (1868); and W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches (1904) and article in Hastings's Diet, of the Bible (1902). (W. M. RA.;D. G. H.) SMYTH, CHARLES PIAZZI. (1810-1900), British astronomer, was born at Naples on the 3rd of January 1819. He was called Piazzi after his godfather, the Italian astronomer of that name, whose acquaintance his father, Admiral Smyth, had made at Palermo when on the Mediterranean station. His father subse- quently settled at Bedford and equipped there an observatory, at which Piazzi Smyth received his first lessons in astronomy. At the age of sixteen he went out as assistant to Sir Thomas Maclear at the Cape of Good Hope, where he observed Halley's comet and the great comet of 1843, and took an active part in the verification and extension of La Caille's arc of the meridian. In 1845 he was appointed astronomer royal for Scotland and professor of astronomy in the university of Edinburgh. Here he completed the reduction, and continued the series, of the observa- tions made by his predecessor, Thomas Henderson (see Edinburgh Observations, vols. xi.-xv.). In 1856 he made experimental observations on the Peak of Teneriffe with a view to testing the astronomical advantages of a mountain station. The Admiralty made him a grant of £500 for the purpose, and a yacht — the " Titania " — of 140 tons and a fine 75 in. equatorial telescope were placed at his disposal by friends. The upshot of the expedition was to verify Newton's surmise, that a " most serene and quiet air ... may perhaps be found on the tops of the highest mountains above the grosser clouds." The scientific results were detailed in a Report addressed to the lords com- missioners of the admiralty, 1858, in a communication to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans, cxlviii. 465) and in the Edinburgh Observations, vol. xii. A popular account of the voyage is contained in Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment, 1858. In 1871-1872 Piazzi Smyth investigated the spectra of the aurora, and zodiacal light. He recommended the use of the " rainband " for weather prediction (Jour. Scottish Meteor. Society, v. 84) , and discovered, in conjunction with Professor A. S. Herschel, the harmonic relation between the rays emitted by carbon monoxide. In 1877-1878 he constructed at 'Lisbon a map of the solar- spectrum (Edin. Phil. Trans, xxix. 285), for which he received the Macdougall-Brisbane prize in 1880. Further spectroscopic researches were carried out by him at Madeira in 1880 (Madeira Spectroscopic, 1882), and at Winchester in 1884 (Edin. Phil. Trans, vol. xxxii. pt. ii.). He published besides Three Cities in Russia (1862), Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid (1864), Life and Work at the Great Pyramid (1867), and a volume On the Antiquity of Intellectual Man (1868). In 1888 he resigned his official position and retired to the neighbourhood of Ripon, where he died on the 2ist of February 1900. See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, Ixi. 189; Observatory, xxiii. 145, 184; R. Copeland in Astr. Nach. No. 3636, and Pop. Astronomy (1900), p. 384; Nature, jxii. 161 (A. S. Herschel); Andr6 and Rayet, L'Astronomie pratique, ii. 12. (A. M. C.) SMYTH (or SMITH), JOHN (c. 1570-1612), English non- conformist divine, commonly called the Se-baptist, was born SMYTH, SIR W. W.— SNAIL 283 about 1570, and was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he proceeded M.A. in 1593- He was probably vicar of Hutton Cranswicke in the E. Riding of Yorkshire from 1593 to 1600, when he was elected lecturer or preacher of the city of Lincoln, an office of which he was deprived in October 1602 for having " approved himself a factious man by personal preaching and that truly against divers men of good place." Two volumes of his Lincoln sermons, The Bright Morning Star (1603), an exposition of Psalm xxii., and A Pattern of True Prayer (1605), were dedicated to Lord Sheffield, who had acted as arbiter between the preacher and the corporation. While preparing these books he became connected with the Separatist movement in Scrooby and Gainsborough, joined the Gains- borough church, and became its pastor.1 With Thomas Helwys, John Murton (or Morton) and others, he migrated to Amsterdam at the end of 1607 to escape religious persecution, and in that city practised as a physician, and became the leader of " the second English church " (see CONGREGATIONALISM). About this time he wrote his Principles and Inferences concerning the Visible Church in support of Robert Browne's theory of ecclesiastical polity, which was followed by Parallels, Censures and Observa- tions, a reply to the Christian Advertisements of Richard Bernard (1568-1641), vicar of Worksop, a puritan who remained in the Anglican church. In 1608, too, appeared The Diferences of the Churches of the Separation, in which he justified his non-com- munion with Johnson's church on the curious ground that it was no part of primitive and apostolic order to use a translation of scripture during worship, or at any rate to have it open before one while preaching (Christ having " closed the book " at Nazareth before His sermon). Under Mennonite influence he went farther, and by March 1609 when he published The Char- acter of the Beast, he had become a Baptist (see BAPTISTS, sect. II.), contending against infant baptism because (i) it has neither precept nor example in the New Testament, (2) Christ com- manded to make disciples by teaching them and then to baptize them. He and his company were then faced by the dilemma that their own infant baptism did not count, and Smyth solved the problem by first baptizing himself (hence the name Se-Baptist), probably by affusion, and then administering the rite to Helwys and the others. Afterwards with 41 others he decided that instead of baptizing himself he should have been baptized by the Mennonites, in spite of their heretical view of the Person of Christ, and applied for admission to their fellowship. They were some- what suspicious of a man who had never held one position for long, -and demanded a statement of doctrines, which he gave them in twenty articles written in Latin, and in The Last Book of John Smyth, called the Retractation of his Errors, together with a con- fession of faith in 100 Propositions. A friendly Mennonite al- lowed Smyth's church to meet in his bakery, but Smyth himself died of consumption in August 1612, more than two years before the remaining members of his band, by then reduced to 31, were admitted (January 1615) into the Mennonite communion. Helwys and Morton returned to England, and established the first English Baptist churches. Smyth was, like the other Cambridge men of his day, especially the Separatists, the bondservant of logic, and wherever he saw " the beckoning hand of a properly constructed syllogism " he was ready to follow. Yet none of those who, in his generation, took the great step had, according to Bishop Creighton, " a finer mind or a more beautiful soul. None of them succeeded in expressing with so much reasonableness and consistency their aspirations after a spiritual system of religious belief and practice. None of them founded their opinions on so large and liberal a basis." In his last declaration he expressed his sorrow for the censures he had passed on Anglicans and Brownists alike, and wrote " All penitent and faithful Christians are brethren jn the communion of the outward church, by what name soever they are known; and we salute them all with a holy kiss, being heartily grieved that we should be rent with so many sorts and schisms; and that only for matters of no moment." See J. H. Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational Pioneers (London, 1906); H. M. Dexter, The England and Holland of the Pilgrims (London and Boston, 1906). (A. J. G.) 1 He was never vicar of Gainsborough, and must not be confused with the John Smyth who was imprisoned in the Marshalsea in 1592. SMYTH, SIR WARINGTON WILKINSON (1817-1890), British geologist, was born at Naples on the 26th of August 1817, his father, Admiral W. H. Smyth (1788-1865), being at the time engaged in the Admiralty Survey of the Mediterranean. He was educated at Westminster and Bedford schoels, and after- wards at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1839. Having gained a travelling scholarship he spent more than four years in Europe, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, paying great attention to mineralogy and mining, examining coalfields, metalliferous mines and salt-works, and making acquaintance with many distinguished geologists and mineralogists. On his return to England in 1844 he was appointed mining geologist on the Geological Survey, and in 1851 lecturer at the School of Mines, a post which he held until 1881 when he relinquished the chair of mineralogy but continued as professor of mining. In later years he became chief mineral inspector to the Office of Woods and Forests, and also to the Duchy of Cornwall. He was elected F.R.S. in 1858. He became president of the Geo- logical Society of London in 1866-1868, and in 1879 he was chairman of a Royal Commission appointed to inquire into accidents in mines, the work in connexion with which continued until 1886. He contributed sundry papers to the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society and the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. He was author also of A Year with the Turks (1854), and of A Treatise on Coal and Coal-mining (1867). He was knighted in 1887. He died in London on the igth of June 1890, and was buried at St Erth, not far from his country home at Marazion in Cornwall. A portrait and some reminiscences of W. W. Smyth will be found in the Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay (1895), by Sir A. Geikie. SMYTH (or SMITH), WILLIAM (c. 1460-1514), bishop of Lincoln, was a Lancashire man by birth, and probably passed some of his early days at Knowsley under the roof of Margaret, countess of Richmond and Derby, the mother of Henry VII. He appears to have been a member of Lincoln College, Oxford, and in 1485, just after the battle of Bosworth, he was made keeper of the hanaper of the chancery. Two of Edward IV's daughters were entrusted to his keeping; he was a member of the royal council and he obtained the livings of Combe Martin, Devon, of Great Grimsby and of Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. In 1491 he was made dean of St Stephen's, Westminster, and two years later bishop of Coventry and Lichfield. The bishop was a member of Prince Arthur's council in the marches of Wales, and in 1501, five years after he had been translated to the bishopric of Lincoln, he became lord president of Wales. About 1507 he and Sir Richard Sutton (d. 1524) set to work to found a new college in Oxford. They rebuilt Brasenose Hall, added other existing halls to it, and having obtained a charter in 1512, called it The King's haule and college of Brasennose. Smyth, who was one of the executors of Henry VII. 's will, retired from public life just after this King's death, owing probably to some differences between Bishop Richard Fox and himself; he was, however, president of Wales until his death at Buckden in Huntingdonshire on the and of January 1514. Although an able and scholarly man, Smyth had little sympathy with the new learning. He bestowed rich livings upon his relatives, one of whom, Matthew Smyth, was the first principal of Brasenose College. In addition to his liberal gifts to Brasenose College he gave money or land to Lincoln and to Oriel Colleges; he founded a school at Farnworth, Lancashire, and he refounded the hospital of St John at Lichfield. From 1 500 to 1 503 he was chancellor of Oxford University. SNAIL. In England the word " snail " in popular language is associated with Gasteropods which inhabit land or fresh water, and which possess large conspicuous spiral shells; terrestrial Gasteropods, in which the shell is rudimentary and concealed, are distinguished as " slugs." In Scotland the word " slug " is absent from the vernacular vocabulary, both shell-bearing and shell-less inland molluscs being known as snails. Marine Gastero- pods are occasionally termed " sea-snails," and the compounds " pond-snails," " river-snails," " water-snails " are in common use. The commonest land-snails are those species which 284 SNAKE-BIRD constitute the family Helicidae, order Pulmonala, sub-order Stylommatophora. The families Limacidae, Arionidae and Oncidiidae of the same sub-order, include nearly all the slugs. The Oncidiidae are entitled to the name " sea-slugs," as they are shell-less Pulmonates living on the seashore, though not actually in the sea. The term " water-snails " includes the whole of the remaining sub-order of the Pulmonala, namely, the Basommato- phora, in which the eyes are sessile, with the exception of the Auriculidae. The latter are terrestrial and occur mostly near the seashore. Thus the whole of the Pulmonata (which breathe air, are destitute of gill-plumes and operculum and have a complicated hermaphrodite reproductive system) are either snails or slugs. But there are a considerable number of snails, both terrestrial and aquatic, which are not Pulmonates. The land-snails which have no gill-plume in the mantle-chamber and breathe air, but have the sexes separated, and possess an operculum, belong to the orders Aspidobranchia and Peclinibranchia, and constitute the families Helicinidae, Proserpinidae, Hydrocenidae, Cyclophoridae, Cyclostomatidae and Aciculidae. The fresh-water snails which are not Pulmonates are the Paludinidae, Vahatidae and Ampul- laridae, together with Nerilina, a genus of the Nerilidae. These all possess a fully developed gill-plume and are typical Pectini- branchs of the sub-order Taenioglossa, most of the members of which are marine. The family Helicidae has a world-wide distribution. In Helix the spire forms a more or less obtuse-angled cone; there are above 1 200 species, of which 24 are British. Helix nemoralis, L.,of which H. hortensis is a variety, is one of the commonest forms. Helix pomatia, L., is the largest species, and is known as the " edible snail " ; it is commonly eaten in France and Italy, together with other species. It was formerly believed to have been introduced into Britain by the Romans, but there is no doubt that it is a native. In Succinea the cone of the spire is acute-angled; three species are British. In Vitrina the spire is very flat and the surface glassy. In Bulimus the spire is elongated with a pointed apex. Pupa is named from its resemblance to a chrysalis, the apex being rounded. The shell of Clausilia is sinistral and its aperture is provided with a hinged plate. The commoner European slugs of small size all belong to the genus Limax, in which the opening of the mantle-chamber is posterior. L. flavus is the cellar slug. L. agrestis, L. arborum, L. maximus occur in gardens and fields. The larger black slugs are species of Arion, of which two are British, A. ater and A. hortensis. Teslacella haliotidea is common in Great Britain and throughout Europe. The species of Helix are all herbivorous, like the Pulmonata generally; snails and slugs are well-known enemies to the gardener. The animals being hermaphrodite copulate reciprocally. The eggs of Helix are laid separately in the earth, each contained in a calcified shell; those of Limax are also separate, but the shell is gelatinous. Helix hibernates in a torpid condition for about four months, and during this period the aperture of the shell is closed by a calcareous membrane secreted by the foot. The Limnaeidae occur in all parts of the world. Limnaeus contains the largest species. L. pereger, Miiller, is ubiquitous in Great Britain and common all over Europe. All the species are usually infested with Cercariae and Rediae, the larval forms of Trematode parasites of vertebrates. L. truncatulus harbours the Cercaria of Fasciola hepatica, the liver-fluke, which causes rot in sheep. Ancylus, which occurs in rivers, has a minute limpet-like shell. Planorbis has the spire of the shell in one plane. Physa is smaller than Limnaeus and has the upper part of the spire much shorter. In the Auriculidae the aperture is denticulated. Auricula is confined to the East Indies and Peru. Carychium minimum is British. Of the Cyclostpmidae only one species, Cyclostoma elegans, Miiller, is British ; it hides under stones and roots. The Helicinidae are exotic, ranging from the West Indies to the Philippines. Of the Aciculidae, which are all minute, Acicula lineata is British. The Ampullaridae are confined to the tropics. Ampullaria has very long tentacles and a long siphon formed by the mantle. Valvata is common in fresh waters throughout Britain; the gill when the animal is expanded is protruded beyond the mantle-chamber. The Paludinidae are common in the N. hemisphere. Paludina and Bithynia are both British genera. In Paludina the whorls of the spiral are very prominent; the genus is viviparous, Bithynia is smaller and the shell smoother. Neritina has a very small spire, the terminal portion of the shell containing nearly the whole animal. For the morphology and classification of snails, see GASTROPODA. A history of the British forms is given in Gwyn Jeffreys' s British Conchology (1862), and by Forbes and Hanley in British Mollusca. For speciegraphical details, see Woodward's Manual of the Mollusca (1875), and Bronn's Tierreich (Weichtiere). For Fasciola hepatica, see Thomas, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1882). SNAKE-BIRD (the " darter " of many authors, and the Plotus anhinga1 of ornithology), the type of a small but very well- marked genus of birds, Plotus, belonging to the family Phalacro- coracidae which contains the cormorants and shags. The name commonly given to it by the English in N. America was derived from its " long slender head and neck," which, its body being submerged as it swims, " appears like a snake rising erect out of the water " (J. Bartram's MS., quoted by G. F. Ord in A. Wilson's Am. Ornithology, ix. 81). Snake-birds bear a general resemblance both outwardly and in habits to Cormorants (g.D.),but are much more slender in form and have both neck and tail much elongated. The bill also, instead of being tipped with a maxillary hook, has its edges beset with serratures directed backwards, and is sharply pointed — in this respect, as well as in the attenuated neck, likening the Snake-birds to the Herons; but the latter do not generally transfix their prey as do the former. The male of the American species, which ranges from Illinois to the S. of Brazil, is in full breeding-plumage a very beautiful bird, with crimson irides, the bare skin round the eyes apple-green and that of the chin orange, the head, neck and most part of the body Indian Snake-Bird (from S. R. Tickell's Drawing in the Library of the Zoological Society). clothed in black glossed with green ; but down each side of the neck runs a row of long hair-like white feathers, tinged with pale lilac. The much elongated scapulars, and the small upper wing-coverts bear each a median white mark, which on the former is a stripe pointed at either end, and on the latter a broad ovate patch.2 The larger wing-coverts are dull white, but the quill-feathers of the wings and tail are black, the last broadly tipped with brownish-red, passing into greyish-white, and forming a conspicuous band when the tail is spread in form of a fan, as it often is under water.3 The hen differs much in appearance from the cock, having the head, neck and breast of a more or less deep buff, bounded beneath by a narrow chestnut band ; but otherwise her plumage is like that of her mate, only not so bright in colour. The Snake-bird frequents the larger rivers or back-waters connected with them, wher,e it may be seen resting motionless on some neighbouring tree, generally choos- ing a dead branch, or on a " snag " projecting from the bottom, whence it plunges beneath the surface, in pursuit of its prey, to emerge, in the manner before related, showing little more than its slender head and neck. Its speed and skill under water are almost beyond exaggeration, and it exhibits these qualities even in captivity, taking — apparently without effort — fish after fish, however rapidly they may swim and twist, and only returning to its perch when its appetite is appeased or its supply of food exhausted. At liberty it will indulge in long flights, and those of the male at the breedmg- 1 " Anhinga," according to Marcgrav, who first described this bird (Hist. rer. nat. Brasiliae, p. 218), was the name it bore among the natives. 2 These feathers are very characteristic of each species of the genus, and in India, says Jerdon, are among the Khasias a badge of royalty. 3 This peculiarity, first pointed out to the writer by A. D. Bartlett, who observed it in birds in the Zoological Society's possession, doubtless suggested the name of " Water-Turkey " by which in some places Plotus anhinga is said to be known. SNAKE-FLY—SNAKES 285 season are ostentatiously performed in the presence of his mate, around whom he plays in irregular zigzag courses. The nest is almost always in trees or bushes overhanging the water's edge, and is a large structure of sticks, roots and moss, in which are laid four eggs with the white chalky shell that is so characteristic of most Steganopodous birds. Not infrequently several or even many nests are built close together, and the locality that suits the Snake- bird suits also many of the herons.1 The African snake-bird, P. congensis (or levaillanti of some authors), inhabits the greater part of that continent N. from Natal; but, though met with on the White Nile, it is not known to have occurred in Egypt, a fact the more remarkable seeing that Canon Tristram found it breeding in con- siderable numbers on the Lake of Antioch, to which it is a summer visitor, and it can hardly reach its home without passing over the intervening country. The male bird is easily distinguishable from the American species by its rufous coronal patch, its buff throat and its chestnut greater wing-coverts. A third species, P. melano- gaster, ranges from Madagascar to. India, Ceylon, Borneo, Java and China. This so closely resembles the last-mentioned that the differences between them cannot be briefly expressed. The Australian region also has its snake-bird, which is by some regarded as forming a fourth species, P. novae-hollandiae; but others unite it to that last mentioned, which is perhaps somewhat variable, and it would seem (P.Z.S., 1877, p. 349) that examples from New Guinea differ somewhat from those inhabiting Australia itself. The anatomy of the genus Plolus has been dealt with more fully than that of most forms. Beside the excellent description of the American bird's alimentary canal furnished to Audubon by Mac- gillivray, other important points in its structure have been well set forth by A. H. Garrod and W. A. Forbes in the Zoological Proceedings (1876, pp. 335-345. Pis- xxvi.-xxviii. ; 1878, pp. 679-681; and 1882, pp. 208-2 1 2), showing among other things that there is an appreciable anatomical difference between the species of the New World and of the Old ; while the osteology of P. melanogaster has been admirably described and illustrated by A. Milne-Edwards in A. Grandidier's great Oiseaux de Madagascar (pp. 691-695, pis. 284, 285). In all the species the neck affords a feature which seems to be unique. The first seven of the cervical vertebrae form a continuous curve with its concavity forward, but the eighth articulates with the seventh nearly at a right angle, and, when the bird is at rest, lies horizontally. The ninth is directed downwards almost as abruptly, and those which succeed present a gentle forward convexity. The muscles moving this curious framework are as curiously specialized, and the result of the whole piece of mechanism is to enable the bird to spear with facility its fishy prey. (A. N.) SNAKE-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the genus Raphidia, closely allied to the alder-flies, remarkable for the elongation of the head and prothorax to form a neck and for the presence in the female of a long ovipositor. The larva, which is active and carnivorous, is terrestrial, and lives in rotten timber. SNAKE-ROOT. In most countries where snakes abound some root or herb is used by the natives as an antidote for the bites of venomous species, and many herbs have consequently received the name of snake-root. Botanically speaking, the name properly belongs to Ophiorrhiza Mungos, the Mungoose plant, a plant of the natural order Rubiaceae, used in the JE. Indies for the purpose above indicated. In medicine, however, the roots of Aristolochia Serpentaria, Polygala Senega and Cimicifuga racemosa were understood by this name, being distinguished as the Virginian, seneca and black snake-roots. The root of Aristolochia reticulata is known in the United States as Red river or Texan snake-root. The roots or rhizome of Liatris spicata, Eryngium aquaticum and Eupatorium altissimum have all been used in N. America for snake-bites, the first two being known as button snake-root and the last as white snake-root. The rhizome of Asarum canadense passes under the name of Canadian snake-root. All of these con- tain acrid or aromatic principles which, when a warm decoction of the drug is taken, exercise a powerfully diaphoretic or, in some cases, diuretic action, to which any benefit that may be derived from their use must be attributed. SNAKES, an order (Ophidia) in the class of Reptiles. They may be characterized as very elongated reptiles without limbs (unless with tiny vestiges of posterior limbs), without eyelids and external ear openings, with the teeth anchylosed to the supporting bones, a bifid slender tongue which is telescoped into its basal half, and with a transverse vent. These characters apply to all snakes, although none are peculiar to them. The 1 The curious but apparently well-attested fact of the occurrence in England, near Poole, in June 1851, of a male bird of this species (Zoologist, pp. 3601, 3654) has been overlooked by several writers who profess to mention all cases of a similar character. vast majority of snakes are further characterized by having the right and left halves of the under-jaws connected by an elastic band; a median, longitudinal furrow in the skin below and behind the chin; the whole palatal apparatus is but loosely connected with the skull, nowhere articulating with it. The quadrate is indirectly articulated with the skull, first by the horizontal, movable squamosal, secondly by the columella auris. The quadrato-mandibular joint is placed in a level far behind the occiput. More detail concerning skull, scales and teeth will be found in the diagnostic descriptions of the various families (vide infra) ; for further anatomical information the reader is referred to the article REPTILES (Anatomy). The snakes are the most highly specialized branch of the Sauria or Squamata, i.e. of scaly reptiles with movable quadrate bones; with a transverse vent, near the posterior lateral corners of which open the eversible, paired copulatory organs. In the article LIZARD attention is drawn to the many characters which make it difficult, if not impossible, to give diagnoses applicable to all lizards and all snakes. Both these groups seem to have reached their climax but recently, while the tortoises, crocodiles and sphenodon are on the descending scale, mere remnants of formerly much more numerous and cosmopolitan development. The number of recent species of snakes is about 1600. The order is practically cosmopolitan, with the exception of New Zealand and certain absolutely isolated oceanic islands, like the Hawaiian islands and the Azores. The N. limit approaches that of the permanently frozen subsoil, going into the arctic circle in Scandinavia, elsewhere sinking to about 54° N.; in the S. hemisphere the 45th parallel may indicate their limit. The number of species and individuals steadily decreases in the cooler temperate zones, whilst it reaches its maximum in the tropics. Every kind of terrain is tenanted, from dense, moist and hot forests at the level of the sea to arid deserts, high plateaus and mountains. In accordance with this general distribution snakes show a great amount of differentiation with regard to their mode of life and general organization; and from the appearance alone of a snake a safe conclusion can be drawn as to its habits. Dr A. Giinther characterizes the chief categories as follows: — (i) Burrowing snakes, which live under ground and but rarely appear on the surface. They have a cylindrical rigid body, covered with generally smooth and polished scales; a short strong tail; a short rounded or pointed head with narrow mouth; teeth few in number; small or rudimentary eyes; no abdominal scutes or only narrow ones. They feed chiefly on invertebrate animals, and none are poisonous. (2) Ground snakes rarely ascending bushes or entering water. Their body is cylindrical, flexible in every part, covered with smooth or keeled scales, and provided with broad ventral and subcaudal scutes. The non-poisonous kinds of ground snakes are the typical and least specialized snakes, and more numerous than any of the other kinds. They feed chiefly on terrestrial verte- brates. The majority are non-poisonous; but the majority of poisonous snakes must be referred to this category. (3) Tree snakes, which are able to climb bushes or trees with facility or pass even the greater part of their existence on trees. Their body is generally compressed and slender; their broad ventral scutes are often carinate on the sides. Those kinds which have a less elongate and cylindrical body possess a distinctly prehensile tail. The eye is generally large. Their coloration consists often of bright hues, and sometimes resembles that of their surroundings. They feed on animals which likewise lead an arboreal life, rarely on eggs. Poisonous as well as innocuous snakes are represented in this category. (4) Freshwater snakes, living in or frequenting fresh waters; they are excellent swimmers and divers. The nostrils are placed on the top of the snout and can be closed whilst the animal is under water. Their body is covered with small scales and the ventral scutes are mostly narrow; the tail tapering; head flat, rather short; and the eyes of small size. They feed on fish, frogs and other aquatic animals, and are innocuous and viviparous. (5) Sea snakes are 286 SNAKES distinguished by the compressed, rudder-shaped tail. They are unable to move on land, feed on fishes, are viviparous and poisonous. The majority of snakes are active during the day, their energy increasing with the increasing temperature; whilst some delight in the moist sweltering heat of dense tropical vegetation, others expose themselves to the fiercest rays of the midday sun. Not a few, however, lead a nocturnal life, and many of them have, accordingly, their pupil contracted into a vertical or more rarely a horizontal slit. Those which inhabit temperate latitudes hibernate. Snakes are the most stationary of all vertebrates; as long as a locality affords them food and shelter they have no inducement to change it. Their dispersal, therefore, must have been extremely slow and gradual. Although able to move FIG. i. — Diagram of Natural Locomotion of a Snake. with rapidity, they do not keep in motion for any length of time. Their orgajjs of locomotion are the ribs, the number of which is very great, nearly corresponding to that of the vertebrae of the trunk. They can adapt their motions to every variation of the ground over which they move, yet all varieties of snake locomotion are founded on the following simple process. When a part of the body has found some projection of the ground which affords it a point of support, the ribs are drawn more closely together, on alternate sides, thereby producing alternate bends of the body. The hinder portion of the body being drawn after, some part of it (c) finds another support on the rough ground or a projection; and, the anterior bends being stretched in a straight line, the front part of the body is propelled (from a to d) in consequence. During this peculiar locomotion the numerous broad shields of the belly are of great advantage, as by means of their free edges the snake is enabled to catch and use as points of support the slightest projections of the ground. A pair of ribs corresponds to each of these ventral shields. Snakes are not able to move over a perfectly smooth surface. The conventional representation of the progress of a snake, in which its undulating body is figured as resting by a series of lower bends on the ground whilst the alternate bends are FIG. 2. — Diagram of Conventional Idea of a Snake's Locomotion. raised above it, is an impossible attitude, nor do snakes ever climb trees in spiral fashion, the classical artistic mode of repre- sentation. Also the notion that snakes when attacking are able to jump off the ground is quite erroneous; when they strike an object, they dart the fore part of their body, which was retracted in several bends, forwards in a straight line. And sometimes very active snakes, like the cobra, advance simultane- ously with the remainder of the body, which, however, glides in the ordinary fashion over the ground; but no snake is able to impart such an impetus to the whole of its body as to lose its contact with the ground. Some snakes can raise the anterior part of their body and even move in this attitude, but it is only about the anterior fourth or third of the total length which can be thus erected. With very few exceptions,, the integuments form imbricate scale- like folds arranged with the greatest regularity; they are small and pluriserial on the upper parts of the body and tail, large and uniserial on the abdomen, and generally biserial on the lower side of the tail. The folds can be stretched out, so that the skin is capable of a great degree of distension. The scales are sometimes rounded behind, but generally rhombic in shape and more or less elongate; they may be quite smooth or provided with a longitudinal ridge or keel in the middle line. The integuments of the head are divided into non-imbricate shields or plates, symmetrically arranged, but not corresponding in size or shape with the underlying cranial bones or having any relation to them. The form and number of the scales and scutes, and the shape and arrangement of the head-shields, are of great value in distinguishing the genera and species, and it will therefore be useful to explain in the accompanying woodcut (fig. 3) the terms by which these parts are designated. The skin does not form eyelids; but the epidermis passes over the eye, forming a transparent disk, concave like the glass of a watch, behind which the eye moves. It is the first part which is cast off when the snake sheds its skin; this is done several times in the year, and the epider- mis comes off in a single piece, being, from the mouth towards the tail, turned inside out during the process. The tongue in snakes is narrow, almost worm-like, generally of a black colour and forked, that is, it terminates in front in two extremely fine filaments. It is otten exserted with a rapid motion, sometimes with the object of feeling some object, sometimes under the influence of anger or fear. Snakes possess teeth in the maxillaries, mandibles, palatine and pterygoid bones, sometimes also in the intermaxillary; they may be absent in one or the other of the bones mentioned. In the innocuous snakes the teeth are simple and uniform Deat"'°a- in structure, thin, sharp like needles, and bent backwards; their function consists merely in seizing and holding the prey. In some all the teeth are nearly of the same size ; others possess in front of the jaws (Lycodonts) or behind in the maxillaries (Diacrasterians) a tooth more or less con- spicuously larger than the rest; whilst others again are distinguished by this larger posterior tooth being grooved along its outer face. The snakes with this grooved kind of tooth have been named Opis- thoglyphi, and also Sus- pecti, because their saliva is more or less poisonous. In the true poisonous snakes the maxillary dentition has undergone a special modification. The so-called colubrine venomous snakes, which retain in a great measure an external resemblance to the innocuous snakes, have the maxillary bone not at all, or but little, shortened, armed in front with a fixed, erect fang, which is provided with a deep groove or canal FIG. 3. — Head-shields of a Snake for the conveyance of the (Ptyas korros). Rostral. Posterior frontal. Anterior frontal. Vertical. Supraciliary or supraocular. Occipital. poison, the fluid being r, secreted by a special /, poison-gland. One or /', more small ordinary teeth v, may be placed at some s, distance behind this o, poison-fang. In the other n, n', Nasals. venomous snakes (viper- /, Loreal. ines and crotalines) the a, Anterior ocular or orbital, or prae- maxillary bone is very orbital or anteocular. short, and is armed with p, Postoculars. a single very long curved u, u, Upper labials. fang with a canal and /, t, Temporals. aperture at each end. m, Mental. Although firmly anchy- *, *, Lower labials. losed to the bone, the c,c, Chin-shields. tooth, which when at rest is laid backwards, is erectile, — the bone itself being mobile and rotated round its transverse axis. One or more reserve teeth, in various stages of development, lie between the folds of the gum and are ready to take the place of the one in function whenever it is lost by accident, or shed. The poison is secreted in modified upper labial glands, or in a pair of large glands which are the homologues of the parotid salivary glands of other animals. For a detailed account see West, J. Linn. Soc. xxv. (1895), p. 419; xxvi. (1898), p. 517; and xxviii. (1900). A duct leads to the furrow or canal of the tooth. The Elapinae have comparatively short fangs, while those of the vipers, especially the crotaline snakes, are much longer, sometimes nearly an inch in length. The Viperidae alone have " erectile " fangs. The mechanism is explained by the diagrams (fig. 4). The poison-bag lies on the side of the head between the eye and the mandibular joint and is held in position by strong ligaments which are attached to this joint and to the maxilla so that the act of opening the jaws and concomitant erection of the fangs automatically squeezes the poison out of the glands. Snakes are carnivorous, and as a rule take living prey only; a few feed habitually or occasionally on eggs. Many swallow SNAKES 287 their victim alive; others first kill it by smothering it between the coils of fheir body (constriction). The effects of a bite by a poisonous snake upon a small mammal or bird are almost instantaneous, preventing its escape; and the snake swallows its victim at its leisure, sometimes hours after it has been killed. The prey is always swallowed entire, and, as its girth generally much exceeds that of the snake, the progress of deglutition is very laborious and slow. Opening their jaws to their fullest extent, they seize the animal generally by the head, and pushing alternately the right and left sides of the jaws forward, they press the body through their elastic gullet into the stomach, its outlines being visible for some time through the distended walls of the abdomen. Digestion is quick and much accelerated by the quantity of saliva which is secreted during the progress of de- glutition, and in venomous snakes probably also by the chemical action of the poison. The primary function of the poison- apparatus is to serve as the means of procuring their food, but From Cambridge Natural History, vol. viii., " Amphibia and Reptiles," by permission of MacmiUan & Co., Ltd. FIG. 4. — Poison Apparatus of Rattlesnake. Upper figures: dia- grams of skull with fangs at rest. Lower figures : same, with fangs protruded. G, prefrontal; M, maxilla; J, poison-fang; Tr, trans- palatine; Ft, pterygoid; p, palatine; Q, quadrate; Sg, squamosal ; Pm, premaxilla; T.a, articular; Pe and Di, muscles. it also serves for defence. Only very few poisonous snakes (like Naja elaps) are known to resent the approach of man so much as to follow him on his retreat and to attack him. Others are much less inclined to avoid collision with man than innocuous kinds. They have thus become one of the greatest scourges to mankind, and Sir J. Fayrer has demonstrated that in India alone annually some 20,000 human beings perish from snake-bites. Therefore it will not be out of place to add here a chapter on snake poison and on the best means (ineffectual though they be in numerous cases) of counteracting its deleterious effects. An excellent account of the nature and of the effect of the venom of snakes, by Charles J. Martin, is in Allbutt's System of Medicine. The following condensed account has been abstracted from it. The poison is a clear, pale-yellow fluid which reacts acid, and contains about 30 % of solids, but this varies according to the state -SnaAc °f concentration. Most venoms are tasteless, but cobra poison. poison is said to be disagreeably bitter. Dried venom keeps indefinitely, and dissolves readily in water. It keeps also in glycerine. It contains albuminous bodies in solution, and is in fact a pure solution of two or more poisonous proteids, which are the active agents, with a small quantity of an organic acid or colour- ing matter. The venom is destroyed by reagents which precipitate proteids in an insoluble form, or which destroy them, e.g. silver nitrate or permanganate of potash. Hypochlorites have the same effect. But carbolic acid and caustic potash destroy it only after a day or two, consequently they are not a remedy. The venom is generally introduced into the subcutaneous tissue, whence it reaches the general circulation by absorption through the lymph and blood-vessels. When introduced directly into a vein, the effects are instantaneous. It is absorbed by the conjunctiva, but, excepting cobra poison, not by the mouth or alimentary canal, provided there be no hollow teeth and no abrasions. The venom of the various kinds of snakes acts differently. The Symptoms of Cobra Poison.— Burning pain, followed by sleepiness and weakness in the legs after half an hour. Then profuse salivation, paralysis of the tongue and larynx, and inability to speak. Vomiting, incapacity of movement. The patient seems to be con- scious. Breathing becoming difficult. The heart's action is quick- ened. The pupil remains contracted and reacts to light. At length breathing ceases, with or without convulsions, and the heart slowly stops. Should the patient survive, he returns rapidly to complete health. Rattlesnake Poison. — The painful wound is speedily discoloured and swollen. Constitutional symptoms appear as a rule in less than fifteen minutes: prostration, staggering, cold sweats, vomiting, feeble and quick pulse, dilatation of the pupil, and slight mental disturbance. In this state the patient may die in about twelve hours. If he recovers from the depression, the local symptoms begin to play a much more important part than in cobra-poisoning : great swelling and discoloration extending up the limb and trunk, rise of temperature and repeated syncope, and laboured respiration. Death may occur in this stage. The local haemorrhagic extravasation frequently suppurates, or becomes gangrenous, and from this the patient may die even weeks afterwards. Recovery is sudden, and within a few hours the patient becomes bright and intelligent. Symptoms of Bite from the European Viper. — Local burning pain ; the bitten limb soon swells and is discoloured. Great prostration, vomiting and cold, clammy perspiration follow within one to three hours. Pulse very feeble, with slight difficulty in breathing, and restlessness. In severe cases the pulse may become imperceptible, the extremities may become cold, and the patient may pass into coma. In from twelve to twenty-four hours these severe constitu- tional symptoms usually pass off, but in the meantime the swelling and discoloration have spread enormously. Within a few days re- covery usually occurs somewhat suddenly, but death may occur from the severe depression, or from the secondary effects of sup- puration. The symptoms of the bite from the Daboia or Vipera russeli resemble the effects of rattlesnake poison, but sanious discharges from the rectum, &c., are an additional and prominent feature. The recovering patient suffers from haemorrhagic extravasations in va'rious organs, besides from the lungs, nose, mouth and bowels. Kidney haemorrhage and albuminuria is a constant symptom. The pupil is always dilated and insensitive to light. Bite of Australian Elapine Snakes. — Pain and local swelling. The first constitutional symptoms appear in fifteen minutes to two hours. First faintness and irresistible desire to sleep. Then alarming prostration and vomiting. Pulse extremely feeble and thread-like, and uncountable. The limbs are cold and the skin is blanched. Respiration becomes shallow with the increasing coma. Sensation is blunted. The pupil is widely dilated and insensible to light. There is sometimes passing of blood. If the patient survives the coma, recovery is complete and as a rule rapid, without secondary symptoms. The Australian venom and that of all viperine snakes, perhaps also that of the cobra, if introduced rapidly into the circulation, occasions extensive intravascular clotting. If the venom is slowly absorbed, the blood loses its coagulability, owing to the breaking down of the red blood-corpuscles, most so with vipers, less with Australian snakes, least so with the cobra. The cobra venom is supposed to extinguish the functions of the various nerve-centres of the cerebro-spinal system, the paralysation extending from below upwards, and it has a special affinity for the respiratory centre. The toxicity or relative strength of the cobra venom has been calcu- lated to be sixteen times that of the European viper. Snakes can poison each other, even those of the same kind. Treatment. — Apply a ligature above, not on the top of, the situa- tion of the bite, twist the string tightly with a stick. Then make a free incision into the wound. Sucking out is dangerous! Then bandage the limb downwards, progressing towards the wound ; re- peat this several times. Do not keep the ligature longer than half an hour. Then let the circulation return, and apply the ligature again. In any case do not keep the ligature on for more than an hour for fear of gangrene. Direct application into the widened wound of calcium hypochlorite, i.e. bleaching powder, is very good, or of a i % solution of permanganate of potash, or Condy's fluid. Vigorous cauterization with nitrate of silver, driving the stick into the widened wound, is also good, and it is a remedy which one can carry in the pocket. Quick amputation of the finger is the best remedy of all'if a large snake has bitten it. Internal Remedies. — The administration of enormous doses of alcohol is to be condemned strongly. Small, stimulating doses, and repeated, are good, but stimulation can be more effectively produced by ammonia or strychnine. Hypodermic injection of strychnine, in some cases as much as one to two grains (but not into a vein!), has in some cases had good results; but injection of ammonia, instead of doing any good, has disastrous sloughing results. There is only one fairly reliable treatment, that by serum therapeutics, the injection of considerable quantities of serum of animals which have SNAKES Classifi- cation. been partially immunized by repeated doses of [that particular] snake-venom. Unfortunately this treatment will not often be avail- able. Several mammals and birds are supposed to be immune by nature against snake-venom. Some more or less immune creatures are the mongoose, the hedgehog and the pig, the secretary-bird, the honey buzzard, the stork and probably other snake-eaters. - Snakes are oviparous; they deposit from ten to eighty eggs of an ellipsoid shape, covered with a soft leathery shell, in places where they are exposed to and hatched by moist heat. The parents pay no further attention to them, except the pythons, which incubate their eggs by coiling their body over them, and fiercely defend them. In some families, as many freshwater snakes, the sea snakes, Viperinae and Crotalinae, the eggs are retained in the oviduct until the embryo is fully developed. These snakes bring forth living young. The classification of snakes has undergone many vicissitudes. J. Miiller (Zeitsckr.f. Physiol., 1831, p. 265) divided them into Ophidia macrostomata and O. microstomata. A. M. C. Dumeril (Catal. methodique, Mus. d'Hist. Nat., Paris, 1851, p. 199) distinguished between Opoterodonta, Aglyphodonta, Proteroglypha and Solenoglypha. H. Stannius (Zootomie d. Amphib., 1856) made a further improvement by combination of the principles used by his predecessors, and he divided the Angiostomata or narrow-mouthed snakes into Tor- tricina, Typhlopina and Uropeltacea; the Eurystomata into lobola or poisonous, and A sinea or innocuous snakes. Meanwhile J. E. Gray (Cat. Snakes, Brit. Mus., 1849) had distinguished only between Viperina and Colubrinia. A. Giinther (Cat. Colubrine Snakes, Brit. Mus., 1858; " Reptiles of British India," Ray Soc., 1864; article SNAKES, Ency. Brit., gth ed.) recognized at last four sub-orders: — Hopoterodontes, Colubriformes, Colu- briformes venenosi, Viperiformes; the most serious drawback being the merging of the Peropoda in the non-poisonous Colu- briformes. E. D. Cope (Proc. Ac. Philad., 1864, p. 230) resorted to the modifications of the squamosal, ecto- and endopterygoid bones, the condition of the vestigial limbs, and the teeth: — Scolecophidia (Typhlopidae), Catodonta (Glauconiidae), Tor- tricina (Ilysiidae and Uropeltidae), Asinea, Proteroglypha and Solenoglypha. He adhered to this arrangement in his last comprehensive work (Crocodilian!, Lizards and Snakes of North America, 1898, Smithsonian Inst., 1900), but combined the Asinea and Proteroglypha as Colubroidea, subdividing these into Peropoda, Aglyphodonta, Glyphodonta, Proteroglypha and Platycerca (Hydrophinae). In his last work he used, with doubtful success, the variations of the penes and the lungs as additional characters, chiefly for the grouping of the great mass of the Colubroid snakes. G. A. Boulenger (Cat. Snakes, Brit. Mus., 1893-1896) accepted Cope's principles, and mainly by combining the Asinea of Stannius and Cope with the Protero- glypha as Colubridae — wherein he was followed by Cope, as mentioned above — and separating therefrom the Peropoda or Boidae, he has produced a logically-conceived system, by far the best hitherto proposed. It is followed in the present article. Boulenger's phylogenetic system stands as follows: — Uropeltidae Viperidae C. Opisthoglypha I C. Proteroglypha Amblycephalidae i Hysiidae i Xenopeltidae 1 Colubridae Aglypha Boidae Glauconiidae Typhlopidae This means that the Boidae retain most primitive characters. Likewise primitive, but in various respects degraded, mainly owing to burrowing habits, are the Typhlopidae with the Ily- siidae, and Uropeltidae as a terminal branch, and on the other hand the Glauconiidae. The solitary Xenopeltis is in several ways intermediate between Boidae and Ilysiidae. The rest of the snakes are supposed to have started from some primitive, non- degenerate, therefore boa-like group, leading by loss of the vestiges of the hind-limbs and loss of the coronoid bone of the mandible to the aglyphous or innocuous Colubridae, whence further differentiation in three new lines has taken place, — (i) the harmless Amblycephalidae as a side-issue, (2) the very poison- ous proteroglyphous Elapidae, (3) the moderately or incipiently poisonous Opisthoglypha, out of some of which seem to have arisen the venomous Viperidae. I. No ectopterygoid ; pterygoid not extending to quadrate; no supratemporal or squamosal ; prefrontal forming a suture with nasal ; coronoid present ; vestiges of pelvis present. Maxillary vertical, loosely attached, toothed ; mandible toothless ; a single pair of pelvis bones : Typhlopidae. Maxillary bordering the mouth, forming sutures with the pre- maxillary, prefrontal and frontal, toothless; lower jaw toothed; pubis and ischium present, the latter forming a symphysis: Glauconiidae. II. Ectopterygoid present; upper and lower jaws toothed. A. Coronoid present , prefrontal in contact with nasal. 1. Vestiges of hind-limbs; supratemporal present. Squamosal large, suspending the quadrate: Boidae. Squamosal small, intercalated in the cranial wall: Ilysiidae. 2. No vestiges of limbs : squamosal absent : Uropeltidae. B. Coronoid absent; squamosal present. 1. Maxillary horizontal; pterygoid reaching quadrate or mandible. Prefrontal in contact with nasal : Xenopeltidae. Prefrontal not in contact with nasal : Colubridae. 2. Maxillary horizontal; pterygoid not reaching quadrate or mandible: Amblycephalidae. 3. Maxillary vertically erectile, perpendicularly to ectoptery- goid, and reaching quadrate or mandible: Viperidae. For ordinary practical purposes this synopsis is useless, most of the anatomical characters being visible only in the macerated skull. The following characterization of the families is based upon more accessible features. Eyes vestigial or hidden; lower jaw toothless; without enlarged ventral scales: Typhlopidae. Eyes vestigial; teeth restricted to the lower .jaw; without en- larged ventral scales : Glauconiidae. Eyes very small; head not distinct; teeth in the upper and lower jaws; ventral scales scarcely enlarged; tail extremely short, ending obtusely and covered with peculiar scales: Uropeltidae. Eyes functional, free, with vestiges of the hind-limbs appearing as claw-like spurs on each side of the vent. Ventral scales scarcely enlarged : Ilysiidae. Ventral scales transversely enlarged : Boidae Eyes free; with a pair of poison-fangs in the front part of the mouth, carried by the otherwise toothless, much shortened, and vertically erectile maxillaries; ventral scales transversely enlarged : Viperidae. All the remaining snakes combine the following characters . the maxillaries are typically horizontal, not separately movable, with a series of teeth. The mandible is toothed but has no coronoid bone. There are no vestiges of limbs or of their girdles. The eyes are free. Dentary movably attached to the tip of the articular bone of the mandible. Skin beautifully iridescent: Xeno- peltidae. Without a mental groove; the ends of the pterygoids are free, not reaching the quadrate. Head thick and very- distinct : A mblycephalidae. With a median longitudinal groove between the shields of the skin: Colubridae. Family i. TYPHLOPIDAE. — Burrowing snakes, mostly small, which have the body covered with smooth, shiny, uniform cycloid scales* The teeth are restricted to the small maxillary bones. The quadrates slant obliquely forward and are attached directly to the prootics, owing to the absence of squamosals. The prefrontals are in lateral contact with the nasals. The vestiges of the pelvis are reduced to a single bone on each side, and there are no traces of limbs. The eyes are hidden by shields of the skin. The mouth is very narrow, and the halves of the under-jaw are not distensible. About 100 species of these rather archaic snakes are known; in adaptation to their burrowing life and worm and insect diet, they have undergone degradation. The tail is mostly very short and sometimes ends in FIG. 5. — Typhlops bolhriorhynchus, from India, natural size. a horny spine. They are widely distributed in all tropical and sub- tropical countries, even in such solitary places as Christmas Island, but they do not occur in New Zealand. The chief genus is Typhlops, SNAKES 289 •of which, for instance, T. braminus ranges from southern Asia, the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Malay Islands to southern Africa. Family 2. GLAUCONIIDAE. — Burrowing like the Typhlopidae, which they much resemble externally, but the maxillaries retain their normal position and are. toothless, teeth being restricted to the lower 'jaw, which is short, stout, and not dis- tensible. The pelvic girdle and the hind-limbs show the least reduction found in any recent snakes, ilia, pubes and ischia being still distin- guishable, the last even retaining their sym- physis, and there are small vestiges of the femurs. About 30 species, mostly of the genus Glauconia, in south-western Asia, Africa, Madagascar, the Antilles and both Americas, G. dulcis ranging northwards into Texas, G. humilis into California. Family 3. ILYSIIDAE. — Mostly burrowing. The scales of the long, cylindrical body are smooth and small, scarcely enlarged on the ventral side. The tail is extremely short and blunt. The head is very small and not distinct from the neck, a usual feature in burrowing snakes and lizards. The gape of the mouth is narrow. The quadrate bones are short and stand rather vertically. The squamosals form part of the cranial wall, being firmly wedged in between the quadrate, prootic and occipital bones. Vestiges of the pelvis and hind-limbs are small, but they terminate in claw-like spurs which protrude FIG g Three between the scales on either side of the vent, Views of Head of as m tne Boidae. The small eyes are some- Typhlops bra- times covered by transparent shields. About minus (India), half-a-dozen species only are known in South magnified. ' America, Ceylon, the Malay Islands and Indo- China. They are viviparous like the Typhlo- pidae, upon which they feed besides worms and insects, llysia s. Tortrix scytale, one of the " coral-snakes " of tropical South America, is beautiful coral-red with black rings, grows to nearly a yard in length, and is said sometimes to be worn as a necklace by native ladies. Family 4. UROPELTIDAE (RHINOPHIDAE). — Burrowing snakes of Ceylon and southern India, with a very short tail, which ends in a peculiar, often obliquely truncated, shield, hence the name. The eyes are very small. The scales of the body are smooth and are but little larger on the belly. The coloration is mostly beautiful, black and red. The Uropeltidae are in various respects intermediate between the two last and the next family. The quadrates are directly attached to the skull, the squamosals being absent. Teeth are carried in both jaws. There are no vestiges of hind-limbs or of the pelvis. These tail-shielded snakes, of which about 40 species are known, are viviparous and burrow in the ground, preferring damp mountain- forests. Uropeltis grandis, the only species of the type-genus, is confined to Ceylon; about 18 in. in length, it is blackish above, yellow below, often with small spots on the upper and the under surface. Rhinophis sanguineus lives in southern India; it is black above with a bluish gloss, the belly is bright red with black spots, like the convex tail-shield. Family 5. BOIDAE. — Typical, often very large, snakes, which have vestiges of pelvis and hind-limbs, the latter appearing as claw-like spurs on each side of the vent. The scales of the upper surface are usually small and smooth, while those of the belly form one broad series. The quadrate is carried by the horizontally-elongated squa- mosal, which rests loosely upon the skull. The prefrontals are in contact with the nasals. Sharp, recurved teeth are carried by the mandibles, the pterygoids, palatines, maxillaries, and in the Python- inae by the premaxillaries also. The Boidae comprise some 60 species, which have been grouped into many fancy genera. The range of the family extends over all the tropical and subtropical countries, including islands, except New Zealand. Sub-family I. Pythoninae. — With a pair of supraorbital bones between the prefrontal, frontal and postfrontal bones. The pre- maxilla generally carries a few small teeth. The subcaudal scales are mostly in two rows. The pythons (q.v.) are restricted to the palaeo- tropical and Australian regions, with the sole exception of Loxocemus bicolor in southern Mexico. Sub-family 2. Boinae. — Without supraorbital bones. The pre- maxilla is toothless. The subcaudal scales form mostly a single row. Widely distributed. Boa (q.v.) in tropical America and with two species in Madagascar. Eunectes murinus, the Anaconda (q.v.), Charina, e.g. bottae, a small sand-snake from Oregon to California. Eryx jaculus, also a sand-snake, from North Africa to Central Asia, and extending into Greece. Enygrus, ranging from New Guinea to the Fiji Islands. Casarca dussumieri, differing from Boa chiefly by the rough and strongly-keeled scales, is confined to Round Island near Mauritius. This makes the occurrence of a species of Corallus in Madagascar less remarkable, while all the others live in Central and South America. Family 6. XENOPELTIDAE. — One species, Xenopeltis unicolor, in south-eastern Asia and Malay Islands. Boiilenger rightly considers xxv. 10 this snake in various ways intermediate between the Ilysiidae, Boidae and Colubridae. The prefrontal bones are still in contact with the nasals as in the previous families, but the coronoid bones of the mandibles are absent as in the remaining, families, and this loss also occurs in the Boine Charina. The most remarkable feature is the dentary bone, which is movably attached to the much-elongated articular bone (cf. Polyodontophis of Colubrinae), the movability being enhanced by the absence of the coronoid. The quadrate is short and thick, and is carried by the broad and short squamosal, which lies flat against the skull, reminding in this respect of llysia. The smooth, black and brown scales of the back are highly iridescent, hence the generic name of this peculiar snake, which reaches the length of one yard. Family 7. COLUBRIDAE. — Maxillaries horizontal and forming the greater portion of the upper jaw, which is toothed like the lower jaw; coronoid of mandible absent. Pterygoids connected with the quadrates which are carried by the squamosals, and these are loosely attached to the skull. Prefrontals not in contact with the basals. Ectopterygoids present. No vestiges of limbs or pelvis. This family comprises about nine-tenths of all recent species of snakes and is cosmopolitan, New Zealand being the most notable exception. The 1300 to 1400 species contain terrestrial, arboreal and aquatic forms, many of which are highly specialized. Boulenger, adopting Dumeril's terms, has divided them into three parallel series: — A. Aglypha. — All the teeth are solid, and not grooved. Harmless, non-poisonous. B. Opisthoglypha. — One or more of the posterior maxillary teeth are grooved. Most of these snakes, which number about 300 species, are moderately poisonous. C. Proteroglypha. — The anterior maxillary teeth are grooved or " perforated." About 200 very poisonous species, e.g. cobras, coral- snakes and sea-snakes. The second and third series containing only about 400 species, the Aglypha still present the appalling number of 1000 species, and even the grouping of this mass into three sub-families does not lighten the task of arranging the chaos, since one of these sub-families contains only one, and the other but a very few species. We have therefore still 1000 species, all so closely allied that they together are but of sub-family rank. They possess few reliable characters; their modifications are not weighty, and it is almost certain that some of these characters, and even combinations thereof, have been developed independently and in different countries. Many of the so-called genera, or groups of genera, are consequently not to be used either as witnesses of blood-relationship or of geographical distribution. Some of the usual characters employed for systematic purposes, for the making of convenient keys, are the following: The number of rows of scales across the body and in a longitudinal direction; shape and structure of scales, whether smooth or with a longitudinal keel ; arrangement of the shields on the head ; shape of the con- tracted pupil. Above all, the dentition, which exhibits almost endless modifications, in most cases is difficult to ascertain and to appreciate in its subtle distinctions. Internal, skeletal characters, useless for ordinary practical purposes, are the various apophyses on the ventral side of the vertebrae and the penial armaments fancied by Cope. It is impossible here to mention any but the more obvious genera and groups of colubrine snakes. Series A. AGLYPHA. — Sub-family I. Acrochordinae. — The few genera and species of these ugly-looking snakes are mostly aquatic, inhabiting rivers and estuaries of S.E Asia; but one, Nothopsis, lives on the Isthmus of Darien, and another, Stoliczkaia, is found in the Khasia Hills of N.E. India. Acrochordus javanicus has no en- larged ventral shields; the flat, viperish-looking head is covered with small granules, with the eyes and nostrils well on the upper surface. Chersydrus ranges from Madras to New Guinea; the body and tail are laterally compressed and form a ventral fold which is covered with tiny scales like the rest of the body. The main anatomical justification of this sub-family is given by the postfrontal bones, which, besides bordering the orbits posteriorly, are extended forwards so as to form the upper border of the orbits, separating the latter from the frontals. Sub-family 2. Colubrinae. — The postfrontal bones are restricted to the posterior border of the orbits. The maxillary and dentary bones carry teeth on their whole length. This sub-family contains about 1000 species; few of them reach a length of more than two yards, some of the largest belonging to the Indian Zaocys s. Cory- phodon,vfhich grow to 10 ft. Most of them are oviparous. Some are more or less aquatic, oth'ers are absolutely arboreal, others again prefer dry, sandy or rocky localities according to their food. The sub-family is cosmopolitan, excepting the New Zealand sub-region, and finds its natural N. limit on the permanently frozen underground, where hibernation is of course impossible. Only a few out of the more than 120 genera can be mentioned here. Coluber in Europe, Asia and North America. C. Ipngissimus^ s. flavescens s. aesculapii was probably the species held in veneration by the ancient Romans. It grows to a length of 5 ft., climbs ex- tremely well, feeds chiefly on mice, and becomes very tame. Its coloration varies from pale golden brown to black; the scales are 290 SNAKES smooth and shiny. Its original home is Italy and S.E. Europe, whence it has spread N. into S. Germany. Its occurrence at widely distant and isolated localities was formerly supposed to be due to its introduction by the Romans. C. corais, from the S. states of N. America far into S. America, reaches 8 ft. in length. C. (Pily- ophis) sayi, C. catenifer and others in N. America. Coronella, widely distributed excepting Australia and S. America. C. austriaca s. laevis, the " smooth snake " of Europe, in England, in Hampshire and Dorsetshire, eats chiefly lizards; owing to its coloration, which varies much, it is often mistaken for the viper. C. getula is one of the many N. American species. Zamenis of Europe, Asia, N. Africa, N; and Central America, with many species, e.g. Z. mucosus the Indian " rat-snake, " Z. constrictor in the United States. Some species of the Central and S. American genus Urotheca bear an extraordinary resemblance in coloration to the pretty, black, red and yellow poisonous Elaps. Dendrophis of India and Australia (e.g. D. pictus of India), and Leptophis s. Ahaetulla (e.g. L. liocerus, neotropical) may be taken as examples of long and slender tree-snakes. Tropidonotus, with near 100 species, -is cosmopolitan with the exception of New Zealand. Some of the species, like the Indian T. quincunciatus and T. stolatus and the N. American T. ordinalus, are perhaps more abundant as regards the number of individuals than any other snake. T. natrix, the grass or ringed snake, is very common in Europe, including England but not Scotland or Ireland; easily recognized even at a distance by two yellow or white spots which it has behind its head. It grows rarely to a length of 4 ft. ; it never bites, and feeds chiefly on frogs, toads and fishes, but mice are never taken. Its eggs, which are of the size and shape of a dove's egg, are from fifteen to thirty in number, are deposited in mould or under damp leaves, and are glued together into one mass. Polyodontophis of Madagascar, S.E. Asia and Central America is remarkable for having the dentary bones loosely attached to the apex of the elongated articular bone. Calamaria of Indo-China is an example of burrowing snakes, with a short tail and small eyes; in Typhlopophis of the Philippines the eyes are concealed. Sub-family 3. Rhachiodontidae, represented by Dasypeltis scabra of tropical and S. Africa. Characterized by possessing only a few teeth, on the posterior part of the maxillaries, on the palatines and \\ FIG. 7. — Dasypeltis unicolor, in the act of swallowing an egg. Nat. size. dentaries; some of the vertebrae in the lower region of the neck have strongly developed hypapophyses (not provided with a cap of enamel, as has often been asserted), which are directed forwards and pierce the oesophagus. The principal diet of these peculiar snakes seems to consist of eggs. In Cape Colony they are known as " eyervreter, " i.e. egg-eater. A snake, scarcely 20 in. in length, and with a body not thicker than a man's little finger, is able to swallow a hen's egg, a feat which seems quite impossible. As the egg passes at last through the alarmingly distended neck, the snake makes some slight contortions and the swelling collapses, the shell having been filed through by the saw-like apparatus. Whilst the contents are thus retained without loss, the crumpled shell is then vomited out. This peculiar arrangement occurs also in an Indian snake, Elachiston, which represents, however, a sub-family of the Opistho- glypha. In another, probably also egg-eating snake, the Indian Coronelline Nymphophidium, the same effect is reached by two prominences at the base of the skull. Series B. OPISTHOGLYPHA. — One, or a few, of the posterior maxillary teeth have a groove or furrow in front, which conducts the secretion of the enlarged upper labial glands. They are all more or less poisonous, paralysing their prey before, or during the act of swallowing; the poison-fangs standing so far back in the mouth, these snakes cannot easily inflict wounds with them on man; more- over, the poison is not very strong and not available in large quan- tities. It may well be doubted whether Opisthoglypha form one genuine group instead of a heterogeneous assembly. They comprise about 300 species of terrestrial, arboreal and aquatic forms, and as a group they are almost cosmopolitan, including Madagascar, but excepting new Zealand. Sub-family I. Dipsadomorphinae. — Nostrils lateral; dentition well developed. Long-tailed, terrestrial and arboreal forms. The tree-snakes are mostly green above with the under parts white or yellow. Coelopeltis, with concave, or grooved scales; C. lacertina s. monspessulanils, one of the largest European snakes in Mediterranean countries and south-western Asia. Dipsadomorphus, Dipsas, Leptognathus, Dryophis, Dendrophis and other closely allied genera are typical, very long-bodied and long- tailed tree-snakes, chiefly tropical. The graceful form of their body, the elegance and rapidity of their movements, and the ex- quisite beauty of their colours have been the admiration of all who have had the good fortune to watch them in their native haunts. The majority lead an exclusively arboreal life; only a few descend to the ground in search of their food. They prey upon every kind of arboreal animal — birds, tree-frogs, tree-lizards, &c. All seem to be diurnal, and the larger kinds attain to a length of about 4 ft. The most beautiful of all snakes are perhaps certain varieties of Chry- sopelea ornata, a species extremely common in the Indian Archi- pelago and many parts of the continent of tropical Asia. One of these varieties is black, with a yellow spot in the centre of each scale; these spots are larger on the back, forming a series of tetrapetalous flowers; the head is similarly ornamented. Another variety has a red back, with pairs of black crossbars, the bands of each pair being separated by a narrow yellow space; sides brown, dotted with black; belly dark green, the outer portion of each ventral shield being yellow, with a blackish spot. The features by which the tree- snakes are distinguished are still more developed in the whip-snakes (Dryophis), whose excessively slender body has been compared to the cord of a whip. Although arboreal, like the former, they are nocturnal in their habits, having a horizontal instead of a round pupil of the eye. They are said to be of a fierce dis- position, feeding chiefly on birds. In some of the species the elongate form of the head is still more ex- aggerated by a pointed flexible appendage of the snout (Passerita), which may be nearly half an inch in length, or leaf-like, as in the Madagascar Langaha. The Mexican Trimorphodon much resemble viperine snakes with the flat, tri- angular head, narrow neck, slit-like pupil and pugnacious disposition. A still. more remarkable resemblance exists in the shape and striking, red, black and yellow coloration between Scolecophis aemulus of Chihuahua and the poisonous Elaps fulvius, the American coral-snake, but Cope has been careful to point out that these two creatures are not known to inhabit the same district. Sub-family 2. Elachistodonidae. — Represented by Elachistodon weslermanni of Bengal, with the same peculiar dentition and with sharp hypapophyses on the vertebrae of the lower neck, as described of Dasypeltis (see above). Sub-family 3. Homalopsinae. — The nostrils of these absolutely aquatic, viviparous snakes are valvular and placed on the upper surface of the snout. The eyes are small, with vertical pupils. About two dozen ugly-looking species inhabit rivers and estuaries from Bengal to Australia. Cerberus rhynchops; Hypsirhina plum- bea, Homalopsis; Hipistes hydrinus of Siam has a compressed body, and much resembles the Hydrophinae in general appearance and its partly marine life. Herpeton of Cambodia has a pair of long tentacles on the snout and is said to have a partly vegetable diet! Series C. PROTEROGLYPHA. — The anterior maxillary teeth are deeply grooved, or so folded as to appear hollow or perforated. Behind these enlarged poison-fangs follows a series of smaller, solid SNAKES 291 teeth, hence the term " proteroglypha," which is intended to mean that the anterior teeth are grooved. These snakes are all very poisonous, mostly viviparous and found in all tropical and sub- tropical countries, with the exception of Madagascar and New Zealand. Sub-family I. Elapinae. — Terrestrial, with a cylindrical tail, comprising about 150 species which have been grouped into numerous genera, mostly upon very slight differences. The most remarkable are the following. Naja tripudians and ^V. haje, the cobra (q.v.). The largest species is the N. bungarus s. elaps, the " hamadryad," snake-eating cobra," or king-cobra of Indian countries, reaching more than 12 ft. in length, and living mainly upon other snakes. Sepedon haemachates, of S. Africa, is named by the Boers " roode FIG. 8. — Indian Whip-Snake. Passerita mycterizans. koper kapel" or " ring-hals," i.e. banded neck, the latter name being, however, often applied also to the cobra. It resembles in colour some varieties of the latter snake, and, like this, it has the power, though in a less degree, of expanding its hood. But its scales are keeled and its form is more robust. It is equally active and courage- ous, not rarely attacking persons who approach too near to its resting-place. In confinement it evinces great ferocity, opening its mouth and erecting its fangs, from which the poison is seen to flow in drops. During such periods of excitement it is even able, by the pressure of the muscles on the poison-duct, to eject the fluid to some distance; hence it shares with the cobra a third Dutch name, that of " spuw slang " (spitting snake). It grows to a length of 2 or 3 ft. Another kind is the "schapsticker" (sheep stinger), 5. rhombeatus. It is extremely common in S. Africa, and extends far N. along the E. as well as W. coast. It is of smaller size than the preceding, and causes more injury to animals, such as sheep, dogs, &c. than to man. It varies in colour, but a black mark on the head like an inverted V remains nearly always visible. The species of Bungarus, four in number, are extremely common in India, Burma, and Ceylon, and are distinguished by having only one row of undivided sub-caudal shields. Three of the species have the body ornamented with black rings, but the fourth and most common (B. coeruleus), the " krait" of Bengal, possesses a dull and more uniform colora- tion. The fangs of the bunga- rums are shorter than those of the cobras, and cannot penetrate so deeply into the wound. Their bite is therefore less dangerous and the effect on the general system slower, so that there is more prospect of recovery by treatment. Nevertheless, the FIG. 9. — Head of Hcrpcton tentaculatum. krait is probably the most destructive snake to human life in India, since it is very common and often creeps into the houses. Doliophis intestinalis of Indo-China has enormously developed poison glands, which extend down the whole anterior third of the body, in front of the heart. No part of the world possesses so many snakes of this sub-family as Australia, where, in fact, they replace the non-venomous colubrine snakes; many of them are extremely common and spread over a considerable area. Fortunately the majority are of small size, and their bites are not followed by more severe effects than those from the sting of a hornet. Only the following are dangerous to man and larger animals: the " death-adder," Acanlhopis antarcticus, easily recognized by the peculiar end of the tail which is compressed and terminates in a thin horny spine; common throughout Australia to the Moluccas, scarcely one yard in length; the " black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus) , likewise common throughout the Australian continent, especially in low marshy places, and upwards of 6 ft. in length ; it is black, with each scale of the outer series red at the base; when irritated it raises the fore part of its body and flattens out its neck like a cobra, the females are sometimes known as "brown adders"; the "tiger-snake," Notechis scutatus (s. Hoplocephalus curtus), with a similar distribution, and also common in Tasmania, from 5 to 6 ft. long, and considered the most dangerous of the tribe. Good descriptions and figures of all these snakes are given in Krefft's Snakes of Australia (Sydney, 1869, 410). Several genera of the Elapinae lead a more or less burrowing life; their body is of a uniform cylindrical shape, terminating in a short tail, and covered with short polished scales; their head is short, the mouth rather narrow, and the eye small. They are the tropical American Elaps, the Indian Cattophis, the African Poecilophis and the Australian Vermicella. The majority are distinguished by the beautiful arrangement of their bright and highly ornamental colours; many species of Elaps have the pattern of the so-called coral-snakes, their body being encircled by black, red and yellow rings — a pattern FIG. 10. — A Poisonous Snake (Elaps fulvius} swallowing a similarly coloured Opisthoglyphous Snake (Homahcranium semicinctum) . which is peculiar to snakes, venomous as well as non-venomous, of the fauna of tropical America. Although the poison of these narrow- mouthed snakes is probably as virulent as that of the preceding, man has much less to fear from them, as they bite only under great provocation. Moreover, their bite must be frequently without serious effect, owing to their narrow mouth and the small size of their poison- fangs. They are also comparatively of small size, only a few species rarely exceeding a length of 3 ft., for instance Elaps fulvius, which extends into the S. states of N. America. 0 292 SNAKES Sub-family 2. Hydrophinae. — Tail laterally compressed ; marine. Of sea-snakes some fifty species are known. All are inhaoitants of the tropical Indo-Pacific ocean, and most numerous in and about the Persian Gulf, in the East Indian Archipelago, and in the seas between S. Japan and N. Australia. One species which is extremely common (Pelamis bicolor), and which is easily recognized by the black colour of its upper and the yellowish tints of its lower parts (both colours being sharply denned), has extended its range W. to the sea round Madagascar, and E. to the Gulf of Panama. One species, however, Distira semperi, is confined to the landlocked freshwater Lake Taal at Luzon in the Philippines. Sea-snakes are viviparous and pass their whole life in the water; they soon die when brought on shore. The scales are very small, often very much reduced, and there are frequently no enlarged ventrals on the compressed belly, but Platurus has broad ventrals. Their motions in the water are almost as rapid as they are uncertain and awkward when the animals are removed out of their proper element. Their nostrils are placed quite at the top of the snout. These openings are small and provided with a valve interiorly, which is opened during respiration, and closed when the animal dives. They have very capacious lungs, extending back- wards to the anus; by retaining air in these extensive lungs they are able to float on the surface of the water and to remain under water for a consider- able length of time. Sea-snakes shed their skin frequently; but it peels off in pieces as in lizards, and not as in the freshwater snakes, in which the integuments come off entire. Several species are remarkable for the extremely slender and prolonged anterior part of the body, and very small head. The eye is small, with round pupil, which is so much contracted by the light when the snake is taken out of the water that the animal becomes blinded and is unable to hit any object it attempts to strike. The tongue is short, and the sheath in which it lies concealed opens near to the front margin of the lower jaw; scarcely more than the two terminating points are exserted from the mouth when the animal is in the water. The mouth shuts in a somewhat different way from that of other snakes: the middle of the rostral shield is produced downwards into a small lobule, which prevents the water from entering the mouth; there is generally a small notch on each side of the lobule for the passage of the two points of the tongue. The food of sea-snakes consists entirely of small fish; among them species with very strong spines. As all these animals are killed by the poison of the snake before they are swallowed, and as their muscles are perfectly relaxed, their armature is harmless to the snake, which begins to swallow its prey from the head, and de- presses the spines as deglutition proceeds. Sea-snakes belong to the most poisonous _ elf* c , species of the whole order. Accidents are PIG. II.- s KB, rarely caused by them, because they are FeLamis bicolor. extremely shy and swim away on the least alarm; but, when surprised in the submarine cavities forming their natural retreats, they will, like any other poisonous terrestrial snake, dart at the disturbing object; and, when out of the water, they attempt to bite every object near them, even turning round to wound their own bodies. They cannot endure captivity, dying in the course of two or three days, even when kept in capacious tanks. The greatest size to which some species attain, according to positive observation, is about 12 ft., and therefore far short of the statements as to the length of the so-called sea-serpents (q.v.). Boulenger has written an interesting account of sea-snakes in Natural Science, i. (1892), p. 44 seq. Family 8. A mblycephalidae. — The pterygoids are widely separated from the quadrates, not reaching beyond the level of the occipital condyle. This condition can be ascertained without dissection, when the mouth is opened widely. The squamosals are reduced to pad-like vestiges. Otherwise these snakes agree with the aglyphous Colubridae. Externally they are easily distinguished by the absence of a longitudinal groove on the skin. The head is thick, very distinct from the neck and the pupil is vertical, so that these harmless snakes look rather viperish. About 30 species, with several genera, are known from the oriental and neotropical regions. Amblycephalus, e.g. monticola, with compound body, in S.E. Asia. Family 9. Viperidae. — The maxillaries are very short, movably pivoting upon the prefrontals and also attached to the ectopterygoids, so that they can be erected together with the large poison fangs, which, besides reserve teeth, are the only maxillarv teeth. There are also teeth on the palatines, anterior portion of the pterygoids, and on the short dentaries. The short squamosals are very loosely attached to the skull. The prefrontals are not in contact with the nasals. The poison-fangs are " solenoglyphous," perforated, having a wide hole on the anterior side at the base, in connexion with the duct of the large, paired, poison-glands, the presence of which adds considerably to the characteristic broadness of the head. The hole leads into a canal, which opens as a semi-canal towards the end of the tooth. The supply of reserve teeth is indefinite; frequently one or two are lying ready and of equal size to the functional fangs. All the Viperidae are very poisonous and all, except the African Atractaspis, are viviparous. They include terrestrial, semi-aquatic and burrowing types; none of them with any signs of degradation; on the contrary they belong to the most highly organized of snakes. The family is cosmopolitan, excepting Madagascar and the whole of the Australian region. Sub-family I. Viperinae, vipers (q.v.) or adders. — Without an ex- ternal pit between eye and nose, and the maxillary bone is not hollowed out above. Absolutely restricted to the Old World, with 9 genera comprising about 40 species. Sub-family 2. Crotalinae. — With a deep cavity or pit on either side between the eye and the nose, lodged in the hollowed-out rraxillary bone. The lining of these pits is amply supplied with branches from the trigeminal nerves, but the function is still quite unknow r,. About 60 species of pit-vipers are recognizable. They can easily be divided into 4 genera: Crotalus and Sistrurus with a rattle at the end of the tail and restricted to America (see RATTLESNAKE) ; secondly, pit-vipers without a rattle: Ancistrodon, with large shields covering the upper surface of the head; with about 10 species, e.g. A. halys in the Caspian district, others in the Himalayas, Ceylon and Sunda islands. Notable American species are the following: _A. piscivorus, the " water-viper " from Carolina and Indiana to Florida and Texas. This creature is semi-aquatic and lives chiefly on fishes ; it grows to a length of about 5 ft. ; the general colour is reddish to dark brown, FIG. 12. — Lachesis viridis of India. even blackish, with darker cross-bands or C-shaped markings; a dark, light-edged band extends from the eye to the angle of the mouth. The under parts are yellowish, more or less spotted or quite black. A. contortrix the " moccasin-snake " or " copper-head," so called because of its yellow to pink or pale-brown ground colour, with dark crossbars or triangular marks. The under surface is yellow to reddish, with dark specks. Full-grown specimens are about I yd. in length. The moccasin-snake ranges fromMassachusetts and Kansas to Florida and Texas and into Mexico, preferring swampy localities or meadows with high grass, where it hunts for small mammals and birds. It is easily distinguished from other North SNAPDRAGON— SNIPE 293 American pit-vipers by the possession of a loreal shield, i.e. a shield intercalated between the two preoculars and the posterior nasal; below the loreal lies the pit. The moccasin and the water-viper have occasionally been men- tioned under the name of Trigonocephalus cenchris, one of the many synonyms. Lachesis has the upper surface of the head covered With very small shields, or with scales, and contains about 40 species, in S. and Central America, the Antilles and also in S.E. Asia. The most ill-famed is L. s. Bothrops s. Craspedocephalus lanceolatus, which inhabits the greater part of S. America, extending into Mexico and the Lower Antilles, notably Martinique, Guadaloupe and Santa Lucia, where it is known as the " Fer de Lance "; Mexicans call it " rabo de hueso " or bone-tail, on account of the curiously coloured and spike-like tip of the tail. It is a very quick and highly irascible beast and even known to turn on its pursuer. It grows to a length of 6 ft., lives in swamps, plantations, forests, on the plains and on the hills, and is very prolific, producing dozens of young, which at birth are 10 in. long and as vicious as their parents. L. s. Trimeresurus gramineus s. viridis s. erythurus is one of the Asiatic species, ranging over the whole of India to Hong-kong, Timor and even to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is arboreal, bright green above; the end of the prehensile tail is usually bright red. (H. F. G.) SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM (Gr. j5is, piws, snout, from the shape of the flower), a plant of the natural order Scrophulariaceae (q.v.), native to central and south Europe, occurring as an alien on old walls in Britain. It is an old-fashioned garden perennial of easy cultivation. Antirrhinum majus, sown in heat, and forwarded until the general time for planting out, becomes a summer annual, and may be so treated; but under a slower and more hardy regime it may be sown in boxes in August, and pricked off into other boxes and wintered in a frame. So treated, and planted out in well-prepared beds of good friable garden soil, it will become very showy and effective. The " Tom Thumb " or dwarf strain, obtainable in self and mixed colours, is a very valuable plant for bedding. The named sorts are pro- pagated by cuttings, and wintered in a frame. Some of the double-flowered sorts are interesting. There are forms with white, yellow, rose, crimson, magenta, and variously mottled and striped flowers, some of them of great beauty, but the named sorts are too fugitive to make it desirable to record a list. SNEEK, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, to the west of Sneek lake, 14 m by rail S.S.W. of Leeuwarden, with which it is also connected by canal. Steam tramways connect it S.E. with Heerenveen and N.W. with Bolsward and Harlingen. Pop. (1900) 12,075. Sneek is one of the great butter and cheese markets of the province. One of the former city gates (1615) remains, and there are a town hall, communal buildings (1863), court-house, weigh-house, synagogue and churches of various denominations, in one of which is the tomb of the naval hero of the 1 6th century, Lange, or Groote Pier (Long or Great Peter). The horse-fair of Sneek is widely attended, and there is a consider- able activity in trade and shipping. SNEEZING (O. Eng. fneosung, from fneosan, to sneeze, cf. Dutch fniezen, allied to the obsolete neeze, and ultimately to be referred to root seen in Gr. irvtiv, to breathe; the initial s is due to association with numerous words, such as snort, snuff, snore. &c.), a violent expiration of air from the nose and mouth; it is an involuntary reflex respiratory act; caused by irritation of the nerve-endings of the mucous membrane of the nose or by stimulation of the optic nerve by a bright light. The irrita- tion may be due to the swelling of the nasal mucous membrane, which occurs in catching cold, sneezing being often a premonitory or accompanying symptom, or to foreign bodies in the nose, as by inhalation of snuff or other " errhines " or " sternutatories." A venerable and widespread belief survives in the custom of saying " God bless you " when a person sneezes'. The Hindus say " live," to which the answer " with you " is given (E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. 101). A sneeze was considered a sign or omen from the gods by the Greeks and Romans; it was one of the many common everyday occurrences which if coming at an important moment could be interpreted as presaging the future. There are many allusions to it in classical literature, e.g. Homer, Od. xvii. 561, Plutarch, Themist. 13, Xenophon, Anab. iii. 2 and Catullus, Carm. 45. There are references to it in Rabbinical literature, and it has been found in Otaheite, Florida and the Tonga Islands. SNELL, HANNAH (1723-1792), the "female soldier," was born at Worcester on the 23rd of April 1723, being the daughter of a hosier. In order to seek her husband, who had ill-treated and abandoned her, in 1745 she donned man's attire and enlisted as a soldier in Guise's regiment of foot, but soon deserted, and shipped on board the sloop " Swallow " under her brother-in- law's name of James Gray. The " Swallow " sailed in Boscawen's fleet to the East Indies, and took part in the siege of Araapong. Hannah served in the assault on Pondicherry and was wounded, but she succeeded in extracting the bullet without calling in a surgeon. When recovered she served before the mast on the " Tartar " and the " Eltham, " but when paid off she resumed woman's costume. Her adventures were published as The Female Soldier, or the Surprising Adventures of Hannah Snell (1750), and she afterwards gave exhibitions in military uniform in London. She died insane in Bethlehem Hospital on the 8th of February 1792. SNELL, JOHN (1629-1679), founder of the Snell exhibitions at Oxford, was born in 1629 in Ayrshire, Scotland^ the son of a blacksmith. He joined the royalists during the civil war, and fought in several battles, including Worcester. Thereafter he took refuge in Cheshire, where he met Sir Orlando Bridgeman, whose clerk he became, being raised to the offices of court -crier and seal-bearer as his patron was promoted to those of judge and Lord Keeper. Later he was secretary to the Duke of Monmouth and had the management of his Scottish estates. He died at Oxford cm the 6th of August 1679, leaving a bequest for sending students from Glasgow University to an Oxford college or hall. The Court of Chancery decided in 1693 that Balliol should receive the beneficiaries. SNELL, WILLEBRORD (1591-1626), commonly known as SNELLIUS, Dutch astronomer and mathematician, was born at Leiden in 1591. In 1613 he succeeded his father Rudolph Snell (1546-1613) as professor of mathematics in the university of Leiden. In 1615 he planned and carried into practice a new method of finding the dimensions of the earth, by determining the distance of one point on its surface from the parallel of another, by means of a triangulation. His work Eratosthenes Batavus, published in 1617, describes the method and gives, as the result of his operations between Alkmaar and Bergen-op- Zoom a degree of the meridian equal to 55,100 toises= 117,449 yds. (A later recalculation gave 57,033 toises =121,569 yds., after the application of some corrections to the measures indicated by himself.) Snell also distinguished himself as a mathematician, and discovered the law of refraction, in 1621 (see LIGHT). He died at Leiden on the 3oth of October 1626. In addition to the Eratosthenes Batavus he published Cydometria sive de circuit dimenfione (1621), and Tiphys Batavus s. Histiodrpmice, de navium cursibus et re navali (1624). He also edited Coeli el sideruni in eo errantium observations Hassiacae (1618), containing the astro- nomical observations of Landgrave William IV. of Hesse. A trigo- nometry (Doctrina triangulorum,) by him was published a year after his death. SNIPE (O. Eng. Snite, Icel. Snipa, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe), one of the commonest Limicoline birds, in high repute no less for the table than for the sport it affords. It is the Scolopax gallinago of Linnaeus, but by later writers it has been separated from that genus, the type of which is the Woodcock (q.v.), and has been named Gallinago caeleslis. Though considerable numbers are still bred in the British Islands, notwithstanding the diminished area suitable for them, most of those that fall to the gun are undoubtedly of foreign origin, arriving from Scandinavia towards the- close of summer or later, and many will outstay, the winter if the weather be not too severe, while the home-bred birds emigrate in autumn to return the following spring. Of later years British markets have been chiefly supplied from abroad, mostly from Holland. The variegated plumage of the Snipe is subject to no incon- siderable variation, especially in the extent of dark markings on the belly, flanks, and axillaries, while examples are occasionally, seen in which no trace of white, and hardly any of buff or grey, 294 SNIP SNAP SNOREM— SNOILSKY is visible, the place of these tints being taken by several shades of chocolate-brown. Such examples were long considered to form a distinct species, the S. sabinii, but its invalidity is now admitted. Other examples in which buff or rust-colour pre- dominates have also been deemed distinct, and to those has been applied the epithet russata. Again, a slight deviation from the ordinary formation of the tail, whose rectrices normally number 14, and present a rounded termination, has led to the belief in a species, 5. brehmi, now wholly discredited. But, setting aside two European species, there are at least a score, belonging to various parts of the world. Thus N. America produces G. wilsoni, so like the English Snipe as not to be easily distin- guished except by the possession of 16 rectrices, and Australia has G. australis, a larger and somewhat differently coloured bird with 18 rectrices. India, while affording a winter resort to the common species, which besides Europe extends its breeding range over the whole of N. Asia, has also at this season the Pin-tailed Snipe, E. stenura, in which the number of rectrices is still greater, varying from 20 to 28, it is said, though 22 seems to be the usual number. This curious variability, deserving more attention than it has yet received, only occurs in the outer feathers of the series, which are narrow in form and extremely stiff, there being always 10 in the middle of ordinary breadth. Those who only know the Snipe as it shows itself in the shoot- ing-season, when without warning it rises from the boggy ground uttering a sharp note that sounds like scape, scape, and, after a few rapid twists, darts away, if it be not brought down by the gun, to disappear in the distance after a desultory flight, have no con- ception of the bird's behaviour at breeding-time. Then, though flushed quite as suddenly, it will fly round the intruder, at times almost hovering over his head. But, if he have patience, he will see it mount aloft and there execute a series of aerial evolutions of an astounding kind. After wildly circling about, and reaching a height at which it appears a mere speck, where it winnows a random zigzag course, it abruptly shoots downwards and aslant, and then as abruptly stops to regain its former elevation, and this process it repeats many times. A few seconds after each of these headlong descents a mysterious sound strikes his ear — compared by some to drumming, and by others to the bleating of a sheep or goat,1 which sound evidently comes from the bird as it shoots downwards, and then only. It is now generally accepted that these sounds are produced by the vibration of the webs of the outer tail-feathers, the webs of which are modified. A similar sound may be made by affixing those feathers to the end of a rod and drawing them rapidly downwards in the same position as they occupy in the bird's tail while it is performing the feat.2 The air will also ring with loud notes that have been syllabled tinker, tinker, tinker, while other notes in a different key, Something like djepp, djepp, djepp rapidly uttered, may be heard as if in response. The nest is always on the ground, and is a rather deep hollow wrought in a tuft of herbage and lined with dry grass-leaves. The eggs are four in number, of a dark olive colour, blotched and spotted with rich brown. The young when freshly hatched are beautifully clothed in down of a dark maroon, variegated with black, white and buff. The Double or Solitary Snipe of English sportsmen, S. major, a larger species, also inhabits N. Europe, and may be readily re- cognized by the white bars in its wings and by its 16 or occasion- ally 1 8 rectrices. It has also a very different behaviour. When flushed it rises without alarm-cry, and flies heavily. In. the breeding season much of its love-performance is exhibited on the ground, and the sounds to which it gives rise are of another character; but the exact way in which its " drumming " is effected has not been ascertained. Its gesticulations' at this time have been well described by Professor Collett in a communication 1 Hence in many languages the Snipe is known by names signifying " Flying Goat," " Heaven's Ram," as in Scotland by " Heather- bleater." 4 Cf. Meves, Oefvers. K. Vet.-Akad. Fork. (1856), pp. 275-277 (transl. Naumannia, 1858, pp. 1 16, 1 17), and Proc. Zool. Society (1858), p. 202, with Wolley's remarks thereon, Zool. Garten (1876), pp. 204-208; P. H. Bahr (Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1907, p. 12) has given a full account of the subject, with diagrams of the modified feathers. to H. E. Dresser's Birds of Europe (vii. 635-637). It visits Great Britain every year at the close of summer, but in very small numbers, and is almost always seen singly — not un- commonly in places where no one could expect to find a Snipe. The third species of which any details can here be given is the Jack-3 or Half-Snipe, 5. gallinula, the smallest and most beauti- fully coloured of the group. Without being as numerous as the common or full Snipe, it is of frequent occurrence in Great Britain from September to April (and occasionally both earlier and later) ; but it breeds only, so far as is known, in N. Scandinavia and Russia; and the first trustworthy information on that subject was obtained by J. Wolley in June 1853, when he found several of its nests near Muonioniska in Lapland.4 Instead of rising wildly as do most of its allies, it generally lies so close as to let itself be almost trodden upon, and then takes wing silently, to alight' at a short distance and to return to the same place on the morrow. In the breeding-season, however, it is as noisy and conspicuous as its larger brethren while executing its aerial evolutions. As a group the Snipes are in several respects highly specialized. We may mention the sensitiveness of the bill, which, though to some extent noticeable in many Sandpipers (q.v.), is in Snipes carried to an extreme by a number of filaments, belonging to the fifth pair of nerves, which run almost to the tip and open immediately under the soft cuticle in a series of cells that give this portion of the surface of the premaxillaries, when exposed, a honeycomb-like appearance. Thus the bill becomes a most delicate organ of sensation, and by its means the bird, while probing for food, is at once able to distinguish the nature of the objects it encounters, though these are wholly out of sight. So far as is known the sternum of all the Snipes, except the Jack-Snipe, departs from the normal Limicoline formation, a fact which tends to justify the removal of that species to a separate genus, Limnocryptes.6 (A. N.) SNIP SNAP SNOREM, an old game at cards, sometimes called Earl of Coventry. There are several methods of playing, but in the commonest a full whist pack is used and any number of players may take part. The pack is dealt, one card at a time, and the eldest hand places upon the table any card he likes. Each player in his turn then tries to match the card played just before his, making use of a prescribed formula if successful. Thus, if a king is played, the second player lays down another king (if he can) calling out " Snip! " The next player lays down the third king, saying " Snap! " and the next the fourth king with the word " Snorem. " A player not being able to pair the card played may not discard, and the holder of " Snorem " has the privilege of beginning the next round. The player who gets rid of all his cards first wins a counter from his companions for each card still held by them. SNOILSKY, CARL JOHAN GUSTAF, COUNT (1841-1903), Swedish poet, was born at Stockholm on the 8th of September 1841. He was educated at the Clara School, and in 1860 became a student at Upsala. He was trained for diplomacy, which he quitted for work at the Swedish Foreign Office. As early as 1861, under the pseudonym of " Sven Trost," he began to print poems, and he soon became the centre of the brilliant literary society of the capital. In 1862 he published a collection of lyrics called Orchideer (" Orchids "). During 1864 and 1865 he was in Madrid and Paris on diplomatic missions. It was in 1869, when he first collected his Dikter under his own name, that Snoilsky took rank among the most eminent contemporary poets. His 3 Though this word is clearly not intended as a nickname, such as is the prefix which custom has applied to the Daw, Pie, Redbreast, Titmouse or Wren, one can only guess at its origin or meaning. It may be, as in Jackass, an indication of sex, for it is a popular belief that the Jack-Snipe is the male of the common species; or, again, it may refer to the comparatively small size of the bird, as the " jack " in the game of bowls is the smallest of the balls used, and as fisher- men call the smaller Pikes Jacks. 4 His account was published by Hewitson in May 1855 (Eggs Br. Birds, 3rd ed., ii. pp. 356-358). 6 The so-called Painted Snipes, forming the genus Rhynchaea, demand a few words. Four species have been described, natives respectively of S. America, Africa, India with China, and Australia. In all of these it appears that the female is larger and more brilliantly coloured than the male, and in the Australian species she is further distinguished by what in most birds is emphatically a masculine property, though its use is here unknown — namely, a complex trachea, while the male has that organ simple. He is also believed to undertake the duty of incubation. SNORRI STURLASON— SNOWDROP 295 Sonneter in 1871 increased his reputation. Then, for some years, Snoilsky abandoned poetry, and devoted himself to the work of the Foreign Office and to the study of numismatics. In 1876, however, he published a translation of the ballads of Goethe. Snoilsky had in 1876 been appointed keeper of the records, and had succeeded Bishop Genberg as one of the eighteen of the Swedish Academy. But in 1879 he resigned all his posts, and left Sweden abruptly for Florence with the Baroness Ruuth- Piper, whom he married in 1880. Count Snoilsky sent home in 1 88 1 a volume of Nya Dikter (New Poems). Two other volumes of Dikter appeared in 1883 and 1887, and 1807; Savonarola, a poem, in 1883, and Hvitafi-un (" The White Lady ") in 1885. In 1886 he collected his poems dealing with national subjects as Svenska bilder (2nd ed., 1895), which ranks as a Swedish classic. In 1891 he returned to Stockholm, and was appointed principal librarian of the Royal Library. He died at Stockholm on the 19th ot May 1903. His literary influence in Sweden was very great ; he always sang of joy and liberty and beauty, and in his lyrics, more than in most modern verse, the ecstasy of youth finds expression. He is remarkable, also, fcr the extreme delicacy and melodiousness of his verse-forms. His Samlade dikter were collected (Stockholm, 5 vols.) in 1903-1904. SNORRI STURLASON (1179-1241), the celebrated Icelandic historian, the youngest son of a chief in the VestfirOir (western fiords), was brought up by a powerful chief, Jon Loptsson, in Odda, who seems first to have awakened in him an interest for history and poetry. His career begins with his marriage, which made him a wealthy man; in 1206 he settled at Reykjaholt, where he constructed magnificent buildings and a bath of hewn stones, preserved to the present day, to which water was con- ducted from a neighbouring hot spring. He early made himself known as a poet, especially by glorifying the exploits of the contemporary Norse kings and earls; at the same time he was a learned lawyer, and from 1215 became the Idgsogiimadr, or president of the legislative assembly and supreme court of Iceland. The prominent features of his character seem to have been cunning, ambition and avarice, combined with want of courage and aversion from effort. By royal invitation he went in 1218 to Norway, where he remained a long time with the young king Haakon and his tutor Earl Skuli. When, owing to disputes between Icelandic and Norwegian merchants, Skuli thought of a military expedition to Iceland, Snorri promised to make the inhabitants submit to Haakon of their own free will. Snorri himself became the lendrmadr, vassal or baron, of the king of Norway, and held his lands as a fief under him. On his return home Snorri sent his son to the king as a hostage, and made peace between Norway and Iceland, but his power and influence were used more for his own enrichment and aggrandizement — he was logsogumadr again from 1222 to 1232 — than for the advan- tage of the king. Haakon, therefore, stirred up strife between Snorri's kinsman Sturla and Snorri, who had to fly from Reykja- holt in 1236; and in 1237 he left the country and went back to Norway. Here he joined the party of Skuli, who was meditat- ing a revolt. Learning that his cousin Sturla in Iceland had fallen in battle against Gissur, Snorri's son-in-law, Snorri, although expressly forbidden by his liege lord, returned to Iceland in 1 239 and once' more took possession of his property. Meanwhile Haakon, who had vanquished Skuli in 1240, sent orders to Gissur to punish Snorri for his disobedience either by capturing him and sending him back to Norway or by putting him to death. Gissur took the latter course, attacked Snorri at his residence, Reykjaholt, and slew him on the 22nd of September 1241. Snorri is the author of the great prose Edda (see EDDA), and of the Heimskringla or Sagas of the Norwegian Kings, a connected series of biographies of the kings of Norway down to Sverri in 1177. The later work opens with the Ynglinga Saga, a brief history of the pre- tended immigration into Sweden of the Aesir, of their successors in that country, the kings of Upsala, and of the oldest Norwegian kings, their descendants. Next come the biographies of the succeeding Norwegian kings, the most detailed being those of the two missionary kings Olaf Tryggvason and St Olaf. Snorri's sources were partly succinct histories of the realm, as the chronological sketch of Ari; Dartly more voluminous early collections of traditions, as the Noregs Konungatal (Fagrskinna) and the Jarlasaga; partly legendary Diographics of the two Olafs; and, in addition to these, studies and collections which he himself made during his journeys in Norway. His critical principles are explained in the preface, where he dwells on the necessity of starting as much as possible from trustworthy contemporary sources, or at least from those nearest to antiquity — the touchstone by which verbal traditions can be tested being con- temporary poems. He inclines to rationalism, rejecting the marvel- lous and recasting legends containing it in a more historical spirit; but he makes an exception in the accounts of the introduction of Christianity into Norway and of the national saint St Olaf. Snorri strives everywhere to impart life and vigour to his narrative, and he ives the dialogues in the individual character of each person. Especially in this last he shows a tendency to epigram and often uses humorous and pathetic expressions. Besides his principal work, he elaborated in a separate form its better and larger part, the History of St Olaf (the great Olafs Saga). In the preface to this he gives a brief extract of the earlier history, and, as an appendix, a short account of St Olafs miracles after his death; here, too, he employs critical art, as appears from a comparison with his source, the Latin legend. See further ICELAND, Literature, and EDDA. SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. snecuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. pl^a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c. ; Ir. and Gael, sneachd; the original sense of the root may be to moisten, cf. Skt. sneha, moisture), that form of precipitation of water- vapour con- densed from the atmosphere which reaches the ground in a frozen and crystalline condition. Snow thus occurs when the processes of condensation and fall take place at a temperature below 32° F. The crystals, which vary greatly in form, belong to the hexagonal system. They are formed upon a nucleus, in the same way as a raindrop, and sometimes reach the ground singly, but more commonly in small coherent masses or flakes. If in its passage from the upper atmosphere snow passes through a temperature above 32° F. it reaches the ground as sleet or rain (according to the degree of heat encountered), and thus after a fall of rain over lowlands, the higher parts of mountains in the vicinity may be seen to have received the fall as snow. See further CLIMATE and METEOROLOGY; and for the transforma- tion of snow into ice under pressure, see GLACIER. SNOWDON (Wyddfa, view-place, Eryri, eagle-place), the highest elevation in N. Wales. It is formed chiefly of slates, grits and porphyries of the Cambrian and Silurian systems. It consists of five " ribs " converging at the summit, 3560 ft. above sea-level. Between these lie such depressions as Cwm Glas (blue or green vale) to the N., and Cwm y llan (clearing, town or church vale) to the S. Snowdon is demarcated from the surrounding hills by passes famous for their scenery, such as that of Llanberis (q.v.) to the N.E. and Aberglaslyn to the S. These two passes are joined by Nant Gwynnant (stream, or valley, of the white or happy valley, or stream), skirting the S.E. flanks of the Snowdon massif. Nant Colwyn runs N.W. to Carnarvon. A rack-and-pinion railway (opened in 1897) ascends from Llan- beris to the summit of the mountain (4! m.). Snowdonia, as the locality is sometimes called, contains several lakes, e.g. Peris and Padarn at Llanberis; Glaslyn and Llydaw between Cribgoch (red crest) and Lliwedd; Cwcllyn and others W. of the hill itself; and Gwynnant and Dinas (Y Ddinas) in Nantgwynnant. SNOWDROP, Galanthus nivalis, the best known representative of a small genus of the order Amaryllidaceae, all the species of which have bulbs, linear leaves and erect flower-stalks, destitute of leaves but bearing at the top a solitary pendulous bell-shaped flower. The white perianth is six-parted, the outer three segments being larger and more convex than the inner series. The six anthers open by pores or short slits. The ovary is three- celled, ripening into a three-celled capsule. The snowdrop is a doubtful native of Great Britain, but is largely cultivated for market in Lincolnshire. There are numerous varieties, differing in the size of the flower and the period of flowering. Other distinct species of snowdrop are the Crimean snowdrop, G. plicatus, with broad leaves folded like a fan, and G. Elwesii, a native of the Levant, with large flowers, the three inner segments of which have a much larger and more conspicuous green blotch than the commoner kinds. All the species thrive in almost 296 SNOW-LEOPARD—SOAP any soil or position, and when once planted should be left to themselves. SNOW-LEOPARD, or OUNCE (Fdis uncia,} a large member of the cat family, from the high mountain regions of Central Asia. It resembles the leopard in general conformation, but has longer fur, grey in colour, marked with large dark rosettes. The dimensions of the head and body are about 4 ft. 4 in., tail 3 ft., and the height 2 ft. This animal lives among rocks, and preys upon wild sheep and goats, and probably large rodents or birds. It carries off sheep, goats and dogs from villages, and even kills ponies, but, it is said, has never been known to attack man (Blanford). Examples shown in the Zoological Gardens of London have been fairly tame and playful. SNOW-LINE. In the higher latitudes, and in the most elevated parts of the surface of the earth, the atmosphere may be normally so cold that precipitation is chiefly in the form of snow, which lies in great part unmelted. The snow-line is the imaginary line, whether in latitude or in altitude, above which these conditions exist. In the extreme polar regions they exist at sea- level, but below lat. 78° the snow-line begins to rise, since at the lower elevations the snow melts in summer. In N. Scandinavia the line is found at about 3000 ft. above the sea, in the Alps at about 8500 ft., and on high mountains in the tropics at about 18,000 to 19,000 ft. These figures, however, can only be approxi- mate, as many considerations render it impossible to employ the term " snow-line " as more than a convenient generalization. SNOW-SHOES, a form of footgear devised for travelling over snow. Nearly every American Indian tribe has its own particular shape of shoe, the simplest and most primitive being those of the far north. The Eskimos possess two styles, one being triangular in shape and about 18 in. in length, and the other almost circular. Southward the shoe becomes gradually narrower and longer, the largest being the hunting snow-shoe of the Crees, which is nearly 6 ft. long and turned up at the toe. Of snow-shoes worn by people of European race that used by lumbermen is about 3! ft. long and broad in proportion, while the tracker's shoe is over S ft. long and very narrow. This form has been copied by the Canadian snow-shoe clubs, who wear a shoe about 35 ft. long and 15 to 1 8 in. broad, slightly turned up at the toe and terminat- ing in a kind of tail behind. This is made very light for racing purposes, but much stouter for touring or hunting. Snow-shoes are made of a single strip of some tough wood, usually hickory, curved round and fastened together at the ends and supported in the middle by a light cross-bar, the space within the frame thus made being' filled with a dose webbing of dressed caribou or neat's-hide strips, leaving a small opening just behind the cross-bar for the toe of the moccasined foot. They are fastened to the moccasin by leather thongs, sometimes by tuckles. The method of walking is to lift the shoes slightly and slide the overlapping inner edges over each other, thus avoiding the unnatural and fatiguing " straddle-gait " that would other- wise be necessary. Immoderate snow-shoeing leads to serious lameness of the feet and ankles which the Canadian voyageurs call mal de raquette. Snow-shoe racing is very common in the Canadian snow-shoe clubs, and one of the events is a hurdle-race over hurdles 3 ft. 6 in. high. Owing to the thick forests of America the snow-shoe has been found to be more suitable for use than the Norwegian ski, which is, however, much used in the less-wooded districts. SNUFF (from " to snuff, " i.e. to inhale, to draw in through the nose; cf. Dutch snuf, scent, Ger. Schnupfen, a cold, catarrh, and Eng. " snuffle, " " sniff, " &c.), the name of a powdered prepara- tion of tobacco used for inhalation (for the manufacture see TOBACCO). The practice of inhaling snuff became common in England in the lyth century, and throughout the i8th century it was universal. At first each quantity inhaled was fresh grated (Fr. rdper), whence the coarser kinds were later known as " rappee. " This entailed the snuff-taker carrying with him a grater with a small spoon at .one end and a box to hold the grated snuff at the other. Early iSth-century graters made of ivory and other material are in existence. Later the box and the grater were separated. The art and craft of the miniature painter, the enameller, jeweller and gold- and silver-smith was bestowed upon the box. The humbler snuff-takers were content with boxes of silver, brass or other metal, horn, tortoise-shell or wood. The mull (q.v.), a silver-mounted ram's head, is a large table snuff-box. Though " snuff-taking " ceased to be fashion- able at the beginning of the iQth century, the gold and jewelled snuff-box has continued to be a typical gift of sovereigns to those whom they delight to honour. This word " snuff " must be distinguished from that meaning the charred inch of a candle or lamp, which is a variant of " snip " or " snop, " to cut off, trim, cf. Dan. snubbe. Constant trimming or snuffing of candles was a necessity until obviated by the modern methods of candle manufacture, and the snuffers con- sisted of a pair of scissors with a closed box forming a receptacle for the charred wick cut off; the snuffers usually had three small feet which allowed them to stand on a tray. Made of silver, silver-gilt or other metal, " snuffers " were formerly a decorative article of plate in the equipment of a household. There is a beautiful example of silver snuffers with enamel decorations in the British Museum. These belonged to Cardinal Bainbridge and date from the reign of Henry VIII. SNYDERS, FRANZ (1570-1657), Flemish painter of animals and still life, was born and died at Antwerp. In 1593 he was studying under Pieter Breughel the younger, and afterwards received instruction from Hendrick van Balen, the first master of Van Dyck. He devoted himself to painting flowers, fruit and subjects of still life, but afterwards turned to animal-painting, and executed with the greatest skill and spirit hunting pieces and combats of wild animals. His composition is rich and varied, his drawing correct and vigorous, his touch bold and thoroughly expressive of the different textures of furs and skins. His excellence in this department excited the admiration of Rubens, who frequently employed him to paint animals, fruit and still life in his own pictures, and he assisted Jordaens in a similar manner. In the lion and boar hunts which bear the name of Snyders the hand of Rubens sometimes appears. He was appointed principal painter to the archduke Albert, governor of the Low Countries, for whom he executed some of his finest works. One of these, a " Stag-Hunt, " was presented to Philip III., who commissioned the artist to paint several subjects of the chase, which are still preserved in Spain. SOANE, SIR JOHN (1753-1837), English architect and art collector, was born near Reading of a humble family whose name of Swan he afterwards altered to Soan or Soane. His talent as a boy attracted the attention of George Dance, junior, the archi- tect, who with other friends helped him on. He won the Royal Academy's silver (1772) and gold (1776) medals, and a travelling studentship, and went to Italy to study (1777-1780). Returning to England he got into practice as an architect, and in 1784 married a rich wife. He became architect to the Bank of England, which he practically rebuilt in its present form, and did other important public work. He became an A.R.A in 1795, and R.A. in 1802, and professor of architecture to the Royal Academy in 1806. In 1831 he was knighted. In his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields he brought together a valuable antiquarian museum (now the Soane Museum), which in 1835 hepresented to the nation with an endowment; and there he died in 1837. (See MUSEUMS.) SOAP, a chemical compound or mixture of chemical compounds resulting from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkalis. In a scientific definition the compounds of fatty acids with basic metallic oxides, lime, magnesia, lead oxide, &c., should also be included under soap; but, as these compounds are insoluble in water, while the very essence of a soap in its industrial relations is solubility, it is better to speak of the insoluble compounds as " plasters, " limiting the name " soap " as the compounds of fatty acids with soda and potash. Soap both as a medicinal and as a cleansing agent was known to Pliny (H.N. xxviii. 51), who speaks of two kinds — hard and soft — as used by the Germans. He mentions it as originally a Gallic invention for giving a bright hue to the hair (" rutilandis capillis "). There is reason to believe that soap came to the Romans from Germany, and that the detergents in use in earlier times and mentioned as soap SOAP 297 in the Old Testament (Jer. ii. 22; Mai. iii. 2, &c.) refer to the ashes of plants and other such purifying agents (comp. vol. x. p. 697). Soap appears to have been first made from goat's tallow and beech ash; in the i3th century the manufacture was established at Marseilles from olive oil, and in England during the next century. The processes and extent of the manufacture were revolutionized at about the beginning of the igth century by Chevreul's classical investigations on the fats and oils, and by Leblanc's process for the manufacture of caustic soda from common salt. Previous to Chevreul's researches on the fats (1811-1823) it was believed that soap consisted simply of a binary compound of fat and alkali. Claude J. Geoffrey in 1741 pointed put that the fat or oil recovered from a soap solution by neutralization with a mineral acid differs from the original fatty substance by dissolving readily in alcohol, which is not the case with ordinary fats and oils. The significance of this observation was overlooked ; and equally un- heeded was a not less important discovery by Scheele in 1783. In preparing lead plaster by boiling olive oil with oxide of lead and a little water — a process palpably analogous to that of the soap-boiler — he obtained a sweet substance which, called by himself " Olsuss " (" principium dulce oleorum "), is now known as " glycerin." These discoveries of Geoffroy and Scheele formed the basis of Chevreul's researches by which he established the constitution of oils and the true nature of soap. In the article OILS it is pointed out that all fatty oils and fats are mixtures of glycerides, that is, of bodies related to the alcohol glycerin C3H6(OH)3, and some fatty acid such as palmitic acid (Ci6H3iO2)H. Under suitable conditions C3H5(OH)3+3(CI6H3102)H give C3H6(C«H31O2)3+3H2O Glycerin. Palmitic Acid. Palmitin. Water. The corresponding decomposition of a glyceride into an acid and glycerin takes place when the glyceride is distilled in superheated steam, or by boiling in water mixed with a suitable proportion of caustic potash or soda. But in this case the fatty acid unites with the alkali into its potash or soda salt, forming a soap — C3H6(C,6H31O2)3+3NaOH=3NaCI6H3iO2+C3H5(OH)3 Palmitin. Caustic Soda. Soap. Glycerin. Of the natural fats or glycerides contained in oils the most important in addition to palmitin are stearin and olein, and these it may be sufficient to regard as the principal fatty bodies concerned in soap- making. The general characters of a soap are a certain greasiness to the touch, ready solubility in water, with formation of viscid solutions which on agitation yield a tenacious froth or " lather," an indisposi- tion to crystallize, readiness to amalgamate with small proportions of hot water into homogeneous slimes, which on cooling set into jellies or more or less consistent pastes. Soaps give an alkaline reaction and have a decided acrid taste; in a pure condition — a state never reached in practice — they have neither smell nor colour. Almost without exception potash soaps, even if made from the solid fatty acids, are " soft," and soda soaps, although made with fluid olein, are " hard " ; but there are considerable variations according to the prevailing fatty acid in the compound. Almost all soda soaps are precipitated from their watery solutions by the addition of a sufficiency of common salt. Potash soap with the same reagent undergoes double decomposition — a proportion being changed into a soda soap with the formation of potassium chloride. Ammonia soaps have also been made, but with little commercial success; in 1906 H. Jackson patented the preparation of ammonium oleate directly in the washing water, and it is claimed that for cleansing articles it is only necessary to immerse them in the water containing the pre- paration and then rinse. Soap when dissolved in a large amount of water suffers hydrolysis, with formation of a precipitate of acid salt and a solution con- taining free alkali. The reaction, however, is very complicated. Chevreul found that a neutral salt soap hydrplysed to an acid salt, free alkali, and a small amount of fatty acid. Rotondi in 1885, however, regarded a neutral soap as hydrolysing to a basic salt, soluble in both hot and cold water, and an acid salt, insoluble in cold and sparingly soluble in hot. Chevreul's views were confirmed in 1894 by Krafft and Stern. The extent to which a soap is hydrolysed depends upon the acid and on the concentration of the solution ; it is also affected by the presence of metallic salts, e.g. of calcium and magnesium. As to the detergent action of a soap, Berzelius held that it was due to the free alkali liberated with water; but it is difficult to see why a solution which has just thrown off most of its fatty acids should be disposed to take up even a glyceride, and, moreover, on this theory, weak cold solutions, in which the hydrolysis is consider- able, should be the best cleansers, whilst experience points to the use of hot concentrated solutions. It is more likely that the cleansing power of soap is due to the inherent property of its solution to emulsionize fats. This view is supported by Hillycr (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1903, p. 524), who concluded that the cleansing power depended upon several factors, viz. the emulsionizing power, the xxv. 10 a property of penetrating oily fabrics, and lubricating impurities so that they can be readily washed away. Resin soaps are .-propounds of soda or potash with the complex acids (chiefly abietic) of which coniferous resins consist. Their formation is not due to a true process of saponification ; but they occupy an important place in compound soaps. Manufacture. — Numerous varieties of soaps are made; the purposes to which they are applied are varied; the materials employed embrace a considerable range of oils, fats and other bodies; and the processes adopted undergo many modifications. As regards processes of manufacture soaps may be made by the direct combination of fatty acids, separated from oils, with alkaline solutions. In the manufacture of stearin for candles, &c., the fatty matter is decomposed, and the liquid olein, separated from the solid fatty acids, is employed as an ingredient in soap- making. A soap so made is not the result of saponification but of a simple combination, as is the case also with resin soaps. All other soaps result from the combination of fatty oils and fat with potash or soda solutions under conditions which favour saponification. The soap solution which results from the combination forms soap-size and is a mixture of soap with water, the excess alkali, and the glycerin liberated from the oil. In such condition ordinary soft soaps and certain kinds of hard soap are brought to the market. In curd soaps, however, which form the basis of most household soap, the uncombined alkali and the glycerin are separated by " salting out, " and the soap in this condition contains about 30% of water. Soap may be framed and finished in this state, but almost invariably it receives a further treatment called " refining " or " fitting," in which by remelting with water, with or without the subsequent addition of other agents to harden the finished product, the soap may be made to contain from 60 to 70 % of water and kept present a firm hard texture. Almost any fatty substance can be employed in soap-making; but the choice is naturally restricted by the price of the fat and also the quality of the soap desired. The most important of the animal fats are those of the ox and hog, and of the vegetable oils cotton-seed and coco-nut; it is also to be remembered that resin, although not a fat, is also important in soap-making. Ox and sheep tallow, with the addition of resin, are the primary materials for making the hard yellow or primrose soaps; these tallows are often adulterated. The cheaper mottled and brown soaps have for their basis bone fat, ob- tained by treating bones with superheated steam or other methods. Lard yields lard oil, which is mainly applied in making hard toilet soaps. Curd soap and London grey mottled are prepared from kitchen or ship fat, whilst fuller's fat is employed in the manufacture of soft soaps. Of the vegetable oils, in addition to cotton-seed and coco-nut, olive oil is the basis of soaps for calico printers and silk dyers; castor oil yields transparent soaps (under suitable treatment), whilst crude palm oil, with bone fat, is employed for making brown soap, and after bleaching it yields ordinary pale or mottled. The alkalis are used almost exclusively in the condition of caustic lyes — solutions of their respective hydrates in water. Caustic soda is now obtained direct from the soda manufacturer, and one operation, causticizing the soda, is thus spared the soap-boiler. Potash lyes also may be bought direct, but in some cases they are sharpened or causticized by the soap-boiler himself from the carbonate. The processes of soap manufacture may be classified (a) according to the temperatures employed into (i) cold processes and (2) boiling processes, or (b) according to the nature of the starting material — acid or oil and fat — and the relative amount of alkali, into (l) direct saturation of the fatty acid with alkali, (2) treating the fat with a definite amount of alkali with no removal of unused lye, (3) treating the fat with an indefinite amount of alkali, also with no separation of unused lye, (4) treating the fat with an indefinite amount of alkali with separation of waste lye. In the second classification (2) is typical of the " cold " process, whilst (l), (3), (4) are effected by the " boiling " process. The cold process, which is only applicable to the manufacture of soaps from readily saponifiable oils, such as those of the coco-nut oil group and also from castor oil, is but little used. In it the oils at 35° C. are stirred with concentrated alkali in an iron or wooden tub, whereupon saponification ensues with a development of some heat ; the mixture being well agitated. After a few hours the mixture becomes solid, and finally transparent; at this point the perfume is added, and the product framed and crutched (see under Marine Soap). By blending the coco-nut oil with other less saponifiable substances such as tallow, lard, cotton-seed oil, &c., and effecting the mixing and saponification at a slightly higher temperature, soaps are obtained which resemble milled toilet soaps. Soaps made by this process contain the glycerin originally present in the oil, but, in view 298 SOAP of their liability to contain free alkali and unsaponified oil, the process has been largely given up. The process of soap-boiling is carried out in large iron boilers called " soap pans " or " coppers," some of which have capacity for a charge of 30 tons or more. The pan proper is surmounted by a great cone or hopper called a curb, to provide for the foaming up of the boiling mass and to prevent loss from overflowing. Formerly the pans were heated by open firing from below; but now the almost universal practice is to boil by steam injected from per- forated pipes coiled within the pan, such injection favouring the uniform heating of the mass and causing an agitation favourable to the ultimate mixture and saponification of the materials. Direct firing is used for the second boiling of the soap mixture; but for this superheated steam may with advantage be substituted, either applied by a steam-jacket round the pan or by a closed coil of pipe within it. In large pans a mechanical stirring apparatus is pro- vided, which in some cases, as in Morfit's steam " twirl," is formed of the steam-heating tubes geared to rotate. Autoclaves, in which the materials are boiled under pressure, are also employed for certain soaps. The process of manufacturing soaps by boiling fatty acids with caustic alkalis or sodium carbonate came into practice with the de- velopment of the manufacture of candles by saponifying fats, for it provided a means whereby the oleic acid, which is valueless for candle making, could be worked up. The combination is effected in open vats heated by a steam coil and provided with a stirring appliance ; if soda ash be used it is necessary to guard against boiling over. (See under Curd Soap.) ' Curd Soap. — This variety is manufactured by boiling the fat with alkali and removing the unused lye, which is afterwards worked up for glycerin. The oil mixture used differs in the several manu- facturing countries, and the commercial name of the product is correspondingly varied. In Germany tallow is the principal fat; in France olive oil occupies the chief place and the product is known as Marseilles or Castile soap; and in England tallow and palm oil are largely used. But in all countries a mixture of several oils enters into the composition of curd soaps and the proportions used have no fixity. For each ton of soap to be made from 12 to 16 cwt. of oil is required. The soap pan is charged with the tallow or other fat, and open steam is turned on. So soon as the tallow is melted a quantity of weak lye is added, and the agitation of the injected steam causes the fat and lye to become intimately mixed and pro- duces a milky emulsion. As the lye becomes absorbed, a condition indicated by the taste of the goods, additional quantities of lye of increasing strength are added. After some time the contents of the pan begin to clear and become in the end very transparent. Lye still continues to be poured in till a sample tastes distinctly alkaline— a test which indicates that the whole of the fatty acids have been taken up by and combined with the alkali. Then without further addition of alkali the boiling is continued for a few minutes, when the soap is ready for salting out or " graining." Either common salt or strong brine in measured quantity is added to the charge, and, the soap being insoluble in such salt solution, a separation of con- stituents takes place: the soap collects on the surface in an open granular condition, and the spent lye sinks to the bottom after it has been left for a short time to settle. Suppose that a pure soap without resin is to be made — a product little seen in the market — the spent lye is run off, steam is again turned on, pure water or very weak lye run in, and the contents boiled up till the whole is thin, close and clear. The soap is from this again grained off or salted out, and the underlye so thrown down carries with it coloured impurities which may have been in the materials or which arise from contact with the boiler. Such washing process may have to be repeated several times when impure materials have been used. The spent lye of the washing being drained off, the soap is now " boiled for strength." Steam is turned on, and, the mass being brought to a clear condition with weak lye or water, strong lye is added and the boiling continued with close steam till the lye attains such a state of concentration that the soap is no longer soluble in it, and it will separate from the caustic lye as from a common salt solution. The contents of the pan are once more allowed to cool and settle, and the soap as now formed constitutes a pure curd coap, carrying with it some pro- portion of uncombined alkali, but containing the minimum amount of water. It may be skimmed off the underlye and placed direct in the frames for solidification ; but that is a practice scarcely at all followed, the addition of resin soap in the pan and the subsequent " crutching in " of silicate of soda and adulterant mixings being features common to the manufacture. The lye from the strengthen- ing boil contains much alkali and is used in connexion with other boilings. Mottled Soap. — A curd soap prepared from kitchen fat or bone grease always carries with it into the cooling frame a considerable amount of coloured impurity, such as iron sulphate, &c. When it is permitted to cool rapidly the colouring matter remains uniformly disseminated throughout the mass; but when means are taken to cause the soap to cool and solidify slowly a segregation takes place : the stearate and palmitate form a semi-crystalline solid, while the oleate, solidifying more slowly, comes by itself into translucent veins, in which the greater part of the coloured matter is drawn. In this way curd, mottled or marbled soap is formed, and such mottled appearance was formerly highly valued as an indication of freedom from excess of water or other adulteration, because in fitted soaps the impurities are either washed out or fall to the bottom of the mass in cooling. Now, however, the mottled soaps, blue and grey, are produced by working colouring matter, ultramarine for blue, and manganese dioxide for grey, into the soap in the frame, and mottling is very far from being a certificate of excellence of quality. Yellow Soap consists of a mixture of any hard fatty soap with a variable proportion — up to 40 % or more — of resin soap. That sub- stance by itself has a tenacious gluey consistence, and its inter- mixture in excess renders the resulting compound soft and greasy. The ordinary method of adding resin consists in stirring it in small fragments into the fatty soap in the stage of clear-boiling; but a better result is obtained by separately preparing a fatty soap and the resin soap, and combining the two in the pan after the underlye has been salted out and removed from the fatty soap. The compound then receives its strengthening boil, after which it is fitted by boiling with added wacer or weak lye, continuing the boil till by examination of a sample the proper consistency has been reached. On settling the product forms three layers: the uppermost is a thin crust of soap which is worked up again in the pan; the second is the desired soap; next there is a dark-coloured weak soap termed nigre, which, because it contains some soap and alkali is saved for future use; underneath these is a solution of alkaline salts with a little free alkali. Treatment of Settled Soap. — The upper layer having been removed, the desired soap is ladled out or ran off to a crutcher, which is an iron pan provided with hand or mechanical stirring appliances. It is here stirred till it becomes ropy, and the perfume, colour or any other substance desired in the soap is added. The soap is now ready for framing. The frames into which hard soaps are ladled for cooling and solidification consist of rectangular boxes made of iron plates and bound and clamped together in a way that allows the sides to be removed when required; wooden frames are used in the case of mottled soaps. The solidification is a very gradual process, depend- ing, of course, for its completion on the size of the block ; but before cutting into bars it is essential that the whole should be set and hardened through and through, else the cut bars would not hold together. Many ingenious devices for forming bars have been pro- duced; but generally a strong frame is used, across which steel wires are stretched at distances equal to the size of the bars to be made, the blocks being first cut into slabs and then into bars. Marine Soap. — These soaps are so named because they are not insoluble in a strong solution of salt ; hence they form a lather and can be used for washing with sea-water. Being thus soluble in salt water it cannot, of course, be salted out like common soaps; but if a very concentrated salt solution is used precipitation is effected, and a curd soap is separated so hard and refractory as to be practically useless. Coco-nut soap (see above) is typical of this class. Its property of absorbing large proportions of water, up to 80 %, and yet present the appearance of a hard solid body, makes the material a basis for the hydrated soaps, smooth and marbled, in which water, sulphate of soda, and other alkaline solutions, soluble silicates, fuller's earth, starch, &c. play an important and bulky part. Coco- nut soap also forms a principal ingredient in compound soaps meant to imitate curd and yellow soaps. Two principal methods of prepar- ing such compound soaps are employed. In the first way the ordinary oil and the coco nut oil are mixed and saponified together as de- scribed above. According to the second plan, the ordinary oil is treated as for the preparation of a curd soap, and to this the coco- nut soap separately saponified is added in the pan and both are boiled together till they form a homogeneous soap. Silicate Soaps. — A further means of enabling a soap to contain large proportions of water and yet present a firm consistence is found in the use of silicate of soda. The silicate in the form of a concen- trated solution is crutched or stirred into the soap in a mechanical mixing machine after the completion of the saponification, and it appears to enter into a distinct chemical combination with the soap. While silicate soaps bear heavy watering, the soluble silicate itself is a powerful detergent, and it possesses certain advantages when used with hard waters. Soft Soap. — Soft soaps are made with potash lyes, although in practice a small quantity of soda is also used to give the soap some consistence. There is no separation of underlyes in potash soap, consequently the product contains the whole constituents of the oils used, as theoperation of salting out is quite impracticable owing to the double decomposition which results from the action of salt, pro- ducing thereby a hard principally soda soap with formation of potassium chloride. Owing to this circumstance it is impossible to fit " or in any way purify soft soap, and all impurities which go into the pan of necessity enter into the finished product. The making of soft soap, although thus a much less complex process than hard soap making, is one that demands much skill and experience for its success. From the conditions of the manufacture care must be taken to regu- late the amount and strength of the alkali in proportion to the oil used, and the degree of concentration to which the boiling ought to be continued has to be determined with close observation. Toilet Soaps, &c. — Soaps used in personal ablution in no way differ from the soaps previously alluded to, and may consist of any of the varieties. It is of consequence that they should, as far as possible, be free from excess of alkali and all other salts and foreign SOAP-BARK— SOBAT 299 ingredients which may have an injurious effect on the skin. The manufacturer of toilet soap generally takes care to present his wares in convenient form and of agreeable appearance and smell ; the more weighty duty of having them free from uncombined alkali is in many cases entirely overlooked. Transparent soaps are prepared by dis- solving ordinary soap in strong alcohol and distilling off the greater portion of the alcohol till the residue comes to the condition of a thick transparent jelly. This, when cast into forms and allowed to harden and dry slowly, comes out as transparent soap. A class of transparent soap may also be made by the cold process, with the use of coco-nut oil, castor oil and sugar. It generally contains a large amount of uncombined alkali, and that, with its unpleasant odour of coco-nut oil, makes it a most undesirable soap for personal use. Toilet soaps of common quality are perfumed by simple melting and stirring into the mass some cheap odorous body that is not affected by alkalis under the influence of heat. The finer soaps are perfumed by the cold method ; the soap is shaved down to thin slices, and the essential oil kneaded into and mixed with it by special machinery, after which it is formed into cakes by pressure in suitable moulds. The greater quantity of high-class toilet soaps are now made by a milling process. A high class soap, which after framing contains about 30 % of water, is brought down to a water content of 1 1-14 % by drying in chambers through which warm air is circulated. The soap is now milled in the form of ribbons with the perfume and colour- ing matter, and the resulting strips are welded into bars by forcing through a heated nozzle. The bars are then cut or moulded into tablets, according to the practice of the manufacturer. Glycerin soap ordinarily consists of about equal parts of pure hard soap and glycerin (the latter valuable for its emollient pro- perties). The soap is melted by heat, the glycerin is stirred in, and the mixture strained and poured into forms, in which it hardens but slowly into a transparent mass. With excess of glycerin a fluid soap is formed, soap being soluble in that body, and such fluid soap has only feeble lathering properties. Soap containing small propor- tions of glycerin, on the other hand, forms a very tenacious lather, and when soap bubbles of an enduring character are desired glycerin is added to the solution. Soaps are also prepared in which large proportions of fine sharp sand, or of powdered pumice, are incorpor- ated, and these substances, by their abrading action, powerfully assist the detergent influence of the soap on hands much begrimed by manufacturing operations.1 Medicated soaps, first investigated scientifically by Unna of Hamburg in 1886, contain certain substances which exercise a specific influence on the skin. A few medicated soaps are prepared for internal use, among which are croton soap and jalap soap, both gentler cathartics than the uncompounded medicinal principles. Medicated soaps for external use are only employed in cases of skin ailments, as prophylactic washes and as disinfectant soaps. Among the principal varieties are those which contain carbolic acid and other ingredients of coal tar, salicylic acid, petroleum, borax, camphor, iodine, mercurial salts, sulphur and tannin. Arsenical soap is very much employed by taxidermists for the preservation of the skins of birds and mammals. Miscellaneous Soaps. — The so-called " floating soaps " are soaps made lighter than water either by inserting cork or a metallic plate so as to form an air space within the tablet. The more usual method is to take milling soap, neutralize it with sodium bicarbonate or a mixture of fatty acids, and, after perfuming, it is aerated by mixing the hot soap with air in a specially designed crutcher. Shaving soaps, which must obviously be free from alkali or any substance which irritates the skin, are characterized by readily forming a permanent lather. This property is usually obtained by mixing soft and hard soaps, or, more rarely, by adding gum tragacanth to a hard soap. In the textile trades the wool scourer employs a neutral olive-oil soap, or, on account of its cheapness, a neutral curd or curd mottled brand; the cotton cleanser, on the other hand, uses an alkaline soap, but for cleaning printed cottons a neutral olive-oil curd soap is used, for, in this case, free alkali and resin are objectionable; olive-oil soap, free from caustic alkali, but often with sodium carbonate, is also used in cleansing silk fibres, although hard soaps free from resin are frequently employed for their cheapness. Soaps of smaller moment are the pearl ash soaps used for removing tarry stains; ox-gall soaps for cleaning carpets; magnesia, rouge and chalk soaps for cleaning plate, &c. Soap Analysis. — The most important points in soap analysis are (i) determination of the fatty matter, (2) of the total alkali, (3) of the substances insoluble in water, (4) of the water. The first is carried out by saponifying the soap with acid in the heat when the fatty acids come to the surface. If it fails to form a hard cake on cooling, a known weight of wax may be added and the product re-heated. The cake on weighing gives the free acid. The total alkali is de- termined by incinerating a weighed sample in a platinum dish, dis- solving the residue in water, filtering and titrating the filtrate with standard acid. The residue on the filter paper gives (3) the sub- stances insoluble in water. The water in a soap is rarely directly determined ; when it is, the soap, in the form of shavings, is heated to 105° C. until the weight is constant, the loss giving the amount of " Soap powders " and " soap extracts " are powdered mixtures of soaps, soda ash or ordinary sodium carbonate. water. With genuine soaps, • however, it suffices to calculate the fatty acids as anhydrides and add to this the amount of alkalis, and estimate the water by difference. The complete analysis involves an examination of the fatty matter, of the various forms in which the alkalis are present — free and combined glycerin, &c. Commerce. — Marseilles has long been recognized as the most im- portant centre of the soap trade, a position that city originally achieved through its ready command of the supplies of olive oil. The city is still very favourably situated for obtaining supplies of oils both local and foreign, including sesame, ground nut, castor oil, &c. In England, during the reign of Charles I., a monopoly of soap- making was farmed to a corporation of soap-boilers in London — a proceeding which led to serious complications. From 1712 to 1853 an excise duty ranging from id. to 3d. was levied on soap made in the United Kingdom, and that heavy impost (equal when 3d. to more than cost) greatly impeded the development of the industry. In r793» when the excise duty was 2jd. on hard and I jd. on soft soap, the revenue yielded was a little over £400,000; in 1815 it was almost £750,000; in 1835, when the duty was levied at ifd. and id. re_s- pectively (and when a drawback was allowed for soap used in manufactures), the revenue was almost £1,000,000; and in 1852, the last year in which the duty was levied, it amounted to £1,126,046, with a drawback on exportation amounting to £271,000. Medicine. — Two preparations of hard soap (sodium oleate), made by acting on olive oil with caustic soda, are used in medicine: (i) Emplastrum saponis, made with lead plaster; (2) Pilula saponis composite, which contains one in five parts of opium. Soft or green soap (potassium oleate), made by acting on olive oil with caustic potash, is also used ; its preparation (Linamentum saponis) is known as opodeldoc. Curd soap is also used, and is chiefly a stearate of sodium. The chief use of hard soap is in enemata, and as a suppository in children suffering from constipation ; it also forms the basis of many pills; given in warm water it forms a ready emetic in cases of poisoning. Soft soap is used by dermatologists in the treatment of chronic eczema, and opodeldoc is a domestic remedy for stiffness and sprains. Medicated soaps are made by adding the drug to either hard soap or curd soap in the desired proportions. Useful com- binations are: borax 10%, carbolic acid 5%, ichthyol 5%, sublimed sulphur 10% thymol 2i%, &c. See L. L. Lamborn, Modern Soaps, Candles and Glycerin (1906); W. H. Simmons and H. A. Appleton, The Handbook of Soap Manu- facture (1908) ; also J. Lewkowitsch, Oils, Fats and Waxes. SOAP-BARK, the inner bark of Quillaja saponaria, a large tree which grows in Chile. Reduced to powder, it is employed as a substitute for soap, since it forms a lather with water, owing to the presence of a glucoside saponin, sometimes distinguished as Quillai saponin. The same, or a closely similar substance, is found in soapwort (Saponaria officinalis),'m senega root (Polygala senega) and in sarsaparilla; it appears to be chemically related to digitonin, which occurs in digitalis. The saponins (with few exceptions), have the general formula (CnH2n-gOio, and by the action of dilute acids they are hydrolysed into sugars and sapogenins, which are usually inert pharmacologically. An alternative name for them, and especially for those which are pharmacologically active, is sapotoxins; on this nomenclature the hydrolytic products are termed saponins. Applied as a snuff to the mucous membrane of the nose, saponin (either in soap- bark or in senega root) promotes a violent sneezing. Solutions injected under the skin are violent local irritants and general depressants. SOBAT, a river of N.E. Africa, the most southerly of the great eastern affluents of the Nile. It is formed by the junction of various streams which rise in the S.W. of the Abys- sinian highlands and N.W. of Lake Rudolf. The length of the Sobat, reckoning from the source of the Baro, the chief upper stream, to the confluence with the Nile is about 460 m. The Baro rises in about 36° 10' E., 7° 50' N. at an altitude of some 7000 ft. It has a general W. direction with a slight N. tendency. It is joined by numerous other streams which also rise on the Abys- sinian plateau. These mountain torrents descend the escarpment of the plateau between great walls of rock, the Baro dropping 3000 ft. in 45 m. It then flows through a narrow gorge at an altitude of about 2000 ft., the mountains on either side towering 3000 to 4000 ft. above the river bed. Just east of 35' E. the Birbir, descending from the plateau, joins the Baro and brings with it a large volume of water. Some 40 m. lower down the hills are left behind, the rocks and rapids in the bed of the Baro cease, and the river flows W. across a vast plain with many windings and several divergent channels. From Gambela, a town on its N. bank 20 m. below the Birbir junction, the river is 300 SOBRAON— SOCIAL CONTRACT navigable by steamers during flood time (June-December) to the point of confluence with the White Nile. From the N. the Baro is joined by two considerable rivers which also rise in the rampart of hills that separates Abyssinia from the Sudan, but its chief tributaries are from the S. In about 33° 20' E., 8° 30' N., it is joined by the Pibor. This river issues from the swamp region east of Bor on the Bahr-el-Jebel stretch of the Nile and flows N.E. and N. It is joined from the E. and S. by various streams having their sources on the W. slopes of the Kaffa plateau. Of these the chief are the Gelo — which breaks through a gap in the mountains in a series of magnificent cascades — and the Akobo. The Akobo rises in about 6° 30' N., 35° 30' E., and after leaving the mountains flows N.W. through flat swampy tracts. The whole region of the lower Pibor and Baro is one of swamps, caused by the rivers overflowing their banks in the rainy season. At its junction with the Baro the Pibor is over 100 yds. wide, with a depth of 8 ft. and a speed of 2-3 ft. per second. Below the confluence of the Pibor and Baro the united stream, now known as the Sobat, takes a decided N.W. trend, passing for some distance through a region of swamps. Just 'beyond the swamps and some 40 m. below the confluence, is the fortified post of Nasser. From this point the ground on either side of the river gradually rises, though on the S. it is liable to inundation during flood time. From Nasser to the junction of the Sobat with the Nile the river has a course of about 180 m. As it approaches the Nile the Sobat flows in a well-defined channel cut in the alluvial plains through which it passes. The banks become steep, the slope rapid and the current strong. Several khors join it from N. and S., some being simply spill channels. These channels or " loops " are a characteristic feature of the river. The Sobat enters the Nile almost at right angles in 9° 22' N., 31° 31' E. It is 400 ft. wide at its mouth and has a depth of 18 to 20 ft. at low water and of 30 ft. when in flood. The colour of the water when in moderate flood is that of milk, and it is from this circumstance that the Nile gets its name of Bahr-el-Abiad, i.e. White River. In full flood the colour of the Sobat is a pale brick red. The amount of alluvium brought down is considerable. For the part played by the Sobat in the annual rise of the Nile see NILE. The Sobat was ascended for some distance in 1841 by the Egyptian expedition despatched in the previous year to explore the upper Nile. The post of Nasser (see above) was founded in 1874 by General C. G. Gordon when governor of the equatorial provinces of Egypt, and it was visited in 1876 by Dr W. Junker, the German explorer. The exploration of the river system above Nasser was carried out in the last decade of the igth century by the Italian explorer V. Bottego, by Colonel (then Captain) Marchand, of the French army, who, on his way from Fashoda to France, navigated the Baro up to the foot of the mountains; and by Captain M. S. Wellby, Majors H. H. Austin and R. G. T. Bright, of the British army, and others. By the agreement of the i5th of May 1902 between Great Britain and Abyssinia the lower courses of the Pibor and Baro rivers to their point of confluence form the frontier between the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. See NILE, SUDAN and ABYSSINIA. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.) SOBRAON, a decisive battle in the first Sikh War (see SIKH WARS). It was fought on the i6th of February 1846, between the British (15,000) under Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs (20,000) under Tej Singh and Lai Singh. The Sikhs had fortified them- selves in a bend on the left bank of the Sutlej, with the river in their rear. The battle began with a two hours' artillery duel, in which the Sikh guns were the more powerful, and the British heavy guns expended their ammunition. Then the infantry advanced with the bayonet, and after a fierce struggle took the Sikh entrenchments. The Sikh losses were estimated at from 5000 to 8000. This battle ended the first Sikh War. SOBRIQUET, a nickname or a fancy name, usually a familiar name given by others as distinct from a " pseudonym " assumed as a disguise. Two early variants are found, sotbriquet and soubriquet; the latter form is still often used, though it is not the correct modern French spelling. The first form suggests a derivation from sot, foolish, and briquet, a French adaptation of Ital. brichetto, diminutive of bricco, ass, knave, possibly connected with briccom, rogue, which is supposed to be a derivative of Ger. brechen, to break; but Skeat considers this spelling to be due to popular etymology, and the real origin is to be sought in the form soubriquet. Littre gives an early i4th century soubsbriquet as meaning a " chuck under the chin," and this would be derived from soubs, mod. sous (Lat. sub), under, and briquet or bruchel, the brisket, or lower part of the throat. SOCAGE, a free tenement held in fee simple by services of an economic kind, such as the payment of rent or the perform- ance of some agricultural work, was termed in medieval English law a socage tenement. In a borough a similar holding was called a burgage tenement. Medieval law books derived the term from socus, ploughshare, and took it to denote primarily agricultural work. This is clearly a misconception. The term is derived from O. Eng. soc, which means primarily suit, but can also signify jurisdiction and a franchise district. Historically two principal periods may be distinguished in the evolution of the tenure. At the close of the Anglo-Saxon epoch we find a group of freemen differentiated from the ordinary ceorls because of their greater independence and better personal standing. They are classified as sokemen in opposition to the villani in Domesday Book, and are chiefly to be found in the Danelaw and in East Anglia. There can hardly be a doubt that previously most of the Saxon ceorls in other parts of England enjoyed a similar condition. In consequence of the Norman Conquest and of the formation of the common law the tenure was developed into the lowest form of freehold. Legal protection in the public courts for the tenure and services deemed certain, appear as its characteristic feature in contrast to villainage. Certainty and legal protection were so essential that even villain holdings were treated as villain socage when legal protection was obtainable for it, as was actually the case with the peasants on Ancient demesne who could sue their lords by the little writ of right and the Monstraverunt. The Old English origins of the tenure are still apparent even at this time in the shape of some of its incidents, especially in the absence of feudal wardship and marriage. Minors inheriting socage come under the guardianship not of the lord but of the nearest male relative not entitled to succession. An heiress in socage was free to contract marriage without the interference of the lord. Customs of succession were also peculiar in many cases of socage tenure, and the feudal rule of primogeniture was 'not generally enforced. Commutation, the enfranchisement of copyholds, and the abolition of military tenures in the reign of Charles II. led to a gradual absorption of socage in the general class of freehold tenures. See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i. 271 ff. ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond, 66 ff. ; P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England, 113 ff., I96ff.; English Society in the nth Century, 431 ff. (P. Vl.) SOCIAL CONTRACT, in political philosophy, a term applied to the theory of the origin of society associated chiefly with the names of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, though it can be traced back to the Greek Sophists. According to Hobbes (Leviathan), men lived originally in a state of nature in which there were no recognized criteria of right and wrong, no distinction of meum and luum. Each person took for himself all that he could ; man's life was " solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." The state of nature was therefore a state of war, which was ended by men agreeing to give their liberty into the hands of a sovereign, who thenceforward was absolute. Locke ( Treatise on Government) differed from Hobbes in so far as he described the pre-social state as one of freedom, and held that private property must have been recognized, though there was no security. Rousseau (Central social) held that in the pre-social state man was unwar- like and even timid. Laws resulted from the combination of men who agreed for mutual protection to surrender individual freedom of action. Government must therefore rest on the consent of the governed, the volonte generate. Though it is quite obvious that the theory of a social contract (or compact, SOCIALISM 301 as it is also called) contains a considerable element of truth—- that loose associations for mutual protection preceded any elaborate idea or structure of law, and that government cannot be based exclusively on force — yet it is open to the equally obvious objection that the very idea of contract belongs to a more advanced stage in human development than the hypothesis itself demands. Thus the doctrine, yielding as a definite theory of the origin of society to the evidence of history and anthrop- ology, becomes interesting primarily as revolt against medieval and theocratic theories of the state. SOCIALISM, a term loosely formed from the Latin adjective socialis (socius, a comrade), and first used of certain doctrines of Robert Owen (q.v.). " Socialist " occurs in a discussion between Robert Owen and the Rev. J. H. Roebuck at Manchester (publ. Heywood, Manchester, 1837), pp. 27, 133. From the context it seems a nickname. But the title " Owenist " was disliked by many supporters (see Co-operative Magazine, 1826, p. 28) and " Co-operator " was acquiring a different sense. The new term was used in 1838 in France (by Pierre Leroux), and figures in 1840 in Reybaud's Socialistes modernes. Definition. — Socialism is that policy or theory which aims at securing by the action of the central democratic authority a better distribution, and in due subordination thereunto a better production, of wealth than now prevails. This definition may not entirely cover the ancient and medieval theories to which the name has been given by modern writers (see also ANARCHISM, COMMUNISM, CO-OPERATION). It hardly covers the schemes of Robert Owen himself. But just as chemistry is not alchemy, or astronomy astrology, modern socialism is not to be identified with Utopian fancies, and need not be so defined as to embrace them. For a like reason it need not be so defined as to include every tenet of leading socialistic writers. We must disentangle their socialism from what is superadded to it and not involved in the socialistic idea. The word began in the days of Owen; but, as there were utilitarians before Mill made the name current, so there were socialists before Owen. Socialism, as a policy, begins with the beginnings of politics. As a theory, it begins whenever the state is perceived to have a distinct office from other factors in the order of society, and that office is so magnified that the whole or main charge of the economic resources of the people is assigned to the state, whether for production or for distribution. There was anarchism among the Cyrenaics and Cynics. Phaleas of Chalcedon was a communist. There is state socialism in the Republic of Plato, and much remains in the Laws. It is true that in those days society and state are not clearly distinguished. When Aristotle tells us that " man is by nature a political .animal " (Politics, i. i), the adjective is ambiguous. But the individual and the state are not confused; they are even, by the Cynics, too far separated. State and individual were also well apart in Rome, under the Roman system of legal rights — public, private, real, and personal. There were socialistic measures in Rome, pants el circenses; and there were agrarian, to say nothing of usury laws. But trade and industry were not usually regarded as worthy subjects for the state and the statesman to touch at all. There are instances of municipal socialism in Italy and the provinces under the Roman Empire (S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, 1905, pp. 218, 220, 222). In the middle ages feudalism was more akin to paternal government than to individualism; but it was, politically, too undemocratic to approach a true socialism. On its decadence something like a de facto municipal socialism made its appearance. The gilds of the great cities, imperium in im-perio, regulated production and incidentally distribution. They did not prevent the existence of millionaires like the Fuggers, but they brought even these rich men under their rules. The equality was greater than the liberty, though neither was complete, to modern notions. With the breaking up of the gilds came what is commonly called individualism. Thenceforward over against the control- ling government of the monarch or the commonwealth was to stand the commercial competition of free individuals. It is one of our modern problems to determine whether this individualism is doomed or not. It has never existed pure and unmixed. Between the time of the gilds and the time of the trade unions lies the time, say in England in the i6th and I7th centuries, when there were enterprising trade and busy industry, with enough of power surviving in the old organizations to prevent absolute anarchy. As invention followed invention in the i8th century, industry changed its form and became great instead of small. That is to say , it tended to become more and more an affair of large capital and large workshops, and, instead of the industrial individualism of small masters and independent " manufacturers," who were still " hand " -workers, there was appearing the industrial collectivism of the factory system, where manufacture was nothing without its machinery, its colossal division of labour and its strict technical discipline and drill. There was a short period in England when employers were allowed to draw advantage from the change without any hind- rance from the state. But in no greater time than one generation the regulation of factories began, the period of anarchy ended, and the commercial competition of free individuals began to be surrounded with safeguards, more or less effective. Modern socialism, as defined above, is (a) opposed to the policy of laissez-faire, which aims at the least possible inter- ference with industrial competition between private persons or groups of persons, and (b) suspicious of a policy of mere regula- tion, which aims at close surveillance and control of the pro- ceedings of industrial competitors, but would avoid direct initiative in production and direct attempts to level the in- equalities of wealth. The leading idea of the socialist is to convert into general benefit what is now the gain of a few. He shares this idea with the anarchist, the positivist, the co-operator and other reformers; but, unlike them, to secure his end he would employ the compulsory powers of the sovereign state, or the powers of the municipality delegated by the sovereign. In the former case we have state socialism, in the latter municipal. Where there is direction or diversion of industry by the public force mainly for the benefit of a few, this is hardly socialism. It employs the same machinery, the public force; and it secures a revenue which may possibly be used for the general benefit, as in the case of protective duties. But in such cases the general benefit is only a possible incident. So far (for example) as protection succeeds in keeping out the foreign competitors, the main result is the assured gain or prevented loss of a few among the citizens. Socialism by intention and definition would secure benefits not for a few, a minority, or even a majority, but for all citizens. Communism has the same end in view; and socialism and communism (q.v.) are often confused in popular thought. But the communist need not be a socialist ; he may be an anarchist, an opponent of all government; while the socialist need not be a communist. The socialists of the 2oth century rarely, if ever, demand that all wealth be held in common, but only that the land, and the large workshops, and the materials and means of production on a large scale shall be owned by the state, or its delegate the municipality. The despotism of gilds would not now be tolerated. The strictest public regulation of trade and industry will probably continue to be that of the state, rather than of the municipality, for local rules can be evaded by migra- tion, the state's only by emigration. But the smaller bodies are likely to display more adventurous initiative; and it is significant that they appear in the imagination nearer to the individual than the state even of a small people can ever appear to its own citizens. Yet it is not the smallest unit, the parish, that has shown most activity in England, but the county, a unit arith- metically nearer to the state than to the individual. It might be plausibly argued that the movement of modern events has been rather towards a kind of anarchism (q.v.) than a kind of socialism, if it were not for the element of compulsion (quite contrary to anarchism). Even the English poor law, universally called socialistic, is administered locally and the degree of socialism varies with the parishes. When the state's regulation went further and further in a succession of Irish Land Acts (1870, 1881, 1903), it assumed a socialistic character; the 302 SOCIALISM face of agricultural industry was transformed for the benefit of the majority, if hardly of the whole, by the action of the state. But the result has been a state-aided individualism. The attempt to transform all industries by protection has not been made by the English state in these days. It remains broadly true that, since the English state became more democratic (Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, 1884), its socialism has become more and more of the municipal character. The end in view having more to do with economics than with politics, it mattered little theoretically whether the power exercised was that of the central authority acting directly or the delegated power in the hands of the smaller public bodies. This has been the course of events in England with little conscious theory or principle on the part of the people or even of its leaders. It is certainly a partial fulfilment of the aspirations of those whose theory or principle is socialism. The most important form of modern socialism, which may be called for convenience " social democratic " socialism, is founded on economic theory more or less clearly understood; it is therefore often described as economic or scientific socialism. Many men have become socialists less from logic than from sympathy with suffering. But modern socialism without disowning sentiment knows the need of facts and sound reasoning better than its predecessors, whom it calls Utopian. While among civilized peoples the suffering has on the whole grown less, the influence of socialism has grown greater; and this is largely owing to the efforts made by the best socialists to reason faithfully and collect facts honestly. The remarkable extension of socialism in Germany may be traced in great part to the special circum- stances which have made social democracy the chief effective organizer of working men in that country. But modern socialism is not a purely German product. To scientific socialism England, France and Germany have all made contribution. Its theoretical basis came, in two curiously different ways, from practical England. The idea that the underpaid labour of the poor is the main source of the wealth of the rich is to be found not only in Godwin and Owen but in the minor English land- reformers and revolutionary writers of the i8th and early igth centuries, such as T. Spence, W. Ogilvie, T. Hodgskin, S. Read, W. Thompson. The positions of Ricardo that value is due to labour and that profits vary inversely as wages were taken by Marx (without Ricardo's modifications) as established doctrines of orthodox political economy. It was declared to be a scientific truth that under modern industrial conditions the " exploita- tion " of the labourer is inevitable. In the theory of rent the exploitation of the tenant by the landlord was already admitted by most economists. It was for the socialists to show that the salvation both of tenant and labourer lay in the hands of the central authority, acting as the socialists would have it act. France had been prepared for socialism by St Simon and Fourier. The revolutions of 1830 and 1848, though on the whole unsuccessful in directly organizing labour, made socialistic ideas circulate widely in Europe. Men began to conceive of a political revolution which should be also a social revolution, or of a social and industrial revolution which should be also political. We may say broadly that the socialism of 1910 was either inspired by the ideas of that time or is coloured by them. Modern scientific socialism was thus about fifty years old towards the end of the first decade of the 2Oth century. It would have little claim to be scientific if it had undergone no change in that time; but the change was not greater than the change in orthodox economic doctrine, which indeed it had followed. Its adherents may be classified (i) according to theory and (2) according to policy, though, as scientific socialism is really both theory and policy, being a political claim founded on an economic argument, the distinction is sometimes a matter of emphasis. There are theorists who find the exploitation of the tenant by the landlord to be the main evil whether it involves the degradation of the labourer or not. As some theologians confine their criticism to the Old Testament, so Henry George and Professor A. Loria, shunning the name of socialist, would not directly attack the system of modern large capitals but the appropriation of land. The social-democrat attacks both. He either takes Marx as guide, or, allowing Marx to be vulnerable, he stands on received economic doctrines with the addition of a political theory. He may himself rest content with the national- izing of the means of production or he may tend towards communism. In policy there is a difference between those scientific socialists who admit of no compromise with the existing order and the other scientific socialists who are willing to work with the existing order. The straitest sect would keep quite aloof from ordinary politics. The first step towards compromise is to allow the formation of a socialistic party in the legislature, bearing a protest against all other existing parties. This is the rule on the continent of Europe. The next step is to allow members of the party to be also members of other existing political parties; this is common in England and her colonies. The political history of scientific socialism is to a large extent the history of its attempts to avoid, to effect and to utilize the compromise. There is, of course, a large body of socialists outside any organ- ization. Partly from the teachings of socialists and partly from literary descriptions of the aims and reasons of socialism, there are multitudes who think socialistically without defining their own position with the exactness of the scientific socialist. It is often these amateurs who fall readily into Utopias and who confound the boundaries between socialism and communism. This is done for example by such writers as H. G. Wells and Upton Sinclair. The temptation is evident. The borderland between large production and small may be sometimes debate- able; and, as soon as the socialistic nationalizing of large production is extended to small, the way is open to the Utopias of communism. Communism is an idea far more Utopian than socialism. Like the idea of a kingdom of heaven or a millennium, it springs often from a spiritual enthusiasm that feels sure of its end and, at first at least, recks little of the means. The enthusiasm may spring from a real conversion of the sort described in the Republic of Plato (vii. 516). Even scientific socialism, depending theoretically on close adherence to economic principles, depends practically on this conversion. It is as with Christianity, which depends on its theology but also on its change of heart; till we have refuted both we have not refuted Christianity. So a change of heart, which is also a change of view, is to socialism, as a religion, what economic and political theory is to it as a creed. All that is best in anarchism shares this spiritual feature with socialism. It is of a higher type than the human sympathy which went with Utopian socialism; it includes that sympathy and more. It requires a mental somersault of the kind taken by Hegel's metaphysician and (analogically) by Dante at the earth's centre. The observer begins to see the world of men all over again, throwing from him all the prejudice of his class and abstracting from all classes. This abstraction may be less hard for those who belong to a class that has little, than for those of a class that has much, as religious conversion is held to be easier for the poor. But it is not really easy for any. The observer tries to conceive what is at bottom the difference between rich and poor. Casuists can show that the line is a vanishing one, and that there are large groups of cases where the distinction is unsubstantial. Such borderlands are still the sporting ground of economists and philosophers and biologists. We could hardly contend, however, that no distinctions are true which break down at the border. It seems unsafe to say there is no war of classes, because at their nearest extremities the classes pass into each other. At the utmost we might infer that the best way to bring the war to an end was to crowd the nearest extremities. At present, taking the contrast not at its least or greatest but at its mean, we find it no fancy. The features that make the lower as distinguished from the higher are of different quality and kind, not merely of amount. They are described perhaps most fully by Tolstoy in Que faire ?, but they are brought to the ken of every one of the rich who can overhear the daily talk of the poor, SOCIALISM 3°3 enter into their daily cares and put himself in their place. If he makes the somersault and is " converted," all the little and great privileges of the rich seem now to have as many presump- tipns against them as were before in their favour. Why should he have so much comfort and they so little? why should he be secure when they live from hand to mouth? why should art and science and refinement be thrown in his own way and be hardly within their reach at all? Such and similar ponderings are not far from a revolt against inequality, whether the revolt takes the shape of anarchism or of socialism. It carries us beyond the paternal socialism of Carlyle and Ruskin or even of the author of Sybil, relying as Disraeli did on the " proud control " of the old English state, which was occasionally and spasmodic- ally constructive as well as controlling, but was always actuated by a feeling like that of a chief to his clansmen. The exponents of paternal socialism have no clear consciousness of the change in the state itself. They think they can still use the old tools. They see that the people have changed, but they do not see that if the past cannot be revived for a people neither can it be revived for a state. The idea of lordship (as distinguished from leadership) is becoming intolerable; and this restiveness may contain a safeguard against one of the worst risks of socialism, bureaucracy. Before the governing bureaucracy had destroyed all originality and eccentricity, the sovereign people would have discovered for itself that " tyranny is a poor provider." Great Britain. — In England a certain academic interest in socialism was created by Mill's discussions on the subject in his Political Economy (1848) and a more practical interest by the appearance of the Christian Socialists. " The red fool-fury of the Seine " caused prejudice even against such harmless en- thusiasts. The People's Charter (in the 'thirties) had no socialistic element in it. Socialism first showed signs of becoming a popular movement in England after the lecturing tour of Henry George (1881-1882) in advocacy of the nationalizing of the land. About that very time (1880) the Democratic (afterwards in 1883 the Social Democratic) Federation was formed by advocates of the whole socialistic programme. A secession took place in 1884 when William Morris, H. M. Hyndman and Belfort Bax founded the Socialist League. William Morris parted company with the league in 1890, and seems to have become more anarchist than socialist. Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1887) made some impression among intellectual people in England; but Robert Blatchford's Merrie England (1894) made much more way amongst the multitude, followed up as it was by his newspaper the Clarion. There were still few signs of a strong party. The first members of the Fabian Society (1888) were by definition opportunists, and though the Fabian Essays (1889) were socialistic they were the declarations of men willing to use the ordinary political machinery and accept reforms in the present that might point to a socialistic solution in the very far distance. Most of the Fabians became hard-working radicals of the old type, with general approval. England does not love even the appearance of a revolution. Nevertheless a change has come over the spirit of English politics in the direction desired by socialists, though hardly through any efforts of theirs. The change was predicted by Herbert Spencer in 1860 (Westm. Rev. April) some years before household suffrage (1867). In The Man versus the State (1885) he demonstrates that liberal legisla- tion which once meant the removal of obstacles now meant the coercion of the individual. Though a large part of the coercive measures enumerated by Spencer are rather regulation than socialism, undoubtedly there is here and there a socialistic provision. Thomas Hill Green's dictum, " It is the business of the State to maintain the conditions without which a free exercise of the human faculties is impossible " (Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract, 1881), did not in appearance go much further than Herbert Spencer's that " it is a vital requirement for society and for the individual to recognize and enforce the conditions to a normal social life " (The Man versus the State, p. 102); but the former saw clearly that the policy of the future must go beyond mere regulation. Too much importance has been attached to a saying of Sir William Harcourt in 1888, " We are all Socialists now." He meant no more than that we are all social reformers who will use the aid of the state without scruple if it seems necessary. He did not mean that the English people had adopted a general principle of socialism. Except in the case of free trade, it is hard to discover a general principle in English politics. The English people judge each case on the merits, and as if no general principle ever affected the merits. Regulation and not initiative is the prevailing feature of the action of government even now. The railways are still in private hands. The state railways, canals and forests of India, though John Morley (afterwards Viscount Morley) " made a present of them to the Socialists " (House of Commons, 2oth July 1906), are the public works of a modern benevolent despotism, and do not go very far beyond those of its ancient prototype. They are the works not of the Indian but of an alien demo- cracy. Contrariwise, in England itself, possessed of a fair measure of self-government, crown lands, government dock- yards, army, fleet, post office were in existence when there was no thought of state socialism; they are not modern innova- tions but time-honoured institutions. The same is true of a great part of municipal socialism. It existed in the middle of the igth century, and no local community would have been deterred from having its own water-supply or gas works by any fear of socialism. The fear is still less deterrent now; and we have seen electric lighting, tramways, parks, markets, ferries, light railways, baths and wash-houses, house property, river steamers, libraries, docks, oyster beds, held by towns like Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield, Colchester. Sometimes the management is economical, sometimes wasteful; but in all cases the undertakings have been supported by a majority who care little for general theory and everything for local interests. The " unity of administration " successfully advocated by Edwin Chadwick in the later Victorian period, and requiring " competition for the field but not in the field," is not inconsistent with municipal socialism. This last has been provided with new machinery by the establishment of county and district councils (1888), parish councils (1894) and even the perhaps- otherwise-intended metropolitan borough councils (1899). Till 1907, when the progressive party in the London County Council were heavily defeated, that council was certainly moving in the path of municipal socialism. But, in its achievements as distinguished from its claims, it had not overtaken, still less surpassed, Birmingham or Glasgow. Municipal socialism in Britain finds many critics; it has the drawbacks of all democratic self-government. It is sometimes wasteful; but it is seldom corrupt; and there is no general desire for a .return to a less adventurous policy. In the country districts democracy is still imperfectly conscious of its own power. There are acts on the statute book that would well equip a parochial socialism; but socialists seem to be able to do little more than accelerate slightly what seems to be the inevitably slow pace of political reform in England. Whether the extension of the franchise to women will quicken the rate of reform is uncertain. With every allowance, the change in English politics has been real, and it has been due in a great measure to the growth of organization among working men. The old trade unionism passed out of its dark ages by the aid of legislation (in 1871), which was for thirty years (till the Taff Vale decision in 1901, the older view being restored by the Trades Disputes Act 1906) considered to give fo the trade unions the advantages of a corporation without the drawbacks. At the same time, through a better law of small partnerships (Industrial and Provident Societies Acts 1852, 1862, 1876), the co-operative societies were making rapid progress. Compulsory education (1870) increased the intelligence of the labouring classes and therewith their power to use their opportunities. Labour legislation, removing truck, making inspection and regulation of factories more stringent (see the consolidating Act of 1878 and the Factory and Workshop Act 1901) and providing compensation for accidents (1906), was forwarded by both political parties. This was not socialism but regulation. The old unionists were 304 SOCIALISM radicals of the old type. Not so the unionists who came first into prominence with the Dock Strike in London in 1889. The way had been prepared by demonstrations of the unemployed in 1887 and 1888. When unionism embraced unskilled labourers, and at the same time pressed on the federation of all trades societies and their joint action, when, too, in the trade union congresses the intervention of the state was repeatedly claimed as essential to the success not only of an eight hours' day but of such socialistic measures as nationalization of the land, it was manifest that there was a new leaven working. The larger the numbers included in the trades societies the more their organization was bound to depart from that of the mass meeting, and to become indirect instead of direct self-government, government by representatives, and more and more by specially trained representatives. This was a tendency towards bureau- cracy, or government by officials, not the highest type of popular government. A better preparation for democratic government has been given by the co-operative societies. If it be true that under a coming socialism the working class must dominate, then every phase of organization must be welcomed which widens their experience of self-government, more especially in the handling of industrial and commercial affairs. This last kind of education has been well given by co-operation, though chiefly through capital and hired labour on the old pattern of the ordinary employers. Co-partnership societies, best exemplified in the midland districts of England, are more democratic; but their numbers are few. The claims of the workman are somewhat in advance of his education. On the other hand it seems impossible in England to secure moderate concessions without extravagant claims. Germany. — In Germany it was long an axiom that socialists must leave ordinary politics and political machinery severely alone as an evil thing. The short and futile struggle for constitu- tional liberty in 1848-1849 had driven most of those who were " thinking social istically " into abandonment of political reform and into plans of fundamental change amounting to revolution. Karl Mario (1810-1865) and K. J. Rodbertus (q.v.) contented themselves with laborious and profound studies not intended to bear immediate fruit in practice. Marx and Lassalle were not so pacific. The former was from the first (see his Manifesto of 1847) inclined to give socialism an international character, taking also no pains to distinguish it from communism. Lassalle desired it for his own nation first. Both of them were in a sense Hegelians. From Hegel they had learned that the world of men, like the world of things, was in constant process of development ; but unlike Hegel they regarded human evolution as purely materialistic, effected always by a struggle between classes in society for the outward means of well-being. Feudalism, itself the result of such a struggle, had given place to the rule of the middle classes. The struggle to-day is between the middle classes and the working classes. At present those who do not possess capital are obliged to work for such wages as will keep them alive, and the gains from inventions and economics are secured by the employers and capitalists. The labourer works at his cost price, which is " the socially necessary wages of subsistence " (the bare necessaries of a civilized life); but he produces much more than his cost, and the surplus due to his " unpaid labour " goes to the employer and capitalist. This is what Lassalle called the " brazen law of wages," founded on Ricardo's supposed doctrine that (a) the value of an article that is not a monopoly is determined by its cost in labour, and (6)' the wages of labour tend to be simply the necessaries of life. The tendency of the labouring population to increase beyond the means of steady employment is a frequent benefit to the capitalists in the periodic expansions of investment and enterprise, arising in response to new inventions and discoveries. Large business in modern economy swallows up small. Not only the independent artisans and workers in domestic industries, but the small capitalists and employers who cannot afford to introduce the economies and sell at the low prices of their large rivals are disappearing. But the growth of the proletariat, together with the concentration of business into fewer hands and larger companies, will cause the downfall of the present system of industry. The proletariat will realize its own strength; and the means and materials of production will be concentrated finally into the hands of the commonwealth for the good of all. This revolution, like that which overturned feudalism, is simply the next stage of an evolution happening without human will, fatally and necessarily, by virtue of the conditions under^which wealth is produced and snared in our times. Such was in substance the view of all the German socialists of the last half of the igth century. Even Rodbertus had advanced a claim of right on behalf of working men to the full produce of their labour, but thought the times not ripe for socialism. The others made no such reservations. Lassalle planned a centralized organization of workmen led by a dictator, and called on the government of Prussia to establish from the public funds co-operative associations such as his opponent Schulze-Delitzsch had hoped to plant by self help. His socialism was rather national than universal. Marx looked beyond his own nation. He founded the International Union of Working Men in 1864, the year of Lassalle's tragic death. Before the common danger of police prosecutions and persecution the followers of Lassalle and Marx were united at the congress of Gotha in 1875. The name social democrats had crept into use about 1869 when the followers of Marx founded at a congress in Eisenach the social democratic working men's party. The party began to be a power at the congress of Gotha. It is a power now, but its doctrines and policy have undergone some change. The last quarter of the i gth century witnessed (i) the repressive laws of 1878, (2) their repeal in 1890, (3) the three Insurance Laws and (4) a quickened progress of German industry and wealth during thirty years of peace and consolidation. Bismarck's government, alarmed by attempts on the life of the emperor and by the increased number of votes given to socialistic candidates for the reichstag, procured the passing of the Exceptional Powers Act (Ausnahme Geselz) in 1878. The legislation at this time resembled the Six Acts of 1819 in England. Combined action and open utterance in Germany became almost impossible; and for organs of the press the social democrats had recourse to Zurich. Liebknecht and Bebel could still raise their voices for them in parliament, for Bismarck failed in his attempt to deprive members of their immunities (March 1879). But the agitation as a whole was driven underground; and it speaks well for the patience and self-control of the people that no wide- spread excesses followed. The declaration of the Social Demo- cratic congress at Wyden, Switzerland, in 1880, that their aims should be furthered " by every means " instead of the old phrase " by every lawful means," was a natural rejoinder to the law that deprived them of the lawful means; and it seems to have had no evil consequences. In 1881 repression was so far relaxed that trade unions were allowed to recover legal standing. In 1890 the reichstag refused to renew the law of 1878 for a fifth period; and finally in 1899 it repealed the law forbidding the amalgama- tion of workmen's unions, and specially aimed at the new social- istic unions, the natural allies of the social democrats. The vexatious prosecutions and condemnations for Majestats- beleidigung (Ibse majeste) following 1890 did the cause more good than harm. The socialistic voters increased from 437,438 in 1878 to 1,800,000 in 1894 and 2,120,000 in 1898, while the elected members increased from 12 in 1877 to 46 in 1894 and 56 in 1898. By 1903 the voters had increased to three millions and in the elections of February 1907 they were 3,240,000. The socialists, however, in 1907 found themselves represented by 43 members as against 79 in 1903. The reduced representation was due to a combination of the other parties against them, the matters at issue not being industrial policy, but colonial government and naval expenditure. The increase in the number of voters remains a proof that the power of the party in Germany has rather in- creased than diminished. In 1908 they gained seven seats in the Prussian Diet, where they had hitherto been unrepresented. Yet " remedial measures " had been passed which were intended to make socialism unnecessary. Bismarck, who admired Lassalle and had no scruples about the intervention of the state, had SOCIALISM 305 planned a series of measures for the insurance of workmen against sickness, accidents and old age, measures duly carried out in 1 883 , 1 884 and 1891, respectively. The socialists not unreason- ably regarded the government as their convert. They could point to two other " unwilling witnesses," the Christian Socialists and the " Socialists of the Chair." In the Protestant parts of Germany the socialists as a rule were social democrats, in the Catholic as a rule they were Christian Socialists. As early as 1863 and 1864 Dr Bellinger and Bishop Ketteler, followed by Canon Moufang, had represented socialistic sentiment and doctrine. Ketteler, who had been under the influence of Lassalle, had hopes that the church would make productive associations her special care. Moufang would have depended more on the state than on the church. All were awake to the evils of the workmen's position as described by the social democrats, and they were anxious that the Catholic church should not leave the cure of the evils to be effected without her assistance. Ketteler died in 1877; and the pope's encyclical of the 28th of December 1878 bore no trace of his influence, mixing up as it did socialists, nihilists and communists in one common condemnation. The encyclical De conditions opificum of 1891 might show that the views of the Christian Socialists had penetrated to headquarters; but the encyclical on Christian Democracy of 1901 (January) betrays no sympathy with them. The Protestant church in Germany has been hampered by fear of offending the government; but it contains a vigorous if tiny body of Christian Socialists. Rudolf Todt, a country pastor, was their prophet. His book on Radical German Socialism and Christian Society (1878) led Dr Stocker, the court chaplain, to found an association for " Social Reform on Christian Prin- ciples." This was denounced rather unfairly by politicians of all ranks as an organized hypocrisy. Its influence was shortlived, and its successor, the "Social Monarchical Union" (1890), shared the unpopularity of Stocker, its founder. Even the Socialists of the Chair, middle class Protestants as they were, would have nothing to say to it, but preferred to go a way of their own. From the year 1858 there had existed a league of economists and statesmen called the "economic congress" ( V olkswirtschaft- licher Kongress), a kind of English Cobden Club, though it aimed chiefly at free trade among all sections of the German people in particular. After the Empire its work seemed finished; and a new society was formed, the " Union for a Policy of Social Reform " {Verein fiir Socialpolitik). Professors G. Schmoller, W. Roscher, B. Hildebrand, A. Wagner, L. J. Brentano, the statistician E. Engel and others met at Halle in June 1872, and a meeting of their supporters followed at Eisenach in October of that year. These Katheder-Socialisten or Socialists of the Chair (academic socialists) agreed with the social democrats in recog- nizing the existence of a " social question," the problem how to make the labourers' condition better. To the old-fashioned economist this was no problem for the legislature; competition solved its own problems. But, while the social democrats looked for social revolution, the academic socialists were content to work for social reform, to be furthered by the state. The state was, to them, " a great moral institution for the education of the race." They were a company of moderate state socialists, relying on the state and the state as it then was. They did much gratuitous service to the government in the preliminary in- vestigations preceding the great insurance laws. The German people were made a little more inclined to state socialism than before by the efficiency displayed by the bureau- cracy in the wars of 1866 and 1870. If the Insurance Laws are found to work well, this inclination may be confirmed, and th.e idea of a revolution may fall into the background. The attitude of the social democratic party became less uncompromising than in earlier days. Since they regained their liberty in 1890, their leaders have kept them well in hand. Their principal journal Vorwarls was conducted with great ability. Their agitation became as peaceful as that of trade unionists or co-operators in England. They ceased to denounce the churches. They tried to gain sympathy, quite fairly, by taking up the cause of any distressed workers, or even ill-used natives in colonies, and urging redress from the state. The present state had become to them almost unconsciously their own state, a means of removing evils and not a mere evil to be removed. The anarchists had been disowned as early as 1880. The extreme socialists who demanded return to the old tactics were cast out at Erfurt in 1891, and became " Independent Socialists." The controversy between friends and critics of socialism still rages in learned circles, producing a prodigious quantity of literature year by year; but the old strictures of Treitschke and Schaffle seem now to have lost a little of their point. Though the programme adopted at Gotha in 1875 was not entirely or even seriously altered, the parts of it due to Lassalle fell into the background. For many years Marx and not Lassalle was the great authority of the party. Marx died in 1883, but remained an oracle till 1894, when (just before his own death in 1895) Engels published the last volume of his friend's book on capital. The volume was expected to solve certain logical difficulties in the system. Instead of this, it caused a feeling of disappoint- ment, even among true believers. Many, like Bebel and Kautsky, kept up the old adoration of Marx; but many, like Eduard Bernstein, rightly felt that to give up Marx is not to give up socialism, any more than to give up Genesis is to give up theology .• Bernstein openly proposed in congress that the old doctrines and policy of the party, involving as they do the despair of reform and insistence on the need of revolution, should be dropped. He had not carried his point in 1908, but his influence seemed to be increasing. The death of Liebknecht (August 1900) re- moved from the ranks of the social democrats one of their most heroic figures, but also one of the strongest opponents of such a change of front. Yet Liebknecht himself had made concessions. It was impossible for a man of his shrewdness to close his eyes to what the state had done for the German workman. It was impossible, too, to ignore the progress that Germany had made in wealth and industry since the creation of the Empire in 1871. Germany has been fast becoming a manufacturing country; and, though the growth of large manufacturing towns in the Rhine valley and elsewhere has multiplied socialists, it has added to the income of the German workman. He is further from poverty and distress; and his socialism means an endeavour after a larger life, not, as formerly, a mere struggle against starvation. It is likely, therefore, to have less and less of mere blindness and violence in it. The German socialists were chiefly interested in securing such an extension of the franchise in Prussia as would make their representation in the Prussian parliament correspond as near to the number of their adherents as in the Reichstag itself. They had only gained seven seats in the former in June 1908, though they had perhaps half a million of adherents in Prussia. They seemed for good or for evil to be taking the place of the old radical party. The position in Austria was somewhat different. The first general elections held under a really democratic suffrage (May 1907) resulted in the return of eighty social democrats and sixty Christian socialists to the Reichsrath, as compared with eleven and twenty-six in the unreformed parliament. They were opposed (as anti-clerical and clerical) on many questions, but they made it certain that economic and industrial policy affecting the whole nation would rival and perhaps out-rival the questions of racial supremacy and haute politique that absorbed the attention of the old Reichsrath. France. — In France the socialists have found it harder to work in the parliamentary harness. Marx had said long ago that for the success of socialism besides English help there must be " the crowing of the Gallic cock." French enthusiasm for social revolution is feeble in the country districts but very strongly pronounced in the large towns. The Communards of 1871 might be called municipal socialists of a sort, but their light went out in that annee terrible. Something like a movement towards organized socialism began in 1880 on the return of some prominent members of the old commune from exile. A congress was held at Havre under the leadership of J. Guesde and J. A. Ferroul; it adopted a " Collectiiiist " programme, Collectivisme meaning state socialism. A minority under J. F. E. Brousse and J. F. A. 306 SOCIALISM Joffrin broke away (in 1881) from the main body and stood out for municipal socialism, decentralization and, later (1887), self- governing workshops aided by public money. Co-operative workshops are already subsidized in France from the public funds, and favoured by preferences in public works and other privileges, without striking results. The Broussistes are also called Possibilistes, as content with such socialism as is im- mediately practicable. They supported, for example, agrarian reform on the present basis of private property (Marseilles, 1892). After several unsuccessful negotiations, the amalgamation of the Collectivists, Possibilists and Blanquistei (extreme revolu- tionaries)) was accomplished in 1899. But the body had not the cohesion of the German party. Though the socialists in the Chamber acted more or less loyally together, they were not closely controlled by the organization outside. In consequence (like Mr John Burns in England in 1905-1906) those who accepted office usually came under a cloud. This happened to M. Millerand when he became minister of commerce in the Waldeck Rousseau government of 1899, and in a less degree to M. Jaures when he became vice-president of the Chamber. M. Millerand was, indeed, expelled from the party, and at the socialist congress of Amsterdam (August 1904) a strongly worded resolution con- demned any participation by socialists in bourgeois (middle- class) government. The vote was not unanimous, and the resolution itself was attributed to the German Bebel. • An attempt was made in Paris (April 1905) to bind the various parties of French socialists more closely together by forming a new "Social- ist party, the French Section of the Internationa] Labour Union." It laid down stringent rules for the guidance of socialist deputies. In comparison with the steady united action of the Germans, the proceedings of the French socialists, perhaps from their greater political liberty, seems a wayward guerilla warfare. The French state is not on principle averse from intervention. It has been always more ready than in England to interfere with competitive trade and to take the initiative on itself. It controls the Bank of France, owns most of the railways, and directs secondary as well as primary education. After the disputes at Carmaux (in 1892) it proposed to take over the mines. There is no general poor law; but old-age pensions have been voted, and workmen's compensation is as old as 1888. State socialism might have gone farther if French bureaucracy had not proved less efficient than German. Though there are socialistic French professors there can hardly be said to be a body of academic socialists in France. The strongest economic writing is still that of the orthodox economists, P. E. Levasseur, P. P. Leroy-Beaulieu, Yves Guyot. Even Professor Charles Gide, though reformer, is not socialist. Of the two party periodicals La Revue socialiste is moderate, Le Mouvement socialiste hardly so. The latter is in many ways more akin to anarchism than state socialism. Socialism has its allies in the sporadic Christian socialism of the Churches, both Ca'tholic and Protestant, and in the solidarists who would trans- form the existing system of employment without abolishing private property. The school of Le Play, though devoted to social reform, can hardly be called an ally of socialism. Netherlands. — Socialism has found a kindlier soil in Belgium and Holland, and these countries have been the favourite meeting-place in recent years of congresses of all denominations of socialists. In Belgium the Flemish social democratic party led by de Paepe united in 1879 with the Brabantine or Walloon. They organized trade unions. They helped the liberals in 1893 to procure the extension of the suffrage. In 1907 they had thirty representatives in parliament. The flourishing co-operative societies, Voornit (Forwards) in Ghent and Maison du people of the Brussels bakers, were the work of their members. Its success in co-operation is almost the distinctive feature of Belgian socialism. Socialists helped to procure the adoption by Belgium of a system of old-age pensions for the poor in 1900, and of the cheap trains which do so much for the workmen in town and country. In Holland, which is not a crowded manu- facturing country but even now largely agricultural and pastoral, the socialists are less formidable, if that be the right word. They came into line with the German socialists in 1889. Social reform proceeds with or without their aid. There has been a factory act since 1889 and an act for workmen's insurance against accidents since 1900. Municipal socialism has made progress. The great railway strike of 1903 aroused public interest in the condition of the workman, but the legislation that followed was rather regulative than socialistic. Switzerland. — Switzerland, for generations a refuge to exiles, shows them hospitality without sharing their views. There is little legislation of a socialistic nature; socialists are to be found here and there, especially in the German cantons. Scandinavia. — Scandinavia stands less apart from European movements than formerly, but industrial legislation is rather regulative than socialistic. Hjalmar Branting, one of the most prominent socialists, was in 1908 a member of the Swedish parlia- ment. The trade unions of Denmark are largely socialistic, but Denmark is no nearer complete conversion than England. Italy, Spain. — Socialism might be thought to find a better soil in Italy and Spain. Italy has been described as " all prole- tariat." But a great depth of poverty fits a people rather for the anarchism of violence than for socialism. The social demo- crats have made way, notwithstanding, and in 1895 returned fifteen members to parliament. Milan is still the capital of the movement. Laveleye had the idea that revolution was hopeless in Italy because Rome was uninhabitable every summer. But social democracy in Germany, its own country, is not bound up with Berlin. Italy as a whole must make progress in social and political development before it can receive the new ideas and still more before it can grow beyond them. The burden of taxes leads to revolts of sheer despair, followed by repression which has extended to socialistic clubs (Jasci dei lavoralorf) and even workmen's unions. State socialism in the form of state railways has not been very efficient. Factory legislation is behind that of other civilized countries, and is of very recent origin (1902). Old-age pensions were introduced in 1898, and accidents insurance on the German model in the same year. Municipal socialism, finding some trammels removed, had in the first decade of the 2oth century begun to show itself in the large towns. In Spain there is a Socialist Federation; there are socialist newspapers; and there seems to be no doubt that the cause has gained ground, even as against anarchism. It may perhaps yet be a power in the legislature. It is mainly in Russia that anarchism has the field to itself. Russia. — In spite of the hopes excited by the Duma, reformers in Russia have been strongly tempted to be anarchists, even of a violent type. Democracy had special difficulties in reaching legislative power. Partly for this reason, "social democracy" has had a subordinate place. The Russian socialists have, some of them, rebelled against the view once essential to socialistic orthodoxy: that Russia must pass through the stage of " capital- ism " before reaching the stage of "collectivism." Marx him- self (in 1877) conceded that the progress might be direct from the system of village communities to the ideal of social demo- cracy. Capitalism is already extending itself, and the con- sistency of the theory need not have been broken. Even so, in the absence of democratic government, the prospects of socialism are doubtful. In Finland there were in 1908 eighty socialist members in a parliament of two hundred. The party might console itself by the thought that over the whole Russian empire many more were socialists than could declare themselves so. Australia. — In contrast to nearly all the countries of " Old Europe," the self-governing colonies of Greater Britain stand out a§ nothing if not democratic. Nowhere is democracy sturdier than in Australia, the separate states of which have since 1900 been federated as one commonwealth. But while it has a pro- tective tariff and makes no pretence of a laissez-faire policy, the central government is less socialistic than the separate con- federated states. The progress even of these has been, as in England, rather in municipal than in state socialism. It is true that crown lands, mines and railways figure more largely. But to find state socialism in its vigour we must pass to New Zealand. SOCIALISM 307 New Zealand. — Removed 1 200 m. from Australia, its nearest civilized neighbour, secured by English naval power and " com- passed by the inviolate sea," New Zealand is better suited for the experiment of a closed socialistic state than perhaps any other country in the known world. It began its new career in 1880-1890, too late for perfect success but not too late to secure a large measure of public ownership of what elsewhere becomes private property. It owns not only the railways but two-thirds of the whole land, letting it on long leases. It sets a limit to large estates. It levies a progressive income tax and land tax. It has a labour department, strict factory acts and a law of compulsory arbitration t in labour disputes (1895;. There are old-age pensions (1898), government insurance of life (1871) and against fire (1905). Women have the suffrage, and partly in consequence the restriction of the liquor traffic is severe. There is a protective tariff, and oriental labour is excluded. The success of the experiment is not yet beyond doubt; compulsory arbitration, for example, did not work with perfect smoothness, and was amended in 1908. But there has been no disaster. The decline of the birth-rate has been greater than in Britain. It is fair to add that the experiment is probably on too small a scale to show what might happen in larger countries. New Zealand has only 100,000 sq. m. of territory and about one million of inhabitants, mainly rural and of picked quality. The conditions of combined isolation and security are not easily obtained elsewhere. The action of the state has been in the great majority of instances rather regulative than construc- tive. Canada. — This last feature is still more marked on the great North American continent. The Dominion of Canada, from its foundation by confederation in 1867, has given its land away too freely. The Dominion, indeed, has only had the land of new territories to dispose of; the original states are the owners of their own unsettled lands. The Dominion government owns the Intercolonial railway but contents itself with subsidies to the rest, over which it has a very imperfect control (by its Railway Commission). It levies royalties on Yukon gold, carries out public works, especially affecting the means of transport between province and province; and in theory whatever functions are not specially reserved to the provinces fall to the Dominion government. The provincial governments, however, show the greater activity. Ontario owns mines and railroads, Nova Scotia coal and iron fields. " The operation of public utilities " by the municipalities is encouraged. Over Canada with the rise of large towns there has been an advance of municipal socialism, not only in the largest, like Toronto, but in the newer and smaller, such as Port Arthur on Lake Superior, where half the local expenditure is paid by public works. Municipal socialism is still in advance of state socialism. Yet the Dominion has a democratic franchise, paid members, a labour department and free education. The democratic basis is not lacking; but the nature of the country is not such as to make it likely that Canada will lead the way in socialistic experiments. The protective tariff, by developing groups of manufacturing in- dustries before their time, introduced into Canada some of the troublesome features of urban civilization in older countries. Accordingly trade unions became better organized. Trusts (like that of the grocers, 1908) began to show themselves. But socialistic propaganda was mainly confined to the mining districts, especially in the far west. United States. — The great American republic would seem a better field for socialistic experiment, having more men, more states and ample political liberty. But state socialism, in the strict' sense of the action of the central supreme authority, is limited by the Federal constitution, and any functions unassigned to the central authority by the constitution fall to the separate states. The separate states have rarely gone farther in a social- istic direction than England itself. In the way of restriction and regulation they have often done more (see Bryce, Amer. Commonwealth, part, v., chap. 95). From 1876 the separate states have had an admitted right to control undertakings having the nature of monopolies. The railways are in private hands; and it was not until 1887 by the Interstate and Commerce Act (followed in 1888 by the Railway and Canals Act) that the Federal pnwer secured control over the means of transport running beyond one state into another. In the same way the Anti-Trust Law of 1890 gave control over the great combinations for " forestalling and engrossing " the supply of articles of necessity or wide use. Socialists have regarded trusts as the stepping-stones to state socialism; but the American people would seem to prefer to see government controlling the trusts rather than itself displacing them. Trade unionism has made better progress under the Federation of Labor than in the more ambitious Knights of Labor (1878). Like their English counterparts, the societies in the United States include numbers of socialists, and perhaps even more followers of Henry George in advocacy of the nationalization of the land and the " single tax." The death of Henry George (1897) has not ended his influence. On the other hand the socialists without compromise have had a " Socialistic Labor Party " since 1877. Bellamy's socialistic Utopia, Looking Backward (i£88), caused nearly as great a sensation as Henry George's Progress and Poverty (1879). It led to the movement called " Nationalism," the scope of which was the nationalizing of the means of production generally. Of a less literary sort was the influence of " Populism " and the People's party (formed in 1889). Mixed up with the politics of W. J. Bryan in 1896, it lost a little of its uncompromising socialistic flavour. General Criticisms. — If the ideal of state socialism be viewed in an equally critical spirit, many of the objections brought by the moderate anarchists are seen to have their weight. A strong central government to which all power was given over all the chief industries in the country would, they say, be contrary to liberty. Our leaders would be too likely to become again our masters. Supervision would become irksome. Great powers would be a. temptation to abuse of power. A democracy with a strong central government would need to leave much to its chosen guardians, and to retain the same men in the position of guardians till they fully learned the difficult business of their office; but this in the end means either what we have now, a government by elected leaders, who, once elected, consult our wishes only on rare occasions, — or a government by per- manent officials, which means liberty to go on in the old ways but great fear and jealousy of new ways, in fact, order without progress, no liberty of change. This criticism becomes rather stronger than weaker if we press the doctrine of the supremacy of the working-classes, a doctrine that figures largely with some socialists. We are told that having been nothing, the working-classes will be everything; having so long been the ruled, they will be the rulers; they have produced for all the rest, the product will now be theirs instead of another's. This doctrine is not essential to socialism; it is indeed hardly consistent therewith. It would not be fair to press it, for no men know better than the scientific socialists that under modern conditions it is in most cases quite impossible to say what is the product of one man's labour. Articles are not made at one stretch by one individual. The contributions of the various hands and minds concerned from first to last in the production of a pocket-knife or a pair of trousers would travel over our stage like Banquo's ghostly descendants in a line that seemed to have no ending. What the socialists demand, when they are not declaiming to uncritical sympathizers, is not that a man should have what he makes but that what is made by great capitals or on great estates should be so distributed that it is not engrossed by individuals, but satisfies the wants of as many as possible. There is no superior enlightenment in the ordinary unskilled or even skilled manual labourer to fit him above others for supreme power. According to socialists and anarchists and indeed all of us who are not incurable optimists, the hungry generations have trodden the working man down too much to make him instantly or even speedily fit to do the work of govern- ment himself. He is of like passions with ourselves. He will be perfectly qualified in process of time to share in such respons- ible work. But at present he needs training. 3o8 SOCIAL SETTLEMENTS The anarchists for their part do not desire the concentration of industry and the rule of it from the centre by anybody, working man or not — and they think the social democrats quite wrong in believing the concentration inevitable. They point to the fact that at the present moment there is a partial revival of domestic industries, assisted by gas and electricity. These are the small industries of people with small means; they make a less imposing figure before the public than the great trusts, such as the Steel Trust, and the Shipping Trust. The sums involved are so immense that it might seem impossible for competitors to cope with the trusts; therefore, it is thought, the trusts will soon rule alone, and, lest they should rule ill, the state should take their place. A great combination approaches monopoly, and a far-reaching, wide-stretching monopoly (say of the carrying trade) might mean a public danger. Should we listen to our friends the socialists and avert the danger by making the state the monopolist? There seems no proof of the necessity of this extreme step. Where there is political danger the old-fashioned method of regulation and control by the state seems quite- equal to the occasion. As yet the trusts are on their trial and their success is not certain, still less their abuse of the success when it comes. Their monopoly is not an absolute monopoly; and they have a wholesome consciousness of the possibility of competitors. A government trust would have none such. In some instances there would be the further difficulty that to prevent political friction it would need to be a trust of several nations — an idea difficult to realize on such a scale and in such matters. The English mind does not turn readily to state trusts; but it finds no difficulty in municipal and local trusts. Private local monopolies, like those of the water companies in London, were as troublesome to the locality as any universal monopoly of the article could be; and the remedy which even London must find for the troubles will be the municipal trust. There are few instances in England of successful appropriation by the state of a business formerly competitive; railways are still only regulated. But there are so many examples of successful appropriation by the local authorities that the future absorption by them or the central authority of habitually unruly companies which have contrived in any way to abuse their monopoly may be deemed almost certain. The great demand of the scientific socialists is thus likely in England at least to break up into smaller separate demands that will obtain their answer separately by patient political action. Socialism is making progress, but not to any great extent state socialism. New Zealand itself, where it has perhaps done most and best, is not a proof to the contrary, the province of Ontario in Canada having twice the area and population. Rather is it true that the state is more decidedly regulative. The ultimate result, to judge by the old countries, may be that each nation will include a community of groups more or less socialistic in organization, but will not itself be a socialistic state. The socialistic experiment is more likely to be tried by provinces than by states, by districts than by provinces, by towns than by districts. They all get their compulsory powers, as delegated to them, from the central authority; but the central authority itself has shown little power of originative action, and it lacks the minute knowledge of the people on the spot. The one or two great industries and businesses (railways, post office, telegraphs, forests, census, coinage, in some countries) that have formed the chief public works that are everybody's business and nobody's business, will probably remain a state concern; but the limits to the state's activity except in regulation soon arrive. On the other hand, there is no visible assignable limit to municipal or local socialism, as long as the state's parliament leaves it a free course. If the localities choose to make social experiments there seems no rule of general policy to prevent them, if we put aside experiences of financial failure or of the tendency to corruption. The great fear conjured up by the vision of socialism has been the fear of a new despotism. The despotisms of some hundreds of local bodies are likely to checkmate one another, or at least always likely by their varieties of pattern to provide a means of escape for individuals unhappy under the rule of any one of them. Anarchism, when at all rational, resolves the state into its component municipalities and small groups. The question which carries us beyond anarchism is how such groups can last and be secure without a central state. They could only be so on the assumption of a change in human nature of which their is no sign. It seems not improbable that in the far future the strong central government will be so democratic and at the same time so wise with the wisdom of a great representative council that all that is sound in the contentions and aspirations of anarchists and socialists will be secured by it. Before such a future arrives, we can best prepare for it by seeing to it whether in a new country or an old that our representative system represents us at our best. Our small councils and our great councils will not of themselves become cleaner for having larger powers. If they are not clean they are a public danger. If they are clean, the coming socialism, whatever be its precise complexion, need have no terrors. It too will represent the people at their best. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the writings of Owen, Marx, &c., see under their names. For the general history see John Rae's Contemporary Socialism. For German socialism more particularly W. H. Dawson's German Socialism and Ferdinand Lassalle. See also Karl Marx and the Close of his System, by Bohm Bawerk (translated by Mrs J. M. Macdonald, 1898), Der Verein fur Socialpolitik und seine Wirk- samkeit auf dem Gebiete der gewerblichen Arbeiterfrage, by Dr E. Conrad (1906). For English recent developments, J. Ramsay Macdonald's Socialism and Society, and S. Ball's Progress of Socialism in England; also articles in The Times (London) during January 1909. For Australia and New Zealand, W. P. Reeves's State Experi- ments in Australia and New Zealand (1902). For the United States J. G. Brooks's Social Unrest (1903). For municipal socialism see Major Darwin's Municipal Trade (1903), and Dr F. C. Howe's Municipal Ownership in Great Britain (Bulletin of U.S. Bureau of Labor) ; also Municipal and Private Operation of Public Utilities (Report of National Civic Federation, New York, 1907) and Munici- pal Corporations (Reproductive Undertakings) (Return to House of Commons, 1902), 141 pages of statistics. On the nationalizing of railways see debate in House of Commons nth February 1908; also the article RAILWAYS: Economics, For Italy, Bolton King's "Recent Social Legislation in Italy," Economic Journal (1903) ; and for France, J. L. Jaurks'Histoire du socialisme, and Ch. Gide's " Economic Literature in France," Economic Journal (1907). (J. B.) SOCIAL SETTLEMENTS, associations of men and women of the educated classes who take up residence in the poorer quarters of great cities for the purpose of bringing cul- ture, knowledge, harmless recreation, and especially personal influence to bear upon the poor in order to better and brighten their lives. Practically, the watchword of such settlements is personal service. To Arnold Toynbee (q.v.) may be given the credit of leading the way in this direction, and the Hall which Canon Barnett established (in 1885) to his memory in the east end of London was the first material embodiment of the movement. Since then many settlements of the same or similar nature have sprung up in Great Britain and America, some too on the continent of Europe and some in India and Japan. The sympathies of young men at the universities have been enlisted towards the movement, and an Oxford house, a Cambridge house, and other university missions have been founded in London. There are also many in connexion with various religious bodies. The practical spirit is shown in the formation of gilds, camps and institutes. Lads and girls, and even children, are gathered together; efforts being made to organize for them not only educational and religious opportuni- ties, but harmless recreation, while the dwellers in the settlements share in the games and identify themselves most sympathetically with all the recreations. Many of the residents take also a considerable share in the work of local administration. Women's settlements probably are more general in the United States than in Great Britain; but in both countries they carry out a great variety of useful work, providing medical mission dispensaries, district nurses, workrooms for needle-women, hospitals for women and children, &c. See W. Reason, University and Social Settlements (1898); S. Coit, Neighbourhood Guilds (1892); G. Montgomery, Bibliography of College, Social, University and Church Settlements (Boston, 1900). SOCIETIES, LEARNED 309 SOCIETIES, LEARNED. Under ACADEMIES will be found a general account of the principal bodies of which that word forms part of the titles, usually denoting some kind of state support or patronage. But that account excludes a number of important scientific, archaeological, and literary societies, chiefly founded and carried on by private collective effort. Most of the insti- tutions hereinafter mentioned are still flourishing. Fine art societies are not included. In their modern form learned and literary societies have their origin in the Italian academies of the Renaissance: private scientific societies arose chiefly during the igth century, being due to the necessity of increased organization of knowledge and the desire among scholars for a common ground to meet, com- pare results, and collect facts for future generalization. These bodies rapidly tend to increase in number and to become more and more specialized, and it has been necessary to systematize and co-ordinate their scattered work. Many efforts have been made from time to time to tabulate and analyse the literature published in their proceedings, as, for instance, in the Reperlorium of Reuss (1801-1821) and the Catalogue of Scientific Papers of the Royal Society (1867-1902) for physics and natural science, with its subject indexes and the indexes of Walther (1845) and Koner (1852-1856) for German historical societies. A more recent example may be found in G. L. Gomme's Iitdex of Archaeo- logical Papers (1907). A further development of the work done by societies was made in 1822, when, chiefly owing to Humboldt, the Gesellschaft deulscher Naturforscher und Arzte first met at Leipzig. This inauguration of the system of national congresses was followed in 1831 by the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, which has served as the model for similar societies in France, America, Italy, Australia and South Africa. The merit of introducing the idea of migratory congresses into France is due to the distinguished archaeologist, M. Arcisse de Caumont (1802-1873), who established the Association Normande, which from 1845 held a reunion in one or other of the towns of the province for the discussion of matters relating to history, archae- ology, science and agriculture, with local exhibitions. From the same initiation came the Congres Archeologique.de, France (1834), which was organized by the Societe Franc,aise pour la Conserva- tion des Monuments Historiques, the Congres Scientifique, which held its first meeting at Caen in 1833 (directed by the Institut des Provinces), and the Congres des Socieles Savantes des Departe- ments, which for many years after 1850 held its annual sittings at Paris. The idea received the sanction of the French govern- ment in 1 86 1, when a Congres des Societes Savantes was first convoked at the Sorbonne by the minister of public instruction, who had in 1846 produced an Annuaire des Societes Savantes. In Italy Charles Bonaparte, prince of Canino, started an associa- tion with like objects, which held its first meeting at Pisa in 1839. Russia has had an itinerant gathering of naturalists since 1867. International meetings are a natural growth from national congresses. Two remarkable examples of these cosmopolitan societies are the Congres International d' Archtologie el d'Anthro- pologie Prehisloriques, founded at Spezzia in 1865, and the Congres International des Orientalistes (1873). I. SCIENCE GENERALLY UNITED KINGDOM. — First in antiquity and dignity among English societies comes the ROYAL SOCIETY (q.v.) of London, which dates from 1660. In 1683 William Molyneux, the author of The Case of Ireland Stated, exerted himself to form a society in Dublin after the pattern of that of London. In consequence of his efforts and labours the Dublin Philosophical Society was established in January 1684, with Sir William Petty as first president. The members subsequently acquired a botanic garden, a laboratory and a museum, and placed themselves in communication with the Royal Society of London. Their meetings after 1686 were few and irregular, and came to an end at the commencement of hostilities between James II. and William III. The society was reorganized in 1693 at Trinity College, Dublin, where meetings took place during several years. On 25th June 1731, chiefly owing to the exertions of Dr S. M. Madden, the Dublin Society for Improving Husbandry, Manufactures, and other Useful Arts came into existence. In January 1737 they commenced to publish the Dublin Society's Weekly Observations, and in 1746 the society was placed on the civil establishment, with an allowance of £500 a year from the government. A charter •of incorporation was granted in 1750, and seven years later the Royal Dublin Society for the first time owned a house of its own, and in the following year began the drawing school, which subse- quently did so much for Irish art. Between 1761 and 1767 govern- ment grants to the amount of £tXoXo7oc4s<76XXo7osIIapi'a'o. Entomol. Ges. (1881), Ztschr.; Ver. zum Beford. des Seidenbaues, Jahresber. (1869, &c.); Physiolog. Ges. (1875), Verhandl. (1877, &c.). Breslau, Physiolog. Inst., Studien (1861, &c.) ; Ver. f. Schles. Insektenkunde, Zeitschr, (1847, &c.). Brunswick, Deutsche Ornitholog. Ges. Carls'ruhe, Badischer Ver. f. Gefltigelzucht, Monatsblatt (1872, &c.). Franken- berg, Bienemvirthschaftl. Haupt-Ver., Sachs. Bienenfreund (1865, &c.). Frankfort, Zoolog. Ges., Der Zoolog. Garten (1860, &c.); Deutsche Malakozoolog. Ges. (1868), Jahrbiicher (1874-1887) and Nach- richtsblatt (1869, &c.). Halberstadt, Deutsche Ornitholog. Ges. Halle, Ornitholog. Central-Ver. Hamburg, Zoolog. Ges., Ber. (1862, &c.). Hanover, Bienenwirthschaftl. Central-Ver., Centralblalt (1865, &c.). Leipzig, Sachs. Seidenbau Ver., Zeitschr. (1868, &c.). Munich, Entomolog. Ver. (1876); Fischerei Ver., Mittheil. (1876, &c.). Nord- lingen, Ver. Deutscher Bienenwirthe, B.-Zeitung (1845, &c.). Ratisbon Zoolog.-mineralog. Ver. (seeclassi.). Stettin, Ornitholog. Ver. (1873), Jahresber. (187-5, &c.); Entomolog. Ver. (1837), Enl. Zeitung (1840, &c.). Trieste, 'Zoolog. Inst. u. Zoolog. Station (1875), Arbeiten (1878, &c.). Troppau, Schles. Bienenzucht-Ver. (1873). Vienna, Entomolog. Ver.; Embryolog. Inst., Mittheil. (1871, &c.); Ornitholog. Ver. Wtirzburg, Zoolog.-zootomisches Inst. (1872), Arbeiten (1874, &C.X SWITZERLAND: Bern, Schweiz. Entomolog. Ges. (1858), Mitteil. (1862, &c.). Geneva, Assoc. Zoolog. du Leman; Soc. Ornitholog. Suisse SOCIETIES, LEARNED (1865), Bull. (1866, &c.). Zurich, Internal. Entomologenverein (1886), Societas Entomologica (1886, &c.)- ITALY: Casale, Soc. Bacologica, Boll. (1866, &c.). Florence, Soc. Allantina /to/., La Sericoltura (1865, &c.); Soc. Enlomolog. Ital., Boll. (1869, &c.). Naples, Zoolog. Station, Mittheil. (1878). Palermo, Soc. diAcdimaz., Atti (1861, &c.). Pisa, Soc. Malacolog. Ital., Boll. (1875, &c.)- Rome, Soc. di Pisicolt. Ital. (1872). BELGIUM: Antwerp, Soc. Roy. de Zoologie (1843) with Jardin Zool. and Mus. Brussels, Soc. Roy. de Zoologie et Malacolo- gique de Beige (1863), Annales (1870, &c.); Soc. Entomolog. de Belgique (1856), Annales and Bull. (1857, &c.)- HOLLAND: Amsterdam, K. Zoolog. Genootschap "Natura Artis Magistra " (1838), Bijdragen (1848), Jaarboekje (1852, &c.) and Tijdschr. (1863, &c.), zoolog. garden and museum. The Hague, Nederl. Entomolog. Vereen., Tijdschr. (1857, &c.). Rotterdam, Nederl. Dierkundige Vereen., Tijdschr. (1874, &c.). NORWAY: Bergen, Selskabet for Norges Fiskerier. Christiania, Del Biol. Selskab. (1894), Aaresber. SWEDEN: Stockholm, Entomolog. Forening (1879), Ent. Tidskrift (1880, &c.). RUSSIA: Moscow, Acclimat. Soc. St Petersburg, Rus- sian Entomolog. Soc. (1859), Horae societalis entom. ross. ARGEN- TINE REPUBLIC: Buenos Aires, Soc. Zoolog. Argentina, Period. Zoolog. (1875, &c.); Soc. Entomolog. Argent. XI. ANTHROPOLOGY The Congres International d' Anthropologie et d' Archeologie Pre- hisloriques held its first meeting at Neuchatel in 1866; it issues Comptes rendus (1866, &c.). The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland was founded in 1871 upon the Ethno- logical Society (1843), which published a Journal (1848-1856) and Transactions (1859-1869), and the Anthropological Society (1863), which issued Memoirs (1863-1869) and the Anthropological Review (1864-1870). The Institute brings out a Journal (1871, &c.). Sydney, Roy. Anthropolog. Soc. (1896). Bombay, The Gatha Soc. (1903), occasional pamphlets. UNITED STATES: Cleveland, Amer. Inst. Antkrop. (1890), Journal. New York, Amer. Ethnolog. Soc. (1842), Trans, (1845- 1853) and Bull. (1860-1861); formerly Anthropolog. Inst., Journ. (1871). Washington, Anthropolog. Soc. (1879), Trans. (1882, &c.); Amer. Anthrop. Assoc. (1902), Amer. Anthropologist. Havana (Cuba), Soc. Antrop. FRANCE: Grenoble, Soc. dauphinoise d'Ethn. et d' Anthrop. (1894), Bull. (1894, &c.). Lyons, Soc. d' Anthrop. (1881), Bull. (1881, &c.). Paris, Soc. d' Anthropologie (1859; re- cognized 1864), Bull, and Mem. (1860, &c.); Soc. d'Ethnogr., Annuai-e (1862, &c.), and Revue (1869, &c.); Soc. des Traditions Populaires (1886) Revue (1886, &c.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA- HUNGARY: Berlin, Ges. f. Anthropologie, &c. (1869), Ztschr. (1870, &c.) and Verhandl. (1871, &C.)L Deutsche Ges. fur Anthrop., Ethn. &c. (1870), Archiv (1866, &c.). Brunswick, Deutsche Ges. f. Anthro- pologie, Architi (1870, &c.) and Corr-Blatt (1874, &c.). Budapest, Magyar Neprajzi Tdrsasdg (i 889) , Ethnographia (i 889, &c.). Cologne, Ver. zur Forderung des Stadt-Rautenstrauch-Joest Museums fiir Volkerkunde (1904), Jahresber. (1904, &c.). Gorlitz, Ges. fur Anthrop. &c. (1888), Jahreshefte. Gottingen, Anthropolog. Ver., Mittheil. (1874, &c.). Kiel, Anthrop. Ver. (1877), Mitteil. (1888, &c.). Leipzig, Ver. f. Anthropolog., Ber. (1871, &c.), afterwards joined to the Ver. der Erdk. Munich, Ges. f. Anthropolog. &c. (1870), Beitr. (1876, &c.). Stuttgart,^ nthropolog. Ges. (1871), Fundber. (1893, &c.). Vienna, Anthropolog. Ges. (1870), Mittheil. (1870, &c.). ITALY: Florence, Soc. Ital. di Antropologia (1868), Archivio (1871, &c.). BELGIUM: Brussels, Soc. d'Anthrop., Bull. (1882, &c.). SWEDEN: Stockholm, Svenska Sallskapet for Antrop. (1873), Tidskrift (1873, &c.). SPAIN: Madrid, Soc. Antropolog. Esp., Revista (1875, &c.). RUSSIA: St Petersburg, Russian Anthrop. Soc. (1888), Protokoly- zasedanij (1901, &c.). XII. SOCIOLOGY (Economic Science, Statistics, Law, Education) The international societies are the Association Internationale pour le Progres des Sciences Sociales and the Congres International de Statistique, which first met at Brussels in 1853. Both have issued Comptes rendus. The Congres International de Bienfaisance may be traced to a suggestion at the Congres Penitentiaire held at Frankfort in 1847. The first meeting took place at Brussels in 1856. The Inst. Internal, de Sociplogie (1893) has its headquarters at Paris. The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (1857) had united with it in 1864 the Society for Promoting the Amendment of the Law. It held a yearly migratory meeting, and published Transactions (1858, &c.) and Social Science (1866; &c.). The Socio- logical Soc., the Eugenics Education Soc, and the Roy. Economic Soc. are established in London. The Royal Statistical Society (1834), incorporated 1887, publishes a Journal (1839, &c.); Cobden Club (1866), for the diffusion of the political and economical principles with which Cobden's name is associated, has issued a variety of publications; Institute of Actuaries (incorp. 1884); Institute of Chartered Accountants (1880); Institute of Bankers (1879); the Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors (1885), and the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, also meet in London. There are also the Manchester Statistical Society (1833), with Transactions; the Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland and the Scottish Society of Economists (1897), both meeting at Edinburgh; and the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland (1847), with a Journal, at Dublin. After the INNS OF COURT (q.v.), the most important of British legal societies is the Law Society (1827, incorporated 1832, reincorp. 1845); it began courses of lectures for students in 1833, and was appointed registrar of solicitors ten years later, and ob- tained supplementary charters in 1845 and 1878. This society has a fine building, with library and examination hall in Chancery Lane, London. There are over 70 provincial societies, most of them being associated with the parent body. The Verulam Society (1846) published a few books and came to an end. The Selden Society, established in 1887 for the promotion of the study of the history of law, prints ancient records. The headquarters of the Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations are in London, but conferences are held in various continental towns. The Chartered Institute of Patent Agents (founded 1882, incorporated 1891) issues Transactions. The Juridical Society of Edinburgh (1773) published five editions of a Complete System of Conveyancing. The Ascham Society was founded in 1879 for the improvement of educational methods; and the Society for the Development of the Science of Educa- tion (1875) issued Transactions. UNITED STATES: Baltimore, Amer. Pol. Sc. Assoc. (1903), Proc. Boston, Amer. Soc. Sc. Assoc.; Amer. Statist. Assoc. (1839), Collec- tions (1847, &c.). Cambridge, Amer. Econ. Assoc. (1886). New York, Am. Inst. of Social Service, Social Service (i899,&c.) ; Actuarial Soc. of Amer. (1899) ; Philadelphia, A mer. A cad. Pol. and Social Sc. (1899), An- nals ; A merican Bar A ssoc. , Reports ; A ssn. of A mer. Law Schools ( I go I ) . Washington, Amer. Soc. of Int. Law (1906), Journal; Nat. Educ. Assoc. (1857), Proc. FRANCE: Grenoble, Soc. de Statist. (1838), Bull. (1838, &c.). Marseilles, Soc. de Statist. (1827), Repertoire (1837, &cj; Soc. Sc. industr: (1871), Bull. (1872, &c.). Paris, Soc. Int. des Etudes Pratiques d'Econ. (1856, recognized 1869); Soc. Fran, de Statist. Univ. (1829), Journal issued jointly with Acad. Nat. since 1849; Soc. de Statist, de Paris (1860, recognized 1869), Journ. (1860, &c.); Soc. de Legislation Comparee (1869, recognized 1873), Bull., Annuaire de Leg. Franc.., and Ann. de Leg. Elran.; Soc. pour Vlnstr. Element (1815, recognized 1831), Bull.; Soc. de Linguistique (1864), Mem. (1868, &c.); Soc. de I ' Enseignement Superieure (1878), Rev. (1881, &c.); Soc. d'Econ. Sociale (1856), Les Ouvriers des deux mondes (1857, &c.), La Reforme sociale (1881, &c.); Soc. d'Econ. Pol. (1842), Annales (1846-1847), Bull. (1888, &c.) ; Soc. del'Ecoledes Charles (1839), Mem. St Maixent, Soc. de Statist, des Deux-Sevres. Toulouse, Acad. de Legis. (1851), Rec. (1851, &c.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Debreczen, Magyar Kir Gazdasdgi Akad. (1868). Berlin, Volkswirths. Ges. (1860), Volkswirths. Zeitfragen (1879, &c.); Ver.f. deutsche Volkswirths. (1876), Ztschr. (1880, &c.); Ver.f. Forderung d. Handelsfreiheit (1878), Mittheil. (1879, &c.) ; Ver. f. d. Statist.; Jurist. Ges. (1859), Jahresber. (1863, &c.). Dresden, Statistischer Ver. (1831), Mittheil. Frankfort, Statistische Ges.; Juristische Ges. (1866), Rundschau (1867, &c.); Akad. fiir Sozial- u. Handels'diissenschaflen (1901). Freiburg, Badische Heimat (1893), Volkeskunde. Halle, Kantgesellschaft (1904), Kantstudien. Lai- bach, Jurist. Ges. Leipzig, Ver. f. wiss. Padagogik, Jahrbuch and Mittheil. ITALY : Tortona, Soc. di Storia Economia, Boll. BELGIUM : Brussels, Ligue de V Enseignement (1864), Bull.; Soc. Centr. des Instituteurs Beiges (1860), Le Progres; Inst. Solvay de Sociologie (1901). HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Ver. voor de Statist, in Nederland, Jaarboekje (1849, &c.) and Jaarcijfers (1882, &c.). SPAIN: Madrid, Junta Estadist; R. Acad. de Jurisprudencia y Legis. (1763, 1826); R. Acad. de Ciencias Mor. y Pol. (1857). RUSSIA: Moscow, Juri- dical Soc. St Petersburg, Pedagogical Soc. EGYPT: Cairo, Bureau Central de Statist. HAVANA (Cuba), Soc. Econ. de Amigos del Pais (1792), Memorias. JAPAN: Tokio, Statist. Soc. XIII. MEDICINE AND SURGERY The first meeting of the Congres Medical International was held at Paris in 1867; a Bulletin has been issued annually since 1868, and the first Surgical Congress was held in Paris in 1885. The first Congres Periodique Internal. d'Ophthalmologie took place at Brussels in 1857. The Royal Colleges of Physicians and of Surgeons of London, Edinburgh and Dublin dp not come within our scope. The Medical Society of London (1773) is the oldest in the metropolis; it has issued Memoirs (1787-1805), Transactions (i8ip, &c.), and Proceedings (1872, &c.). The Royal Society of Medicine was formed, by Royal charter, in 1907 by the amalgamation of the following societies: Roy. Med. and Chir. Soc. (1805), Pathological Soc. (1846), Epi- demiological Soc. (1850), Odontol. Soc. of Gt. Britain (1856), Obstetrical Soc. (1858), Clinical Soc. (1867), Dermatolvgical Soc. of London (1882), British Gynaecological Soc. (1884), Neurolog. Soc. (1886), British Laryngol. Rhinol. and Otological Assoc. (1888), Laryngol. Soc. (1893), Soc. of Anaesthetists (1893), Dermatol. Soc. of Gt. Brit, and Ireland (1894), Otological Soc. (1899), Soc. for Study of Diseases in Children (1900), British Electro-therapeutic Soc. (1901) and the Therapeutical Soc. (1902). Most of these societies have separate Transactions or Proceedings. Other London societies (past and present) include the Abernethian Society (1795), which issues Proceedings; British Dental Association (1880), with a Journal (1880, &c.) ; British Homoeopathic Association (1859), with Annals (1860, &c.) ; British Medical Association (1832), which has more than forty home and colonial branches, and publishes British Medical Journal (1857, &c.); Hahne- mann Publishing Society (1852), Materia Medica (1852, &c.) ; Harveian Society (1831); Hunterian Society (1819), Trans.; Lister Institute (incorp. 1891); Medico-Legal Soc. of London, Trans.; 316 SOCIETIES, LEARNED Medito-Psycholog. Assn. of Gt. Britain and Ireland (1841, incorp. 1895); New Sydenham Society (1858), which published Biennial Retrospect (1867, &c.), and translations and reprints of books and papers of value, succeeded the old Sydenham Society (1844-1858), which issued 40 vols. ; Ophthalmological Society (1880), Trans.; Pharmaceutical Society (1841), with museum, Pharmaceutical Journal (1842, &c.); Physiological Association (1876), Journ. of Physiology (1878, &c.); Rontgen Soc., Journal; Royal Institute of Public Health (1886, incorp. 1892), Journ. Royal Sanitary Institute (1876, incorp. 1888), the council of which appoints examiners, directs Parkes Museum, founded in 1876 in memory of Dr E. A. Parkes; Society of Medical Officers of Health (1856), Trans, and Public Health; Soc. of Public Analysts, Analyst. The provincial societies are very numerous and include: Bradford, Med. Chir. Soc. (1863); Bristol, Med. Chir. Soc.; Cardiff, Med. Soc. (1870); Liverpool, Sch. of Tropical Med. (1898, incorp. 1905), Memoirs; Manchester, Med. Soc. (1848); Newcastle-upon-Tyne, North, and Durham Med. Soc. (1848). Dublin, Roy. Acad. of Med. in Ireland (1882), Trans. (1883, &c.) ; Pharmac. Soc. of Ireland (1875). Edinburgh, Roy. Med. Soc. (1737; charter 1778); Harveian Soc. (1752); Medico- Chirurg. Soc. (1821), Trans. (1824, &c.); and Obstetrical Soc. (1840). Aberdeen, Med. Chir. Soc. (1789). Glasgow, Medico-Chirurg. Soc. (1866), based upon Med. Soc. and Med.-Chirurg. Soc. (both 1814), joined by Path. Soc. in 1907. AUSTRALIA: Melbourne, Med. Soc. of Victoria, Austr. Med. Journ. (1856, &c.). CANADA: Montreal, Union Med. du Canada, Revue (1872, &c.); Canada Med. Assoc., Trans. (1877, &c.). INDIA: Bom- bay, Med. and Physical Soc., Trans. (1838, &c.). Calcutta, Med. Soc., Trans. (1883, &c.). UNITED STATES: Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., Reports (1873, &c.); Amer. Dental Assoc., Trans. (1860, &c.) ; and Amer. Inst. of Homoeop., Trans. (1878, &c.). The headquarters of the American Medical Association (1847) are at Chicago; it publishes a Journal. The American Surgical Association (1880) unites at Washington every third year with the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons. The State medical associations include those of Alabama, Trans. (1869, &c.) ; Georgia, Trans. (1873, &c.); Maine, Trans. (1853, &c.); Missouri, Trans. (1851, &c.); and South Carolina, Trans. The State medical societies include those of Arkansas, Trans. (1877, &c.) ; California, Trans. (1870, &c.); Illinois, Trans. (1851, &c.); Kansas, Trans. (1867, &c.); Michigan, Trans. (1869, &c.); Minnesota, Trans. (1874, &c.); Nebraska, Trans. (1869, &c.); New Jersey, Trans. (1859, &c.); Pennsylvania, Trans. (1851, &c.); Rhode Island, Trans. (1877, &c.) ; Texas, Trans. (1874) ; and Wisconsin, Trans. (1880, &c.). To these have to be added the following town associations. Albany, Med. Soc., Journal (1807, &c.). Baltimore, Med. and Chirurg. Faculty of Maryland, Trans. (1856, &c.). Boston, Amer. Gynaecolog. Soc., Trans. (1876, &c.); Mass. Medico-Legal Soc., Trans. (1878, &c.). Denver, Acad. of Med. (1903). New York, Acad. of Med., Trans. (1847, &c.) and Bull. (1860, &c.); Med. Soc., Trans. (1815, &c.); Medico-Chirurg. Soc., Trans. (1878, &c.) ; Amer. Surg. Assoc., Trans. (1883, &c.); Medico-Legal Soc., Sanitarian (1873, &c.); Amer. Ophthalmolog. Soc., Trans. (1865, &c.); Path. Soc. (1844), Trans. (1875-1879), Proc. (1888, &c.). Philadelphia, Med. Soc., Trans. (1850, &c.); Obstet. Soc., Trans. (1869, &c.); Amer. Pharm. Assoc., Proc.; Patholog. Soc. (1857), Trans. (1897, &c.); Coll. of Physicians (1787); Amer. Soc. of Tropical Med. (1903). Richmond, Med. Soc., Trans. (1871, &c.). FRANCE: Besancon, Soc. de Med. (1845), Bull. (1845, &c.). Bordeaux, Soc. de Med. (1798), Journ. (1829, &c.); Soc. de Pharm. (1834), Bull. (1860, &c.); Soc. de Med. et de Chirurg.; Soc. a' Anal, et de Physiol. (1879), Bull. (1880). Caen, Soc. de Med. (1799; known by its present name since 1875), Journal (1829), Mem. (1869). Chambery, Soc. de Med. (1848), Comptes rend. (1848, &c.) and Butt. (1859, &c.). Grenoble, Soc. de Med. Havre, Soc. de Pharm. (1858), Mem. Lille, Soc. de Med. (1843), Bull. (1845, &c.). Lyons, Soc. Nat. de Med. (1789), Le Lyon med. (1869, &c.). Marseilles, Soc. de Med. (1800), Comptes rend. (1826-1853) and Le Mars. med. (1869, &c.) ; Soc. Med.-Chirurg. (1872). Paris, Soc. de Med. Pratique (1808), Bull. ; Acad. Nat. de Med. (1820); Soc. Nat. de Chirurg. (1843, reorganized 1859), Mem. (1847, &c.) and Bull. (1851, &c.); Soc. Anal. (1803), Bull. (1826, &c.); Soc. Clinique, Bull. (1877, &c.); Soc. Med. des Hopitaux, Bull. (1849, &c.); Soc. Med. Legate; Soc. de Pharm. (1803), Journ. (1815, &c.); Soc. de Therapeutique; Soc. Fran, de Hygiene; Soc. Centr. de Med. Veterinaire (1844), Bull.; Assoc. Int. de Tlnst. Marey (1898) (for examining physiological methods and apparatus), Bull., Travaux. Rouen, Soc. de Med. (1821), Union Med. (1861, &c.); Soc. Libre des Pharmaciens (1802), Bull. Toulouse, Soc. de Med. (1801), Bull, and Revue (1867, &c.). Tours,. Soc. Med. (1801). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Deutscher Arztevereins- bund (1872), Verhandl.; Central Ver. a. Zahnarzte (1859), Miltheil.; D. Veterinarrath (1874) ; D. Apotheker- Ver. (1820), Archiv (1822, &c.). Berlin, Ver. f. Heilkunde (1832), Magazin (1835, &c.); Ges. f. Geburtshiilfe u. Gynaekologie (1876), Ztschr. (1877, &c.); Ges. f. Heilkunde (1855); Berl. Med. Ges. (1860), Verhandl. (1865, &c.); Physiolog. Ges. (1875), Verhandl. (1877, &c.); D.'Ver. f. Med. Statistik (1868); Ver. Homoop. Arzte (1871), Ztschr. (1882, &c.).; D. Ges. f. Chirurgie (1872), Verhandl. Bonn, Verband der Arztl, Vereine (1865). Breslau. Ver. f. Physiolog. Heilkunde (1848), Ztschr. (1850, &c.); Verband d. Schles. Arzte-Ver. (1878). Cologne, Rhein. Med.-Chirurg. Ver. (1848), Organ (1852, &c.). Darmstadt, Arztl. Kreisver. (1844). Dresden, Ges.f. Natur- u. Heil-Kunde (1818), Jahresber. (1848, &c.). Erlangen, Physik.-Med. Soc. (1808), Sitzungs- ber. (1870, &c.). Frankfort, Arztl. Ver. (1845), Jahresber. (1857, &c.). Hamburg, Arztl. Ver. (1816); Deutsche Ges. fur Gesch. der Medizin (1901), Mitteil. Hanover, Ver. Analyt. Chemiker (1878). Heidelberg, Ophthal. Ges. (1857). Jena. Med.-naturunssenschaftliche Ges. (1854), Zeitschr. (1874, &c.). Konigsberg, Ver. f. wiss. Heilkunde (1851). Leipzig, Med. Ges. (1829); Ges. f. Geburtshiilfe (1854), Mittheil.; Homoop. Central-Ver. (1829); Magdeburg, D. Chirurgen-Ver. (1844), Ztschr. (1847, &c.). Munich, Arztl. Ver. (1833), Int.- Blatt (1854, &c.). Strasburg, Soc. de Med. (1842), Mem. (1850, &c.); Soc. Veterin. (1864); Medizinisch.-Naturwissenschaftlicher Ver. (1873). Stuttgart, Wiirttemb. Arztl. Ver. (1831), Corr.-Blatt (1832, &c.); Hahnemannia (1868), .Mittheil. (1873, &c.); Apotheker -Ver. (1822), Pharm. Wochenblatt (1861, &c.). Vienna, K. k. Ges. der Arzter Ztschr. (1844, &c.); Ges. fur innere Medizin u. Kinderheilkunde, Med. Wochenschrift. Weimar, Med.-naturwiss. Ver. (1863). Wiirz- burg, Physikal.-med. Ges. (1849), Verhandl. (1850, &c.). SWITZER- LAND: Geneva, Soc. Med. Zurich, Soc. de Med.; Schweiz. Apotheker- Ver. ITALY: Bologna, Soc. Med.-chirurg. Genoa, Accad. Med.- chirurg. Milan, Soc. Ital. d' Igiena. Modena, Soc. Med.-chirurg. Naples, Real Accad. Med.-chirurg. Palermo, R. Accad. delle Sc. Med. (1649), Atti (1889, &c.). Rome, R. Istit. Fisico-patologico. Turin, Accad. Real Med.-chirurg. BELGIUM : Antwerp, Soc. de Med. (1839), Annales. Brussels, Acad. Roy. de Med. (1841), Bull. (1841, &c.) and Mem. (1843, &c.); Soc. Roy de Pharm. (1845), Bull.; Soc. d'Anat. Patholog. (1846), Annales; Soc. Beige de Med. Homoeop.; Soc. Roy. des Sc. Med. et Nat. (1822), Journal (1842, &c.), Annales (1892, &c.), Bulletin (1843, £c.) ; Inst. Solvay de Physiol. (1894), with electro- physiological, chemical, embryological and other laboratories, and lecture hall. Ghent, Soc. de Med. (1834), Annales. Li6ge, Soc. Med.- chirurg. HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Genootschap ter Bevordering der^ Genees- en Heel-Kunde, Verhandel. (1841, &c.); Nederl. Maatschappij ter Bevord. der Pharmacie. Batavia (Java), Geneeskundige Vereem- ging. DENMARK: Copenhagen, K. Med. Selskab; Veterinaer Selskab. NORWAY : Christiania, Med. Selskab, Magazin (1840, &c.)- SWEDEN: Stockholm, Farmaceutiska Inst.; Svenska Lakaresallskapet (1808), Handl. (1813, &c.). Upsala, Lakareforenig, Forhandl. (1865, &c.). SPAIN: Madrid, R. Acad. Med. (1732). PORTUGAL: Lisbon, Soc. de Sc. Med. (1835), Jornal (1835, &c.); Soc. Pharm. Lusitana. RUSSIA: Dorpat, Pharm. Soc. Helsingfors, Finska Lakaresallskapet (1835), Handl. (1841). Moscow, Phys.-med. Soc. Riga, Soc. of Practical Physicians. St Petersburg, Soc. of Practical Physicians; Imp. Pharm. Soc. Vilna, Imp. Med. Soc. (1805), Protokoly. Warsaw, Med.- Chirurg. Soc. Tomsk (Siberia), Soc. of Naturalists and Physicians (1889), Protocol. RUMANIA : Jassy, Soc. of Naturalists and Physicians (1830), Buletinul. GREECE : Athens, Soc. Med. TURKEY : Constanti- nople, Soc. Imp. de Med.; Soc. de Pharm. CENTRAL and SOUTH AMERICA: Buenos Aires, Asoc. Med. Caracas, Escuela Med. Guada- lajara (Mexico), Soc. Med. Merida (Mexico), Soc. Med. Mexico, Acad. de Med. ; Soc. Med. Monte Video, Soc. de Med. Rio de Janeiro, Institute Oswaldo Cruz, formerly Institute de Manguinhos (for the pro- motion of experimental pathology) ; Soc. Med. e Cirurgia. Santiago, Soc. Med. JAPAN: Tokyo, Soc. for Adv. of Med. Sc., Trans. (1885, &c.). XIV. ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE The principal English society dealing with mechanical science is the Institution of Civil Engineers (established in 1818, incorporated in 1828), which publishes Transactions (410, 1836-1842) and Minutes of Proceedings (8vo, 1837, &c.). George Stephenson was the first president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which was founded at Birmingham in 1847, removed to London in 1877, and registered under the Companies Act in 1878. It holds migratory meetings and publishes Proceedings. The Society of Engineers (1854), with Transactions (1861, &c.) ; the Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society (1859) ; the Iron and Steel Institute (1869, incorp. 1899), with Journal and Mem.; the Surveyors' Institution (1868, incorporated in 1881), which publishes Transactions and holds professional examina- tions; the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain (1866), the Institu- tion of Electrical Engineers (1871, incorp. 1883), Journal; the Institution of Mining Engineers has associated with it many branch institutions in the provinces, Journal; the Institute of Gas Engineers (1863); the Illuminating Engineers' Soc. (1909); the Institute of Metals; and the Instn. of Mining and Metallurgy, meet in London. There are institutions in the provinces at Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff (1857, incorp. in 1881), Chesterfield (1871), Dublin (1835, incorp. in 1857), Glasgow (1857, with Transactions), Liverpool (1875), Middlesbrough (1864), Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1852, incorp. in 1876, with Transactions), Nottingham (1871), Dudley (1866), and Belfast (1892). The leading architectural society is the Royal Institute of British Architects, founded in 1834, incorporated in 1837, and granted new charters in 1887 and 1908. It appoints examining professional boards and publishes Transactions (1836; 1879, &c.) and Proceedings (1879, &c.). There are also the associations of Birmingham (1873), Edinburgh (1850), Exeter (1843), Glasgow (1868), Leeds (1876), Leicestershire (1855), Liverpool (1848), Manchester (1875), Newcastle- upon-Tyne, and the societies of Manchester (1865) and Oxford (1837). SOCIETIES, LEARNED The Architectural Association of London publishes a Sketch Book (1870, &c.). The Architectural Publishing Society (1848) has published Essays (1848-1852), and since 1852 has been bringing out a Dictionary of Architecture. There is also a Society of Architects (1884, incorp. 1893). The Roy. Inst. of Architects of Ireland meets in Dublin and publishes a Journal. UNITED STATES: New York, Insl. of Mining, Engineers. Amer. Soc. of Civ. Eng. Trans.; Amer. Soc. of Mec.h. Eng., Trans.; Amer. Inst. of Min. Eng.; Amer. Inst. of Architects (1857); Washington, Society of Naval Eng. FRANCE: Lyons, Soc. Acad. d'Arch. (1830), Annales (1867, &c.). Paris, Soc. des Ingenieurs Civils, Annuaire (1848, &c.) ; Soc. Cent, des Architectes, Bull. (1851, &c.) and Annales (1875, &c.) ; it has held a congress since 1875. Saint- Etienne, Soc. de I'Jndustrie Min. (1855), Bull. GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Berlin, Ver. Deutscher Ingenieure, Ztschr. (1857) and Wochenschrift (1877, &c.); Ver.f. Eisenbahnkunde; Akad. des Bauwesens; Architekten-Ver., Ztschr. Breslau, Ver. f. Ges. der Bild. K-iinste (1862). Constance, Miinsterbau Ver. (1881). Dresden, Sachs. Ingen.-u. Architekten-Ver., Protok. Hanover, Arch.-u. Ingen. Ver., Ztschr. Klagenfurt, Berg-und Hutlen-Mdnnischer Ver. Leoben, K. k. Berg-Akad. Munich, Bayr. Arch.- u. Ingen.-Ver., Ztschr. Prague, Arch.- und Ingen.-Ver. Vienna, Osterr. Ingen.- u. Arch. Ver., Ztschr.; Ges. f. Bild. Kiinste. SWITZERLAND: Lausanne, Soc. Vaudoise des Ingen. et des Arch. Zurich, Ver. Schweiz. Ingen. u. Arch. ITALY: Turin, Soc. degli Ingeneri, Atti (1868-1870). BELGIUM: Brussels, Assoc. des Ingen. Li6ge, Assoc. des Ingen. (1847), Annuaire (1851, &c.)- HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Maatschappij ter Bevordering der Bouwkunst, Bouwkundige Bijdragen (1843, &c.). The Hague, Kon. Inst. van Ingen., Verslag (1848, &c.), Verhandel. (1848, &c.) and Tijdschr. (1870, &c.). SPAIN and PORTUGAL : Lisbon, Assoc. dos Engenheiros Civ. Port.; Soc. dos Architectos e Archeologos. Madrid, Soc. Central de Arquitectos. XV. NAVAL AND MILITARY SCIENCE The Royal United Service Institution, first known as the Naval and Military Library and Museum (1831), took the name of the United Service Institution in 1839, and was incorporated in 1860; its professional museum is housed in the banqueting hall at Whitehall ; it publishes a Journal (1857, &c.). The Institution of Naval Architects (1860) publishes Transactions (4to, 1860, &c.). The Royal Artillery Institution (1838), which issues Minutes of Pro- ceedings (i 858, &c.) , is at Woolwich, and the Royal Engineers' Institute (1875) , which issues Royal Engineers' Professional Papers, at Chatham. The Navy Records Soc. (1893) publishes works connected with the history of the British Navy. CANADA: Toronto, Military Inst. INDIA : Simla, United Service Institution. UNITED STATES: New York, Military Service Inst. (1877), Journal (1879, &c.); Soc. of Naval Architects and Marine Eng., Proc. Anna- polis, U.S. Naval Institute (1873), Proc. FRANCE: Paris, Reunion des Officers, now Cercle Militaire, Bull. (1871, &c.)- GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Munich, Militar. Ges. (1868), Jahrbuch. (1871, &c.). Vienna, K. k. Milit.-Geogr. Inst., Arbeiten (1871, &c.). HOLLAND: Utrecht, Vereen. tot Verspreiding van Kennis aangaande s'Lands Verdediging, Jaarsverslag (1872, &c.) and Werken. NORWAY : Christiania, Militaere Samfund, Nordsk Milit. Tidsskrift (1848, &c.). DENMARK: Copenhagen, Krigsvidenskabelige Selskab, Milit. Tids- skrift (1872, &c.). XVI. AGRICULTURE AND TRADES The Royal Agricultural Society of England began as the English Agricultural Society in 1838 and was incorporated in 1840. It holds annually one migratory meeting in some part of England or Wales and meetings in London, where are its headquarters; it publishes a Journal (1840, &c.). Among provincial agricultural societies and associations may be mentioned — Aberdeen, Roy. Northern Agr. Soc. (1843). Arbroath, Angus Agr. Assoc. Banbury (1834). Basing- stoke, Roy. Counties Agr. Soc. (1859). Bath, Bath and West of Engl. Soc. and Southern Counties Assoc. (founded in 1777, enlarged in 1852, and reorganized in 1866), Letters and Papers (1780-1816) and Journal (1852, &c.). Belfast, Chemico-Agr. Soc. of Ulster (1845), Proc.; N.E. Agr. Assoc. of Ireland. Birkenhead, Wirral and Birkenhead Agr. Soc. (1842). Brecknock (1855). Carluke (1833). Chelmsford, Essex Agr. Soc. (1858). Chertsey (1833). Doncaster (1872). Dublin, Roy. Agr. Soc. of Ireland (1841). Edinburgh, Highland and Agr. Soc. of Scotland (1784, incorporated in 1787), Trans. (1799. &c.). Halifax (1839, enlarged in 1858). Ipswich, Suffolk Agr. Assoc. (1831). Otley, Wharfedale Agr. Soc. Paisley, Renfrewshire Agr. Soc. (1802). 'Warwick. Worcester (1838). AFRICA: Cape Town, Agr. Soc. AUSTRALIA: Sydney, Agr. Soc. of N. S. Wales. BRITISH GUIANA: Georgetown, Roy. Agr. and Commercial Soc. CANADA: Montreal, Soc. d'Agr. INDIA: Calcutta, Agr. and Hortic. Soc., Journ. (1842, &c.). UNITED STATES: There were agricultural societies formed at Philadelphia and in South Carolina in 1785. The New York Soc. for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures (1791), the Massachusetts Soc. for Prom. Agriculture (1792), and Columbian Agr. Soc. (1809), issued publications. Albany, State Agr. Soc. (1832), The Cultivator and Journal. Atlanta, State Agr. Soc. Boston, Inst. of Technology. Hoboken, Stevens Inst. of Technol. Madison, State Agr. Soc., Trans. (1852, &c.). Sacramento, Soc. of Agr. and Ilortic. San Francisco, Agr. and Hort. Soc. Troy, Rensselaer Polytechnic InsL (1824). Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1865), Journ. (1897, &c.). FRANCE: Algiers, Soc. d'Agr. (1840), Bull. Agen, Soc. d'Agr. (1776), Rec. (1800, &c.). Amiens, Soc. Industrielle (1861), Butt, Angers, Soc. d'Agr. (1799), formerly Acad. d'Angers, Proc.-verb. (1846-1854), Mem. (1831, &c.), Documents (1896, &c.). Bordeaux, Soc. d'Agr. Boulogne, Soc. d'Agr. Caen, Assoc. Normande pour I' Agr., I' Industrie, &c. (1831), Annuaire (1835, &c.); Soc. d'Agr. et de Commerce (1762), Mem. (1853-1858) and Bull. (1827, &c.). Chalons-sur-Marne, Soc. d'Agr., &c. (1750), Comptes rendus (1807- 1855), Mem. (1855, &c.). Uouai, Soc. d'Agr., &c. (1799), Souv. (1861-1885), Mem. (1826, &c.). Elbeuf, Soc. Industr. (1858), Bull. Grenoble, Soc. d'Agr. et d'Hortic. (1835), Sud-Est (1855, &c.). Le Mans, Soc. du Materiel Agr. (1857), Bull. Lyons, Soc. des Sc. Industr. (1862), Annales. Montpellier, Soc. d'Agr. (1799), Bull. (1808, &c ). Nancy, Soc. Centr. d'Agr. Paris, Soc. Nat. d'Agr. de France (1761; reconstructed in 1878 with a view of advising Government on agri- cultural matters), Mem. and Bull. Perpignan, Soc. Agr. Scientifique et Litt. (1833), Bull. (1834, &c.). Reims, Soc. Industr. (1833). Bull. (1858, &c.). Rouen, Soc. Industr. (1872), Bull. ; Soc. Libre a' Emula- tion, Commerce et Industrie (1790), Bull. (1797). Saint-Jean- d'Angely, Soc. d'Agr. (1819), Bull. (1833, &c.). St Quentin, Soc. Industr. (i&6&), Bull. Toulouse, Soc. d'A gr. Vesoul, Soc. d' Encourage- ment d'Agr. (1883), Bull. GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: The migratory Congress Deutscher Volkswirthe first met at Gotha in 1858. Agram, Kroatisch-Slav. Landwirths. Ges., Blatter. Augsburg, Land- wirths. Ver., Landw. Blatter. Berlin, Vereinigt. Berliner Kaufleute u. Industr.; Bonn, Landwirthsch. Central-Ver. Bremen, Landwirths „ Ver. Breslau, Landwirths. Central- Ver. ; Schles. Central Gewerbe- Ver. Budapest, Ungar. Ackerbau Ges. Mittheil.; Industrielle Ges. Cassel, Landwirths. Central-Ver., Mittheil. Cracow, Ackerbau Ges , Annalen. Danzig, Volkswirths. Ges. (1850). Darmstadt, Landwirths. Ver., Ztschr. Dresden, K. Okonomie Ges.; K. Sachs. Polytechnicum. Fiirth, Gewerbe- Ver* Gratz, K. k. Steiermarkische Landwirths. Ges. Greifswald, Baltischer Central-Ver. Halle, Landwirths. Central-Ver. Hanover, Gewerbe-Ver. Innsbruck, K. k. Landwirths. Ges., Wochen- schr.; Kdrnt. Industrie- u. Gewerbe-Ver. Jena, Landwirths. Inst. Kassa, Magyar Kir. Gazdasagi Akad. or Academy for Agriculture. Klausenburg, Magyar Kir. Gazdasagi Akad. (1869). Konigsberg, Ostpreuss. Landwirths. Central-Ver. Leipzig, Landwirths. Kreis-Ver. ;, Polytechn. Ges. Linz, K. k. Landwirths. Ges. Liibeck, Landwirths. Ver., Mittheil. Miihlhausen, Soc. Industr., Bull. Munich, Land- wirths. Kreis-Ver.; Polytechn. Ver. Nuremberg, Polytechn. Ver. Prague, Bohmischer Gewerbe-Ver.; Industrie Ges., Mittheil. and Annalen. Ratisbon, Landwirths. Kreis-Ver., Bauernfreund. Stutt- gart, X. Wurttemb. Central- Stelle, Wochenblatt. Trieste, A ckerbau Ges. Tubingen, Landwirths. Ver. Vienna, K. k. Reichs Landwirths. Ges., Ztschr. Wiesbaden, Gewerbe-Ver. SWITZERLAND: Bern, Okonom. Ges. Lausanne, Soc. d'Agr. de la Suisse Romande. Zurich, Ver. f. Landwirths. u. Gartenbau. ITALY: Bologna, Soc. Agraria, Annali. Cagliari, Soc. Agr. ed Econom. Florence, Soc. Econom. ed Agr., Rendiconti. Milan, Soc. Agr. diLombardia; Soc. Gen. degli Agricolt. Ital.; Soc. d'Incoragg. di Arti e Mestieri, Discorsi. Perugia, Soc. Econom. ed Agr., AM. Turin, Accad. Reale di Agricolt.; Assoc. Agr. Ital., Esercitazioni. Verona, Accad. d' Agricolt. BELGIUM : Soc. Centr. d'Agricult. (1854), Bull. Ghent, Soc. Roy. d'Agr. et de Bot. Liege^ Soc. d'Agr., Journ. (1850, &c.). Verviers, Soc. Industr. et Commerc. (1863), Bull. HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Aardrijskundig Genootschap;. Vereeniging voor Volksvlijt. DENMARK: Copenhagen, K. Landhuus- holdnings Selskab; Del Statist. Tabelvaerk. NORWAY: Christiania, Polytekniske Forening. SWEDEN: K. Landtbruks Akademien. SPAIN and PORTUGAL: Barcelona, Soc. Econom., Actas. Lisbon, Inst. Real de Agric.; Soc. Promotora de Industr. Madrid, Soc. Econom. Matritense, Anales. Oporto, Acad. Polytechn. RUSSIA: Dorpat, K. Livlandische Okonom. Ges., Jahrbuch. Kazan, Imp. Econom. Soc. Moscow, Imp. Soc. of Agriculturists. Odessa, Imp. Agronom. Soc. of S. Russia. Riga, Technical Soc. St Petersburg, Imp. Econom. Soc., Trans.; Technical Soc. RUMANIA: Bucharest, Soc. Politechnicd (1881), Buletinul. SOUTH AMERICA: Rio de Janeiro, Soc. de Agr. XVII. LITERATURE, HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY The Congres International des Orientalistes first met at Paris in 1873. The Congres Bibliographique International held its first meeting in 1878, and the Congres des Americanistes its first meeting_ in 1875. The first Internal. Conference of Librarians took place in London in 1877. Congresses of Archivists, Librarians and Bibliographers were held at Brussels in 1910. The Royal Society of Literature (1823, in- corporated in 1825) with Transactions (410, 1829-1839; 8vo, 1843, &c.), and the Royal Asiatic Society (1823), with Journal (1834, &c.), have their headquarters in London, as well as the follow- ing literary societies, all of which issue publications: Aris- totelian (1879), Ballad (1868), Chaucer (1868), Dante (1881), Early English Text (1864), East India Association (1866), Hellenic Studies (1879), Incorp. Soc. of Authors (1884), Institute of Journalists, Irish Lit., Japan (1892), Library Association (1877), 'Library Assistants (1895), Malone (1906), Oriental Translation Fund (1828), Pali Text (1882), Philological (1842), Roxburghe Club (1812), Shorthand, Viking Club (1892), Wyclif (1882). The Lancashire and Cheshire Historic Society (1848), at Liverpool, the Manchester Literary Club, with 3*8 SOCIETIES, LEARNED Transactions and Papers (1874, &c.), and the Manx Society (1858), at Douglas, may also be mentioned. In Glasgow are the Ballad Club (1876), and the Scottish Soc. of Lit. and Art (1886), and in Dublin the Nat. Lit. Soc. of Ireland (1892). The oldest and most important society in England dealing with history and archaeology is the Society of A ntiquaries of London, which enthusiasts trace to an association founded by Archbishop Parker in 1572. The meetings were not publicly recommenced until 1707 ; the present body was incorporated in 1751 ; it publishes Vetera Monu- menta (fol., 1747, &c.), Archaeologia (4to, 1770, &c.), and Proceedings (8vo, 1849, &c.). The Royal Archaeological Institute (1843), issuing the Archaeological Journal (1845; &c.) ; the British Archaeological Association (1843), with Journal (1846. &c.) ; the Royal Numismatic Society (1836), issuing the Numismatic Chronicle (1838, &c.) ; and the Royal Historical Society (1868), publishing Transactions, and the works of the Camden Society (1838), belong to London, as well as the follow- ing societies, all of which issue publications: Bibliographical (1892), British School at Athens, British School at Rome, British Record (1888, incorp. 1893, incl. Index Soc. 1878). Canterbury and York Catholic Record (1904), Egypt Expl. Fund (1883), Genealog. and Biogr., Cymmrodorion (1751-1773, revived in 1820), Dilettanti (1734), Folk Lore (1879), Harleian (1869), Huguenot (1885), London and Middle- sex Archaeol. (1855), London Topogr. Soc., Middlesex County Records (1884), Palaeo graphical, Palestine Expl. Fund, Parish Registers, Pipe Roll (1883), Soc. Bibl. Archaeol. (1870), Soc. for Prot. Anc. Buildings (1877). Outside London are the Roy. Soc. of Antiquaries of Ireland founded in 1849 as the Kilkenny Arch. Soc., changed to Roy. Hist, and Arch. Assn. in 1869 and to present title in 1890; the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (1780), at Edinburgh, and the Irish Archaeo- logical and Celtic Society, at Dublin. Among others are — Aberdeen, New Spalding Club (1886); Bedfordshire Archaeological and Archi- tect. Soc. (1844); Bristol, Bristol and Gloucester Arch. Soc. (1876); Cambrian Arch. Assoc. (1846); Cambridge Antiq. Soc. (1840); Carlisle, Cumb. and Westm. Antiq. and Arch. Soc. (1866); Devizes, Wiltshire Arch, and Nat. H. Soc. (1853) ; Durham, Surtees Soc. (1834) ; Colchester, Essex Arch. Soc. (1852); Edinburgh, Bibliogr. Soc. (1890), Scottish Hist. (1886); Exeter, Diocesan Arch. Soc. (1841); Glasgow Arch. Soc. (1856) ; Kent Arch. Soc. (1857) ; Lane, and Cheshire Antiq. Soc. (1883). Leeds Thoresby Soc. (1889) ; Manchester, Chetham Soc. (1843); Newcastle-on-Tyne Soc. of Antiq. (1813); Norwich, Norfolk and Norwich Arch. Soc. (1846); Oxford, Architect, and Hist. Soc. (1839), and Hist. Soc. (1884) ; Purbeck Soc. ; Reading, Berkshire Arch, and Architectural Soc. (1871); Surrey Arch. Soc.; Sussex Arch. Soc. (1846); Welshpool, Powys Land Club (1867); and Yorkshire Arch. Soc. (1863). CANADA: Halifax, Nova Scotia Hist. Soc. (1878), Coll. Montreal, Soc. Hist., Mem. (1859, &c.) ; Numism. and Antiq. Soc. (1872), Journ. (1872, &c.). Quebec, Lit. and Hist. Soc. (1824), Trans. (1837, &c.). Toronto, Ontario Hist. Soc. (1888, 1898), Rep.; Lit. and Hist. Soc. CHINA: Hong-Kong, Roy. Asiatic Soc. Shanghai, Roy. Asiatic Soc., Journ. (1858, &c.). INDIA: Bombay, Roy. Asiatic Soc. (Branch) (1804), Journal (1844, &c.). Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Journ. (1832, &c.) and Proc. (1865, &c.) ; Indian Research Soc. (1907), Trans. Colombo, Roy. Asiatic Soc., Journ. (1844, &c.). Madras, Lit. Soc. (1818), Journal (1827, &c.). Singapore, Roy. Asiatic Soc. UNITED STATES: The central antiquarian body in the United States is established at Washington — the Archaeological Institute of Amer. (1879), which publishes Amer. Journ. Arch. (1897, &c.), and has affiliated with it 28 societies, including the Boston Society (1879), Cincinnati Soc. (1905), Iowa Soc. (1902), Wisconsin Soc. (1889), New York Soc. (1884), San Francisco (1906), North West Soc. (Seattle) (1906). Albany, Institute and Hist, and Art Soc., Trans. (1792- 1819, 1830-1893), Proc. (1865-1882). Baltimore, Maryland Hist. Soc. (1844). Boston, Mass. Hist. Soc. (1791), Collections (1792, &c.) and Proc. (1859, &c.) ; New Engl. Hist.-Gen. Soc. (1845), Genealog. Register (1847) ; Amer. Oriental Soc. (1843), Journ. (1849, &c.) ; Amer. Library Assoc. (1876), Liby. Journal; Soc. Bibl. Lit. and Exegesis (1880), Journal (1882, &c.) ; Bostonian Soc. (1881), Proc. (1882, &c.). Brookline Hist. Soc. (1891). Buffalo, Hist. Soc. (1862). Cambridge, Hist. Soc. (1905), Proc. (1906, &c.) ; Dante Soc. (1881). Chicago, Hist. Soc. (1856). Cincinnati, Hist, and Phil. Soc. of Ohio (1831), Pubins. (1906). Concord, Hist. Soc., Coll. (1824, &c.). Frankfort, Kentucky State Hist. Soc. (1836), Reg. Hartford, Amer. Philolog. Soc. (1869); Hist. Soc. (1825), Coll. (i860, &c.). Lincoln, Nebraska State Hist. Soc. (1867), Trans. (1885-1893), Proc. (1894, &c.). Madison, Hist. Soc., Coll. (1849, &c.). Minneapolis, Hist. Soc., Coll. (1869, &c.). Mont- pelier, Hist. Soc. of Vermont, Coll. (1869, &c.). New Haven, Amer. Orient. Soc. (1842), Journal (1849, &c.). New Orleans, Louisiana Hist. Soc. (1867), Pubins. (1895, &c.). New York, Hist. Soc. (1804), Pubins. (1868, &c.); Geneal. and Biogr. Soc. (1869), Record (1870); Bibliogr. Soc. (1904), Proc. (1906, &c.), Bull. (1907, &c.); Amer. Numis. Soc., Proc. (1882). Philadelphia, Hist. Soc. (1824), Mem. (1820, &c.); Numism. and Arch. Soc. (1858), Proc. (1867, &c.); Shakspere Soc. (1852). Portland, Maine Hist. Soc., Coll. (1831, &c.). Providence, Hist. Soc. (1822), Coll. (1827, &c.). Richmond, Virg. Hist, and Phil. (1831), Publ. (1874, &c.). St Louis, Missouri Hist. Soc. (1866), St Paul, Minnesota Hist. Soc. (1849), Coll. Savannah, Georgia Hist. Soc. (1839), Proc. Topeka, Hist. Soc. (1875), Trans. (1881, &c.). Washington, Arch. Soc. (1902) ; Columbia Hist. Soc. (1894), Rec.; Amer. Hist. Assn. (1884), Amer. Hist. Rev (1895, &c.). Worcester, Amer. Antiq. Soc. (1812), Proc. and Arch. Amer. (1820, &c.). FRANCE: The Congres Archeologique de la France first met in 1834. Algiers, Soc. Hist. (1856), Revue (1856, &c.). Amiens, Soc. des Antiq. (1836), Mem. (1838, &c.) and Bull. Angouleme, Soc. Arch, et Hist. (1844), Bull. Bordeaux, Soc. Archeol. (1873) ; Soc. des Arch. Hist. (1858), Archives Hist. (1858, &c.). Bourges, Soc. Hist, et Litt. (1849), Bull, et Mem. (.1852, &c.). Caen, Soc. des Antiq. de Normandie (1823), Mem. (1824, &c.) and Bull. (1860, &c.) ; Soc. Fran. d'Arch. (1834), Comptes rend. (1834, &c.) and Bull. Mens. (1835, &c.). Chalon-sur-Saone, Soc. d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1844), Mem. (1844, &c.). Chambery, Soc. Savoisienne d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1855), Mem. (1856, &c.). Constantine, Soc. Arch. (1852), Recueil. Dijon, Comm. des Antiquiles (1831), Mem. (1882, &c.). Lille, Comm. hist, du Nord (1839), Bull. (1843, &c.). Limoges, Soc. Hist, et Arch. (1845), Bull.; Soc. des Archives hist. (1886), Archives (1887, &c.). Lyons, Soc. Hist., Litt. et Arch. (1807), Mem. (1860, &c.). Mont- pellier, Soc. Arch. (1833), Mem. (1835, &c.). Nancy, Soc. d'Arch. de Lorraine (1845), Mem. (1850, &c.) and Journ. (1852, &c.). Nantes, Soc. Arch. (1845), Bull. (1859, &c.). Orleans, Soc. Arch, et Hist. (1848), Mem. (1851, &c.) and Butt. Paris, Soc. Nat. des Antiq. de Fr. (1813) (based on the Academic Celtique, 1804), Mem. (1805, &c.) and Butt. (1817, &c.); Soc. de I' Hist, de France (1833), Annuaire (1837) and nearly 400 vols. besides; Soc. de VEcole Nat. des Charles (1839), Documents (1873, &c.) ; Soc. Asiatique (1822), Journal Asiat. (1822, &c.), &c. ; Soc. d'Arch. et de Numism. (1865) ; Soc. de I'Hist. du Prot. Fran. (1866) ; Soc. de Linguistique; Soc. Bibliogr. (1868), Polybiblion. ; Soc. Philol. (1867), Actes (1869, &c.) ; Soc. des Etudes Hist. (1833), Revue (1834, &c.) ; Soc. d'Hist. Moderne (1901), Bull.; Soc. d'Hist. Contemp. (1890); Soc. de I'Hist. de la Revolution Fran. (1888); Soc. d'Hist. Diplomatique (1886); Soc. des Bibliophiles Fran. (1820); Soc. des Anciens Textes Fran. (1875), Bull. Poitiers, Soc. des Antiq. (1834), Mem. Rouen, Soc. de I'Hist. de Norm. (1869), Bull. (1870, &c.) and 75 vols. besides; Comm. des Antiquites (1818), Bull. (1867, &c.). Saint-Omer, Soc. des Antiq. (1831), Mem. (1833, &c.). Toulouse, Soc. Arch. (1831), Mem. (1831-1868), Bull. (1869, &c.); Acad. des Jeux floraux (1323, reorganized 1773), Rec. (1696, &c.). Tours, Soc. Arch. (1840), Mem. (1842, &c.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA- HUNGARY: Gesam. Ver. d. D. Gesch. u. Alt. Vereine (1852). Agrair, Ges. f. Siid-Slav. Alterth. Aix-la-Chapelle, Geschichtsver. (1879), Ztschr. (1879, &c.). Altenburg, Gesch. u. Alterthums Ges. (1838), Mittheil. (1841, &c.). Augsburg, Hist. Ver. (1820, reorganized in 1834), Jahresber. (1835, &c.). Baden, Alterthums-Ver . (1844), Schriften. Bamberg, Hist. Ver. (1830), Ber. (1834, &c.). Berlin, Ver. f. Gesch. d. Mark Brandenb. (1836), Forschungen (1841, &c.) ; Ver.f. d. Gesch. Berlins (1865), Schriften; Hist. Ges. (1871), Mittheil. (1873, &c.); Archaolog. Ges. (1842), Sitzungsber., Archaol. Zeitung; Numism. Ges. (1843), Jahresber. (1845, &c.), Herald (1869) ; Phil. Ges. (1843), DerGedanke (i86i,&c.) ; Gtt.f. D. PhUologie (1877), Jahresler. (1879, &c.); D. Bibliogr. Ges. (1902), Ztschr. (1903, &c.); Ver. D. Bibliothekare (1900), Jahrbuch (1902); D. Orient-Ges. (1898), Mitteil. Bonn, Ver.f. Alterth. (1841), Jahresber. ; Soc. Philologa (1854). Brandenburg, Hist. Ver. (1868), Jahresber. (1870, &c.). Braunsberg, Hist. Ver. (1856). Breslau, Ver.f. Gesch. u. Alt. Schl. (1846), Ztschr. (1856, &c.), Scriptores rerum Silesicarum (1847, &c.) ; Breslauer Dichterschule (1860). Budapest, Hungarian Hist. Soc. (1867), Szdzadok. Cassel, Ver. f. Hess. Gesch. (1834), Ztschr. (1837, &C.J. Cologne, Hist. Ver. (1854), Annalen (1855, &c.); Ges. fur rheinische Geschichtskunde (1881). Cracow, Hist. Soc. Danzig, Westpreuss. Geschichtsver. (1879), Ztschr., Mitteil., Akten. Darmstadt, Hist. Ver. (1834), Archiv (1835, &c.). Dresden, K. Sachs. Alt. Ver. (1825), Jahresber. (1835, &c.) and Mittheil. (1835, &c.). Frankfort, Ges. f. Deutschlands alt. Geschichtskunde (1819; since 1875 under guidance of Central-Dir. d. Man. Germ.), Man. Germ. (1826, &c.) ; Ges. f. Gesch. u. Kunst (1837), Mittheil. (1858, &c.); Freies D. Hochstift in Goethe's Vaterhaus (1859); Ver. fur Gesch. u. Alt. (1857), Archiv. Halle, Thur.-Sachs. Ver. (1819), Mittheil. (1822, &c.) ; D. Morgenl. Ges. (1844), Ztschr. (1847, &c.) and Abhandl. (1859, &c.). Hanover, Hist. Ver. (1835), Ztschr. Kiel, Ges. f. Gesch. Schl.-Holst. (1833, re- organized in 1873), Archiv (1833, &c.) and Ztschr. (1870, &c.). Konigsberg, Altertumsges. Prussia (1844), Sitzungsber. Leipzig, D. Ges. z. Erforschung vaterl. Spr. u. Alterth. (1697, reorganized in 1824), Jahresber. (1825, &c.) and Mittheil. (1845, &c.) ; Furstlich Jablonowski' s Ges. (1768), Acta (1772, &c.); Borsenver. d. D. Buch- hdndler (1825), Borsenblatt (1834, &c.) ; Hist. Theolog. Ges. (1814). Liibeck, Hansischer Ges. Ver. (1870). Munich, Hist. Ver. (1837), ' Archiv (l&y),&c.);Alterthums-Ver. (1864). Nuremberg, Pegnesischer Blumenorden (1644), had united with it in 1874 tne Lit. Ver. (1839), Prague, Ver.f. Gesch. Ratisbon, Hist. Ver. (1830), Verhandl. (1832, &c.). Rostock, Ver. fur. Alt. (1883), Beitrdge (1890, &c.). Schwerin, Ver.f. Meckl. Gesch. u. Alterthumsk. (1835), Jahrbuch (1835, &c.) and other publications. Strassburg, Soc. pour la conservation des Monu- ments Historiques d' Alsace (1855), Bull. (1855, also since 1889 with German title Mitteilungen). Stuttgart, Lit. Ver. (1839), Bibliothek (1843, &c.); Wurttemb. Alterth. Ver. (1843). Jahreshefte (1844) and many records, handbooks, &c. Tubingen, Lit. Ver. (1839), Bibliothek (1842, &c.). Vienna, K. k. Orient. Akad.; K. k. Heraldische Ges. "Adler" (1870), Jahrbiicher (1874, &c.) ; Ver. fur Osterr. Volks- kunde (1894), Ztschr. Weimar, D. Shakespeare Ges. (1864, Jahrbuch SOCIETIES, LEARNED (1865, &c.); Goethe Ges. (1885), Schriften (1885, &c.); Ges. der BMiophilen (1899). Wiesbaden, Ver. f. Nass. Alterth. (1821), Annalen (1830, &c.). Wiirzburg, Hist. Ver. (1831), Archiv (1833). SWITZERLAND : Basle, Hist. u. Antiq. Ges. (1836). Berne, Allgemeine Geschichtforschende Ges. (1840). Freiberg, Soc. d'Hist. Geneva, Soc. d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1838). Lausanne, Soc. d'Hist.; Soc. Vaudoise d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1902), Revue. St Gall, Hist. Ver. (1859), Mitteil. (1862, &c.). Zurich, Soc. d'Hist. ; Antiq. Ges., Denkmdler. ITALY: Bologna, Reg. Deputazione di Storia Patria. Catania, Soc. di Storia Patria (1903). Ferrara, Deput. Ferrarese di Storia Patria (1884). Florence, Societa Colombaria (1823); Soc. Dantesca Italiana (1888); R. Deputazione Tosc. di Storia Patria (1862). Genoa, Soc. di Storia Patria (1857). Milan, Soc. Numis. Ital.; Soc. Storica Lombarda. Naples, Soc. Nap. di Storia Patria (1875). Palermo, Soc. Sic. di Storia Patria (1873), Doc. Parma, R. Deputazione di Storia Patria. Rome, Accad. Rom. di Arch.; Soc. Rom. di Storia Patria (1877), Archivio (1877, &c.); 1st. di Corr. Arch.; Brit, and Amer. Arch. Soc.; Soc. Filol. Rom. (1901); Istituto Star. Ital. (1883), Fonti (1887, &c.) ; K. Deutsch. Archdolog. Inst., Arch. Zing. (1843-1885) and Jahrb. Turin, Real Deputaz. di Star. Pair. (1833). Venice, R. Dep. Yen. di Storia Patria. Verona, Soc. Lett. (1808). BELGIUM: Antwerp, Acad. d'Archeol. (1842), Bull. (1865, &c.). Bruges, Soc. pour I'Hist. et les Antiq. de la Flandre (1839), Publ. Brussels, Soc. de I'Hist. de Belgique (1858), Publ.; Soc. Roy. de Numism. (1841), Revue; Soc. des Bibliophiles (1865); Soc. d'Archeol. (1887), Annuaire, Annales; Inst. Int. de Bibliogr. (1895), Repertoire. Ghent, Soc. Roy. des Beaux- Arts et de la Litt. (1808), Annales (1844, &c.); Willems Fond (1851) ; Maatschappij de Vlaamsche Bibliophilen (1839) ; Soc. d'Hist. et d'Archeol. (founded 1893 as Cercle Hist, et Archeol.), Bull. Liege, Inst. Archeol. (1850), Bull. (1852, &c.). Louvain, Soc. Litt. (1839), Mem. and Publ. Mons, Cercle Archeol. (1856), Annales (1857, &c.). Namur, Soc. Archeol. et Musee de Namur (1845), Annales. Tournai, Soc. Hist, et Litt. (1846), Bull. (1849, &c.). Verviers, Soc. Arch. Ypres, Soc. Hist. (1861). HOLLAND: Leiden, Acad. Lugduno- Batava; Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (1766) Tijdschrift. Luxembourg, Inst. Archeol. (1846, reorganized in 1862), Annales (1849, &c.). Utrecht, Hist. Genootschap (1845). DEN- MARK: Copenhagen, Island. Litt. Selskab; K. Danske Selskab (1745), Magazin; K. Nordisk Oldskrift Selskab, Aarboger (1866, &c.), Fortidsminder (1890, &c.). Reykjavik (Iceland), Fornleifarfelag; Hid islenzka Bokmentafelag (1816), Skirnir. NORWAY: Christiania, Norske Hist. Forening (1869) ; Norske Oldskrift Selskab; Foreningen til Norske Forlidsminde maerkers Bevaring (1844). SWEDEN: Stock- holm, K. Witterhets Hist, och Antiq. Akad. ; Svcnska Akad. ; Sv. Forn- skriftsdllskapet (1843) Proc.; K. Samfundet for utgifvande af hand- skrifter rorande Skandinaviens hist. (1815-1817), Handl. (1816, &c.). SPAIN: Barcelona, R. Acad. de Buenas Letras. Madrid, R. Acad. de Cienc. Mor. y Pol.; R. Acad. Esp. Arq.; R. Acad. de la Hist. (1738). RUSSIA: Helsingfors, Finska Litt. Sdllskapet (1831), Ztschr. (1841); Finnish Archaeol. Soc. (1870), Tidskrift (1874, &c.) ; Hist. Soc. (1875), Arkisto (1876, &c.). Kazan, Soc. of Arch. Hist, and Ethnogr. (1877), Izvestija (1878). Mitau, Courland Soc. of Lit. and Art. Moscow, Imp. Russ. Soc. of Hist, and Antiq.; Archaeolog. Soc. (1864). Narva, Archaeolog. Soc. Odessa, Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1839), Zapiski (1844, &c.). Riga, Lett. Lit. Ges.; Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1834), Mitteil. (1873, &c.). St Petersburg, Russ. Hist. Soc. (1866), Sbornik (1867, &c.) ; Imp. Soc. for Study of Ancient Lit. (1877); Imp. Russ. Archeol. Soc. (1846); Russ. Bibliogr. Soc. (1899); Soc. for Orient. Studies, with numerous branches; Neo- Philol. Soc. (1885). GREECE: Athens, Soc. Archeol.; Amer. School Class. Studies (1882); Ecole Franc,. d'Alhenes (1846); British School at Athens (1886); 'Apxa'.oXo-yuo) 'Ertuptia (Arch. Soc.) (1837), 'Efaufpls. TURKEY: Constantinople, Soc. for Adv. of Turkish Lit.; Greek Lit. Soc.; Hellenic Philolog. Soc. BULGARIA: Sofia, Bulg. Lit. Soc. (1869), now the Bulgarian Acad. (1910), Periqd. (1870, &c.). SOUTH AMERICA: Rio dc Janeiro, Inst. hist, e geogr. (1838). JAPAN: Yokohama, Asiatic Soc. of Japan, Trans. (1874, &c.). XVIII. GEOGRAPHY The Congres International pour les Progres des Sciences Geogra- phiques first met in 1871. The Royal Geographical Society of London, founded in 1830, had joined to it in the following year the African Association (1788), the successor of the Saturday Club; the Palestine Association (1805) became merged with it in 1834. It publishes Journal (1832, &c.) and Proceedings (1857, &c.). The Hakluyt Society (1846) has printed more than 136 vols. of rare voyages and travels. The Alpine Club (1858), whose publications are Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (1859-1862) and Journal (1863, &c.), meets in London. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society (1884) has its centre at Edinburgh, and issues the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Liverpool, Tyneside and Manchester have also Geographical Societies. AUSTRALIA: Adelaide, R. Geogr. Soc. of Australasia (1885), Proc. Brisbane, R. Geogr. Soc. of Australasia (1885). Melbourne, Roy. Geogr. Soc. of Australasia (1883). Sydney, Geogr. Inst. CANADA: Quebec, Geogr. Soc. INDIA: .Bombay, Geogr. Soc., Trans. (1836, &c.). EGYPT: Cairo, Soc. Khediviale de Geogr. (1875), Bull. (1876, &c.). UNITED STATES: Baltimore, Geogr. Soc. (1902). Chicago, Geogr. Soc. (1894). Hamilton, Assoc. of Amer. Geogr. (1904). New York, Amer. Geogr. Soc. (1852), Bull. (1852-1857), Journ., later Bull. (1859, &c.), and Proc. (1862-1865). Philadelphia, Geogr. Soc. (1891). San Francisco, Geogr. Soc. (1891), Bull. Washington, Nat. Geogr. Soc. (1852), Magazine (1888). FRANCE: Algiers, Soc. Geogr. (1896), Bull. Bordeaux, Soc. de Geogr. Commercials (1874), Bull. Dijon, Soc. Bourg. de Geogr. et d'Hist. (1881), Mem. (1884, &c.). Lyons, Soc. de Geogr. (1873), Bull Marseilles, Soc.deGeogr. (1876), Bull. Montpellier, Soc. Languedocienne de Geogr. (1878), Bull. Nancy, Soc. de Geogr. (1878). Bull. Paris, Soc.deGeogr. (1821 ; l82f),Bull, Toulouse, Soc.deGeogr. (1882), Bull. GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: D. Alpen-Ver. (1869), Ztschr. u. Jahrb. (1869, &c.). Berlin, Ges.f. Erdkunde (1828), Ztschr. (1853, &c.), and Verhandl. (1873, &c.) ; Ges. zur Erforschung Aquat. Afrikas (1873), Corr.-Blatt; Afrik. Ges. (1878), Mittheil.; D. Geographentag (1881), Verhandl. Bremen, Geograph. Ges. (1876), Geogr. Blatter. Budapest, Hung.-Geogr. Soc. (1872). Carlsruhe, Badische Geogr. Ges. (1880), Verhandl. Cassel, Ver. f. Erdk. (1882). Darmstadt, Ver.}. Erdk. (1845), Notizblatt (1854, &£•)'• Dresden, Ver. f. Erdk. (1863), Jahresber. (1865-1901), Mitteil. (1905, &c.). Frank- fort, Ver. f. Geogr. u. Statist. (1836), Jahresber. Giessen, Ges. fur Erd. u. Volkerkunde (1896). Halle, Ver.f. Erdk. (1873). Hamburg, Geogr. Ges. (1873), Jahresber. Hanover, Geogr. Ges. (1878), Jahresber. Jena, Geogr. Ges. (1880), Mittheil. Leipzig, Ver. f. Erdk. (1861), Jahresber. Liibeck, Geogr. Ges. (1882). Munich, Geogr. Ges. (1869), Jahresber. Vienna, K. k. Geogr. Ges., Milt. (1857, &c.) ; Ver. der Geogr. Weimar, Geogr. Inst. SWITZERLAND : Berne, Inst. Geogr. ; Geogr. Ges. (1873), Jahresber. (1879, &c.) ; Schweiz. Alpen-Club. Geneva, Soc. de Geogr., Mem. (1860, &c.). Zurich, Karten- Ver. ITALY: Rome, Soc. Geogr. Ital., Bull. (1868, &c.). Turin, Circolo Geogr. Ital. (1868). BELGIUM: Antwerp, Soc. Beige de Geogr. (1870), Bull. ; Soc. Roy. de Geogr. (1876), Bull. Brussels, Soc. Beige de Geogr. (1876). HOL- LAND: Amsterdam, K. Nederl. Aardrijkskundig Genoot. (1873), Tijdschrift (1874, &c-)'< Landkundige Genootschap. DENMARK: Copenhagen, Geogr. Selskab. NORWAY: Christiania, Detnorske geogr. Selskab (1889). SPAIN and PORTUGAL: Lisbon, Soc. de Geogr., Bol. (1875, &c.). Madrid, Soc. Geogr., Bol. (1876, &c.). RUSSIA: Hel- singfors, Geogr. Soc. (1888), Tidskrift; Sdllskapet for Finland* geografi (1888). Irkutsk, Geogr. Soc., Bull. (1871, &c.). St Petersburg, Imp. Russ. Geogr. Soc., Mem. (1845, &c.), and Bull. (1865, &c.). Tiflis, Geogr. Soc., Mem. (1852, &c.). RUMANIA: Bucharest, Societatea Geografica Romdna (1875), Bull. EGYPT: Cairo, Soc. Khediviale de Geogr., Bull. (1876, &c.). JAPAN: Tokyo, Geogr. Soc. CENTRAL and SOUTH AMERICA: Buenos Aires, Inst. Geogr. Argent. La Paz, Soc. Geogr. (1889), Bol. Lima, Soc. Geogr. (1888), Bol. Mexico, Soc. de Geogr. y Estad., Bol. (1833, &c.). Rio de Janeiro, Soc. de Geogr. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— The Catal. of Printed Books in the British Museum (1841), folio, s.v. "Academies," contains a list of all the publications of societies at that time in the museum. This has been rearranged and greatly enlarged as Academies (1885-1886), 5 parts folio, with Suppl. (1900—1903). Smithsonian Instn. International Exchange List (1908); B. Quaritch, List of Learned Societies (Odd Vols.) (1886). S. H. Scudder, Cat. of Scientific Serials (1633-1876); Camb. (U.S.) (1879), 8vo. For general indexes see J. D. Reuss, Reper- torium (1801-1821), 16 vols., Roy. Soc. Cat of Sc. Papers (1867-1902) ; Societatum Lilterae, Verzeichniss (1887-1900, 14 vols.). For list of indexes to transactions, &c., see A. Stein, Manuel de Bibliographie ge.nerale (1897), p. 642, &c. Minerva (Strassb. Triibner), from 1891 on, is most useful for all the chief existing societies in the world. British societies are now well represented in the Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Brit, and Ireland (1884, &c.). See also Hume's Learned Societies and Printing Clubs of the U.K. (1853, 8vo) ; E. Mailly, Inst. Sc. de la Grande-Bret. (1861-1867, 6 pts.); H. G. Bohn, App. to Bibliographer's Manual (1864), 8vo; Engl. Catal. of Books (1864-1909); C. S. Terry, Cat. of Publications of Scottish Historical Societies and Clubs, 1909; " Sc. Societies and Field Clubs," in Nature, v., viii. For American Societies see R. R. Bowker, Publns. of Societies (New York, 1899); Handbk. of Learned Societies, Carnegie Inst. of Washington (1908) ; A. P. C. Griffin, Bibl. of Amer. Historical Societies (1905); A. Growoll, Am. Book Clubs (New York, 1897). For France, see U. Robert, Bibl. des. Soc. sav. de la France, pt. i. (1878) ; F. Bouillier, L'Institut et les acad. de province (1879, 8vo) ; Lasteyrie, Lefevre-Pontalis et A. Vidier, Bibliogr. des travaux hist, et arch. publ. par les soc. sav. de la France (1888-1904, 4 vols. 4to). J. Deniker, Bibliogr. des travaux scienti- fiques publ. par les soc. savantes de la France (1895, &c.) ; H. Delauny, Les Soc. savantes de la France (1902); E. Lefevre- Pontalis, Bibl. des soc. savantes de la France (1887); Annuaire des Soc. savantes de la France et de I' Stranger (1846); A. d'Hericourt, Annuaire (1863-1866); continued in Revue de soc. savantes. For Germany and Austria-Hungary, see H. A. Stohr, Allg. Deutsches Vereinshandbuch (1873, &c., 8vo) ; J. Miiller, Die wiss. Vereine u. Ges. Deutschlands im iy'm Jahrh. (1883-1888); I. Winckler, Die period. Presse Osterreichs (1875, 8vo) ; and P. A. F. Walther for German historical societies (1845). See also " Les Congres scientifiques," by Comte de Marsy, in Compte rendu du Congres Bibliogr. (1879). For Belgium, see Introd. a la Bibl. de la Belgique (1875). For Italy, see Statistica della stampa periodica, 1880-1895; Elenco bibl. delle accademie ec. corrisp. con. la R. Accad. dei Lincei Roma, 1908. For Russia, consult C. Woldemar, Gesch. d. russ. Gelehrten- und Schulanstalten (St Petersburg, 1865, 8vo), and Kawall, Die neuen russ. Naturforschergesellschaften (Riga, 1872-1874). (H. R. T.) 320 SOCIETY ISLANDS— SOCINUS SOCIETY ISLANDS (French Archipel de la Societe). an archi- pelago of the Pacific Ocean, in the eastern part of Polynesia, between 16° and 18° S., 148° and 155° W., with a total land area of 637 sq. m., belonging to France. (For map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.) The principal island is Tahiti (g.v.). Part of the archipelago was discovered by Pedro Fernandez Quiros in 1607. In 1767 Samuel Wallis re-discovered it, and named it King George's Island. In 1768 Louis de Bougainville visited Tahiti, claimed it as French, and named it La Nouvelle Cythere. On the 1 2th of April 1769 the British expedition to observe the transit of Venus, under the naval command of James Cook, arrived at Tahiti. On this first voyage (he subsequently re- visited the islands twice) he named the Leeward group of islands Society in honour of the Royal Society, at the instigation of which the expedition had been sent; Tahiti and the adjacent islands he called Georgian, but the first name was subsequently adopted for the whole group. In 1772 and 1774 the islands were visited by a Spanish government expedition, and some attempt was made at colonization. In 1788 Lieutenant Bligh of the " Bounty " spent some time at Tahiti, to which island the his- torical interest now passes. The archipelago is divided into two groups — the Leeward (lies sous le Vent) and the Windward Islands (lies du Vent) — by a clear channel of 60 m. in breadth. The Leeward Islands are Tubai or Motuiti, a small uninhabited- lagoon island, the most northern of the group; Marua or Maupiti — " Double Mountain," the most western; Bola- Bola or Bora-Bora; Huaheine; Raiatea or Ulietea (Spanish Prin- cessa), the largest island of this cluster, and Tahaa, which approach each other very closely, and are encircled by one reef. To the west lie the small groups of coral islets — Mopiha (Lord Howe), Ura (Scilly) .and Bellingshausen (discovered by Otto von Kotzebue, 1824). To the Windward Islands belong Tapamanu or Maiaiti (Wallis's Sir Charles Saunders's Island and Spanish Pelada) ; Moorea or Eimeo (Wallis's Duke of York Island and Spanish San Domingo) ; Tahiti — Cook's Otaheite (probably Quiros's Sagittaria ; Wallis's King George's Island, Bougainville's Nouvelle Cythere and Spanish Isla d'Amat) ; Tetuaroa — " The Distant Sea " (? Quiros's Fugitiva; Bougainville's Umaitia and Spanish Tres Hermanos) ; and Maitea (? Quiros's La Dezana, Wallis's Osnaburg Island, Bougainville's Boudoir and Pic de la Boudeuse and Spanish Cristoval), the most eastern and southern of the archipelago. Tetuaroa and Tubai, besides the three western Leeward Isles, are coral atolls. The length of the Tetuaroa reef ring is about six miles; it bears twelve palm-covered islets, of which several are inhabited, and has one narrow boat-passage leading into the lagoon. With the exception just named, the islands, which agree very closely in geological structure, are moun- tainous, and present, perhaps, the most wonderful example of volcanic rocks to be found on the globe. They are formed of trachyte, dolerite and basalt. There are raised coral beds high up the moun- tains, and lava occurs in a variety of forms, even in solid flows; but all active volcanic agency has so long ceased that the craters have been almost entirely obliterated by denudation. Hot springs are unknown, and earthquakes are slight and rare. Nevertheless, under some of these flows remains of plants and insects of species now living in the islands have been found — a proof that the forma- tion as well as the denudation of the country is, geologically speaking, recent. In profile the islands are rugged and elevated (7349 ft. in Tahiti, Moorea 4045 ft., Raiatea 3389, Bola-Bola 2165). A moun- tain, usually with very steep peaks, forms the centre, if not the whole island; on all sides steep ridges descend to the sea, or, as is oftener the case, to a considerable belt of flat land. These moun- tains, excepting some stony crags and cliffs, are clothed with dense forest, the soil being exceptionally fertile. All voyagers agree that for varied beauty of form and colour the Society Islands arc unsur- passed in the Pacific. Innumerable rills gather in lovely streams, and, after heavy rains, torrents precipitate themselves in grand cascades from the mountain cliffs — a feature so striking as to have attracted the attention of all voyagers, from Wallis downwards. Round most of the islands there is a luxuriant coral growth ; but, as the reefs lie at no great distance, and follow the line of the coast, the inter-island channels are comparatively safe. Maitea, which rises from the sea as an exceedingly abrupt cone, and Tapamanu, appear to be the only islands without almost completely encircling barrier-reefs. The coasts are fairly indented, and, protected by these reefs, which often support a chain of green islets, afford many good harbours and safe anchorages. In this respect the Society Islands have the advantage of many Polynesian islands. The populations of the chief islands are: Tahiti 10,300, Moorea 1600, Raiatea and Tahaa 2300, Huaheine 1300, Bola-Bola 800; and that of the whole archipelago is about 18,500. SOCINUS, the latinized form of the Italian Sozini, Sozzini or Soccini, a name born by two Italian theologians. I. LELIO FRANCESCO MARIA SOZINI (1525-1562) was born at Siena on the 29th of January 1525. His family descended from Sozzo, a banker at Percena, whose second son, Mino Sozzi, settled as a notary at Siena in 1304. Mino Sozzi's grandson, Sozzino (d. 1403), was ancestor of a line of patrician jurists and canonists, Mariano Sozzini senior (1397-1467) being the first and the most famous, and traditionally regarded as the first freethinker in the family. Lelio (who spells his surname Sozini, latinizing it Sozinus) was the sixth son of Mariano Sozzini junior (1482-1556) by his wife Camilla Salvetti, and was educated as a jurist under his father's eye at Bologna. He told Melanchthon that his desire to reach the f antes juris led him to Biblical research, and hence to rejection of " the idolatry of Rome." He gained some knowledge of Hebrew and Arabic (to Bibliander he gave a manuscript of the Koran) as well as Greek, but was never a laborious student. His father supplied him with means, and on coming of age he repaired to Venice, the headquarters of the evangelical movement in Italy. A tradition, first published by Sand in 1678, amplified by subse- quent writers, makes him a leading spirit in alleged theological conferences at Vicenza, about 1546; the whole account (abound- ing in anachronisms, including the story ol Sozini's flight) must be rejected as fabulous. At this period the standpoint of Sozini was that of evangelical reform; he exhibits a singular union of enthusiastic piety with subtle theological speculation. At Chiavenna in 1547 he came under the influence of Camillo of Sicily, a gentle mystic, surnamed Renato, whose teaching at many points resembled that of the early Quakers. Pursuing his religious travels, his family name and his personal charm ensured him a welcome in Switzerland, France, England and Holland. Returning to Switzerland at the close of 1548, with commendatory letters to the Swiss churches from Nicolas Meyer, envoy from Wittenberg to Italy, we find him (1549-1550) at Geneva, Basel (with Sebastian Miinster) and Zurich (lodging with Pellican). He is next at Wittenberg (July 1550 to June 1551), first as Melanchthon's guest, then with Johann Forster for improvement of his Hebrew. From Wittenberg he returned to Zurich (end of 1551), after visiting Prague, Vienna and Cracow. Political events drew him back to Italy in June 1552; two visits to Siena (where freedom of speech was for the moment possible, owing to the shaking off of the Spanish yoke) brought him into fruitful contact with his young nephew Fausto. He was at Padua (not Geneva, as is often said) at the date of Ser- vetus's execution (Oct. 27, 1553). Thence he made his way to Basel (January 1554), Geneva (April) and Zurich (May), where he took up his abode. Calvin, like Melanchthcn, received Sozini with open arms. Melanchthon (though a phrase in one of his letters has been strangely misconstrued) never regarded him with theological suspicion. To Calvin's keen glance Sozini's over-speculative tendency and the genuineness of his religious nature were equally apparent. A passage often quoted (apart from the context) in one of Calvin's letters (January i, 1552) has been viewed as a rapture of amicable intercourse; but, while more than once uneasy apprehensions arose in Calvin's mind, there was no breach of correspondence or of kindliness. Of all the Reformers, Bullinger was Sozini's closest intimate, his warmest and wisest friend. Sozini's theological difficulties turned on the resur- rection of the body, predestination, the ground of salvation (on these points he corresponded with Calvin), the doctrinal basis of the original gospel (his queries to Bullinger), the nature of repentance (to Rudolph Gualther), the sacraments (to Johann Wolff). It was the fate of Servetus that directed his mind to the problem of the Trinity. At Geneva (April 1554) he made incautious remarks on the common doctrine, emphasized in a subsequent letter to Martinengo, the Italian pastor. Bullinger, at the instance of correspondents (including Calvin), questioned Sozini as to his faith, and received from him an explicitly ortho- dox confession (reduced to writing on the i5th of July 1555) with a frank reservation of the right of further inquiry. A month before this Sozini had been sent with Martino Muralto to Basel, to secure Ochino as pastor of the Italian church at Zurich; and it is clear that in their subsequent intercourse the minds SOCINUS 321 of Sozini and Ochino (a thinker of the same type as Camillo, with finer dialectic skill) acted powerfully on each other in the radical discussion of theological problems. In 1556 by the death of his father (who left him nothing by will), Sozini was involved in pecuniary anxieties. With influential introductions (one from Calvin) he visited in 1558 the courts of Vienna and Cracow to obtain support for an appeal to the reigning duke at Florence for the realization of his own and the family estates. Curiously enough Melanchthon's letter introducing Sozini to Maximilian II. invokes as an historic parallel the hospitable reception rendered by the emperor Constans to Athanasius, when he fled from Egypt to Treves. Well received out of Italy, Sozini could do nothing at home, and apparently did not proceed beyond Venice. The Inquisition had its eye on the family; his brother Cornelio was imprisoned at Rome; his brothers Celso and Camillo and his nephew Fausto were " repu- tati Luterani," and Camillo had fled from Siena. In August 1559 Sozini returned to Zurich, where his brief career was closed by his death on the I4th of May 1562, at his lodging in the house of Hans Wyss, silk-weaver. No authentic portrait of him exists; alleged likenesses on medals, &c., are spurious. The news of his uncle's death reached Fausto at Lyons through Antonio Maria Besozzo. Repairing to Zurich Fausto got his uncle's few papers, comprising very little connected writing but a good many notes. Fausto has so often been treated as a plagiarist from Lelio that it may be well to state that his indebtedness, somewhat over-estimated by himself, was twofold: (i) He derived from Lelio in conversation (1552-1553) the germ of his theory of salvation; (2) Lelio's paraphrase (1561) of apxri in John i. i as " the beginning of the gospel " gave Fausto an ex-egetical hint for the construction of his Christology. Apart from these suggestions, Fausto owed nothing to Lelio, save a curiously far-fetched interpretation of John viii. 58 and the stimulus of his pure character and shining qualities. The two men were of contrasted types. Lelio, impulsive and inquisitive, was in quest of the spiritual ground of religious truths; the drier mind of Fausto sought in 'external authority a basis for the ethical teaching of Christianity. Sozini's extant writings are: (i) De sacramentis dissertatio (1560), four parts, and (2) De resurreclione (a fragment) ; these were first printed in F. et L. Socini, item E. Soneri tractatus (Amsterdam, 1654). To these may be added his Confession (1555), printed in Hottinger, Hist, eccles. N.T. ix. 16, 5 (1667); and about twenty-four letters, not collected, but may be found dispersed, and more or less correctly given in Illgen, in Trechsel, in the Corpus reformatorum edition of Calvin's works, and in E. Burnat, L. Socin (1894); the handwriting of the originals is exceedingly crabbed. Sand adds a Rhapsodia in Esaiam prophetam, of which nothing is known. Beza suspected that Sozini had a hand in the De haereticis, an sint persequendi (1553); and to him has also been assigned the Contra libellum Calvini (1554); both are the work of Castellio, and there is no ground for attributing any part of them to Sozini. Beza also assigned to him (in 1567) an anonymous Explicatio (1562) of the. proem of St John's Gospel, which was the work of Fausto; this error, adopted by Zanchi, has been a chief source of the misconcep- tion which treats Lelio as a heresiarch. In Franc. Gwmo'sDefensiv cath. doct. de S. Trin. (1590-1591) is an anonymous enumeralio of motives for professing the doctrine of the Trinity, by some ascribed to Lelio; by others, with somewhat more probability, to Fausto. For the life of L. Sozini the best guide is Trechsel, Die prot. antitrin. vor F. Socin, vol. ii. (1844) ; but there are valuable materials in Illgen, Vita L. Socini (1814), and especially Symbolae ad vitam et doctrinam L. Soc., &c. (1826). R. Wallace, Antitrin. biog. (1850), gives the ordinary Unitarian view, relying on Bock, Da Porta and Lubieniecki. See also Theological Review (July 1879), and Bonet- Maury's Early Sources of Eng. Unit. Christ, (trans. E. P. Hall, 1884). Use has been made above of unprinted sources. II. FAUSTO PAOLO SOZZINI (1539-1604) was born at Siena on the 5th of December 1539, the only son of Alessandro Sozzini, " princeps subtilitatum," by Agnese, daughter of Borghese Petrucci, a descendant of Pandolfo Petrucci, the Cromwell of Siena. Unlike his uncle Lelio, Fausto spells his] surname Sozzini, latinizing it Socinus. His father died in 1541, in his thirty-second year. Fausto had no regular education, being brought up at home with his sister Fillide, and spent his youth in desultory reading at Scopeto, the family country-seat. To the able women of his family he owed the strong moral impress XXV. II which marked him through life; his early intellectual stimulus came from his uncle Celso, a nominal Catholic, but an esprit fort, founder of the short-lived Accademia dei Sizienti (1554), of which young Fausto was a member. In 1556 his grandfather's will, leaving him one-fourth of the family estates, made him inde- pendent. Next year he entered the Accademia degli intronati, the centre of intellectual life in Siena, taking the academic name " II Frastagliato," his badge Un mare turbato da venti, his motto Turbant sed extollunt. About this time Panzirolo (De Claris legg. interpp., first published 1637) describes him as a young man of fine talent, with promise of a legal career; but he despised the law, preferring to write sonnets. In 1558-1559 the suspicion of Lutheranism fell on him in common with his uncles Celso and Camillo. Coming of age (1561) he went to Lyons, probably engaging in mercantile business; he revisited Italy after his uncle Lelio's death; we find him in 1562 on the roll of the Italian church at Geneva; there is no trace of any relations with Calvin; to Lyons he returned next year. The evangelical position was not radical enough for him. In his Explicatio (1562) of the proem to St John's Gospel he already attributes to our Lord an official, not an essential, deity; a letter of 1563 rejects the natural immortality of man (a position subsequently developed in his disputation with Pucci). Towards the end of 1563 he returned to Italy, conforming to the Catholic Church, and for twelve years, as his unpublished letters show, was in the service of Isabella de Medici, daughter of the grand-duke Cosimo of Tuscany (not, as Przypkowski says, in the service of the grand- duke). This portion of his life he regarded as wasted; till 1567 he gave some attention to legal duties, and at the instance of "a great personage" wrote (1570) his treatise De auctoritate s. scripturae. In 1571 he was in Rome, probably with his patroness. He left Italy at the end of 1575, and after Isabella's death (strangled by her husband in 1576) he declined the over- tures of her brother Francesco, now grand-duke, who pressed him to return. Francesco was doubtless aware of the motive which led Sozzini to quit Italy; there is every reason to believe Przypkowski's statement that the grand-duke agreed to secure to him the income of his property so long as he published nothing in his own name. Sozzini now fixed himself at Basel, gave himself to close study of the Bible, began translating the Psalms into Italian verse, and, in spite of increasing deafness, became a centre of theological debates. His discussion with Jacques Couet on the doctrine of salvation issued in a treatise De Jesu Christo seruatore (finished July 12, 1578), the circulation of which in manuscript commended him to the notice of Giorgio Blandrata (q.v.), court physician in Poland and Transylvania, and ecclesiastical wire puller in the interests of heterodoxy. Transylvania had for a short time (1559-1571) enjoyed full re- ligious liberty under an anti-Trinitarian prince, John Sigismund. The existing ruler, Christopher Bathori, favoured the Jesuits; it was now Blandrata's object to limit the " Judaic " tendencies of the eloquent anti-Trinitarian bishop, Francis David (1510- I579)> with whom he had previously co-operated. A charge of the gravest sort against Blandrata's morals had destroyed his influence with David. Hence he called in Sozzini to reason with David, who had renounced the worship of Christ. In Sozzini's scheme of doctrine, terms in themselves orthodox were employed in a heretical sense. Thus Christ was God, though in nature purely human, namely as un Dio subalterno, al quale in un data tempo il Dio supremo cedetle U governo del mondo (Cantu). In matter of worship Sozzini distinguished between adoratio Chrisli, the homage of the heart, imperative on all Christians, and inwcatio Chrisli, the direct address of prayer, which was simply permissive (Blandrata would have made it imperative); though in Sozzini's view, prayer, to whomsoever addressed, was received by Christ as mediator, for transmission to the father. In November 1578 Sozzini reached Kolozsvar (Klausenburg) from Poland, and did his best, during a visit of four months and a half under David's roof, to argue him into this modified doctrine of invocation. The upshot was that David from the pulpit exerted all his powers in denouncing all cultus of Christ. His civil trial followed, on a charge of innovation. Sozzini 322 SOCIOLOGY hurried back to Poland before it began. He cannot be accused of complicity with what he calls the rage of Blandrata; he was no party to David's incarceration at Deva, where the old man miserably perished in less than three months. He was willing that David should be prohibited from preaching pending the decision of a general synod; and his references to the case show that (as in the later instances of Jacobo Paleology, Christian Franken and Martin Seidel) theological aversions, though they never made him uncivil, froze up his native kind- ness and blinded his perceptions of character. Blandrata ultimately conformed to the Catholic Church; hence Sozzini's laudatory dedication to him (1584) of his De Jesu Christi natura, in reply to the Calvinist Andrew Wolan, though printed in his works, was not used. The remainder (1570-1604) of Sozzini's life was spent in Poland. Excluded at first by his views on baptism (which he regarded as applicable only to Gentile con- verts) from the Minor or anti-Trinitarian Church (largely ana- baptist), he acquired by degrees a predominant influence in its synods. He converted the Arians from their avowal of our Lord's pre-existence, and from their rejection of the invocatio Christi; he repressed the semi-Judaizers whom he failed to convince. Through correspondence with friends he directed also the policy of the anti-Trinitarian Church of Transylvania. Forced to leave Cracow in 1583, he found a home with a Polish noble, Christopher Morsztyn, whose daughter Elizabeth he married (1586). She died in the following year, a few months after the birth of a daughter, Agnese (1587-1654), afterwards the wife of Stanislas Wiszowaty, and the progenitress of numer- ous descendants. In 1587 the grand-duke Francesco died; to this event Sozzini's biographers attribute the loss of his Italian property, but his unpublished letters show that he was on good terms with the new grand-duke, Ferdinando. Family disputes had arisen respecting the interpretation of his grandfather's will; in October 1590 the holy office at Siena disinherited him, allowing him a pension, apparently never paid. Failure of supplies from Italy dissolved the compact under which his writings were to remain anonymous, and he began to publish in his own name. The consequence was that in 1598 a mob expelled him from Cracow, wrecking his house, and grossly ill-using his person. Friends gave him a ready welcome at Luslawice, 30 miles east from Cracow; and here, having long been troubled with colic and the stone, he died on the 4th of March 1604. A limestone block with illegible inscriptions marks his grave.1 His engraved portrait is prefixed to his works (the original is not extant) ; an oil-painting, formerly at Siena, cannot be considered authentic. Sozzini's works, edited by his grandson Andrew Wiszowaty and the learned printer F. Kuyper, are contained in two closely printed folios (Amsterdam, 1668). They rank as the first two volumes of the Bibliotheca fratrum polonorum, though the works of Crell and Schlichting were the first of the series to be printed. They include all Sozzini's extant theological writings, except his essay on pre- destination (in which he denies that God foresees the actions of free agents) prefixed to Castellio's Dialogi IV. (1578, reprinted 1613) and his revision of a school manual Instrumentum doctrinarum arislotelicum (1586). His pseudonyms, easily interpreted, were Felix Turpio Urbevetanus, Prosper Dysidaeus, Gratianus Prosper and Gratianus Turpio Gerapolensis ( = Senensis). Some of his early verse is in Ferentilli's Scielta di stanze di diversi autori toscani (1579, 1594); other specimens are given in Cantu and in the Athenaeum (Aug. II, 1877); more are preserved at Siena. Sozzini considered that his ablest work was his Contra atheos, which perished in the riot at Cracow (1598). Later he began, but left incomplete, more than one work designed to exhibit his system as a whole. His reputation as a thinker must rest upon (l) his De auctoritate s. scripturae (1570) and (2) his De Jesu Christo servatore (1578). The former was first published (Seville, 1588) by Lopez, a Jesuit, who claimed it as his own, but prefixed a preface maintaining (contrary to a fundamental position of Sozzini) that man by nature has a knowledge of God. A French version (1592) was approved by the ministers of Basel ; the English translation by Edward Coombe (1731) was undertaken in consequence of the commendation in a charge (1728) by Bishop Smalbroke, who observes that Grotius had borrowed from it in his De veritate Christ, rel. In small 1 No trace is discoverable on the stone of the alleged epitaph : — " Tota ruit Babylon ; destruxit tecta Lutherus, Calvinus muros, sed fundamenta Socinus." compass it anticipates the historical argument of the "credi- bility " writers; in trying it by modern tests, it should be remem- bered that Sozzini, regarding it (1581) as not adequately meeting the cardinal difficulties attending the proof of the Christian religion, began to reconstruct its positions in his Lectiones sacrae (unfinished). His treatise on the Saviour renders a real service to theology] placing orthodoxy and heresy in new relations of fundamental antagonism, and narrowing the conflict to the main personal benefit of religion. _ Of the person of Christ in this treatise he says nothing; its one topic is the work of Christ, which in his view operates upon man alone; the theological sagacity of Sozzini may be measured by the persistency with which this idea tends to recur. Though his name has been attached to a school of opinion, he disclaimed the r61e of a heresiarch, and declined to give his unreserved adhesion to any one sect. His confidence in the conclusions of his own mind has earned him the repute of a dogmatist ; but it was his constant aim to reduce and simplify the fundamentals of Christianity. Not without some ground does the memorial tablet at Siena (inscription by Brigidi, 1879) characterize him as vindicator of human reason against the supernatural. Of his non-theological doctrines the most important is his assertion of the unlawfulness, not only of war, but of the taking of human life in any circumstances. Hence ciie comparative mildness of his proposals for dealing with religious and anti-religious offenders, though it cannot be said that he had grasped the complete theory of toleration. Hence, too, his contention that magisterial office is unlawful for a Christian. AUTHORITIES. — For the biography of Sozzini the best materials are his letters; a collection is in his works; others are given by Cantu; more are preserved at Siena and Florence ; his correspondence is open and frank, never sparing his weak points. The earliest life (prefixed to his works) is by S. Przypkowski (1636) ; in English, by J. Bidle (1653). This is the foundation of the article by Bayle, the Memoirs by J. Toulmin (1777), and the article by R. Wallace (Antitrin. Biog., 1850). Cantu's sketch in Gli Eretici d'ltalia (1866) gives a genealogy of the Sozzini (needing revision). The best defence of Sozzini in his relations with David is by James Yates (Christ. Pioneer, Feb. 1834); a less favourable view is taken by David's Hungarian biographer, Elek Jakab (Ddvid ' F. Emleke, 1879). Of his system — best known through the Racovian Catechism (1605, planned by Sozzini and carried out by others, principally Valentine Schmalz) ; in English, by T. Rees (1818) — there is a special study by O. Fock, Der Socinianismus (1847). See also The Sozzini and their School, by A. Gordon (Theol. Rev., 1879; cf. Christian Life, Aug. 25, 1883). Use has been made above of unpublished papers in the archives of Florence, with others in the archives, communal library and collection of Padre Toti at Siena. (A. Go. *) SOCIOLOGY, a science which in the most inclusive sense may be defined as that of human society, in the same manner that Biology may be taken to imply the science of life. The word Sociologie was first used by Comte in 1839 as an equivalent of the expression, social physics, previously in use, and was intro- duced, he said, to describe by a single term that part of natural philosophy which relates to the positive study of the fundamental laws of social phenomena. The word is a hybrid, compounded from both Latin and Greek terms. It is now generally accepted in international usage; none of the terms, such as politics, political science, social economy, social philosophy and social science which have been suggested instead of it having succeeded in taking its place. There has been in the past a certain hesitation, especially in England, to admit sociology as the title of a particular science in itself until it was made clear what the subject must be considered to cover. In certain quarters sociology is still often incorrectly spoken of as if it implied the practical equivalent of the science of politics. Henry Sidgwick, for instance, con- sidered the word as usually employed in this sense, and while he himself recognized that sociology must have a wider scope than politics, he thought that in practice " the difference between the two subjects is not indeed great " (Elements of Politics). This view of sociology, which at one time widely prevailed, dates from an earh'er period of knowledge. The difference between sociology and the science of politics is wide and is due to funda- mental causes, a true perception of which is essential to the proper study of the science of society. It is a feature of organisms that as we rise in the scale of life the meaning of the present life of the organism is to an increasing degree subordinate to the larger meaning of its life as a whole. Similarly, as the advance from primitive society to society of a more organic type takes place, a marked feature of the change is the development of the principles through which the increasing subordination of the SOCIOLOGY 323 present interests of society to the future interests of society is accomplished. It is, however, characteristic of the last-mentioned principles that their operation extends beyond the political con- sciousness of the state or nation, and that this distinction becomes more and more marked in the higher societies. The scope and meaning of sociology as a science is, therefore, quite different from the scope and meaning of the science of politics. In other quarters, again, the word sociology is often incorrectly used as no more than a covering term for subjects which are fully treated in various subdivisions of social science. Thus when the science of society is distinguished from the special social sciences which fall within its general purview, it may be considered, says Lester F. Ward, that " we may range the next most general departments as so many genera, each with its appropriate species — that is, the classification of the sciences may be made strictly synoptical. When this is done it will be possible for philosophers, like good systematists, to avoid making their ordinal characters include any properly generic ones, or their generic characters include any that are only specific. Thus understood, sociology is freed from the unnecessary embarrassment of having hanging about it in more or less disorder a burden of complicated details, in a great variety of attitudes which make it next to impossible to secure due attention to the fundamental principles of so vast a science. These details are classified and assigned each to its proper place (genus or species), and the field is cleared for the calm contemplation of the central problem of determining the facts, the law and the principles of human association " (Outlines of Sociology). This definition, good as it is in some respects, does not make clear to the mind the essential fact of the science, namely, that the principles of sociology involve more than the generalized total of the principles of the subordinate sciences which it is said to include. In Herbert Spencer's writings we see the subject in a period of transition. Spencer placed his Principles of Sociology between his Principles of Psychology and Principles of Ethics. This fact brings out the unsettled state of the subject in his time, while it also serves to exhibit the dominance of the ideas of an earlier stage. For psychology, which Spencer thus places before sociology, cannot nowadays be fully, or even in any real sense scientifically, dis- cussed apart from sociological principles, once it is accepted that in the evolution of the human mind the principles of the social process are always the ultimate controlling factor. Sociology, therefore, as a true science in itself, must be regarded as a science occupied quite independently with the principles which underlie human society considered as in a con- .n of development. In this sense the conclusions of sociology cannot be fully stated in relation to the phenomena dealt with in any of the divisions of social science, and they must be taken as implying more than the sum total of the results obtained in all of them. The sociologist must always keep clearly before him that the claims of sociology in the present conditions of knowledge go considerably beyond those involved in any of the foregoing positions. As it is the meaning of the social process which in the last resort controls everything, even the evolution of the human mind and all its contents, so none of the sciences of human action, such as ethics, politics, economics or psychology can have any standing as a real science except it obtains its credentials through sociology by making its approach through the sociological method. It is in sociology, in short, that we obtain the ruling principles to which the laws and principles of all the social sciences stand in controlled and subordinate relationship. The fathers of the science of society may be said to be the Greek philosophers, and in particular Plato and Aristotle. The Sociology Laws and the Republic of the former and the Ethics among the and Politics of the latter have, down to modern times, Greets. an(j notwithstanding the great difference in the stand- point of the world and the change in social and political conditions, exercised a considerable influence on the develop- ment of the theory of society. To the Greeks the science of society presented itself briefly as the science of the best method of attaining the most perfect life within the consciousness of the associated life of the State. " In this ideal of the State," says Bluntschli, " are combined and mingled all the efforts of the Greeks in religion and in law, in morals and social life, in art and science, in the acquisition and management of wealth, in trade and industry. The individual requires the State to give him a legal existence: apart from the State he has neither safety nor freedom. The barbarian is a natural enemy, and conquered enemies become slaves. . . . The Hellenic State, like the ancient State in general . . . was all in all. The citizen was nothing except as a member of the State. His whole existence depended on and was subject to the State. . . . The State knew neither moral nor legal limits to its power " (Theory of the State). It was within the limits of this conception that most of the Greek theories of society were constructed. The fundamental conception of the Roman writers was not essentially different, although the opportunism of the Rom State, when it became a universal power embrac- ing the social and religious systems of many peoples, in some degree modified it; so that with the growth of jus gentium outside the jus civile, the later writers of the empire brought into view an aspect of the State in which law began to be to some extent distinguished from State morality. With the spread of Christianity in Western Europe there commenced a stage in which the social structure, and with it the theory of society, underwent profound modifications. These changes are still in progress, and the period over which they extend has pro- duced a great and increasing number of writers on the science of society. The conceptions of each period have been intimately related to the character of the influences controlling development at the time. The writers up to the i4th century are nearly all absorbed in the great controversy between the spiritual and temporal power which was defining itself during this stage in Western history. In the period of the Renaissance and the Reformation the modern development of the theory of society may be said to begin. Machiavelli is the first great name in this period. Bodin with other writers up to the time of Mon- tesquieu carry the development forward in France. The Dutch writer Grotius, although chiefly recognized at the time as an authority on international law, had much influence in bringing into view principles which mark more directly the transition to the modern period, his De jure belli et pads, issued in 1625, being in many respects an important contribution to the theory of society. Hobbes and Locke are the principal representatives of the influential school of writers on the principles of society which the period of the political and religious upheaval of the I7th century produced in England. The ideas of Locke, in particular, exercised a considerable influence on the subsequent development of the theory of the State in Western thought. From the lyth century forward it may be said, strictly speaking, that all the leading contributions to the general body of Western philosophy have been contributions to the development of the science of society. At the time of Locke, and to a large extent in Locke's writings, there may be distinguished three distinct tendencies in the prevailing theory of society. Each of these has since become more definite, and has progressed along a particular line of development. There is first the empirical tendency, which is to be followed through the philosophy of Hume down to the present day, in what may be called — to borrow an idea from Huxley — the physiological method in the modern study of the science of society. A second tendency — which developed through the critical philosophy of Kant, the idealism of Hegel, and the historical methods of Savigny in the field of jurisprudence and of the school of Schmoller in the domain of economics — finds its current expression in the more characteristically German conception of the organic nature of the modern State. A third tendency — which is to be followed through the writings of Rousseau, Diderot, d'Alembert and the literature of the French Revolution — found its most influential form of expression in the ipth century in the theories of the English Utilitarians, from Bentham to John Stuart Mill. In this development it is a theory of the utilitarian State which is principally in view. In 324 SOCIOLOGY Comte. its latest phase it has progressed to the expression which it has reached in the theories of Marxian Socialism, in which the corresponding conception of the ascendancy of the economic factor in history may now be said to be the characteristic feature. All of these developments, the meaning of which has now been absorbed into the larger evolutionary conception to be described later, must be considered to have contributed towards the foun- dation of modern sociology. The definition of the relations to each other of the positions they have severally brought into view is the first important v/ork of the new science. At the period between 1830 and 1842, when Comte published the Philosophic positive, the conditions were not ready for a science of society. The Darwinian doctrine of evolution by natural selection had not yet been enunciated, and knowledge of social phenomena was limited and very imperfect. As an instance of the character of the change that has since been in progress, it may be mentioned that one of Comte's main positions — that, indeed, to which most of the characteristic conceptions of his system of philosophy were related — was that "the anatomical and physiological study of individual man " should precede the theory of the human mind and of human society. Here the position is the one already referred to which has prevailed in the study of the social sciences down into recent times. It was supposed that the governing principles of society were to be discovered by the introspective study of the individual mind, rather than that the clue to the governing principles of the individual mind was only to be discovered by the study of the social process. It must now be considered that no really fundamental or far-reaching principle of human development can be formulated as the result of Comte's position. For with the application of the doctrine of evolution to society a position is becoming defined which is almost the reverse of it, namely, that the development of the individual, and to a large extent of the human mind itself, must be regarded as|the correlative of the social process in evolution. The study of the principles of the process of social evolution would therefore in this sense have to come before the complete study of the individual, and even to precede the construction of a system of psychology scientific in the highest sense. Comte, apart from his want of mastery of the historical method in dealing with sociological 'development, possessed, on the whole, little insight into the meaning of the characteristic problem in which the human mind is involved in its social evolution, and to the definition of which not only the processes of Western history, but the positions successively developed in Western thought, must all be considered as con- tributing. His great merit was the perception of the importance of the biological method in the science of society, the comprehen- sion of the fact that there can be no science of society if its divisions are studied apart from each other; and finally, and although it led at the time to the formulation of no important principle of human development, the intuition that sociology was not simply a theory of the State, but the science of what he called the associated life of humanity. It has to be observed that, preceding the application of the doctrine of evolution to society, most of the contributions to The Ruling soc'al science have a certain aspect in which they Principle of resemble each other. While in current theories Early Sod- society tends to be presented as evolving, consciously oiogkal of unconsciously, under stress of natural selection, /;o"s?/n/7u-towards social efficiency, the earlier contributions enceof were merely theories of the meaning and object Greek Coo- of society as a medium for the better realization of 'the'state' human desires- In tm°s presentation of the sub- ject the influence of the Greek conception of the State upon modern sociology may be traced down to the present day. At the beginning of the modern period it reappears in Machiavelli (Titus Livius, i., iii., and The Prince). It is represented in modified form in Hobbes (Leviathan), and in Locke (Two Treatises of Government), each of whom conceived man as desiring to leave the state of nature and as consciously founding civilized society, " in order that he might obtain the benefits of government " in the associated State. It is continued in Rousseau and the writers of the French Revolu- tion, who similarly imagined the individual voluntarily leaving an earlier state of freedom to put " his person and his power under the direction of the' general will " (Social Contract). It is characteristic of Jeremy Bentham (e.g. Principles of Morals and Legislation, i.) and of J. S. Mill (e.g. Utilitari- anism and Political Economy, iv., vi.). Finally, it survives in Herbert Spencer, who in like manner sees man originating society and submitting to political subordination in the asso- ciated State " through experience of the increased satisfaction derived under it " (Data of Ethics). It continues at the present day to be characteristic of many European and some American writers on sociology, who have been influenced both by Spencer and the Latin theory of the State, and who therefore, conceiving sociology not so much as a science of social evolution as a theory of association, proceed to consider the progress of human associa- tion as the development of a process " of catering to human desire for satisfactions of varying degrees of complexity." All these ideas of society bear the same stamp. They conceive the science of society as reached through the science of the individual, the associated State being regarded only as a medium through which he obtains increased satisfactions. In none of them is there a clear conception of an organic science of society with laws and principles of its own controlling all the meaning of the individual. With the application of the doctrine of evolution the older idea in which society is always conceived as the State and as existing to give increased " satisfaction " is replaced The Doc- by a new and much more extended conception. In triaeof the evolutionary view, the development of human Evolution. society is regarded as the product of a process of stress, in which progress results from natural selection along the line not of least effort in realizing human desire, but of the highest social efficiency in the struggle for existence of the materials of which society is composed. In the intensity of this process society, evolving towards higher efficiency, tends to become increasingly organic, the distinctive feature being the growing subordination of the individual to the organic social process. All the tendencies of development — political, economic, ethical and psychological — and the contents of the human mind itself, have therefore to be regarded as having ultimate relations to the governing prin- ciples of the process as a whole. The science of social evolution has, in short, to be considered, according to this view, as the science of the causes and principles subordinating the individual to a process developing by inherent necessity towards social efficiency, and therefsre as ultimately over-ruling all desires and interests in the individual towards the highest social potentiality of the materials of which society is composed. The conflict between the old and the new conceptions may be distinguished to an increasing degree as the scope of modern sociology has gradually become defined; and the opposing ideas of each may be observed to be sometimes represented and blended, in varying degrees of complexity, in one and the same writer. It was natural that one of the first ideas to be held by theor- ists, as soon as sociology began to make progress to the position of a real science, was that society must be considered Flrst Coa_ to be organic, and that the term "social organism " ceptionsof should be brought into use. An increasing number Society as of writers have been concerned with this aspect of aa Orgaa- the 'subject, but it has to be noted as a fact of much interest that all the first ideas of society as an organism move within the narrow circle of the old conception of the State just described. The " social organism " in this first stage of theory is almost universally confused with the State. The interests of the social organism are therefore confused with the interest of the individuals which men saw around them in the State. The science of society was accordingly regarded as no more than the science of realizing most effec- tively here and now the desires of those comprising the existing State. Sidgwick, for instance, considered the science of politics and the science of sociology as practically coincident, SOCIOLOGY 325 and his Elements of Politics, extraordinary to relate, contains only a few words in which it is recognized that the welfare of the community may be interpreted to mean the welfare not only of living human beings, but of those who are to come hereafter; while there is no attempt to apply the fact to any law or principle of human development. Bentham's utilitarian philosophy, like that of the two Mills, was based almost entirely on the idea of the State conceived as the social organism. Writers like Herbert Spencer (Sociology) and Schaffle, who was for a time minister of commerce for Austria (Ban und Leben des socialen Korpers), instituted lengthy comparisons between the social organism considered as the State and the living individual organ- ism. These efforts reached their most characteristic expression in the work of the sociologists who have followed G. Simmel in lengthy and ingenious attempts at classifying associations, considering them " as organizations for catering to human desire." In all these efforts the conception of the State as the social organism is vigorously represented, although it is par- ticularly characteristic of the work of sociologists in countries where the influence of Roman law is still strong, and where, consequently, the Latin conception of the State tends to influence all theories of society as soon as the attempt is made to place them on a scientific basis. The sterilizing effect for long pro- duced on sociology by this first restricted conception of the social organism has been most marked. It is often exemplified in ingenious attempts made, dealing with the principles of sociology, to construct long categories of human associations, based on quite superficial distinctions. None of the comparisons of this kind that have been made have contributed in any marked degree to the elucidation of the principles of modern society. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu's criticism of Schaffle's efforts at compari- sons— anatomical, physiological, biological and psychological — between the individual organism and the State as a social organism applies to most of the attempts of this period to insti- tute biological comparisons between the life of the social organ- ism and that of organisms in general, " the mind sinks over- whelmed under the weight of all these analogies, these endless divisions and subdivisions to which they give rise. . . . The result is not in proportion to the effort " (L'Etat moderne el ses fonctions). In tracing the direction of this conflict between the newer and older tendencies in modern sociology, it is in Herbert Spencer's writings that the student will find presented in Spencer clearest definition the characteristic difficulty with which the old view has tended to be confronted, as the attempt has continued to be made to enunciate the principles of human development from the standpoint that society is to be considered as a " social organism," but while as yet there is no clear idea of a social organism with its own laws and its own consciousness quite distinct from, and extending far beyond those governing the interests of the individuals at present com- prising the State. With the application of the doctrine of evolution to society considered as an organism, a position has been brought into view of great interest. It is evident in considering the application of natural selection to human society that there is a fact, en- countered at the outset, which is so fundamental that it must be held to control all the phenomena of social evolution. It is nowadays a commonplace of knowledge, that the potential efficiency of an organism must always be taken to be greater than the sum total of the potential efficiency of all its members acting as individuals. This arises in the first instance from the fact, to be observed on all hands in life, of the effects of organiz- ation, of division of labour, and of specialization of work. But in an organism of indefinitely extended existence like human society, it arises in a special sense from the operation of principles giving society prolonged stability. By these principles indi- vidual interests are subordinated over long periods of time to the larger interests of organic society in which the individuals for the time being cannot participate; and it is from this cause that civilization of the highest type obtains its characteristic potency and efficiency in the struggle for existence with lower types. There follows from this fact, obvious enough once it is mentioned, an important inference. This is that in the evolution of society natural selection will, in its characteristic results, reach the individual not directly, but through society. That is to say, in social evolution, the interests of the individual, qua individual, cease to be a matter of first importance. It is by development in the individual of the qualities which will contribute most to the efficiency of society, that natural selection will in the long run produce its distinctive results in the human individual. It is, in short, about this function of socialization, involving the increasing subordination of the individual, that the continued evolution of society by natural selection must be held to centre. Societies in which the individuals resist the process quickly reach the limits of their progress, and have to give way in the struggle for existence before others more organic in which the process of subordination continues to be developed. In the end it is the social organizations in which the interests of the individual are most effectively included in and rendered subservient to the interests of society considered in its most organic aspect that, from their higher efficiency, are naturally selected. In other words, it is the principles subordinating the individual to the efficiency of society in those higher organic aspects that project far beyond the life-interests of its existing units which must ultimately control all principles whatever of human association. Spencer, in an elaborate comparison which he made (Essays, vol. i., and Principles of Sociology) between the social organism and the individual organism brought into viqw a Spencer ana position which in its relation to this capital fact of Natural human evolution exhibits in the clearest manner •Se/ec*'«0' how completely all the early evolutionists, still under the influence of old conceptions, failed at first to grasp the signifi- cance of the characteristic problems of the social organism. Spencer's comparison originally appeared in an article published in the Westminster Review for January 1860 entitled " The Social Organism." This article is in many respects one of the most noteworthy documents in the literature of the last half of the igth century. In comparing the social with the indi- vidual organism Spencer proceeded, after noting the various aspects in which a close analogy between the two can be estab- lished, to make, as regards society, an important distinction by which the nature of the difficulty in which he is involved is immediately made apparent. While in an individual organism, he pointed out, it is necessary that the lives of all the parts should be merged in the life of the whole, because the whole has a corporate consciousness capable of happiness or misery, it is not so with society. For in society, he added, the " living units do not and cannot lose individual consciousness, since the community as a whole has no corporate consciousness." Spencer proceeded, therefore, to emphasize the conclusion that " this is an ever- lasting reason why the welfare of citizens cannot rightly be sacrificed to some supposed benefit of the State; but why, on the other hand, the State is to be maintained solely for the benefit of citizens." The extraordinary conclusion is indeed reached by Spencer that " the corporate life in society must be subservient to the lives of the parts, instead of the lives of the parts being subservient to the corporate life." It will be here clearly in evi- dence that the " social organism " which Spencer had in view was the State. But it will be noticed at the same time how alto- gether remarkable was the position into which he was carried. Spencer, like most thinking minds of his time, had the clearest vision, constantly displayed in his writings, of the scientific importance of that development in history which has gradu- ally projected the conception of the individual's rights outside all theories of obligation to the State. He wrote at a time when the attention of the Western mind in all progressive move- ments in Western politics had been for generations fixed on that development in which the liberties of the individual as against the State had been won. This development had involved nearly all Western countries in a titanic struggle against the institutions of an earlier form of society resting on force organ- ized in the State. Spencer, therefore, like almost every advanced 326 SOCIOLOGY writer of his period, had constantly before him the character- istic fact of his age, namely, that the meaning of the individual had come to be in some way accepted as transcending all theories of the State and all theories of his obligations to the State. The position was, therefore, very remarkable. Spencer has been for long accepted by the general mind as the modern writer who more than any other has brought into use the term "social organism," and who has applied the doctrine of evolu- tion to the theory of its life. Yet here we see him involved in the apparent self-stultification of describing the social organism to us as that impossible thing, an organism " whose corporate life must be subservient to the lives of the parts instead of the lives of the parts being subservient to the corporate life." It was obvious that some profound confusion existed. The science of society was evidently destined to carry us much farther than this. If natural selection was to be taken as operating on society, and therefore as tending to produce the highest efficiency out of the materials that comprise it, it must be effecting the subordination of the interests of the units to the higher corporate efficiency of society. But one of only two conclusions could therefore result from Spencer's position. If we were to regard the " social organism " as an organism in which the corporate life must be subservient to the lives of the parts, instead of the lives of the parts being subservient to the corporate life, it would be necessary to hold that the individual had succeeded in arrest- ing the characteristic effects of natural selection on society. But for the evolutionist, whose great triumph it had been to reveal to us the principles of natural selection in universal operation throughout life elsewhere, to have to regard them as suspended in human society would be an absurd anti-climax. Such being scarcely conceivable as a final position, it remained only to infer that natural selection must still be subordinating individual interests to some larger social meaning in the evolutionary process. But in this case, society must be subject to principles which reach farther than those Spencer conceived: it must be organic in some different and wider sense than he imagined, and the analogy of the " social organism " as confined within the consciousness of ascendant interests in the political State must be considered to be a false one. We had, in short, reached a capital position in the history of sociology from which an entirely new horizon was about to A New become visible. The principles of society organic Horizon la [n a wider sense than had hitherto been conceived Sociology. were about to be brought into the discussion. All the phenomena of the creeds and ethical systems of humanity, of the great systems of religion and philosophy, with the problems of which the human mind had struggled over immense stretches of time as the subordinating process had unfolded itself in history, were about to be brought into sociology. And not now as if these represented some detached and functionless development with which the science of society was not directly concerned, but as themselves the central feature of the evolutionary process in human society. The stage in the history of sociology charac- terized by the confusion of the principles governing the social organism with those governing the State, the stage which had lasted from the time of the Greeks to Spencer, and which had witnessed towards its close Sidgwick's statement that the science of sociology was in effect coincident with the science of politics, was thus bound to be definitely terminated by the application to the science of society of the doctrine of evolution. Yet Spencer, despite his popular association with the doctrine of evolution, is thus not to be reckoned as the first of the philo- sophers of this new stage. His place is really with the last great names of the preceding period. For his conception of society was that of Bentham, Mill and Sidgwick. His Principles of Sociology as a contribution to modern evolutionary science is necessarily rendered to a large extent futile by the sterilizing conception of a social organism " in which the corporate life must be sub- servient to the lives of the parts." It is indeed in the reversal of this conception that the whole significance of the application of the doctrine of evolution to the science of society consists. Henceforward we shall have to regard the social process in evolution as a process with its own interests, its own psychology, its own consciousness and its own laws, all quite distinct from the political consciousness of the modern State, though indi- rectly controlling and governing the consciousness of the State so thoroughly that there can be no true science of the latter without a science of the former. The new situation created in sociology as the doctrine of evolution began to be applied to the science had features of great interest. The advance had been made to a central ne Flnt position along two entirely distinct lines. The Darwinian* army of workers was, in consequence, divided into in Sociology. two more or less isolated camps, each largely in ignorance of the relation of its own work to that in the other section. It is often said as a reproach to sociology in the period through which we are passing that it attracts the kind of recruits who are not best equipped for its work, while it repels the kind of mind of philosophical training and wide outlook which it ought to enlist in its service and for which it has most urgent need, the loss to sociology both in credit and efficiency being immense. This is the result of a peculiar situation. Those who are best qualified to understand the nature and scope of the problems with which sociology has to deal cannot fail to have the conviction strongly developed in them that the Darwinian principles of evolution which reveal to us what may be described as the dynamics of the universal life process have very important relations to the dynamics of the social process. The situa- tion which has arisen in sociology, however, is a very curious one, although it is one easy to understand when the causes are explained. When the endeavour is made to follow Darwin and the early Darwinians through the facts and researches which led to the formulation of the law of natural selection it may be observed how their preoccupation was almost exclusively with the details of the struggle for existence not in societies, but as it was waged between individuals. This was so as a matter of course, from the character of the facts which wild nature supplied, reinforced as they were, by observations on domestic animals and the practices of breeders. Darwin made no systematic study of society; and outside human society the struggle through which natural selection has operated has been mainly between individuals. It is, of course, sometimes remarked that the social life exists among animals and that the laws of the social life and of the herd are to be observed there, but as a matter of fact there is nothing whatever elsewhere in life to compare with what we see taking place in human society, namely, the gradual integration — still under all the stress of natural selection expressing its effects in the person of the individual — of an organic social process resting ultimately on mind. The laws of this process are necessarily quite different from the laws of the other and simpler process in operation lower down in life. If we regard the classes from which sociology as a science should be able to draw its most efficient recruits we see that at the present day they fall mainly into two camps. There are in the one camp the exponents of biological principles, often trained in one or more of the departments of biological science, who are attempting the application to human society of the principles with which they have become familiar elsewhere in life. There are in the second camp the exponents of various aspects of social philosophy. When the exponent of Darwinian principles advances to the study of society he is naturally strong in the conviction that he has in his hands a most potent instrument of knowledge which ought to carry him far in the organization of the social sciences and towards the unification of the leading principles underlying the facts with which they deal. But what we soon begin to see is that his training has been, and that his preoccupation still continues to be, with the facts and principles of the struggle for existence between individuals as displayed elsewhere in life. He does not easily realize, if he has not been trained in social philosophy, how infinitely more com- plex all the problems of natural selection have become in the social integration resting on mind which is taking place in human affairs; or how the social efficiency with which he has become now concerned is something quite distinct from the individual SOCIOLOGY 327 efficiency with which he has been concerned elsewhere. He does not readily comprehend how the institutions which he sees being evolved in history have, in their effects on the individual, laws quite different from those which he applies in the breeding of animals; or how the dualism which has been opened in the human mind, as natural selection acts first of all on the individual in his own struggle with his fellows, and then, and to a ruling degree, acts on his as a member of organic society in the evolution of social efficiency, has in the religious and ethical systems of the race a phenomenology of its own, stupendous in extent and absolutely characteristic of the social process, which remains a closed book to him and the study of which he is often apt to consider for his purposes as entirely meaningless. All this became rapidly visible in the first approach of the early Darwinians to the science of society. Darwin, as stated, had attempted no comprehensive or systematic study of society. But in a few chapters of the Descent Darwin °f ^an ^e ^ad discussed the qualities of the human mind, including the social and moral feelings, from the point of view of the doctrine 'of natural selection enunci- ated in the Origin of Species. The standpoint he took up was, as might be expected, practically that of Mill and Spencer and other writers of the period on social subjects, from whom he quoted freely. But the note of bewilderment was remarkable. The conclusion remarked upon as implied in Spencer's theory of the social organism, but which Spencer himself hesitated to draw, namely, that natural selection was to be regarded as suspended in human society, Darwin practically formulated. Thus at times Darwin appeared to think that natural selection could effect but comparatively little in advanced society. " With highly civilized nations," he says, " continued progress depends to a subordinate degree on natural selection." While Darwin noted the obvious useful- ness of the social and moral qualities in many cases, he felt constrained at the same time to remark upon their influence in arresting, as appeared to him, the action of natural selection in civilization. " We civilized men," he continues, " do our utmost to check the process of elimination (of the weak in body and mind) ; we build asylums for the imbeciles, the maimed and the sick; we institute poor laws; and our medical men exert their utmost skill to save the life of every one to the last moment." There is here in evidence no attempt to connect the phenomena thus brought into view with some wider principle of the evolutionary process which evidently must control them. There is no perception visible in Darwin's mind of these facts as constituting the phenomenology of a larger principle of natural selection; or of the higher organic efficiency in the struggle for existence of societies in which the sense of responsibility to life thus displayed has made most progress; or of the immense significance in social evolution as distinct from individual evolution of that deepening of the social con- sciousness of which this developing spiritual sense of responsi- bility to our fellow creatures is one of the outward marks characteristic of advanced societies. In the year 1889 Alfred Russel Wallace in a statement of his conception of the doctrine of evolution in his book, Darwinism, Wallace brought more clearly into view the fundamental difficulty of the early Darwinians in applying the doctrine of natural selection to society. In the last chapter of the book Mr Wallace maintained that there were in " man's intellectual and moral nature . . . certain definite portions . . . which could not have been developed by variation and natural selection alone." Certain faculties, amongst which he classed the mathematical, artistic and metaphysical, the latter covering qualities with which he considered priests and philosophers to be concerned, were, he asserted, " altogether removed from utility in the struggle for life," and were, therefore, he thought, " wholly unexplained by the theory of natural selection." In this elementary conception which still survives in popular literature, the same confusion between individual efficiency and social efficiency has to be remarked upon. And there is in evidence the same failure to perceive that it is just these intellectual and moral qualities which are the absolutely characteristic products of natural selection in advanced society, in that they contribute to the highest organic social efficiency. Wallace in the result proposed to consider man, in respect of these higher portions of his mind, as under the influence of some cause or causes wholly distinct from those which had shaped the development of life in its other characteristics. The weakness of this position was immediately apparent. To remove man as regards qualities so directly associated with his social evolution from the influence of the law of natural selection was felt to be a step backwards. The effect produced on the minds of the younger school of evolutionists was deep. It operated, indeed, not to convince them that Wallace was right, but to make them feel that his conception of natural selection operating in human society was still in some respect profoundly and radically incomplete. A few years later, Huxley, though approaching the matter from a different direction, displayed a like bewilderment in attempting to apply the doctrine of evolution to the „ xle phenomena of organic society. With his mind fixed on the details of the individual struggle for existence among animals, Huxley reached in the Romanes lecture, delivered at Oxford in 1893, a position little different from that in which Wallace found himself. In this lecture Huxley actually proceeded to place the ethical process in human society in opposition to the cosmic process, to which latter alone he considered the struggle for existence and the principle of natural selection belonged. " Social progress," he went on to say, " means a checking of the cosmic process at every step and the substitution for it of another which may be called the ethical process; the end of which is not the survival of those who may happen to be the fittest, in respect of the whole of the conditions which obtain, but of those who are ethically the best." Thus the remarkable spectacle already witnessed in Spencer, Darwin and Wallace of the evolutionist attempting to apply his doctrines to human society, but having to regard his own central principle of natural selection as having been suspended therein is repeated in Huxley. The futility of contemplating the ethical process as something distinct from the cosmic process was at once apparent. For the first lesson of evolution as applied to society must be that they are one and the same. So far indeed from ethical process checking the cosmic process, it must be regarded as the last and highest form of the cosmic process. The sense of subordination and sacrifice which forms the central principle of all the creeds of humanity, so far from being, as Wallace imagined, "altogether removed from utility" is, indeed, the highest form of social efficiency through which natural selection is producing its most far-reaching effects in the evolution of the most advanced and organic types of civilization. A similar tendency continued to be in evidence in other directions. In an effort made a few years later to found a society for the study of sociology in Great Britain _ n a very characteristic feature of the first papers contributed was the attempt to apply elementary biological generalizations regarding natural selection to a highly complex organism like human society, the writers having in most cases made no previous extensive or special study of the social process in history. The confusion between what constitutes individual efficiency in the individual and that higher social efficiency in the individual which everywhere controls and overrules individual efficiency was very marked. An early paper contributed in 1904 was by Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis Gallon, one of the last and greatest of the early Darwinians. Gallon had made many original contributions to the doctrine of evolution, and had been occupied previously with researches into individual efficiency as displayed among families, his Hereditary Genius being a notable book of this type. The object of his paper was to explain the scope and aim of a new science, " eugenics," which he defined as the science which deals with all the influences that improve the inborn qualities of the race and develop them to the utmost advantage. Gallon found no difficulty whatever in selling up his sociological slandards for the best specimens of the race. Even the animals in the Zoological Gardens, he 328 SOCIOLOGY said, might be supposed to know the best specimens of their class. In society the list of best qualities would include health, energy, ability, manliness and the special aptitudes required by various professions and occupations. Everything in " the scientific breeding of the human race " was to be much as in the breeding of animals; for Gallon proposed to leave morals out of the question as involving too many hopeless difficulties. This was the basis of the scheme of qualities from which he proposed to proceed to the improved breeding of society. The proposal furnishes one of the most striking and characteristic examples which have appeared of the deep-seated confusion prevailing in the minds of the early Darwinians between social efficiency and individual efficiency. Even from the few minor examples of society among the lower animals the true sociological criticism of such standards in eugenics might easily be supplied. For at the point at which the social insects, for instance, began their social integration all their standards were in the qualities which gave success in the struggle for existence between indi- viduals. Had they, therefore, understood eugenics only in this light and in Gallon's sense, they would have condemned at the first the beginnings of the peculiar social efficiency of the queen bee which now makes her devote her life entirely to egg-laying; still more would they have condemned the habils of the drones, through long persistence in which they have become degenerate as individuals; and in particular they would have condemned the habits of the workers which have led to their present undeveloped bodies and abortive individualistic instincts. But all these things have contributed in the highest degree to the social efficiency of the social insects and have made the type a winning one in evolution. The social integration of the social insects has been comparatively simple and did not, like that of human society, rest ultimately on mind, yet even in this elementary example it was evident what ruin and disaster would result from miscalled scientific breeding of the race if undertaken within the limits of such restricted conceptions of social efficiency. Gallon's preoccupation, as in the case of most biological and medical schemes of improvement in the past, was with those individualistic qualities which contribute to the individual's success in the struggle for existence with his fellows. But it has been continuously obvious in history that individuals of the very highest social efficiency, the great organic minds of the race who, often quite unsuccessful in their lives as judged by individualistic standards, and who, often quite unperceived and unappreciated by their contemporaries, have been the authors of ideas, or moral conceptions or works of such organic importance that they have carried the race from one social horizon into another, have been just those individuals who would have entirely failed to pass the kind of prize-animal standards which Gallon proposed to set up. Gallon's essay may be said lo close that firsl epoch in the applicalion of biological conceptions to sociology which The ci s °Pene(i with Spencer's essay in 1860. With the of the First extending conception of the organic interesls of Stage of sociely during the intervening period the idea of Darwinian socjai efficiency had altered profoundly. For instance, a supposed standard of efficiency, which like Malthu- sianism represenled to Mill at the opening of the period Ihe last conclusion of science, had become towards the close scarcely more than a slandard of " race suicide." Il was nol surprising that in these circumslances Ihe represenlalives of Ihose sciences which resled on a knowledge of Ihe social process in hislory and philosophy conlinued lo look coldly on Ihe altempt of the first Darwinians lo apply Darwinian principles lo sociology. True, Ihe developmenl in Iheir own sciences had been almosl equally slerile, for Ihey had Ihemselves as yel no reasoned conception of the enormous importance of the Darwinian principle of evolution to these sciences in its capacity lo reveal lo Ihem the dynamics of Ihe social process. Bui Ihey had walched Ihe developmenl of inslilulions in hislory; Ihey had sludied Ihe growlh of social lypes and Ihe inlegralion of great systems of belief; and Ihey had slruggled with the capital problems of Ihe human mind in psychology and philosophy as Ihe process had conlinued. The Iwo armies of workers conlinued to be organized into isolated camps, each with the mosl reslricted conception of the nalure and imporlance of Ihe work done by Ihe olher and of ils bearing upon Iheir own conclusions. One of Ihe mosl remarkable resulls of such a silualion — a resull plainly visible in Ihe valuable colleclion of essays edited by Pro- fessor Seward which was issued from Ihe Cambridge University Press in commemoration of the centenary of Darwin's birth — is the extremely limited number of minds in our time of sufficienl scope of view lo be able lo cover Ihe relation of the work of both sets of these workers to sociology. It remains now to consider the relation to the position in modern sociology of the extended conception lhat sociely must be considered to be organic in some wider sense than the first Darwinians thus imagined it and also e"2ns/on in some wider sense lhan lhal in which Sidgwick to Sociology imagined il when he said lhal sociology was in effecl otthe Bv°- coincidenl wilh Ihe science of polilics. The present coated/on writer has laid il down elsewhere ( The Two Principal Laws of Sociology: Bologna) lhal Ihere is a fundamental principle of sociology which has to be grasped and applied before there can be any real science of sociology. This principle may be briefly staled as follows: — The social process is primarily evolving in the individual not the qualities which contribule lo his own efficiency in conflict with his fellows, but the qualities which contribule lo society's efficiency in Ihe conflicl Ihrough which il is gradually rising lowards a more organic lype. This is Ihe firsl law of evolulionary sociology. Il is Ihis principle which conlrols Ihe inlegration which is taking place under all forms in human society — in ethical systems, in all polilical and economic inslilulions, and in Ihe creeds and beliefs of humanity — in the long, slow, almosl invisible slruggle in which under a mullilude of phases nalural seleclion is discriminating between the standards of nalions and lypes of civilizalion. Dealing first with political and economic instilutions; the position reached in Spencer's sociology may be said to represent the science of sociely in a slale of Iransilion. It represents it, that is to say, in a stage al which Ihe Greek Iheory of sociely has become influenced by Ihe doclrine of evolulion applied lo modern conceplions, bul while as yel no synlhesis has been achieved between the conflicting and even mutually exclusive ideas which are involved. The Greek theory of society is repre- sented in Spencer in his practical idenlification of " the social organism " with Ihe Slale. The modern idea, however, which carries Spencer far beyond Ihe principles of Greek sociely — as these principles were summarized, for instance, in the passage already quoled from Blunlschli — is clearly in evidence. It may be observed to be expressed in the recognition of a principle resident in modern society which in some manner projects the individual's righls oulside and beyond Ihe whole Iheory and meaning of Ihe Slale. In olher words, in sociely as Spencer conceives il, " Ihe welfare of cilizens cannol righlly be sacrificed 10 some supposed benefil of Ihe Slale "; whereas, according to the Greek Iheory and the theory of Roman law, the citizen's whole existence depended on and was subject to the Stale. " The Slale knew neilher moral nor legal limils to its power." If, iowever, it be considered thai modern sociely has made progress Deyond Ihe Greek, and if il be accepled lhal Ihe Iheory of evolulion involves Ihe conclusion lhat sociely progresses ;owards increased efficiency in a more organic lype, Ihere follows :rom Ihe foregoing an imporlant inference. This is thai il now jecomes Ihe lask of modern sociology, as a Irue science, to show thai Ihe principle in modern civilizalion which dislinguishes 11 from sociely of Ihe Greek period — namely, that principle which Spencer rightly recognized, despite the contradiclions in which le became involved, as rendering Ihe life of the individual no onger subservient to the corporate life of the State — is ilself a arinciple idenlified not with individualism but with the increasing subordination of Ihe individual lo a more organic lype of sociely. Il musl, in shorl, remain for the evolutionisl, working by Ihe SOCIOLOGY 329 historical method scientifically applied, to present the interven- ing process in history — including the whole modern movement towards liberty and enfranchisement, and towards equality of conditions, of rights and of economic opportunities — not as a process of the increasing emancipation of the individual from the claims of society, but as a process of progress towards a more organic stage ot social subordination than has prevailed in the world before. When society is considered as an organism developing under the influence of natural selection along the line of the causes which contribute to its highest potential efficiency, and there- fore tending to have the mean centre of its organic processes projected farther and farther into the future, it is evident that it must be the principles and ideas which most effectively subordi- nate oyer long periods of time the interests and the capacities of the individuals of which it is composed to the efficiency of the whole which will play the leading part in social evolution. In primitive society, the first rudiments of social organization undoubtedly arose, not so much from conscious regard to The Basis expediency or "increased satisfactions" as from ot Modern fitness in the struggle for existence. " The first Sociology. organized societies must have been developed, like any other advantage, under the sternest conditions of natural selection. In the flux and change of life the members of those groups of men which in favourable conditions first showed any tendency to social organization became possessed of a great advantage over their fellows, and these societies grew up simply because they possessed elements of -strength which led to the disappearance before them of other groups of men with which they came into competition. Such societies continued to flourish, until they in their turn had to give way before other associations of men of higher social efficiency " (Social Evolution, ii.). In the social process at this stage all the customs, habits, institu- tions, and beliefs contributing to produce a higher organic efficiency of society would be naturally selected, developed and perpetuated. It is in connexion with this fact that the clue must be sought to the evolution of those institutions and beliefs of early society which have been treated of at length in researches like those of M'Lennan, Tylor, Lubbock, Waitz. Letourneau, Quatrefages, Frazer, and others of equal importance. For a long period in the first stages the highest potentiality of the social organization would be closely associated with military efficiency. For hi the evolution of the social organism, as has been said, while the mean centre of the processes involving its organic identity would tend to be projected into the future, it would at the same time always be necessary to maintain efficiency in current environment in competition with rival types of lower future potentiality. Amongst primitive peoples, where a great chief, law-giver and military leader appeared, the efficiency of organized society resting on military efficiency would, as a matter of course, make itself felt in the struggle for existence. Yet as such societies would often be resolved into their component elements on the death of the leader, the overruling importance — on the next stage of the advance towards a more organic type — of ideas which would permanently subordinate the materials of society to the efficiency of the whole would make itself felt. Social systems of the type in which authority was perpetuated by ancestor-worship — in which all the members were therefore held to be joined in an exclusive religious citizenship founded on blood relationship to the deities who were worshipped, and in which all outsiders were accordingly treated as natural enemies, whom it would be a kind of sacrilege to admit to the rights of the State — would contain the elements of the highest military potentiality. The universal mark which ancestor-worship has left on human institutions in a certain stage of social develop- ment is doubtless closely associated with this fact. The new and th<> older tendencies in sociology are here also in contrast; for whereas Herbert Spencer has been content to explain ancestor-worship as arising from an introspective and compara- tively trivial process of thought assumed to have taken place in the mind of early man in relation to a supposed beh'ef in ghosts (Principles of Sociology, 68-207), the newer tendency is to consider science as concerned with it in its relation to the character- istic principles through which the efficiency of the social organ- ization expressed itself in its surroundings. The social, political and religious institutions disclosed in the study of the earliest civilizations within the purview of history must be considered to be all intimately related to the ruling principles of this military stage. The wide reach and significance of the causes governing the process of social evolution throughout the whole of this period may be gathered from treatises like Seebohm's Structure of Greek Tribal Society, Maine's Ancient Law, History of Institu- tions, and Early Law and Custom, Fowler's City-State of the Greeks and Romans, and in a special sense from the comparative study of Roman law, first of all as it is presented in the period of the Twelve Tables, then as the jus civile begins to be influenced by the jus gentium, and lastly as its principles are contrasted with those of English common law in the modern period. In most of the philosophical writings of the Greeks, and in particular in the Ethics and Politics of Aristotle, and in many of the Dialogues of Plato, the spirit of the principles upon which society was constructed in this stage may be perceived as soon as progress has been made with comparative studies in other directions. A very pregnant saying of T. H. Green was that during the whole development of man the command, " Thou shall love thy neighbour as thyself " has never varied. What ^tension of has varied is only the answer to the question — Who the Sense of is my neighbour ? If in the light of this profoundly Human Re- true reflection we watch the progress of society from spoasl lty- primitive conditions to the higher stages, it may be observed to possess marked features. Where all human institutions, as in the ancient civilizations, rested ultimately on force; where outsiders were regarded as natural enemies, and conquered enemies became slaves; where, as throughout all this phase of social evolution, a rule of religion was a rule of law identified with the principles of the State (Maine, Ancient Law); where the State itself was absolute as against the individual, knowing "neither moral nor legal limits to its power"; and where all the moral, intellectual and industrial life of the community rested on a basis of slavery — the full limits of the organic principle of social efficiency would in time be reached. The conditions would be inherent in which all social institutions would tend to become closed absolutisms organized round the conception of men's desires in the present. And the highest outward expression in which the tendencies in ethics, in politics, and in religion must necessarily culminate would be the military State, bounded in its energies only by the resistance of others, necessarily acknowledging no complete end short of absolute dominion, and therefore staying its course before no ideal short of universal conquest. This was the condition in the ancient State. It happened thus that the outward policy of the ancient State to other peoples became, by a fundamental principle of its life, a policy of military conquest and subjugation, the only limiting principle being the successful resistance of the others. The epoch of history moved by inherent forces towards the final emergence of one supreme military State, in an era of general conquest, and culminated in the example of universal dominion which we had in the Roman world before the rise of the civilization of our era. The influence upon the development of civilization of the wider conception of duty and responsibility to one's fellow men which was introduced into the world with the spread of KS intlu- Christianity can hardly be over-estimated. The em* on extended conception of the answer to the question — s^al Bta- Who is my neighbour? which has resulted from theceacy' characteristic doctrines of the Christian religion — a con- ception transcending all the claims of the family, group, state, nation, people or race, and even all the interests comprised in any existing order of society — has been the most powerful evolu- tionary force which has ever acted on society. It has tended gradually to break up the absolutisms inherited from an older civilization and to bring into being, an entirely new type of social efficiency. 330 SOCIOLOGY As society under this influence continued to be impelled to develop towards a still more organic type, the greatly higher la History potentiality of a state of social order which, while p*fcte*e<* preserving the ideal of the highly organized state (lathe"* an<^ l^e curfent efficiency of society in competition Future) has with lower types, was influenced by conceptions always that dissolved all those closed absolutisms, and re- restedoa leased human energies into a free conflict of forces Military , • ,• ,1 • • i p * .1.1. Efficiency by projecting the principles of human responsibility (lathe outside the State, became apparent. In many of Present), the religions of the East such conceptions have been inherent, Christianity itself being a characteristically Eastern religion. But no Eastern people has been able to provide for them the permanent defensive military milieu in history in which alone their potentiality could be realized. The significance of modern Japan in evolution consists largely in the answer she is able to give to the question as to whether she will be able to provide in the future such a milieu for such a conception among an Eastern people. The significance of the culmination of the military epoch in the ancient classic civilizations of the Western world, which preceded the opening of the era in which we are living, and of the fact that the peoples of the same descent who were destined to carry on the civilization of the existing era represent the supreme military stock by natural selection, not only of the entire world, but of the evolutionary process itself in human history, will therefore be evident. With the spread, accordingly, amongst peoples of this origin, and in such a defensive military milieu in history, of a new Tae conviction of responsibility to principles extending Principle of beyond the consciousness of the political State, efficiency la there began a further and more organic stage of 2?.°*"*,. the evolutionary process in society. The gradual Civilization ,. . . . ./ ... * .. . e , Is the dissolution in the era in which we are living of all Enfranchise- the closed absolutisms within the State, in which meat of the human action and ideas had hitherto been confined, Puture- is apparently the characteristic phenomenon of this stage. Progress is towards such a free and tolerant, but intense and efficient, conflict of forces as was not possible in the world before. It is, it would appear, in this light that we must regard the slow dissolution of the basis of ideas upon which slavery rested; the disintegration of the con- ceptions which supported the absolute position of the occupying classes in the State; the undermining of the ideas by which opinion was supported by the civil power of the State in the religious struggles of the middle ages; the growth of the concep- tion that no power or opinion in the State can be considered as the representative of absolute truth; the consequent develop- ment of party government amongst the advanced peoples, with the acknowledgment of the right of every department of inquiry to carry results up to that utmost limit at which they are con- trolled only by the results obtained in other departments of activity with equal freedom; the growth of the conception, otherwise absurd, of the native equality of men; the resulting claim, otherwise similarly indefensible, of men to equal voting power irrespective of status or possessions in the State which has been behind the movement towards political enfranchise- ment; and, finally, the development of that conviction which is behind the existing challenge to all absolute tendencies in economic conditions in the modern world — namely, that the distribution of wealth in a well-ordered State should aim at realizing political justice. There are all the features of an integrating process in modern history. They must be considered as all related to a controlling principle inherent in the Christian religion which has rendered the evolutionary process in society more organic than in any past stage — namely, the projection of the sense of human responsibility outside the limits of all the creeds and interests which had in previous stages embodied it in the State (Kidd, Prin. West. Civil.). The meaning, in short, which differentiates our civilization from that of the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome is that modern Western civilization represents in an ever-increasing degree the enfranchisement of the future in the evolutionary process. So great has become the prestige of our civilization through the oper- ation of this principle in it that its methods and results are being eagerly borrowed by other peoples. It is thereby so materially influencing the standards of conduct and culture thoughout the world that the developments which other nations are under- going have in a real sense tended to become scarcely more than incidents in the expansion of Western civilization. We live in the presence of colossal national armaments, and in a world, therefore, in which we are continually met with the taunt that force is still everywhere omnipotent. It Modem j may be perceived, however, that beneath all outward Militarism I appearances a vast change has been taking place. lsthereforf In the ancient civilizations the tendency to con- otfensfre," quest was an inherent principle in life of the military not an State. It is no longer an inherent principle in the Offensive modern State. The right of conquest is indeed still Priaclale- acknowledged in the international law of civilized States; but it may be observed to be a right becoming more and more im- practicable among the more advanced peoples. Reflection, more- over, reveals the fact that the right of conquest is tending to become impracticable and impossible, not, as is often supposed, because of the huge armaments of resistance with which it might be opposed, but because the sense of social responsibility has been so deepened in our civilization that it is almost impossible that one nation should attempt to conquer and subdue another after the manner of the ancient world. It would be regarded as so great an outrage that it would undoubtedly prove to be one of the maddest and one of the most unprofitable adventures in which a civilized State could engage. Militarism, it may be distinguished, is becoming mainly defensive amongst the more advanced nations. Like the civil power within the State, it is tending to represent rather the organized means of resistance to the methods of force should these methods be invoked by others temporarily or permanently under the influence of less evolved standards of conduct. In thus regarding the social process in Western history, the projected efficiency of which now, after many centuries of development, begins to realize itself to an increasing InaMa degree in determining competition with other types ism ls "*jy a of society throughout the world, it may be observed Process ot that the result by which a synthesis of the older moreOrganlc and later views may be attained is already mo^toa«oo" sight. It was pointed out that if the principle which Spencer rightly recognized in modern society as rendering the life of the individual no longer subservient to the corporate life of the State was to be accepted as a principle of progress distinguishing modern civilization from that of the Greek period, it would be necessary for the sociologist to exhibit it not as indicating the larger independence of the individual, but as a principle identified with the increasing subordination of the indi- vidual to a more organic type of society. Here, therefore, this result is in process of accomplishment . The intervening process in history — including the whole modern movement towards liberty and enfranchisement, towards equality of conditions, towards equality of political rights and towards equality of economic opportunities — -is presented as a process of development towards a more advanced and organic stage of social subordination than has ever prevailed in the world before (Princ. West. Civil, xi.). In this light, also, it may be observed how the claim of sociology to be the most advanced of all the theo- retical sciences is justified. For if the historical process in the civilization of the era in which we are living is thus to be regarded as a process implying the increasing subordination of the individual to a more organic type of society, then the study of sociology as embracing the principles of the process must evidently involve the perception and comparison of the meaning of the fundamental positions disclosed in the history of political progress, of the problems with which the human mind has successively struggled in the phases of religious development, and, lastly, of the positions with which the intellect has been confronted as the stages of the subordinating process have SOCRATES gradually come to define themselves in history. The positions outlined in the developments already referred to which have come down through Humeund Huxley, through Kant and Hegel, through Grotius and Savigny, through Roscher and Schmoller, through the expression which English utilitarianism has reached in Herbert Spencer as influenced by the English theory of the rights of the individual on the one hand, and in Marxian Socialism as influenced by the Latin conception of the omnipotence of the State on the other, have thus all their place, meaning and scientific relations in the modern study of sociology. It must be considered that the theory of organic evolution by natural selection and the historical method will continue in an increasing degree to influence the science of society. The sociological law that " the social process is primarily evolving in the individual not the qualities which contribute The Claim of t° n^s own efficiency in conflict with his fellows, Sociology as but those qualities which contribute to society's the Master efficiency in the conflict through which it is gradually rising towards a more organic type," carries us into the innermost recesses of the human mind and controls the science of psychology. For it is thus not the human mind which is consciously constructing the social process in evolution ; it is the social process which is constructing the human mind in evolution. This is the ultimate fact which raises sociology to its true position as the master science. Nor is there any materialism in such a conception. It is in keeping with the highest spiritual ideal of man that the only conception of Truth or the Absolute which the human mind can hold at present is that which is being evolved in it in relation to its own environment which is in the social process. AUTHORITIES. — It has been one of the results of the conditions affecting sociology in the past, that many of the principal contribu- tions to the science of society are not usually included in lists of sociological references. The following are mentioned only as indi- cating or suggesting others in the same classes of equal or perhaps greater importance. The dates given are usually those of the first edition of a work. INTRODUCTORY. — Darwin, Origin of Species (1859); Descent of Man, 1871 (chapters dealing with society); Wallace, Darwinism (1889); Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin (1892); Osborn, From the Greeks to Darwin (1894). Economics, Historical. — Ashley, Introduction to English Economic History and Theory, part i. (1888), part ii. (1893); Schmoller, The Mercantile System (1884); Roscher, Geschichte der Nationals konomik in Deutschland (1874) ; Nys, History of Economics (Trans. Dryhurst, 1899). Ethics, Historical.— Sidgwick, History of Ethics (1886); Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics (1893); Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (1906). Primitive Society. — Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1870); Tylor, Anthropology (1881); Quatrefages, Human Species (Eng. trans. 1879); Lang, Custom and Myth (1884); Maine, Ancient Law (1861); Early History of Institu- tions (1875); Early Law and Custom (1883); Frazer, Golden Bough (1890) ; Early History of the Kingship (1905). GENERAL. — Spencer, Synthetic Philosophy (Principles of Biology, Principles of Sociology and Principles of Ethics) ; Kidd, Social Evolution (1894); Principles of Western Civilization (1902); Individu- alism and After ; Two Principal Laws of Sociology: Bologna (1908) ; Barth, Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie (1897); Ward, Dynamic Sociology; Outlines of Sociology (1898); Flint, Philosophy of History in Europe (1874) ; Historical Philosophy in France (1894) ; Bagehot, Physics and Politics; Ratzenhofer, Die soziologische Erkennlnis (1898); Giddings, Principles of Sociology (1896); Tarde, Elude de psychologie sociale (1898); Stuckenberg, Introduction to the Study of Sociology (1898); Stephen, The English Utilitarians (1900); J. S. Mill, System of Logic (1843); On Liberty (1859); Utilitarianism (1861); Comte, Philosophie positive^ (6 vols., 1830-1842, Eng. trans., condensed by Martineau, in 2 vols. ; Baldwin, Social Psychology; Ritchie, Natural Rights (1895); Bluntschli, The Theory of the State (Eng. trans. 1892) ; Wright, Outline of Practical Sociology (1899); Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics (1874); Elements of Politics (1901) ; Philosophy, Us Scope (1902) ; Taylor, The Problem of Conduct (1901); Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (particularly 2nd Division), and Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysic; McDougall, An Intro- duction to Social Psychology (1908); Schiller, Studies in Humanism (1907); James, Pragmatism (1907); Fairbanks, Introduction to Sociology (1896); Pollock, History of the Science of Politics (1890); Maine, Popular Government (1885); Morley, Rousseau (1873); Diderot and the Encyclopaedists (1878) ; Burke (1879) ; Austin, Theory of Jurisprudence (1861-1863); Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence (parts i., iit. and iy., 1880); Studies in International Law (1898); Westlake, International Law (1894); Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), Oxf. ed., 1879; Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law; Sandars, Institutes of Justinian; Le Roy Beaulieu, L'Etat moderne et ses fonctions; Huxley, Evolution and Ethics (1894); Nietzsche, The Twilight of the Idols; Zarathustra; Loria, Les Bases economiques de la constitution sociale (French trans.); Pearson, National Life and Character (1893); Vincent, The Social Mind in Education (1897); Marx, Kapital (1867, Eng. trans. 1887); Engels, Socialism, Utopian and Scientific (Eng. trans., Aveling, 1892); Kirkup, An Inquiry into Socialism (1907); George, Progress and Poverty; Mazel, La Synergie sociale (1896); Mallock, Aristocracy and Evolution (1898); Ross, Social Control (1901); Mackenzie, Social Philosophy (1895); Hpbson, The Social Problem (1901); Fabian Essays; Rousseau, Social Contract; Hobbes, Leviathan; Locke, Two Treatises of Government; Webbs, Industrial Democracy (1897); History of Trades Unionism (1894); Booth, Life and Labour of the People (1891-1897) ; Patten, The Theory of Prosperity (1902) ; Wallas, Human Nature in Politics (1908) ; Urwick, Luxury and Waste (1908) ; Small, The Scope of Sociology (1902). (B. K.*) SOCRATES, son of the statuary Sophroniscus and of the midwife Phaenarete, was born at Athens, not earlier than 47 1 nor later than May or June 469 B.C. As a youth he received the customary instruction in gymnastics and music; and in after years he made himself acquainted with geometry and astronomy and studied the methods and the doctrines of the leaders of Greek thought and culture. He began life as a sculptor; and in the 2nd century A.D. a group of the Graces, supposed to be his work, was still to be seen on the road to the Acropolis. But he soon abandoned art and gave himself to what may best be called education, conceiving that he had a divine commission, witnessed by oracles, dreams and signs, not indeed to teach any positive doctrine, but to convict men of ignorance mistaking itself for knowledge, and by so doing to promote their intellectual and moral improvement. He was. on terms of intimacy with some of the most distinguished of his Athenian contemporaries, and, at any rate in later life, was personally known to very many of his fellow citizens. His domestic relations were, it is said, unhappy. The shrewishness of his wife Xanthippe became proverbial with the ancients, as it still is with ourselves. Ari- stotle, in his remarks upon genius and its degeneracy (Rhet. ii. 15), speaks of Socrates's sons as dull and fatuous; and in Xeno- phon's Memorabilia, one of them, Lamprocles, receives a formal rebuke for undutiful behaviour towards his mother. Socrates served as a hoplite at Potidaea (432-429), where on one occasion he saved the life of Alcibiades, at Delium (424), and at Amphipolis (422). In these campaigns his bravery and endurance were conspicuous. But, while he thus performed the ordinary duties of a Greek citizen with credit, he neither attained nor sought political position. His " divine voice," he said, had warned him to refrain from politics, presumably because office would have entailed the sacrifice of his principles and the abandonment of his proper vocation. Yet in 406 he was a member of the senate; and on the first day of the trial of the victors of Arginusae, being president of the prytanis, he resisted — first, in conjunction with his colleagues, afterwards, when they yielded, alone — the illegal and unconstitutional proposal of Callixenus, that the fate of the eight generals should be decided by a single vote of the assembly. Not less courageous than this opposition to the " civium ardor prava jubentium " was his disregard of the " vultus instantis tyranni " two years later. During the reign of terror of 404 the Thirty, anxious to implicate in their crimes men of repute who might otherwise have opposed their plans, ordered five citizens, one of whom was Socrates, to go to Salamis and bring thence their destined victim Leon. Socrates alone disobeyed. But, though he was exceptionally obnoxious to the Thirty — as appears, not only in this incident, but also in their threat of punishment under a special ordinance forbidding " the teaching of the art of argument"— it was reserved for the reconstituted democracy to bring him to trial and to put him to death. In 399, four years after the restoration and the amnesty, he was indicted as an offender against public morality. His accusers were Meletus the poet, Anytus the tanner and Lycon the orator, all of them members of the democratic or patriot party who had returned from Phyle with Thrasybulus. The accusation ran thus: " Socrates is guilty, firstly, of denying the gods recognized by the state and introducing new divinities, and, secondly, of corrupting the young." In his unpremeditated defence, so far from seeking to conciliate his judges, Socrates 332 SOCRATES defied them. He was found guilty by 280 votes, it is supposed, against 220. Meletus having called for capital punishment, it now rested with the accused to make a counter-proposition; and there can be little doubt that, had Socrates without further remark suggested some smaller but yet substantial penalty, the proposal would have been accepted. But, to the amazement of the judges and the distress of his friends, Socrates proudly declared that for the services which he had rendered to the city he deserved, not punishment, but the reward of a public bene- factor— maintenance in the Prytaneum at the cost of the state; and, although at the close of his speech he professed himself willing to pay a fine of one mina, and upon the urgent entreaties of his friends raised the amount of his offer to thirty minas, he made no attempt to disguise his indifference to the result. His attitude exasperated the judges, and the penalty of death was decreed by an increased majority. Then in a short address Socrates declared his contentment with his own conduct and with the sentence. Whether death was a dreamless sleep, or a new life in Hades, where he would have opportunities of testing the wisdom of the heroes and the sages of antiquity, in either case he esteemed it a gain to die. In the same spirit he refused to take advantage of a scheme arranged by his friend Crito for an escape from prison. Under ordinary circumstances the condemned criminal drank the cup of hemlock on the day after the trial; but in the case of Socrates the rule that during the absence of the sacred ship sent annually to Delos no one should be put to death caused an exceptional delay. For thirty days he remained in imprisonment, receiving his intimates and conversing with them in his accustomed manner. How in his last conversation he argued that the wise man will regard approaching death with a cheerful confidence Plato relates in the Phaedo; and, while the central argument — which rests the doctrine of the soul's immortality upon the theory of ideas — must be accounted Platonic, in all other respects the narrative, though not that of an eye-witness, has the air of accuracy and truth. Happily, though Socrates left no writings behind him, and indeed, as will hereafter appear, was by his principles precluded from dogmatic exposition, we have in the 'Aironvrifu»>tinaTa. or Memoirs and other works of Xenophon records of Socrates's conversation, and in the dialogues of Plato refined applications of his method. Xenophon, having no philosophical views of his own to develop, and no imagination to lead him astray — being, in fact, to Socrates what Boswell was to Johnson — is an excellent witness. The '^oiin]iJ.ovtiiiJ.a.Ta or Memorabilia are indeed confessedly apolo- getic, and it is easy to see that nothing is introduced which might embitter those who, hating Socrates, were ready to persecute the Socratics; but the plain, straightforward narrative of Socrates's talk, on many occasions, with many dissimilar interlocutors, carries with it in its simplicity and congruity the evidence of substantial justice and truth. Plato, though he understood his master better, is a less trustworthy authority, as he makes Socrates the mouthpiece of his own more advanced and even antagonistic doctrine. Yet to all appearance the Apology is a careful and exact account of Socrates's habits and principles of action; the earlier dialogues, those which are commonly called " Socratic," represent, with such changes only as are necessitated by their form, Socrates's method ; and, if in the later and more important dialogues the doctrine is the doctrine of Plato, echoes of the master's teaching are still discoverable, approving themselves as such by their accord with the Xenophontean testimony. In the face of these two principal witnesses other evidence is of small importance. Personal Characteristics. — What, then, were the personal characteristics of the man? Outwardly his presence was mean and his countenance grotesque. Short of stature, thick- necked and somewhat corpulent, with prominent eyes, with nose upturned and nostrils outspread, with large mouth and coarse lips, he seemed the embodiment of sensuality and even stupidity. Inwardly he was, as his friends knew, " so pious that he did nothing without taking counsel of the gods, so just that he never did an injury to any man, whilst he was the benefactor of his associates, so temperate that he never preferred pleasure to right, so wise that in judging of good and evil he was never at fault — in a word, the best and the happiest of men." " His self-control was absolute ; his powers of endurance were unfailing; he had so schooled himself to moderation that his scanty means satisfied all his wants." " To want nothing," he said himself, " is divine; to want as little as possible is the nearest possible approach to the divine life "; and accordingly he practised temperance and self-denial to a degree which some thought ostentatious and affected. Yet the hearty enjoyment of social pleasures was another of his marked characteristics; for to abstain from innocent gratification from fear of falling into excess would have seemed to him to imply a pedantic formalism or a lack of self-control. In short, his strength of will, if by its very perfection it led to his theoretical identification of virtue and knowledge, secured him in practice against the ascetic extravagances of his associate Antisthenes. The intellectual gifts of Socrates were hardly less remarkable than his moral virtues. Naturally observant, acute, and thoughtful, he developed these qualities by constant and systematic use. The exercise of the mental powers was, he conceived, no mere occupation of leisure hours, but rather a sacred and ever-present duty; because, moral error being intel- lectual error translated into act, he who would live virtuously must first rid himself of ignorance and folly. He had, it may be conjectured, but little turn for philosophical speculation; yet by the careful study of the ethical problems which met him in himself and in others he acquired a remarkable tact in dealing with questions of practical morality; and in the course of the lifelong war which he waged against vagueness of thought and laxity of speech he made himself a singularly apt and ready reasoner. While he regarded the improvement, not only of himself but also of others, as a task divinely appointed to him, there was in his demeanour nothing exclusive or pharisaical. On the contrary, deeply conscious of his own limitations and infirmities, he felt and cherished a profound sympathy with erring humanity, and loved with a love passing the love of women fellow men who had not learnt, as he had done, to overcome human frailties and weaknesses. Nevertheless great wrongs roused in him a righteous indignation which sometimes found expression in fierce and angry rebuke. Indeed it would seem that Plato in his idealized portrait gives his hero credit not only for a deeper philosophical insight but also for a greater urbanity than facts warranted. Hence, whilst those who knew him best met his affection with a regard equal to his own, there were, as will be seen hereafter, some who never forgave his stern reproofs, and many who regarded him as an impertinent busybody. He was a true patriot. Deeply sensible of his debt to the city in which he had been born and bred, he thought that in giving his life to the teaching of sounder views in regard to ethical and political subjects he made no more than an imperfect return; and, when in the exercise of constitutional authority that city brought him to trial and threatened him with death, it was not so much his local attachment, strong though that sentiment was, as rather his sense of duty, which forbade him to retire into exile before the trial began, to acquiesce in a sentence of banishment when the verdict had been given against him, and to accept the opportunity of escape which was offered him during his imprisonment. Yet his patriotism had none of the narrow- ness which was characteristic of the patriotism of his Greek con- temporaries. His generous benevolence and unaffected philan- thropy taught him to overstep the limits of the Athenian demus and the Hellenic race, and to regard himself as a " citizen of the world." He was blest with an all-pervading humour, a subtle but kindly appreciation of the incongruities of human nature and conduct. In a less robust character this quality might have degenerated into sentimentality or cynicism; in Socrates, who had not a trace of either, it showed itself principally in what his contemporaries knew as his " accustomed irony." Profoundly sensible of the inconsistencies of his own thoughts and words and actions, and shrewdly suspecting that the like inconsistencies were to be found in other men, he was careful always to place himself upon the standpoint of ignorance and to invite others to join him there, in order that, proving all things, he and they might hold fast that which is good. " Intellectually the acutest man of his age," says W. H. Thompson in a brilliant SOCRATES 333 and instructive appendix to his edition of Plato's Phaedrus, " he represents himself in all companies as the dullest person present. Morally the purest, he affects to be the slave of passion, and borrows the language of gallantry to describe a benevolence too exalted for the comprehension of his contemporaries. He is by turns an tpacrnfa, a wpoayiaybs, a ^oorpoTros, a juoteimmfc, disguising the sanctity of his true vocation by names suggestive of vile or ridiculous images. The same spirit of whimsical paradox leads him, in Xenophon's Banquet, to argue that his own satyr-like visage was superior in beauty to that of the hand- somest man present. That this irony was to some extent calculated is more than probable; it disarmed ridicule by antici- pating it; it allayed jealousy and propitiated envy; and it possibly procured him admission into gay circles from which a more solemn teacher would have been excluded. But it had for its basis a real greatness of soul, a hearty and unaffected disregard of public opinion, a perfect disinterestedness, an entire abnegation of self. He made himself a fool that others by his folly might be made wise; he humbled himself to the level of those among whom his work lay that he might raise some few among them to his own level; he was 'all things to all men, if by any means he might win- some.' " It would seem that this humorous depreciation of his own great qualities, this pretence of being no better than his neighbours, led to grave misappre- hension amongst his contemporaries. That it was the founda- tion of the slanders of the Peripatetic Aristoxenus can hardly be doubted. Socrates was further a man of sincere and fervent piety. " No one," says Xenophon, " ever knew of his doing or saying anything profane or unholy." There was indeed in the popular mythology much which he could not accept. It was incredible, he argued, that the gods should have committed acts which would be disgraceful in the worst of men. Such stories, then, must be regarded as the inventions of lying poets. But, when he had thus purified the contemporary polytheism, he was able to reconcile it with his own steadfast belief in a Supreme Being, the intelligent and beneficent Creator of the universe, and to find in the national ritual the means of satisfying his religious aspirations. For proof of the existence of " the divine," he appealed to the providential arrangement of nature, to the uni- versality of the belief, and to the revelations and warnings which are given to men through signs and oracles. Thinking that the soul of man partook of the divine, he maintained the doctrine of its immortality as an article of faith, but not of knowledge. While he held that, the gods alone knowing what is for man's benefit, man should pray, not for particular goods, but only for that which is good, he was regular in prayer and punctual in sacrifice. He looked to oracles and signs for guidance in those matters, and in those matters only, which could not be resolved by experience and judgment, and he further supposed himself to receive special warnings of a mantic character through what he called his "divine sign" (5a.LiJ.6viov, Saifioviov Socrates's frequent references to his " divine sign " were, says Xenophon, the origin of the charge of " introducing new divinities " brought against him by his accusers, and in early Christian times, amongst Neoplatonic philosophers and fathers of the church, gave rise to the notion that he supposed himself to be attended by a " genius " or " daemon." Similarly in our own day spiritualists have attributed to him the belief — which they justify — in " an intelligent spiritual being who accompanied him through life — in other words, a guardian spirit " (A. R. Wallace). But the very pre- cise testimony of Xenophon and Plato shows plainly that Socrates did not regard his " customary sign " either as a divinity or as a genius. According to Xenophon, the sign was a warning, either to do or not to do, which it would be folly to neglect, not superseding ordinary prudence, but dealing with those uncertainties in respect of which other men found guidance in oracles and tokens; Socrates believed in it profoundly, and never disobeyed it. According to Plato, the sign was a " voice " which warned Socrates to refrain from some act which he contemplated; he heard it frequently and on the most trifling occasions; the phenomenon dated from his early years, and was, so far as he knew, peculiar to himself. These statements have been variously interpreted. Thus it has been maintained that, in laying claim to supernatural revelations, Socrates (i) committed a pious fraud, (2) indulged his " accustomed irony," (3) recognized the voice of conscience, (4) indicated a general belief in a divine mission, (5) described " the inward voice of his individual tact, which in consequence partly of his experience and penetration, partly of his knowledge of himself and exact apprecia- tion of what was in harmony with his individuality, had attained to an unusual accuracy," (6) was mad (" (Staitfou "), being subject not only to hallucinations of sense but also to aberrations of reason. Xenophon's testimony that Socrates was plainly sincere in his belief excludes the first and second of these theories; the character of the warnings given, which are always concerned, not with the moral worth of actions, but with their uncertain results, warrants the rejection of the third and the fourth; the fifth, while it suffi- ciently accounts for the matter of the warning, leaves unexplained its manner, the vocal utterance ; the sixth, while it plausibly explains the manner of the warning, goes beyond the facts when it attributes to it irrationality of matter. It remains for us, then, modifying the fifth hypothesis, that of Diderot, Zeller and others, and the sixth, that of Lelut and Littre1, and combining the two, to suppose that Socrates was subject, not indeed to delusions of mind, but to hallucinations of the sense of hearing, so that the rational sug- gestions of his own brain, exceptionally valuable in consequence of the accuracy and delicacy of his highly cultivated tact, seemed to him to be projected without him, and to be returned to him through the outward ear. It appears that, though in some of the best known instances — for example, those of Cowper and Sidney Walker — hallucinations of the sense of hearing, otherwise closely resembling Socrates's " divine sign," have been accompanied by partial derange- ment of reason, cases are not wanting in which " the thoughts transformed into external sensorial impressions " are perfectly rational. The eccentricity of Socrates's life was not less remarkable than the oddity of his appearance and the irony of his conver- sation. His whole time was spent in public — in the .. . .... market-place, the streets, the gymnasia. Thinking with Dr Johnson that " a great city is the school for studying life," he had no liking for the country, and seldom passed the gates. " Fields and trees," Plato makes him say, " will not teach me anything; the life of the streets will." He talked to all comers — to the craftsman and the artist as willingly as to the poet or the politician — questioning them about their affairs, about the processes of their several occupations, about their notions of morality, in a word, about familiar matters in which they might be expected to take an interest. The ostensible purpose of these interrogatories was to test, and thus either refute or explain, the famous oracle which had pronounced him the wisest of men. Conscious of his own ignorance, he had at first imagined that the god was mistaken. When, however, experience showed that those who esteemed themselves wise were unable to give an account of their knowledge, he had to admit that, as the oracle had said, he was wiser than others, in so far as, whilst they, being ignorant, supposed themselves to know, he, being ignorant, was aware of his ignorance. Such, according to the Apology, was Socrates's account of his procedure and its results. But it is easy to see that the statement is coloured by the accustomed irony. When in the same speech Socrates tells his judges that he would never from fear of death or from any other motive disobey the command of the god, and that, if they put him to death, the loss would be, not his, but theirs, since they would not readily find any one to take his place, it becomes plain that he conceived himself to hold a commission to educate, and was consciously seeking the intellectual and moral improve- ment of his countrymen. His end could not be achieved without the sacrifice of self. His meat and drink were of the poorest; summer and winter his coat was the same; he was shoeless and shirtless. " A slave whose master made him live as you live," says a sophist in the Memorabilia, " would run away." But by the surrender of the luxuries and the comforts of life Socrates secured for himself the independence which was necessary that he might go about his appointed business, and therewith he was content. His message was to all, but it was variously received. Those who heard him perforce and Occasionally were apt to regard his teaching either with indifference or with irritation, Contempo- — with indifference, if, as might be, they failed to raryjudg- see in the elenchus anything more than elaborate ments- trifling; with irritation, if, as was probable, they perceived that, in spite of his assumed ignorance, Socrates was well aware of the result to which their enforced answers tended. Amongst 334 SOCRATES those who deliberately sought and sedulously cultivated his acquaintance there were some who attached themselves to him as they might have attached themselves to any ordinary sophist, conceiving that by temporary contact with so acute a reasoner they would best prepare themselves for the logomachies of the law courts, the assembly and the senate. Again, there were others who saw in Socrates at once master, counsellor and friend, and hoped by associating with him " to become good men and true, capable of doing their duty by house and household, by relations and friends, by city and fellow-citizens " (Xenophon). Finally, there was a little knot of intimates who, having some- thing of Socrates's enthusiasm, entered more deeply than the rest into his principles, and, when he died, transmitted them to the next generation. Yet even those who belonged to this inner circle were united, not by any common doctrine, but by a common admiration for their master's intellect and character. For, the paradoxes of Socrates's personality and the eccentricity of his behaviour, if they offended the many, fascinated the few. p, . , " It is not easy for a man in my condition," says the Panegyric, intoxicated Alcibiades in Plato's Symposium, " to describe the singularity of Socrates's character. But I will try to tell his praises in similitudes. He is like the piping Silenes in the statuaries' shops, which, when you open them, are found to contain images of gods. Or, again, he is like the satyr Marsyas, not only in outward appearance — that, Socrates, you will yourself allow — but in other ways also. Like him, you are given to frolic — I can produce evidence to that; and above all, like him, you are a wonderful musician. Only there is this difference — what he does with the help of his instru- ment you do with mere words; for whatsoever man, woman or child hears you, or even a feeble report of what you have said, is struck with awe and possessed with admiration. As for myself, were I not afraid that you would think me more drunk than I am, I would tell you on oath how his words have moved me — ay, and how they move me still. When I listen to him my heart beats with a more than Corybantic excitement; he has only to speak and my tears flow. Orators, such as Pericles, never moved me in this way — never roused my soul to the thought of my servile condition; but this Marsyas makes me think that life is not worth living so long as I am what I am. Even now, if I were to listen, I could not resist. So there is nothing for me but to stop my ears against this siren's song and fly for my life, that I may not grow old sitting at his feet. No one would think that I had any shame in me; but I am ashamed in the presence of Socrates." The Accusation and its Causes. — The life led by Socrates was not h'kely to win for him either the affection or the esteem of the vulgar. Those who did not know him personally, Seein8 him with the eyes of the comic poets, con- ceived him as a " visionary " (/ierecopoXoyos) and a "bore" (dSoXecrx1?*)- Those who had faced him in argument, even if they had not smarted under his rebukes, had at any rate winced under his interrogatory, and regarded him in consequence with feelings of dislike and fear. But the eccentricity of his genius and the ill will borne towards him by individuals are not of themselves sufficient to account for the tragedy of 399. It thus becomes necessary to study the circumstances of the trial, and to investigate the motives which led the accusers to seek his death and the people of Athens to acquiesce in it. Socrates was accused (i) of denying the gods recognized by the state and introducing instead of them strange divinities (5ai^6fia), and (2) of corrupting the young. The Accusation. &TSi °f these charges rested upon the notorious fact that he supposed himself to be guided by a divine visitant or sign (Saiijoviov) . The second, Xenophon tells us, was supported by a series of particular allegations : (a) that he taught his associates to despise the institutions of the state, and especially election by lot ; (b) that he had numbered amongst his associates Critias and Alcibiades, the most dangerous of the representatives of the oligarchical and democratical parties respectively; (c) that he taught the young to disobey parents and guardians and to prefer his own authority to theirs; (d) that he was in the habit of Its Weak- ness. quoting mischievous passages of Homer and Hesiod to the prejudice of morality and democracy. It is plain that the defence was not calculated to conciliate a hostile jury. Nevertheless, it is at first sight difficult to under- stand how an adverse verdict became possible. If strength Socrates rejected portions of the conventional of the mythology, he accepted the established faith and Defence. performed its offices with exemplary regularity. If he talked of a doifioviov, the dainovtov was no new divinity, but a mantic sign divinely accorded to him, presumably by the gods of the state. If he questioned the propriety of certain of the institutions of Athens, he was prepared to yield an unhesitating obedience to all. He had never countenanced the misdeeds of Critias and Alcibiades, and indeed, by a sharp censure, had earned the undying hatred of one .of them. Duty to parents he inculcated as he inculcated other virtues; and,, if he made the son wiser than the father, surely that was not a fault. The citation of a few lines from the poets ought not to weigh against the clear evidence of his large-hearted patriotism; and it might be suspected that the accuser had strangely misrepresented his application of the familiar words. To the modern reader Xenophon's reply, of which the fore- going is in effect a summary, will probably seem sufficient, and more than sufficient. But it must not be forgotten that Athenians of the old school approached the sub- ject from an entirely different point of view. Socrates was in all things an innovator — in religion, inasmuch as he sought to eliminate from the theology of his contemporaries " those lies which poets tell "; in politics, inasmuch as he distrusted several institutions dear to Athenian democracy; in education, inasmuch as he waged war against authority, and in a certain sense made each man the measure of his own actions. It is because Socrates was an innovator that we, who see in him the founder of philosophical inquiry, regard him as a great man; it was because Socrates was an innovator that old-fashioned Athenians, who saw in the new-fangled culture the origin of all their recent distresses and disasters, regarded him as a great criminal. It is, then, after all hi no wise strange that a majority was found first to pronounce him guilty, and afterwards, when he refused to make any submission and professed himself in- different to any mitigation of the penalty, to pass upon him the sentence of death. That the verdict and the sentence were not in any way illegal is generally acknowledged. But, though the popular distrust of eccentricity, the irritation of individuals and groups of individuals, the attitude of Socrates himself, and the prevalent dislike of the intellectual occasion movement which he represented, go far to account of the for the result of the trial, they do not explain the Attack. occasion of the attack. Socrates's oddity and brusquerie were no new things; yet in the past, though they had made him unpopular, they had not brought him into the courts. His sturdy resistance to the demos in 406 and to the Thirty in 404 had passed, if not unnoticed, at all events unpunished. His political heresies and general unorthodoxy had not caused him to be excluded from the amnesty of 403. Why was it, then, that in 399, when Socrates's idiosyncrasies were more than ever familiar, and when the constitution had been restored, the toleration hitherto extended to him was withdrawn? What were the special circumstances which induced three members of the patriot party, two of them leading politicians, to unite their efforts against one who apparently was so little formidable? For an answer to this question it is necessary to look to the history of Athenian politics. Besides the oligarchical party, properly so called, which in 411 was represented by Political the Four Hundred and in 404 by the Thirty, and the Reasons democratical party, which returned to power in forlt' 410 and in 403, there was at Athens during the last years of the Peloponnesian War a party of " moderate oligarchs," antagon- istic to both. It was to secure the co-operation of the moderate party that the Four Hundred in 411 promised to constitute the Five Thousand, and that the Thirty in 404 actually constituted SOCRATES 335 the Three Thousand. It was in the hope of realizing the aspirations of the moderate party that Theramenes, its most prominent representative, allied himself, first with the Four Hundred, afterwards with the Thirty. In 411 the policy of Theramenes (i\oaia, their " pursuit of knowledge for its own sake." Unconsciously, or more probably consciously, Socrates rested his scepticism upon the Protagorean doctrine that man is the measure of his own sensa- tions and feelings; whence he inferred, not only that knowledge such as the philosophers had sought, certain knowledge of nature and its laws, was unattainable, but also that neither he nor any other person had authority to overbear the opinions of another, or power to convey instruction to one who had it not. Accordingly, whereas Protagoras and others, abandoning physical speculation and coming forward as teachers of culture, claimed for themselves in this new field power to instruct and authority to dogmatize, Socrates, unable to reconcile himself to this inconsistency, proceeded with the investigation of principles until he found a resting-place, a TTOV , in the distinction between good and evil. While all opinions were equally true, of those opinions which were capable of being translated into act some, he conceived, were as working hypotheses more serviceable than others. It was here that the function of such a one as himself began. Though he had neither the right nor the power to force his opinions upon another, he might by a systematic interrogatory lead another to substitute a better opinion for a worse, just as a physician by appropriate remedies may enable his patient to substitute a healthy sense of taste for a morbid one. To administer such an interrogatory and thus to be the physician of souls was, Socrates thought, his divinely appointed duty; and, when he described himself as a " talker " or " converser," he not only negatively distinguished himself from those who, whether philosophers or sophists, called themselves " teachers " (5idaaKa\oi), but also positively indicated the method of question and answer (SiaXotTuc^) which he consistently preferred and habitually practised. That it was in this way that Socrates was brought to regard " dialectic," " question and answer," as the only admissible method of education is, in the opinion of the present writer, no matter of mere conjecture. In the review of theories of knowledge which has come down to us in Plato's Theaetetus mention is made (172 B) of certain " incomplete Protagoreans," who held that, while all opinions are equally true, one opinion is better than another, and that the " wise man " is one who by his arguments causes good opinions to take the place of bad ones, thus reforming the soul of the individual or the laws of a state by a process similar to that of the physician or the farmer (166 D seq.) ; and these " incomplete Protagoreans " are identified with Socrates and the Socratics by their insistence (167 D) upon the characteristically Socratic distinction between disputation and dialectic, as well as by other familiar traits of Socratic converse. In fact, this passage becomes intelligible and significant if it is supposed to refer to the historical Socrates; and by teaching us to regard him as an " incomplete Protagorean " it supplies the link which connects his philosophical scepticism with his dialectical theory of education. It is no doubt possible that Socrates was unaware of the closeness of his relationship to Protagoras; but the fact, once stated, hardly admits of question. In the application of the " dialectical " or " maieutic " method two processes are distinguishable — the destructive process, by which the worse opinion was eradicated, and the constructive process, by which the better opinion was induced. In general it was not mere " ignorance " with which Socrates had to contend, but " ignorance mistaking itself for knowledge " or " false conceit of wisdom " — a more stubborn and a more formidable foe, who, safe so long as he remained in his intrenchments, must be drawn from them, circumvented, and surprised. Accordingly, taking his departure from some appar- ently remote principle or proposition to which the respondent yielded a ready assent, Socrates would draw from it an unexpected but undeniable consequence which was plainly inconsistent with the opinion impugned. In this way he brought his interlocutor to pass judgment upon himself, and reduced him to a state of " doubt ' or " perplexity" (&Tropia). " Before I ever met you," says Meno in the dialogue which Plato called by his name (79 E), 'I was told that you spent your time in doubting and leading others to doubt ; and it is a fact that your witcheries and spells have brought me to that condition; you are like the torpedo: as it benumbs any one who approaches and touches it, so do you. For myself, my soul and my tongue are benumbed, so that I have no answer to give you." Even if, as often happened, the respondent, baffled and disgusted by the 8X«7x°s or destructive process, at this point withdrew from the inquiry, he had, in Socrates's judgment, gained something; for, whereas formerly, being ignorant, he had supposed himself to have knowledge, now, being ignorant, he was in some sort conscious of his ignorance, and accordingly would be for the future more circumspect in action. If, however, having been thus convinced of ignorance, SOCRATES the respondent did not shrink from a new effort, Socrates was ready to aid him by further questions of a suggestive sort. Consis- tent thinking with a view to consistent action being the end of the inquiry, Socrates would direct the respondent's attention to instances analogous to that in hand, and so lead him to frame for himself a generalization from which the passions and the prejudices of the moment were, as far as might be, excluded. In this constructive process, though the element of surprise was no longer necessary, the interrogative form was studiously preserved, because it secured at each step thft conscious and responsible assent of the learner. Of the two processes of the dialectical method, the JXeTxos or destructive process attracted the more attention, both in conse- quence of its novelty and because many of those who Maleutlcln w;ningly or unwillingly submitted to it stopped short Plato and ^ t|je stage of " perplexity." But to Socrates and his xenophon. jntjmates the constructive process was the proper and necessary sequel. It is true that in the dialogues of Plato the destructive process is not always, or even often, followed by construction, and that in the Memorabilia of Xenophon construction is not always, or even often, preceded by the destructive process. There is, however, in this nothing surprising. On the one hand, Xenophon, having for his principal purpose the defence of his master against vulgar calumny, seeks to show by effective examples the excellence of his positive teaching, and accordingly is not careful to distinguish, still less to emphasize, the negative procedure. On the other hand, Plato, his aim being not so much to preserve Socrates's positive teaching as rather by written words to stimulate the reader to self-scsutiny, just as the spoken words of the master had stimu- lated the hearer, is compelled by the very nature of his task to keep the constructive element in the background, and, where Socrates would have drawn an unmistakable conclusion, to confine himself to enigmatical hints. For example, when we compare Xenophon's Memorabilia, iv. 6, 2-4, with Plato's Euthyphro, we note that, while in the former the interlocutor is led by a few sugges- tive questions to define " piety " as " the knowledge of those laws which are concerned with the gods," in the latter, though on a further scrutiny it appears that " piety " is " that part of justice which is concerned with the service of the gods," the conversation is ostensibly inconclusive. In short, Xenophon, a mere reporter of Socrates's conversations, gives the results, but troubles himself little about the steps which led to them; Plato, who in early manhood was an educator of the Socratic type, withholds the results that he may secure the advantages of the elenctic stimulus. What, then, were the positive conclusions to which Socrates carried his hearers? and how were those positive conclusions obtained? Turning to Xenophon for an answer to nduction these questions, we note (i) that the recorded conversa- n « HI ti°ns are concerned with practical action, political, moral, or artistic; (2) that in general there is a process from the known to the unknown through a generalization, expressed or implied; (3) that the generalizations are sometimes rules of con- duct, justified by examination of known instances, sometimes definitions similarly established. Thus, in Memorabilia, iv. I, 3, Socrates argues from the known instances of horses and dogs that, the best natures stand most in need of training, and then applies the generalization to the instance under discussion, that of men ; and in iv. 6, 13-14, he leads his interlocutor to a definition of " the good citizen," and then uses it to decide between two citizens for whom respectively superiority is claimed. Now in the former of these cases the process — which Aristotle would describe as " example " (jrapa5«-y/m), and a modern might regard as " induction " of an uncritical sort — sufficiently explains itself. The conclusion is a provisional assurance that in the particular matter in hand a certain course of action is, or is not, to be adopted. But it is necessary to say a word of explanation about the latter case, in which, the general- ization being a definition, that is to say, a declaration that to a given term the interlocutor attaches in general a specified meaning, the conclusion is a provisional assurance that the interlocutor may, or may not, without falling into inconsistency, apply the term in question to a certain person or act. Moral error, Socrates conceived, is largely due to the misapplication of general terms, which, once affixed to a person or to an act, possibly in a moment of passion or prejudice, too often stand in the way of sober and careful reflection. It was in order to exclude error of this sort that Socrates insisted upon TO opi£ia8ai ttaB6\ov with ttraxTiKoi X^TOI for its basis. By requiring a definition and the reference to it of the act or person in question, he sought to secure in the individual at any rate consistency of thought, and, in so far, consistency of action. Accordingly he spent his life in seeking and helping others to seek " the what " (T& rl), or the definition, of the various words by which the moral quality of actions is described, valuing the results thus obtained not as contributions to knowledge, but as means to right action in the multifarious relations of life. While, however, Socrates sought neither knowledge, which in the strict sense of the word he held to be unattainable, nor yet, except as a means to right action, true opinion, the virtue!* results of observation accumulated until they formed, ieage.not perhaps a system of ethics, but at any rate a body of ethical doctrine. Himself blessed with a will so powerful that it moved almost without friction, he fell into the error of ignoring its operations, and was thus led to regard knowledge as the sole condition of well-doing. Where there is knowledge — that is to say, practical wisdom (pt>vria «) , the only knowledge which he recognized — right action, he conceived, follows of itself; for no one knowingly prefers what is evil ; and, if there are cases in which men seem to act against knowledge, the inference to be drawn is, not that knowledge and wrongdoing are compatible, but that in the cases in question the supposed knowledge was after all ignorance. Virtue, then, is knowledge, knowledge at once of end and of means, irre- sistibly realizing itself in act. Whence it follows that the several virtues which are commonly distinguished are essentially one. " Piety," " justice," " courage " and " temperance " are the names which " wisdom " bears in different spheres of action: to be pious is to know what is due to the gods; to be just is to know what is due to men ; to be courageous is to know what is to be feared and what is not ; to be temperate is to know how to use what is good and avoid what is evil. Further, inasmuch as virtue is knowledge, it can be acquired by education and training, though it is certain that one soul has by nature a greater aptitude than another for such acquisition. But, if virtue is knowledge, what has this knowledge for its object? To this question Socrates replies, Its object is the Good. What, then, is the Good? It is the useful, the advantageous. Utility, the immediate utility of the individual, thus Theory of becomes the measure of conduct and the foundation ™e°0<"'- of all moral rule and legal enactment. Accordingly, each pre- cept of which Socrates delivers himself is recommended on the ground that obedience to it will promote the pleasure, the comfort, the advancement, the well-being of the individual; and Prodicus's apologue of the Choice of Heracles, with its commonplace offers of worldly reward, is accepted as an adequate statement of the motives of virtuous action. Of the graver difficulties of ethical theory Socrates has no conception, having, as it would seem, so perfectly absorbed, the lessons of what Plato calls " political virtue " that morality has become with him a second nature, and the scrutiny of its credentials from an external standpoint has ceased to be possible. His theory is indeed so little systematic that, whereas, as has been seen, virtue or wisdom has the Good for its object, he sometimes identifies the Good, with virtue or wisdom, thus falling into the error which Plato (Republic vi. 505 C), perhaps with distinct reference to Socrates, ascribes to certain " cultivated thinkers." In short, the ethical theory of Socrates, like the rest of his teaching, is by confession unscientific ; it is the statement of the convictions of a remarkable nature, which statement emerges in the course of an appeal to the individual to study consistency in the interpretation of traditional rules of conduct. For a critical exami- nation of the ethical teaching which is here described in outline, see ETHICS. The Socratics. It has been seen that, so far from having any system, physical or metaphysical, to enunciate, Socrates rejected " the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake " as a delusion and a snare, — a delusion, inasmuch as knowledge, properly so called, Socratic is unattainable, and a snare, in so far as the pursuit of Schools. it draws us away from the study of conduct. He has therefore no claim to be regarded as the founder of a philosophical school. But he had made some tentative contributions to a theory of morality ; he had shown both in his life and in his death that his principles stood the test of practical application ; he had invented a method having for its end the rectification of opinion; and, above all, he had asserted " the autonomy of the individual intellect." Accor- dingly, not one school but several schools sprang up amongst his associates, those of them who had a turn for speculation taking severally from his teaching so much as their pre-existing tendencies and convictions allowed them to assimilate. Thus Aristippus of Cyrene interpreted hedonistically the theoretical morality; Antis- thenes the Cynic copied and caricatured the austere example; Euclides of Megara practised and perverted the eienctic method; Plato the Academic, accepting the whole of the Socratic teaching, first developed it harmoniously in the sceptical spirit of its author, and afterwards, conceiving that he had found in Socrates's agnosti- cism the germ of a philosophy, proceeded to construct a system which should embrace at once ontology, physics, and ethics. From the four schools thus established sprang subsequently four other schools, — the Epicureans being the natural successors of the Cyre- naics, the Stoics of the Cynics, the Sceptics of the Megarians, and the Peripatetics of the Academy. In this way the teaching of Socrates made itself felt throughout the whole of the post-Socratic philosophy. Of the influence which he exercised upon Aristippus, Antisthenes and Euclides, the " incomplete Sociatics," as they are commonly called, as well as upon the " complete Socratic," Plato, something must now be said. The "incomplete Socratics" were, like Socrates, sceptics; but, whereas Aristippus, who seems to have been in contact with Pro- tagoreanism before he made acquaintance with Socrates, came to scepticism, as Protagoras had done, from the '' standpoint of the pluralists, Antisthenes, like his * former master Gorgias, and Euclides, in whom the ancients SOCRATES 337 rightly saw a successor of Zeno, came to scepticism from the stand- point of Eleatic henism. In other words, Aristippus was sceptical because, taking into account the subjective element in sensation, he found himself compelled to regard what are called " things " as successions of feelings, which feelings are themselves absolutely distinct from one another; while Antisthenes and Euclides were sceptical because, like Zeno, they did not understand how the same thing could at the same moment bear various and inconsistent epithets, and consequently conceived all predication which was not identical to be illegitimate. Thus Aristippus recognized only feelings, denying things; Antisthenes recognized things, denying attributions; and it is probable that in this matter Euclides was at one with him. For, though since Schleiermacher many historians, unnecessarily identifying the ti&av l\oi of Plato's Sophist with the Megarians, have ascribed to Euclides a theory of " ideas," and on the strength of this single passage thus conjecturally interpreted have added a new chapter to the history of Megarianism, it is difficult, if not impossible, to see how, if the founder of the school had broken loose from the trammels of the Zenonian paradox, his successors, and amongst them Stilpo, should have reconciled themselves, as they certainly did, to the Cynic denial of predication. While the " incomplete Socratics " made no attempt to overpass the limits which Socrates had imposed upon himself, within those limits they occupied each his department. Aristippus, a citizen of the world, drawn to Athens by the fame of Socrates, and retained there by the sincere affection which he conceived for him, inter- preted the ethical doctrine of Socrates in accordance with his own theory of pleasure, which in its turn came under the refining influence of Socrates's theory of pic7)v, see the writer's paper " On the Saiubviov of Socrates," in the Journal of Philology, v. ; and cf. Chr. Meiners, Vermischte philosophische Schriften (Leipzig, 1776) — " in moments of ' Schwarmerei ' Socrates took for the voice of an attendant genius what was in reality an instantaneous presentiment in regard to the issue of a contemplated act." For a fuller statement of the writer's view of Plato's relations to Socrates, see a paper on Plato's Republic, vi. 509 D seq., in the Journal of Philology, vol. x., and a series of papers on " Plato's Later Theory of Ideas," in vols. x., xi., xiii., xiv., xv., xxv. of the same periodical. See also SOPHISTS and ETHICS. (H. JA.) SOCRATES, the name of a famous sth-century church historian. In the course of the last twenty-five years (425-450) of the reign of Theodosius II. (the first thoroughly Byzantine emperor) at least six church histories were written in Greek within the limits of the Eastern Empire — those, namely, of Philostorgius the Arian, of Philip of Side, of Socrates, of Sozomen, of Theodoret and of Hesychius. Of these the first, no longer extant except in fragments, seems to have been the most important. Those of Philip and of Hesychius (the former an untrustworthy and dreary performance mentioned by Socrates [vii. 26, 27]) have also perished. The remaining three are now our main sources for church history from Constantine to Theodosius II. None of them has ventured upon a fresh treatment of the period dealt with by Eusebius; all three begin their narratives about the point where his closes. In the West the Church History of that author had already been continued by Rufinus and his Chronicle by Jerome, and the work of Rufinus was certainly known to the Byzantines. Nor did these write independently of each other, for Sozomen (2. When pure, sodium dioxide has a faint yellowish tinge, but on exposure it whitens (W. R. Bousfield and T. M. Lowry, Phil. Trans., 1905, A. 204, p. 253). When dissolved in water it yields some NaOH and H2O2; on crystallizing a cold solution Na2O2-8H2O separates as large tabular hexagonal crystals, which on drying over sulphuric acid give Na2O2'2H2O; the former is also obtained by precipitating a mixture of caustic soda and hydrogen peroxide solutions with alcohol. Acids yield a sodium salt and free oxygen or hydrogen peroxide ; with carbon dioxide it gives sodium carbonate 342 SODOM AND GOMORRAH and free oxygen; carbon monoxide gives the carbonate; whilst nitrous and nitric oxides give the nitrate. A solution in hydro- chloric acid, consisting of the chloride and hydrogen peroxide, is used for bleaching straw under the name of soda-bleach; with calcium or magnesium chlorides this solution gives a solid product which, when dissolved in water, is used for the same purpose (Castner, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1893, p. 603). Sodium dioxide is chiefly employed as an oxidizing agent, being used in mineral analysis and in various organic preparations; it readily burns paper, wood, &c., but does not evolve oxygen unless heated to a high temperature. Sodyl hydroxide, NaHC>2, exists in two forms: one, Na-O-OH, obtained from hydrogen peroxide and sodium ethylate; the other, O:Na-OH, from absolute alcohol and sodium peroxide at o°. They are strong oxidizing agents and yield alkaline solutions which readily evolve oxygen on heating. Sodium trioxide, NajOa, is said to be formed from an excess of oxygen and a solution of sodam- monium in liquid ammonia. Water decomposes it, giving oxygen and the dioxide. Generally speaking, sodium salts closely resemble the correspond- ing potassium salts, and their methods of preparation are usually the same. For sodium salts not mentioned below reference should be made to articles wherein the acid is treated, unless otherwise indicated. Sodium combines directly with the halogens to form salts which are soluble in water and crystallize in the cubic system. The fluoride, NaF, is sparingly soluble in water (l part in 25). For the chloride see SALT. The bromide and iodide crystallize from hot solutions in anhydrous cubes; from solutions at ordinary tempera- tures in monoclinic prisms with 2H2O; and at low temperatures with sH2O. According to M. Loeb (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1905, 27, p. 1019) the iodide differs from the other haloid salts in separating from solution in alcohols with " alcohol of crystallization." Sodium sulphide, Na2S, obtained by saturating a caustic soda solution with sulphuretted hydrogen and adding an equivalent of alkali, is em- ployed in the manufacture of soluble soda glass. Sodium sulphite, Na2SO3, which is employed as an antichlor, is prepared (with 7H2O) by saturating a solution of sodium carbonate with sulphur dioxide, adding another equivalent of carbonate and crystallizing. The anhydrous salt may be prepared by heating a saturated solution of the hydrated salt. H. Hartley and W. H. Barrett (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, p. 1184) failed to obtain a decahydrate which had been previously described. The acid sulphite, NaHSOs, obtained by saturating a cold solution of the carbonate with sulphur dioxide and precipitating by alcohol, is employed for sterilizing beer casks. Sodium sulphate, Na2SO«, known in the hydrated condition (with ioH2O) as Glauber's salt, is manufactured in large quantities for conversion into the carbonate or soda (see ALKALI MANUFAC- TURE). It has long been doubted whether sodium yielded an alum; this was settled by N. I. Surgunoff in 1909 (Abst. Journ. Chem. Soc. ii. 1001), who obtained cubic crystals from a supersaturated solution of sodium and aluminium sulphates below 20°, higher temperatures giving monoclinic crystals. The acid sulphate, NaHSOj, also known as bisulphate of soda, is obtained as large asymmetric prisms by__ crystallizing a solution of equivalent quantities of the normal sulphate and sulphuric acid above 50". The acid salts Na3H(SO«)2 and Na3H(SO4)2-H2O are obtained from the normal sulphate and sulphuric acid (J. D'Ans, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1534). The manufacture of sodium carbonate, commonly called soda, is treated under ALKALI MANUFACTURE. The anhydrous salt is a colourless powder or porous mass, having an alkaline taste and reaction. It melts at 1008°. On solution in water, heat is evolved and hydrates formed. Common washing soda or soda-crystals is the decahydrate, Na2COa-ioH2O, which appears as large clear monoclinic crystals. On exposure, it loses water and gives the monohydrate, Na2CO3-HiO, a white powder sold as " crystal carbonate "; this substance, which is also formed on heating the decahydrate to 34°, crystallizes in the rhombic system. Both these hydrates occur in the mineral kingdom, the former as natron and the latter as thermpnatrite. The heptahydrate, Na2COs-7H2O, is obtained by crystallizing a warm saturated solution in a vacuum; it appears to be dimorphous. The acid carbonate or bicarbonate of soda, NaHCOs, is produced in the ammonia-soda process for alkali manufacture. Another acid carbonate, Na2COj-2NaHCO3-3H2O, is the mineral trona or urao. We may here notice the " percar- bonates " obtained by Wolffenstein and Peltner (Ber., 1908, 41, pp. 275, 280) on acting with gaseous or solid carbon dioxide on Na2O2, Na2Oj and NaHOz at low temperatures; the same authors obtained a perborate by adding sodium metaborate solution to a 50 % solution of sodium peroxide previously saturated with carbon dioxide. For sodium nitrite see NITROGEN ; for sodium nitrate see SALTPETRE ; for the cyanide see PRUSSIC ACID; and for the borate see BORAX. Of the sodium silicates the most important is the mixture known as soluble soda glass formed by calcining a mixture of white sand, soda-ash and charcoal, or by dissolving silica in hot caustic soda under pressure. It is a colourless transparent glass mass, which dissolves in boiling water to form a thick liquid. It is employed in certain printing processes, as a cement for artificial stone and for mending glass, porcelain, &c., and also for making the so-called silicated soaps (see SOAP). Sodium is most distinctly recognized by the yellow coloration which volatile salts impart to a Bunsen flame, or, better, by its emission spectrum which has a line (double), the Fraunhofer D, line, in the yellow (the wave-lengths are 5896 and 5890). The atomic weight was determined by Stas to be 22-87 (H = i) ; T. W. Richards and R. C. Wells (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1905, 27, p. 459) obtained the value 23-006 (O = 16). Medicine. Pharmacology. — The metal sodium is not used in medicine, but many of its salts are employed. Besides liquor sodii ethylatis the following salts and preparations are used in the British Pharma- copoeia, (i) Sodii carbonis, known as washing soda; this carbonate on heating yields sodii carbonis exsiccaius and sodii bicarbonas; from the latter is made trochiscus sodii bicarbonatis. (2) Sodii phosphas. From sodium phosphate are made sodii phosphas effervescens and sodii hypophosphis (see PHOSPHORUS). (3) Sodii sulphas (Glauber's salt), with its sub-preparation sodii sulphas effervescens. (4) Soda tartarata (Rochelle salt), a tartrate of sodium and potassium, from which is made pulvis spdae tartaratae effervescens, known as Seidlitz powder. (5) Sodii citro-tartras effervescens, a mixture of sugar, sodium bicarbonate, citric and tartaric acids. (6) Sodii chloridum, common salt. (7) Sodii sulphis. For sodii bromidum, iodidum and salicylatum see BROMINE, IODINE and SALICYLIC ACID respectively. For sodii arsenas and cacodylate see ARSENIC. Sapo durus (hard soap) is a compound of sodium with olive oil, and sapo animalis (curd soap) is chiefly sodium stearate. Toxicology. — Poisoning by caustic soda is rare, but occasionally it takes place by swallowing soap lees (sodium carbonate), which may contain some impurities of caustic soda. The symptoms and treatment are the same as described under POTASSIUM. The salts of sodium resemble potassium in their action on the alimentary tract, but they are much more slowly absorbed, and much less diffusible; therefore considerable amounts may reach the small intestine and there act as saline purgatives. They are slowly absorbed into the blood, and are a natural constituent of the blood plasma, which derives them from the food. Sodium is excreted by all the mucous surfaces and by the liver and kidneys. On the latter they act as diuretics, but less powerfully than potassium, increasing the flow of water and the output of urea and rendering the urine less acid. They are said to diminish the secretion of the bronchial mucous membrane. Therapeutics: External Use. — The liquor sodii ethylatis is a powerful caustic and is used to destroy small naevi and warts. A lotion of sodium bicarbonate is useful to allay itching. Solutions of sodium sulphite are used as mild antiparasitics. Internal use. — Sodium chloride is occasionally used in warm water as an emetic, and injections of it into the rectum as a treatment for thread worms. A 0-9 % solution forms what is termed normal saline solution, which is frequently injected into the tissues in cases of collapse, haemorrhage and diarrhoea. It forms a valuable treatment in .diabetic coma and^eclampsia, acting by diluting the toxins in the blood. From this has developed the intramuscular injection of diluted sea-water in the treatment of gastro-enteritis, anaemia and various skin affections. Sodium chloride is an important constituent of the waters of Homburg, Wiesbaden, Nauheim and Kissingen. Sodium bicarbonate is one of our most useful gastric sedatives and antacids, relieving pain in hyperchloridia. It is the constituent of most stomachic mixtures. Effervescent soda water is a mild gastric sedative. Sodium phosphate and sulphate are cholagogue purga- tives and are used in the treatment of gallstones. The sulphate is the chief constituent of Marienbad and Carlsbad waters. Large doses of these salts are used to remove fluid in dropsy. Soda tar- tarate is purgative and diuretic, as is the citro-tartarate. These purgative sodium salts are most useful in the treatment of chronic constipation, and of the constipation associated with gout and hepatic dyspepsia. They should be dissolved in warm water and taken in the morning, fasting. In visceral gout and chronic catarrhal conditions of the stomach a course of alkaline waters is distinctly beneficial. Sodium salts hare not the depressant effect so marked in those of potassium. SODOM AND GOMORRAH, in biblical geography, two of five cities (the others named Admah, Zeboiim and Bela or Zoar) which were together known as the " cities of the Kikkar " (circle), somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea. They occupied a fertile region, chosen by Lot for his dwelling (Gen. xiii. 10-12). They were attacked by the four great East- ern kings and spoiled, but restored by the intervention of Abram and his men coming to the aid of Lot (Gen. xiv.). They were proverbial for wickedness, for which they were destroyed by a rain of " fire and brimstone " (Gen. xix.). The site of the cities, the historicity of the events narrated of them and the nature of the catastrophe that destroyed them, are matters of hot dispute. Modern names, more or less similar to the ancient appellations, have been noted in different parts of the Dead SODOMA, IL— SOEST 343 Sea area; but no certain identification can be based on these similarities. The most striking coincidence is Jebel Usdum, by some equated with confidence to Sodom. The names are radically identical; but the hill is merely a salt-ridge 600 ft. high and 7 m. long, and cannot possibly represent an ancient city. The most that can be said is that the names have lingered in the Jordan valley in a vague tradition — very likely helped by, if not entirely due to, literary accounts of the catastrophe — just as has the name of Lot himself in the Arab name of the Dead Sea. The catastrophe has been explained as a volcanic eruption, or an explosive outburst of gas and oil stored and accumulating at high pressure. The latter, to which parallels in geologically similar regions in America are not unknown, is the most probable natural explanation that can be offered. (R. A. S. M.) SODOMA, IL (1477-1549), the name given to the Italian painter Giovanni Antonio Bazzi (who until recent years was erroneously named Razzi). He is said to have borne also the name of " Sodona " as a family name, and likewise the name Tizzioni; Sodona is signed upon some of his pictures. While " Bazzi " was corrupted into " Razzi," " Sodona " may have been corrupted into "Sodoma"; Vasari, however, accounted for the name differently, as a nickname from his personal char- acter. This version appears to have been inspired by Bazzi's pupil and subsequent rival Beccafumi. In R. H. Gust's recent work on the painter another suggestion is made. Vasari tells a story that, Bazzi's horse having won a race at Florence, a cry of "Who is the owner?" went up, and Bazzi contemptu- ously answered " Sodoma," in order to insult the Florentines (according to Milanesi) ; and Mr Gust offers the suggestion of the Italian friend, that the racing name was really a clipped form of So doma, " I am the trainer." Whatever the real origin, the name was long supposed to indicate an immoral character. Bazzi was of the family de Bazis, and was born at Vercelli in Lombardy in 1477. His first master was Martino Spanzotto, by whom one signed picture is known; and he appears to have been in his native place a scholar of the painter Giovenone. Acquiring thus the strong colouring and other distinctive marks of the Lombard school, he was brought to Siena towards the close of the isth century by some agents of the Spannocchi family; and, as the bulk of his professional life was passed in this Tuscan city, he counts as a member of the Sienese school, although not strictly affined to it in point of style. He does not seem to have been a steady of .laborious student in Siena, apart from some attention which he bestowed upon the sculptures of Jacopo della Quercia. Along with Pinturicchio, he was one of the first to establish there the matured style of the Cinquecento. His earliest works of repute are seventeen frescoes in the Benedictine monastery of Monte Oliveto, on the road from Siena to Rome, illustrating the life of St Benedict, in con- tinuation of the series which Luca Signorelli had begun in 1498; Bazzi completed the set in 1502. Hence he was invited to Rome by the celebrated Sienese merchant Agostino Chigi, and was employed by Pope Julius II. in the Camera della Segnatura in the Vatican. He executed two great compositions and various ornaments and grotesques. The latter are still extant; but the larger works did not satisfy the pope, who engaged Raphael to substitute his " Justice," " Poetry," and " Theology." In the Chigi Palace (now Farnesina) Bazzi painted some subjects from the life of Alexander the Great; "Alexander in the Tent of Darius " and the " Nuptials of the Conqueror with Roxana " (by some considered his masterpiece) are more particularly noticed. When Leo X. was made pope (1513) Bazzi presented him with a picture of the " Death of Lucretia " (or of Cleopatra, according to some accounts) ; Leo gave him a large sum of money in recom- pense and created him a cavaliere. Bazzi afterwards returned to Siena and at a later date went in quest of work to Pisa, Vol- terra, and Lucca. From Lucca he returned to Siena, not long before his death, which took place on the I4th of February 1549 (the older narratives say 1554). He had squandered his pro- perty and is said (rather dubiously) to have died in penury in the great hospital of Siena. Bazzi had married in youth a lady of good position, but the spouses disagreed and separated pretty soon afterwards. A daughter of theirs married Bartolommeo Neroni, named also Riccio Sanese or Maestro Riccio, one of Bazzi's principal pupils. It is said that Bazz! jeered at the History of the Painters written by Vasari, and that Vasari consequently traduced him ; certainly he gives a bad account of Bazzi's morals and demeanour, and is niggardly towards the merits of his art. According to Vasari, the ordinary name by which Bazzi was known was " II Mattaccio " (the Madcap, the Maniac) — this epithet being first bestowed upon him by the monks of Monte Oliveto. He dressed gaudily, like a mountebank; his house was a perfect Noah's ark, owing to the strange miscellany of animals which he kept there. He was a cracker of jokes and fond of music, and sang some poems composed by himself on indecorous subjects. In his art Vasari alleges that Bazzi was always negligent — his early success in Siena, where he painted many portraits, being partly due to want of competition. As he advanced in age he became too lazy to make any cartoons for his frescoes, but daubed them straight off upon the wall. Vasari admits, nevertheless, that Bazzi produced at intervals some works of very fine quality, and during his lifetime his reputation stood high. The general verdict is that Bazzi was an able master in expression, motion and colour. His taste was something like that of Da Vinci, especially in the figures of women, which have grace, sweetness and uncommon earnestness. He is not eminent for drawing, grouping or general elegance of form. His easel pictures are rare ; there are two in the National Gallery in London. It is uncertain whether Bazzi was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, though Morelli (in his Italian Pictures in German Galleries) speaks .of his having " only ripened into an artist during the two years (1498-1500) he spent at Milan with Leonardo"; and some critics see in Bazzi's " Madonna " in the Brera (if it is really by Bazzi) the direct influence of this master. Modern criticism follows Morelli in supposing that Raphael painted Bazzi's portrait in " The School of Athens"; and a drawing at Christ Church is supposed to be a portrait of Raphael by Bazzi. His most celebrated works are in Siena. In S. Domenico, in the chapel of St Catherine of Siena, are two frescoes painted in 1526, showing Catherine in ecstasy, and fainting as she is about to receive the Eucharist from an angel — a beautiful and pathetic treatment. In the oratory of S. Bernardino, scenes from the history of the Madonna, painted by Bazzi in conjunction with Pacchia and Becca- fumi (1536-1538) — the " Visitation " and the " Assumption " — are noticeable. In S. Francesco are the " Deposition from the Cross " (1513) and " Christ Scourged " ; by many critics one or other of these paintings is regarded as Bazzi's masterpiece. In the choir of the cathedral at Pisa is the " Sacrifice of Abraham," and in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence as " St Sebastien." See for further details, Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, by Robert H. Hobart Cust (1906), which contains a full bibliography. (W. M. R.) SODOR AND MAN, the name of the bishopric of the Church of England which includes the Isle of Man and adjacent islets. In 1154 the diocese of Sodor was formed to include the Heb- rides and other islands west of Scotland (Norse Sudr-eyjar, Sudreys, or southern isles, in distinction from Nordr-eyjar, the northern isles of Orkney and Shetland) and the Isle of Man. It was in the archdiocese of Trondhjem in Norway. (The con- nexion of the Isle of Man with Norway is considered 5.11. MAN, ISLE OF.) A Norwegian diocese of Sodor had been in existence previously, but its history is obscure, and the first union of Man with it in 1098 by Magnus Barefoot is only traditional. The Norwegian connexion was broken in 1266, and in 1334 Man was detached from the Scottish islands. The cathedral of Sodor was on St Patrick's Isle at Peel (?.».), and it is possible that the name Sodor being lost, its meaning was applied to the isle as the seat of the bishop. The termination " and Man " seems to have been added in the i7th century by a legal draughtsman ignorant of the proper application of the name of Sodor to the bishopric of Man. By the latter part of the i6th century the terms Sodor and Man had become interchangeable, the bishopric being spoken of as that of Sodor or Man. Till 1604 the bishops invariably signed themselves Sodorensis; after that date and till 1684, sometimes Soderensis and sometimes " Sodor and Man," and after 1684 always " Sodor and Man." The see, while for some purposes in the archdiocese of York, has its own convocation. The bishop sits in the House of Lords, but has no vote. See A. W. Moore, History of the Isle of Man (London, 1900). SOEST, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated in a fertile plain (Soester Borde), 33 m. E. 344 SOFA— SOFIA of Dortmund, on the main railway Cologne-Elberfeld-Berlin. Pop. (1905), 17,394. Its early importance is attested by its seven fine churches (six Protestant), of which the most striking are St Peter's, the Wiesenkirche, a gem of Gothic architecture, Maria zur Hohe — St Mary-on-the-height — with beautiful mural frescoes, founded in 1314 and restored in 1850-1852, and the Roman Catholic cathedral, founded in the loth century by Bruno, brother of Otto the Great (the present building was erected in the rath century). This last, with its very original facade, is one of the noblest ecclesiastical monuments of Germany. Remains of the broad wall, now partly enclosing gardens and fields, and one of the gates remain; but the thirty-six strong towers which once defended the town have disappeared and the moats have been converted into promenades. The town-hall (1701) contains valuable archives, and among the numerous educational establishments must be mentioned the gymnasium, founded in 1534, through the instrumentality of Melanchthon, an evangelical teachers' seminary, an agricultural school, and a blind asylum. Iron-working, the manufacture of soap, hats, sugar, cigars, bricks and tiles, linen-weaving, tanning and brewing, together with market-gardening and farming in the neighbourhood, and trade in cattle and grain are the leading industries. Mentioned in documents as early as the gth century, Soest was one of the largest and most important Hanseatic towns in the middle ages, with a population estimated at from 30,000' to 60,000. It was one of the chief emporiums on the early trading route between Westphalia and Lower Saxony. Its code of municipal laws (Schran; jus susatense), dating from 1144 to 1165, was one of the earliest and best, and served as a model even to Liibeck. On the fall of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, Soest passed with the rest of Angria to' Cologne. In the isth century the strife between the towns- men and the archbishops broke out in open war, and in 1444 the strong fortifications of the town withstood a long siege by an army of 60,000 men. The women of Soest are said to have distinguished themselves in this contest (Soester Fehde). Papal intervention ended the strife, and Soest was permitted to remain under the protection of the dukes of Cleves. The prosperity of the town waned in more modern times: in 1763 its population was only 3800; in 1816 it was 6687. See Vogeler, Soest, seine Altertiimer und Sehenswiirdigkeiten (Soest, 1890); Hausberg, Die soester Fehde (Trier, 1882); Summer- mann, Die Wandmalereien in der Kirche Maria zur Hohe in Soest (Soest, 1890) ; Aldenkirchen, Die'mittelalterliche Kunst in Soest (Bonn, 1875) ; Ludorff und Vogeler, Kunstdenkmdler des Kreises Soest (Soest, 1905)- SOFA, a long couch with stuffed back, arms and seat, to hold two or more persons. The word is of Arabic origin, and is an adaptation of suffah, couch, from root saffa — to draw up in line. According to Richardson, Diet, of Eng. Lang, quoted by Skeat, the Arabic suffah was particularly a reclining place of wood or stone placed before the doors of Oriental houses. In the history of furniture the sofa was a development of the straight backed settee. It was not so much therefore a long chair or combination of chairs, as a seat or couch for reclining. The early igth- century type had a back with a single arm at one end, the other being left open. The most favoured modern form is that known as the Chesterfield, with double arms and back, heavily padded. (See also SETTEE.) SOFALA, a Portuguese seaport on the east coast of Africa, at the mouth of a river of the same name, in 20° 12' S. Pop, (1900), about 1000. The town possesses scarcely a trace of its former importance, and what trade it had was nearly all taken away by the establishment of Beira (q.v.) a little to the north in 1890. Sofala Harbour, once capable of holding a hundred large vessels, is silting up and is obstructed by a bar. Ruins exist of the strong fort built by the Portuguese in the i6th century. Previous to its conquest by the Portuguese in 1505 Sofala was the chief town of a wealthy Mahommedan state, Arabs having established themselves there in the I2th century or earlier. At one time it formed part of the sultanate of Kilwa (q.v.). Sofala was visited by the Portuguese Jew, Pero de Covilhao, in 1489, who was attracted thither by the reports of gold-mines of which Sofala was the port. The conquest of the town followed, the first governors of the Portuguese East African possessions being entitled Captains-General of Sofala. (See PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA.) Thome Lopes, who accompanied Vasco da Gama to India in 1 502 and left a narrative of the voyage (first printed in Ramusio, Viaggi e Navegationi), identifies Sofala with Solomon's Ophir and states that it was the home of the Queen of Sheba. This identification of Sofala with Ophir, to which Milton alludes (Par. Lost, xi. 399-401) is untenable. The small island of Chiloane, with a good harbour, 40 m. S. of Sofala, has been colonized from Sofala (the township being named Chingune) as has also the island Santa Carolina, in the Bazaruto archipelago. See Bull. Geogr. Soc. Mozambique (1882) for an account of the Sofala mines; and, generally, Idrisi, Climate, i. § 8, O. Dapper, Description de I'Afrique (Amsterdam, 1686) ; T. Baines, The Gold Regions of South Africa (1877); G. McC. Theal's Records of South Eastern Africa (1898-1903); Sir R. Burton's notes to his edition of Camoens. SOFFIONI (sometimes spelt suffioni), a name applied in Italy to certain volcanic vents which emit jets of steam, generally associated with hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide, sometimes also with a little ammonia and marsh-gas. The soffioni are usually arranged in groups, and are best represented in the Maremma of Tuscany, where they contain a small pro- portion of boric acid, for which they are utilized industrially. For such natural steam-holes, the French geologists often use the term soufflards in place of the Italian soffioni. SOFFIT (from Fr. soffite, Ital. sqffitta, a ceiling, formed as if from suffictus for suffixus, Lat. suffigere, to fix underneath), a term in architecture given to the underside of any construc- tional feature; as for instance that of an arch or an architrave whether supported by piers or columns; also to the underside of a flight of stairs, and in the classic entablature to the under- side of the projecting cornice. SOFIA (Bulgarian Sredetz, the middle town, a name now little used), the capital of Bulgaria, situated almost in the centre of an upland plain, about 1700 ft. above sea-level, between the Western Balkans on the N. and Mt Vitosh on the S. Pop. (1907) 82,187. Two small tributaries of the river Isker, the Perlovetz and the Eleshnitza or Boyana, flow respectively on the east and west sides of the town. Since 1880 the city has been almost entirely renovated in the " European " style; the narrow tortuous lanes and mean houses of the Turkish epoch have almost disappeared, and a new town with straight parallel streets has been constructed in the eastern suburb. The oldest building in Sofia is the little round chapel of St George in the Jewish quarter — originally, it is said, a Roman temple; then a church, then a mosque, and now a church once more. Of the principal mosques the large Buyuk Djamia, with nine metal cupolas, has become the National Museum; the Tcherna Djamia or Black Mosque, latterly used as a prison, has been transformed into a handsome church; the Banya- bashi Djamia, with its picturesque minaret, is still used by Moslem worshippers. Close to the last-named in the centre of the town, are the public baths with hot springs (temperature 117° F). In the cathedral or church of Sveti Krai (the Saint King), a modern building, are preserved the remains of the Servian king Stefan Urosh II. A large new cathedral dedicated to St Alexander Nevski was in course of construction in 1907; the foundation stone was taken from the church of St Sophia. The palace of the prince, occupying the site of the Turkish konak was built by Prince Alexander in 1880-1882; it has been greatly enlarged by King Ferdinand. In front of the palace is the public garden or Alexander Park. The theatre, the largest in south-eastern Europe, was completed in 1906. Other important buildings are the Sobranye, or parliament house, the palace of the synod, the ministries of war and commerce, the univer- sity with the national printing press, the national library, the officers' club and several large military structures. A small SOGDIANA— SOIL 345 mausoleum contains the remains of Prince Alexander; there are monuments to the tsar Alexander II., to Russia, to the medical officers who fell in the war of 1877 and to the patriot Levsky. A public park has been laid out in the eastern suburbs. The city is well drained and possesses a good water supply; it is lighted by electricity and has an electric car system. It con- tains breweries, tanneries, sugar, tobacco, cloth, and silk fac- tories, and exports skins, cloth, cocoons, cereals, attar of roses, dried fruit, &c. Sofia forms the centre of a railway system radiating to Constantinople (300 m.), Belgrade (206 m.) and central Europe, Varna, Rustchuk and the Danube, and Kiustendil near the Macedonian frontier. The climate is healthy; owing to the elevated situation it is somewhat cold, and is liable to sudden diurnal and seasonal changes; the tem- perature in January sometimes falls to 4° F. below zero and in August rises to 100°. The population, of which more than two- thirds are Bulgarians,, and about one-sixth Spanish Jews, was 20,501 in 1881, 30,428 in 1888, 46,593 in 1893 and 82,187 in 1907. History. — The colony of Serdica, founded here by the emperor Trajan, became a Roman provincial town of considerable importance in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D., and was a favourite residence of Constantine the Great. Serdica was burnt by the Huns in A.D. 447; few traces remain of the Roman city, but more than one hundred types of its coins attest its importance. The town was taken by the Bulgarians under Krum in A.D. 809; the name Serdica was converted into Sredetz by the Slavs, who associated it with sreda (middle), and the Slavonic form subsequently became the Byzantine Triaditza. The name Sofia, which came into use towards the end of the i4th century is derived from the early medieval church of St Sophia, the massive ruins of which stand on an eminence to the east of the town. The church, which was converted into a mosque by the Turks, was partly destroyed by earthquakes in 1818 and 1858. The town successfully resisted the attacks of the emperor Basil II. in 987; between 1018 and 1186, under Byzan- tine rule, it served as a frontier fortress. During this period a number of prisoners of the Petcheneg tribe were settled in the neighbourhood, in all probability the ancestors of the Shop tribe which now inhabits the surrounding districts. In 1382 Sofia was captured by the Turks; in 1443 it was for a brief time occupied by the Hungarians under John Hunyady. Under Turkish rule the city was for nearly four centuries the residence of the beylerbey or governor-general of the whole Balkan Peninsula except Bosnia and the Morea. During this period the population increased and became mainly Turkish; in 1553 the town possessed eleven large and one hundred small mosques. In the latter half of the isth century Sofia, owing to its situation at the junction of several trade routes, became an important centre of Ragusan commerce. During the Turco-Russian campaign of 1829 it was the headquarters of Mustafa Pasha of Skodra, and was occupied by the Russians for a few days. On the 4th of January 1878 a Russian army again entered Sofia after the passage of the Balkans by Gourko; the bulk of the Turkish population had previously taken flight. Though less central than Philippopolis and less renowned in Bulgarian history than Trnovo, Sofia as selected as the capital of the newly-created Bulgarian state in view of its strategical position, which commands the routes to Constantinople, Belgrade, Macedonia and the Danube. (J. D. B.) SOGDIANA (Sugdiane, O. Pers. Sughuda), a province of the Achaemenian Empire, the eighteenth in the list in the Behistun inscription of Darius (i. 16), corresponding to the modern districts of Samarkand and Bokhara; it lay north of Bactriana between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, and embraced the fertile valley of the Zerafshan (anc. Poly timetus) . Under the Greeks Sogdiana was united in one satrapy with Bactria, and subse- quently it formed part of the Bactrian Greek kingdom till the Scythians (see SCYTHIA) occupied it in the middle of the 2nd century B.C. The valley of the Zerafshan about Samarkand retained even in the middle ages the name of the Soghd of Samarkand. Arabic geographers reckon it as one of the four fairest districts in the world. SOGNE FJORD, a great inlet of the west coast of Norway, penetrating the mainland to a distance of 136 m. It is the longest fjord in Norway, and the deepest, approaching 700 fathoms in some parts. Sognefest at its entrance is 50 m. by water from Bergen, in 61° 5' N. The general direction from the sea is easterly. For the first 50 m. the sombre flanking mountains are unbroken by any considerable branch, but from this point several deep, narrow inlets ramify, penetrat- ing the Jostedalsbrae and Jotunfjeld to the north and the north- ward extension of the Hardangerfjeld to the south, walled in at their heads by snow-clad mountains and frequented by travellers on account of the magnificent scenery. The principal are Fjaerlands, Sogndals and Lyster fjords to the north, Aardals fjord to the east, Laerdals and Aurlands fjords to the south. From the last branches the Naero fjord, with a [precipitous valley of great beauty (Naerb'dalen) at its head, traversed by a road, from Gudvangen on the fjord, across the Stalheim Pass to Vossevangen. The other principal villages are Vadheim on the outer fjord, the terminus of the road from Nordfjord; BaLholm and Fjaerland (centres for visiting the fine glaciers of Jostedal) ; Lekanger, Sogndal, and Laerdalsoren, whence a road strikes south-east for the Valders and Hallingdal districts. SOHAM, a town in the Newmarket parliamentary division of Cambridgeshire, England, 5 m. S.E. of Ely by a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 4230. It lies in the midst of the flat fen country. To the west a rich tract, still known as Soham Mere, marks the place of one of the many wide and shallow sheets of water in the district now drained. The church of St Andrew is cruciform and had formerly a central tower; the existing western tower is of fine and ornate Perpendi- cular work. The body of the church, however, is mainly transi- tional Norman with additions principally Decorated, including a beautiful east window, much ancient woodwork, and other details of interest. The grammar school dates from 1687. The road from Soham to Ely was constructed as a causeway across the fens by Hervey le Breton, first bishop of Ely (1109-1131). The trade of the town is agricultural, fruit-growing and market- gardening being largely carried on in the vicinity. SOIGNIES (or SOIGNES, the Walloon form), a busy and flourish- ing town of the province of Hainaut, owing its prosperity to the important blue granite quarries in the neighbourhood. It contains a fine abbey church of the i2th century and in the cemetery connected with it are many tombstones of the I3th and i4th centuries. Pop. (1904), 10,480. The forest of Soignies extended in the middle ages over the southern part of Brabant up to the walls of Brussels, and is immortalized in Byron's Childe Harold. Originally it was part of the Ardenne forest, and even at the time of the French Revolu- tion it was very extensive. The first blow towards its gradual contraction was struck when Napoleon ordered 22,000 oaks to be cut down in it to build the celebrated Boulogne flotilla for the invasion of England. King William I. of the Netherlands continued the process in the belief that he was thus adding to the prosperity of the country, and from 29,000 acres in 1820 the forest was reduced to 11,200 in 1830. A considerable portion of the forest in the neighbourhood of Waterloo was assigned in 1815 to the duke of Wellington, and to the holder of the title as long as it endured. This portion of the forest was only converted into farms in the time of the second duke. The Bois de la Cambre (456 acres) on the outskirts of Brussels was formed out of the forest, and beyond it stretches the Foret de Soignies, still so called, to Tervueren, Groenendael, and Argenteuil close to Mont Saint Jean and Waterloo. SOIL,1 the term generally applied to that part of the earth's 1 This word comes through O. Fr. soil from a Late Latin usage of solea for soil or ground, which in classic Lat. meant the sole of the foot, also a sandal. This was due to a confusion with solum, ground, whence Fr. sol. Both solea and solum are, of course, from the same root. To be distinguished from this word is " soil," to make dirty, to stain, defile. The origin is the O. Fr. soil or souil, the miry wallowing ground of a wild boar, whence the hunting phrase " to take soil," of a beast of the chase taking to water or marshy ground. The derivation is therefore from Lat. soillus, pertaining to 34-6 SOIL substance which is stirred or tilled by implements such as ploughs and spades. Below this is the subsoil. The soil through being acted upon by the air, heat, frost and other agencies usually consists of finer particles than those comprising the bulk of the subsoil. It contains more roots, and as a rule, is darker in colour than the subsoil on account of the larger proportion of decaying vegetable matter present in it: it is also looser in texture than the subsoil. The subsoil not unfrequently contains materials which are deleterious to the growth of crops, and roots descending into it may absorb and convey these poisonous substances to other parts of the plant or be themselves damaged by contact with them. On this account deeper tillage than usual, which allows of easier penetration of roots, or the carrying out of operations which bring the subsoil to the surface, must always be carefully considered. At first sight few natural materials appear to be of less interest than the soil; yet its importance is manifest on the slightest reflection. From it, directly or indirectly, are obtained all food materials needed by man and beast. The inorganic materials within it supply some of the chief substances utilized by plants for their development and growth, and from plants animals obtain much of their sustenance. Origin of the Soil. — It is a matter of common observation that stones of monuments, walls or buildings which are exposed to the air sooner or later become eaten away or broken up into small fragments under the influence of the weather. This disintegration is brought about chiefly by changes in tempera- ture, and by the action of the rain, the oxygen, and the carbon dioxide of the air. During the daytime the surface of the stone may become very warm, while at night it is speedily cooled. Such alterations in temperature produce strains which frequently result in the chipping off of small fragments of the material composing the stone. Moreover the rain penetrates into the small interstices between its particles and dissolves out some of the materials which bind the whole into a solid stone, the surface then becoming a loose powdery mass which falls to the ground below or is carried away by the wind. The action of frost is also very destructive to many stones, since the water within their cracks and crannies expands on freezing and splits off small pieces from their surfaces. In the case of lime- stones the carbon dioxide of the air in association with rain and dew eats into them and leads to their disintegration. The oxygen of the air may also bring about chemical changes which result in the production of soluble substances removable by rain, the insoluble parts being left in a loosened state. These " weathering " agents not only act upon stones of buildings, but upon rocks of all kinds, reducing them sooner or later into a more or less fine powder. The work has been going on for ages, and the finely comminuted particles of rocks form the main bulk of the soil which covers much of the earth's surface, the rest of the soil being composed chiefly of the remains of roots and other parts of plants. If the whole of the soil in the British Islands were swept into the sea and the rocks beneath it laid bare the surface of the country would ultimately become covered again with soil produced from the rocks by the weathering processes just described. Moreover where there was no transport or solution of the soil thus produced it would necessarily show some simil- arity in composition to the rock on which it rested. The soils overlying red sandstone rocks would be reddish and of a sandy nature, while those overlying chalk would be whitish and contain considerable amounts of lime. In many parts of the country soils exhibiting such relationships, and known as sedentary soils, are prevalent, the transition from the soil to the rock beneath being plainly visible in sections exposed to view in railway cuttings, quarries and other excavations. The upper layer or soil proper consists of material which has been subjected swine, sus. " To sully," to besmirch, to cover with " mire " (O. Eng. sol. cf. Ger. suhlen) is a quite distinct word. Lastly there is a form " soil," used by agriculturists, of the feeding and fattening of cattle with green food such as vetches. This is from O. Fr. saoler, saouler, mod. souler, Lat. 'satullus, full-fed (satur, satiated, satis, enough). to ages of weathering; the bulk of it is composed of finely comminuted particles of sand, clay and other minerals, among which are imbedded larger or smaller stones of more refractory nature. On descending into the substratum the finer material decreases and more stones are met with; farther down are seen larger fragments of unaltered rock closely packed, and this brash or rubble grades insensibly into the unbroken rock below. In many districts the soil is manifestly unconnected in origin with the rock on which it rests, and differs from it in colour, composition and other characters. There are transported or drift soils, the particles of which have been brought from other areas and deposited over the rocks below. Some of the stiff boulder clays or " till " so prevalent over parts of the north of England appear to have been deposited from ice sheets during the glacial period. Perhaps the majority of drift soils, however, have been moved to their present position by the action of .the water of rivers or the sea. As fast as the rock of a cliff is weathered its fragments are washed to the ground by the rain, and carried down the slopes by small streams, ultimately finding their way into a river along which they are carried until the force of the water is insufficient to keep them in suspension, when they become deposited in the river bed or along its banks. Such river-transported material or alluvium is common in all river valleys. It is often of very mixed origin, being derived from the detritus of many kinds of rocks, and usually forms soil of a fertile character. Quality of Soil. — The good or bad qualities of a soil have reference to the needs of the crops which are to be grown upon it, and it is only after a consideration of the requirements of plants that a clear conception can be formed of what characters the soil must possess for it to be a suitable medium on which healthy crops can be raised. In the first place, soil, to be of any use, must be sufficiently loose and porous to allow the roots of plants to grow and extend freely. It may be so compact that root development is checked or stopped altogether, in which case the plant suffers. On the other hand it should not be too open in texture or the roots do not get a proper hold of the ground and are easily disturbed by wind: moreover such soils are liable to blow away, leaving the underground parts exposed to the air and drought. The roots like all other parts of plants contain protoplasm or living material, which cannot carry on its functions unless it is supplied with an adequate amount of oxygen: hence the necessity for the continuous circulation of fresh air through the soil. If the latter is too compact or has its interstices filled with carbon dioxide gas or with water — as is the case when the ground is water-logged — the roots rapidly die of suffocation just as would an animal under the same conditions. There is another point which requires attention. Plants need very considerable amounts of water for their nutrition and growth; the water- holding capacity is, therefore, important. If the soil holds too much it becomes water-logged and its temperature falls below the point for healthy growth, at any rate of the kinds of plants usually cultivated on farms and in gardens. If it 'allows of too free drainage drought sets in and the plants, not getting enough water for their needs, become stunted in size. Too much water is bad, and too little is equally injurious. In addition, the temperature of the soil largely controls the yield of crops which can be obtained from the land. Soil whose temperature remains low, whether from its northerly aspect or from its high water content or other cause, is unsatisfactory, because the germination of seeds and the general life processes of plants cannot go on satisfactorily except at certain tempera- tures well above freezing-point. A good soil should be deep to allow of extensive root develop- ment and, in the case of arable soils, easy to work with imple- ments. Even when all the conditions above mentioned in regard to texture, water-holding capacity, aeration and temperature are suitably fulfilled the soil may still be barren: plant food- material is needed. This is usually present in abundance although it may not be available to the plant under certain SOIL 347 circumstances, or may need to be replenished or increased by additions to the soil of manures or fertilizers (see MANURE). Chief Constituents of the Soil. — An examination of the soil shows it to be composed of a vast number of small particles of sand, clay, chalk and humus, in which are generally imbedded larger or smaller stones. It will be useful to consider the nature of the four chief constituents just mentioned and their bearing upon the texture, water-holding capacity and other characters which were referred to in the previous section. Sand consists of grains of quartz or flint, the individual particles of which are large enough to be seen with the unaided eye or readily felt as gritty grains when rubbed between the finger and thumb. When a little soil is shaken up with water in a tumbler the sand particles rapidly fall to the bottom and form a layer which resembles ordinary sand of the seashore or river banks. Chemically pure sand is silicon dioxide (SiO2) or quartz, a clear transparent glass-like mineral, but as ordinarily met with, it is more or less impure and generally coloured reddish or yellowish by oxide of iron. A soil consisting of sand entirely would be very loose, would have little capacity to retain water, would be liable to become very hot in the daytime and cool at night and would be quite unsuitable for growth of plants. The term clay is often used by chemists to denote hydrated silicate of alumina (AliO3-2SiO2-2H2O), of which kaolin or china clay is a fairly pure form. This substance is present in practically all soils but in comparatively small amounts. Even in the soils which farmers speak of as stiff clays it is rarely present to the extent of more than I or 2%. The word "clay" used in the agricultural sense denotes a sticky intractable material which is found to consist of exceedingly fine particles (generally less than -005 mm. in dia- meter) of sand and other minerals derived from the decomposition of rocks, with a small amount of silicate of alumina. The peculiar character which clay possesses is probably due not to its chemical composition but to its physical state. When wet it becomes sticky and almost impossible to move or work with farm implements; neither air nor water can penetrate freely. In a dry state it becomes hard and bakes to a brick. It holds water well and is consequently cold, needing the application of much heat to raise its temperature. It is obvious, therefore, that soil composed entirely of clay is as useless as pure sand so far as the growth of crops upon it is concerned. Chalk consists, when quite pure, of calcium carbonate (CaCOs), a white solid substance useful in small amounts as a plant food- material, though in excess detrimental to growth. Alone, even when broken up into small pieces, it is unsuitable for the growth of plants. Humus, the remaining constituent of soil, is the term used for the decaying vegetable and animal matter in the soil. A good illustra- tion of it is peat. Its water-holding capacity is great, but it is often acid, and when dry it is light and incapable ofsupporting the roots of plants properly. Few of the commonly cultivated crops can live in a soil consisting mainly of humus. From the above account it will be understood that not one of the four chief soil constituents is in itself of value for the growth of crops, yet when they are mixed, as they usually are in the soils met with in nature, one corrects the deficiencies of the other. A perfect soil would be such a blend of sand, clay, chalk and humus as would contain sufficient clay and humus to prevent drought, enough sand to render it pervious to fresh air and prevent water- logging, chalk enough to correct the tendency to acidity of the humus present, and would have within it various substances which would serve as food-materials to the crops. Generally speaking, soils containing from 30 to 50% of clay and 50 to 60% of sand with an adequate amount of vegetable residues prove the most useful for ordinary farm and garden crops; such blends are known as " loams," those in which clay predominates being termed clay loams, and those in which the sand predominates sandy loams. ''Stiff clays" contain over 50% of clay; "light sands " have less than 10%. In the mechanical analysis of the soil, after separation of the stones and fine gravel by means of sieves, the remainder of the finer earth is subjected to various processes of sifting and deposition from water with a view of determining the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay present in it. Most of the material termed " sand " in such analyses consists of particles ranging in diameter from -5 to -05 mm., and the " silt " from -05 to -005 mm., the " clay " being composed of particles less than •005 mm. in diameter. The proportional amount of these materials in a sandy soil on the Bagshot beds and a stiff Oxford clay is given below : — Crop. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Potash. Lime. Mag- nesia. Wheat .... Meadow hay • . Turnips Mangels ft 50 49 no 149 ft 21 12 33 53 ft 29 Si 149 300 ft 9 32 74 43 ft 7 H 9 42 Soil on Bagshot Beds. Soil on Oxford Clay. Coarse sand 1—2 mm. Fine sand -2—04 mm. Silt -04—01 mm. Fine silt -01—004 mm. Clay below -004 mm. 32 % 40 „ 12 ,, 8 „ 8 „ ii % n' „ 19 .. 19 .. 4° -. The pore-space within the soil, i.e. the space between the parti- cles composing the soil, varies with the size of these particles and with the way they are arranged or packed. It is important, since upon it largely depends the movement of air and water in the land. It is generally from 30 to 50 % of the total volume occupied by the soil. Where the soil grains are quite free from each other the smaller grains tend to fill up the spaces between the larger ones; hence it might be concluded that in clays the amount of pore-space would be less than in coarser sands. This is the case in ' puddled " clays, but in ordinary clay soils the excessively minute particles of which they largely consist tend to form groups of comparatively large composite grains and it is in such natural soils that the pore-space is largest. Chemical Composition of the Soil. — It has been found by experiment that plants need for their nutritive process and their growth, certain chemical elements, namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron. With the exception of the carbon and a small proportion of the oxygen and nitrogen, which may be partially derived from the air, these elements are taken from the soil by crops. The following table shows the amounts of the chief constituents removed by certain crops in Ib per acre : — Plants also remove from the soil silicon, sodium, chlorine, and other elements which are, nevertheless, found to be unessential for the growth and may therefore be neglected here. Leguminous crops take some of the nitrogen which they require from the air, but most plants obtain it from the nitrates present in the soil. The sulphur exists in the soil chiefly in the form of sulphates of magnesium, calcium and other metals; the phosphorus mainly as phosphates of calcium, magnesium and iron; the potash, soda and other bases as silicates and nitrates; calcium and magne- sium carbonates are also common constituents of many soils. In the ordinary chemical analyses of the soil determinations are made of the nitrogen and various carbonates present as well as of the amount of phosphoric acid, potash, soda, magnesia and other components soluble in strong hydrochloric acid. Below are given examples of the analyses of a poor sandy soil and an ordinary loam : — Poor sandy Soil on Bagshot Beds. Loam or Lias. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Carbonate of Lime •19 % •18' „ •19 .. •23 .- •17 % •32 „ •57 ., 1-22 „ Since the dry weight of the first foot of soil over an acre is about 4,000,000 ft the poor sandy soil contains within it : — Nitrogen 7,600 ft Phosphoric acid 7,200 ,, Potash 7,600 ,, Lime 9,200 „ From the figures given previously of the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid removed by a wheat or mangel crop it would appear that this soil has enough of these ingredients in it to yield many such crops; yet experience has shown that these crops cannot be grown on such a poor sandy soil unless manures contain- ing phosphates, potash and nitrogen are added. Many attempts have been made to correlate the results of the analyses of a soil with its known cropping power, but there is yet much to be learnt in regard to these matters. A great proportion of the food constituents which can be extracted by strong hydro- chloric acid are not in a condition to be taken up by the roots of plants; they are present, but in a " dormant "state, although by tillage and weathering processes they may in time become "avail- able " to plants. Analyses of this character would appear to indicate the permanent productive capacity of the soil rather than its immediate power of growing a crop. Soils containing less than -25 % of potash are likely to need special application of potash fertilizers to give good results, while those containing as much as -4 or -5 % do not usually respond to those manures. Where the amount of phosphoric acid (P2O6) is less than -05% phosphatic manures are generally found to be beneficial; with mors than -I % present these fertilizers are not usually called for except perhaps in soils containing a high percentage of iron 348 SOIL compounds. Similarly soils with less than •!% of nitrogen are likely to be benefited by applications of nitrogenous manures. Too much stress, however, cannot be laid upon these figures, since the fertility of a soil is very greatly influenced by texture and physi- cal constitution, perhaps more so by these factors than by chemical composition. At present it is not possible to determine with accuracy the amount of immediately available plant food-constituents in a soil: no doubt the various species of plants differ somewhat in their power of absorbing these even from the same soil. The method introduced by Dyer of dissolving out the mineral constituents of the soil with a I % solution of citric acid, which represents about the average acidity of the roots of most common plants, yields better results. In the case of arable soils, where the amount of phosphoric acid determined by this method falls below -01 %, phos- phatic manuring is essential for good crops. The writer has found that many pasture soils containing less than -025 or -03 %, respond freely to applications of phosphates; probably in such cases even the weak acid is capable of dissolving out phosphates from the humus or other compounds which yield little or none to the roots of grasses and clovers. In soils where the potash available to citric acid is less than -005 %, kainit and other potash fertilizers are needed. Water in the Soil. — The importance of an adequate supply of water to growing crops cannot well be over-estimated. During the life of a plant there is a continuous stream of water passing through it which enters by the root-hairs in the soil and after passing along the stem is given off from the stomata of the leaves into the open air above ground. It has been estimated that an acre of cabbage will absorb from the land and transpire from its leaves more than ten tons of water per day when the weather is fine. In addition to its usefulness in maintaining a turgid state of the young cells without which growth cannot proceed, water is itself a plant food-material and as absorbed from the soil contains dissolved in it all the mineral food constituents needed by plants for healthy nutrition. Without a sufficient supply plants remain stunted and the crop yield is seriously reduced, as we see in dry seasons when the rainfall is much below the average. If one condition is more necessary than another for good crops it is a suitable supply of water, for no amount of manuring or other treatment of the soil will make up for a deficient rainfall. The amount needed for the most satisfactory nutrition varies with different plants. In the case of fair average farm crops it has been shown that for the production of one ton of dry matter contained in them from 300 to 500 tons of water has been absorbed and utilized by the plants. This may be more than the rainfall, in which case irrigation or special control of the water supply may be necessary. The water-holding capacity of a soil depends upon the amount of free space between the particles of which it is composed into which water can enter. In most cases this amounts to from 30 to 50 % of the volume of the soil. When the pore-space of the soil is filled with water it becomes water-logged and few plants can effect absorption by their roots under such conditions. The root-hairs die from want of air, and the whole plant soon suffers. Fields of wheat and other cereals rarely recover after a week's submergence, but orchards and many trees when at rest in winter withstand a flooded or water-logged condition of the soil for two or three weeks without damage. The most satisfactory growth is maintained when the amount of water present is not more than 40 to 60% of what would saturate it. Under such conditions each particle of soil is surrounded by a thin film of water and in the pore-space air can freely circulate. It is from such films that the root-hairs absorb all that plants require for their growth. The movement of water into the root-hairs is brought about by the osmotic action of certain salts in their cell-sap. Crops are, however, unable to absorb all the water present in the soil, for when the films become very thin they are held more firmly or cling with more force to the soil particles and resist the osmotic action of the root-hairs. Plants have been found to wither and die in sandy soils containing l£% of water, and in clay soils in which there was still present 8 % of water. When a long glass tube open at both ends is filled with soil and one end is dipped in a shallow basin of water, the water is found to move upwards through the soil column just as oil will rise in an ordinary lamp wick. By this capillary action water may be trans- ferred to the upper layers of the soil from a depth of several feet below the surface. In this manner plants whose roots descend but a little way in the ground are enabled to draw on deep supplies. Not only does water move upwards, but it is transferred by capil- larity in all directions through the soil. The amount and speed of movement of water by this means, and the distance to which it may be carried, depend largely upon the fineness of the particles composing the soil and the spaces left between each. The ascent of water is most rapid through coarse sands, but the height to which it will rise is comparatively small. In clays whose particles are exceedingly minute the water travels very slowly but may ultimately reach a height of many feet above the level of the " water-table " below. While this capillary movement of water is of great impor- tance in supplying the needs of plants it has its disadvantages, since water may be transferred to the surface of the soil, where it evapo- rates into the air and is lost to the land or the crop growing upon it. The loss in this manner was found to be in one instance over a pound of water per day per square foot of surface, the " water-table " being about 4 or 5 ft. below. One of the most effective means of conserving soil moisture is by " mulching," i.e. by covering the surface of the soil with some loosely compacted material such as straw, leaf-refuse or stable- manure. The space between the parts of such substances is too large to admit of capillary action ; hence the water conveyed to the surface of the soil is prevented from passing upwards any further except by slow evaporation through the mulching layer. A loose layer of earth spread over the surface of the soil acts in the same way, and a similarly effective mulch may be prepared by hoeing the soil, or stirring it to a depth of one or two inches with harrows or other implements. The hoe and harrow are therefore excellent tools for use in dry weather. Rolling the land is beneficial to young crops in dry weather, since it promotes capillary action by reducing the soil spaces. It should, however, be followed by a light hoeing or harrowing. In the semi-arid regions of the United States, Argentina and other countries where the average annual rainfall lies between 10 to 20 in., irrigation is necessary to obtain full crops every year. Good crops, however, can often be grown in such areas without irrigation if attention is paid to the proper circulation of water in the soil and means for retaining it or preventing excessive loss by evaporation. Of course care must be exercised in the selection of plants — such as sorghum, maize, wheat, and alfalfa or lucerne — which are adapted to dry conditions and a warm climate. So far as the water-supply is concerned — and this is what ulti- mately determines the yield of crops — the rain which falls upon the soil should be made to enter it and percolate rapidly through its interstices. A .deep porous bed in the upper layers is essential, and this should consist of fine particles which lie close to each other without any tendency to stick together and " puddle " after heavy showers. Every effort should be made to prepare a good mealy tilth by suitable ploughing, harrowing and consolidation. In the operation of ploughing the furrow slice is separated from the soil below, and although in humid soils this layer may be left to settle by degrees, in semi-arid regions this loosened layer becomes dry if left alone even for a few hours and valuable water evaporates into the air. To prevent this various implements, such as disk harrows and specially constructed rollers, may be used to consolidate the upper stirred portion of the soil and place it in close capillary relationship with the lower unmoved layer. If the soil is allowed to become dry and pulverized, rain is likely to run off or " puddle " the surface without penetrating it more than a very short distance. Constant hoeing or harrowing to maintain a natural soil mulch layer of 2 or 3 in. deep greatly conserves the soil water below. In certain districts where the rainfall is low a crop can only be obtained once every alternate year, the intervening season being devoted to tillage with a view of getting the rain into the soil and retaining it there for the crop in the following year. Bacteria in the Soil. — Recent science has made much progress in the investigation of the micro-organisms of the soil. Whereas the soil used to be looked upon solely as a dead, inert material con- taining certain chemical substances which serve as food constituents of the crops grown upon it, it is now known to be a place of habitation for myriads of minute living organisms upon whose activity much of its fertility depends. They are responsible for many important chemical processes which make the soil constituents more available and better adapted to the nutrition of crops. One cubic centimetre of soil taken within a foot or so from the surface contains from I J to 2 millions of bacteria of many different kinds, as well as large numbers of fungi. In the lower depths of the soil the numbers decrease, few being met with at a depth of 5 or 6 ft. The efficiency of many substances, such as farm-yard manure, guanos, bone-meal and all other organic materials, which are spread over or dug or ploughed into the land for the benefit of farm and garden crops, is bound up with the action of these minute living beings. Without their aid most manures would be useless for plant growth. Farm-yard manure, guanos and other fertilizers undergo decomposition in the soil and become broken down into compounds of simple chemical composition better suited for absorp- tion by the roots of crops, the changes involved being directly due to the activity of bacteria and fungi. Much of the work carried on by these organisms is not clearly understood; there are, however, certain processes which have been extensively investigated and to these it is necessary to refer. It has been found by experiment that the nitrogen needed by practically all farm crops except leguminous ones is best supplied in the form of a nitrate ; the rapid effect of nitrate of soda when used as a top dressing to wheat or other plants is well known to farmers. It has long been known that when organic materials such as the dung and urine1 of animals, or even the bodies of animals and plants, are applied to the soil, the nitrogen within them becomes oxidized, and ultimately appears in the form of nitrate of lime, potash or some other base. The nitrogen in decaying roots, in the dead stems and leaves of plants, and in humus generally is sooner or later changed into a nitrate, the change being effected by bacteria. That SOIL 349 the action of living organisms is the cause of the production of nitrates is supported by the fact that the change does not occur when the soil is heated nor when it is treated with disinfectants which destroy or check the growth and life of bacteria. The process resulting in the formation of nitrates in the soil is spoken of as nitrification. The steps in the breaking down of the highly complex nitrogenous proteid compounds contained in the humus of the soil, or applied to the latter by the farmer in the form of dung and organic refuse generally, are many and varied; most frequently the insoluble proteids are changed by various kinds of putrefactive bacteria into soluble proteids (peptones, &c.), these into simpler amido-bodies, and these again sooner or later into compounds of ammonia. The urea in urine is also rapidly converted by the uro-bacteria into ammonium carbonate. The compounds of ammonia thus formed from the complex substances by many varied kinds of micro-organ- isms are ultimately oxidized into nitrates. The change takes place in two stages and is effected by two special groups of nitrifying bacteria, which are present in all soils. In the first stage the ammonium compounds are oxidized to nitrites by the agency of very minute motile bacteria belonging to the genus Nitrosomonas. The further oxidation of the nitrite to a nitrate is effected by bacteria belonging to the genus Nitrobacter. Several conditions must be fulfilled before nitrification can occur. In the first place an adequate temperature is essential ; at 5° or 6° C. (4l°-43° F.) the process is stopped, so that it does not go on in winter. In summer, when the temperature is about 24° C. (75° F.), nitrification proceeds at a rapid rate. The organisms do not carry on their work in soils deficient in air; hence the process is checked in water-logged soils. The presence of a base such as lime or mag- nesia (or their carbonates) is also essential, as well as an adequate degree of moisture: in dry soils nitrification ceases. It is the business of the farmer and gardener to promote the activity of these organisms by good tillage, careful drainage and occasional application of lime to soils which are deficient in this substance. It is only when these conditions are attended to that decay and nitrification of dung, guano, fish-meal, sulphate of am- monia and other manures take place, and the constituents which they contain become available to the crops for whose benefit they have been applied to the land. Nitrates are very soluble in water and are therefore liable to be washed out of the soil by heavy rain. They are, however, very readily absorbed by growing plants, so that in summer, when nitrifica- tion is most active, the nitrates produced are usually made use of by crops before loss by drainage takes place. In winter, however, and in fallows loss takes place in the subsoil water. There is also another possible source of loss of nitrates through the activity of denitrifying bacteria. These organisms reduce nitrates to nitrites and finally to ammonia and gaseous free nitrogen which escapes into the atmosphere. Many bacteria are known which are capable of denitrification, some of them being abundant in fresh dung and upon old straw. They can, however, only carry on their work extensively under anaerobic conditions, as in water- logged soils or in those which are badly tilled, so that there is but little loss of nitrates through their agency. An important group of soil organisms are now known which have the power of using the free nitrogen of the atmosphere for the forma- tion of the complex nitrogenous compounds of which their bodies are largely composed. By their continued action the soil becomes enriched with nitrogenous material which eventually through the nitrification process becomes available to ordinary green crops. This power of " fixing nitrogen," as it is termed, is apparently not possessed by higher green plants. The bacterium, Clostridium pasteurianum, common in most soils, is able to utilize free nitrogen under anaerobic conditions, and an organism known as Azotobacter chroococcum and some others closely allied to it, have similar powers which they can exercise under aerobic conditions. For the carrying on of their functions they all need to be supplied with carbohydrates or other carbon compounds which they obtain ordinarily from humus and plant residues in the soil, or possibly in some instances from carbohydrates manufactured by minute green algae with which they live in close union. Certain bacteria of the nitrogen- fixing class enter into association with the roots of green plants, the best-known examples being those which are met with in the nodules upon the roots of clover, peas, beans, sainfoin and other plants belonging to the leguminous order. That the fertility of land used for the growth of wheat is improved by growing upon it a crop of beans or clover has been long recognized by farmers. The knowledge of the cause, however, is due to modern investigations. When wheat, barley, turnips and similar plants are grown, the soil upon which they are cultivated becomes depleted of its nitrogen; yet after a crop of clover or other leguminous plants the soil is found to be richer in nitrogen than it was before the crop was grown. This is due to the nitrogenous root residues left in the land. Upon the roots of leguminous plants characteristic swollen nodules or tubercles are present. These are found to contain large numbers of a bacterium termed Bacillus radicicola or Pseudomonas radicicola. The bacteria, which are present in almost all soils, enter the root-hairs of their host plants and ultimately stimulate the production of an excrescent nodule, in which they live. For a time after entry they multiply, obtaining the nitrogen necessary for their nutrition and growth from the free nitrogen of the air, the carbohydrate required being supplied by the pea or clover plant in whose tissues they make a home. The nodules increase in size, and analysis shows that they are exceedingly rich in nitrogen up to the time of flowering of the host plant. During this period the bacteria multiply and most of them assume a peculiar thickened or branched form, in which state they are spoken of as bacteroids. Later the nitrogen-content of the nodule decreases, most of the organisms, which are largely composed of proteid material, becoming digested and transformed into soluble nitrogenous compounds which are conducted to the developing roots and seeds. After the decay of the roots some of the unchanged bacteria are left in the soil, where they remain ready to infect a new leguminous crop. The nitrogen-fixing nodule bacteria can be cultivated on artificial media, and many attempts have been made to utilize them for practical purposes. Pure cultures may be made and after dilution in water or other liquid can be mixed with soil to be ultimately spread over the land which is to be infected. The method of using them most frequently adopted consists in applying them to the seeds of leguminous plants before sowing, the seed being dipped for a time in a liquid containing the bacteria. In this manner organisms obtained from red clover can be grown and applied to the seed of red clover ; and similar inoculation can be arranged for other species, so that an application of the bacteria most suited to the particular crop to be cultivated can be assured. In many cases it has been found that inoculation, whether of the soil or of the seed, has not made any appreciable difference to the growth of the crop, a result no doubt due to the fact that the soil had already contained within it an abundant supply of suitable organisms. But in other instances greatly increased yields have been obtained where inoculation has been practised. More or less pure cultures of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria belonging to the Azotobacter group have been tried and recommended for application»to poor land in order to provide a cheap supply of nitrogen. The application of pure cultures of bacteria for improving the fertility of the land is still in an experimental stage. There is little doubt, however, that in the near future means will be devised to obtain the most efficient work from these minute organisms, either by special artificial cultivation and subsequent application to the soil, or by improved methods of encouraging their healthy growth and activity in the land where they already exist. Improvement of Soils. — The fertility of a soil is dependent upon a number of factors, some of which, such as the addition of fertilizers or manures, increase the stock of available food materials in the soil (see MANURE), while others, such as application of clay or humus, chiefly influence the fertility of the land by improving its physical texture. The chief processes for the improvement of soils which may be discussed here are: liming, claying and marling, warping, paring and burning, and green manuring. Most of these more or less directly improve the land by adding to it certain plant food constituents which are lacking, but the effect of each process is in reality very complex. In the majority of cases the good results obtained are more particularly due to the setting free of " dormant " or" latent " food constituents and to the amelioration of the texture of the soil, so that its aeration, drainage, temperature and water-holding capacity are altered for the better. The material which chemists call calcium carbonate is met with in a comparatively pure state in chalk. It is present in variable amounts in limestones of all kinds, although its white- ness may there be masked by the presence of iron oxide Liming. and other coloured substances. Carbonate of lime is also a consti- tuent to a greater or lesser extent in almost all soils. In certain sandy soils and in a few stiff clays it may amount to less than i %, while in others in limestone and chalk districts there may be 50 to 80% present. Pure carbonate of lime when heated loses 44% of its weight, the decrease being due to the loss of carbon dioxide gas. The resulting white product is termed calcium oxide lime, burnt lime, quicklime, cob lime, or caustic lime. This substance absorbs and combines with water very greedily, at the same time becoming very hot, and falling into a fine dry powder, calcium hydroxide or slaked lime, which when left in the open slowly combines with the carbon dioxide of the air and becomes calcium carbonate, from which we began. When recommendations are made about liming land it is necessary to indicate more precisely than is usually done which of the three classes of material named above — chalk, quicklime or slaked lime — is intended. Generally speaking the oxide or quicklime has a more rapid and greater effect in modifying the soil than slaked lime, and this again greater than the carbonate or chalk. Lime in whatever form it is applied has a many-sided influence in the fertility of the land. It tends to improve the tilth and the 350 SOIL capillarity of the soil by binding sands together somewhat and by opening up clays. If applied in too great an amount to light soils and peat land it may do much damage by rendering them too loose and open. The addition of small quantities of lime, especially in a caustic form, to stiff greasy clays makes them much more porous and pliable. A lump of clay, which if dried would become hard and intractable, crumbles into pieces when dried after adding to it J % of lime. The lime causes the minute separate particles of clay to flocculate or group themselves together into larger compound grains between which air and water can percolate more freely. It is this power of creating a more crumbly tilth on stiff clays that makes lime so valuable to the farmer. Lime also assists in the decomposition of the organic matter or humus in the soil and promotes nitrification ; hence it is of great value after green manuring or where the land contains much humus from the addition of bulky manures such as farm-yard dung. This tendency to destroy organic matter makes the repeated application of lime a pernicious practice, especially on land which contains little humus to begin with. The more or less dormant nitrogen and other constituents of the humus are made immediately available to the succeeding crop, but the capital of the soil is rapidly reduced, and unless the loss is replaced by the addition of more manures the land may become sterile. Although good crops may follow the application of lime, the latter is not a direct fertilizer or manure and is no substitute for such. Its best use is obtained on land in good condition, but not where the soil is poor. When used on light dry land it tends to make the land drier, since it destroys the humus which so largely assists in keeping water in the soil. Lime is a base and neutralizes the acid materials present in badly drained meadows and boggy pastures. Weeds, therefore, which need sour conditions for development are checked by liming and the better grasses and clovers are encouraged. It also sets free potash and possibly other useful plant food-constituents of the soil. Liming tends to produce earlier crops and destroys the fungus which causes finger-and-toe or club-root among turnips and cabbages. . Land which contains less than about \ % of lime usually needs the addition of this material. The particular form in which lime should be applied for the best results depends upon the nature of the soil. In practice the proximity to chalk pits or lime kilns, the cost of the lime and cartage, will determine which is most economical. Generally speaking light poor lands deficient in organic matter will need the less caustic form or chalk, while quick- lime will be most satisfactory on the stiff clays and richer soils. On the stiff soils overlying the chalk it was formerly the custom to dig pits through the soil to the rock below. Shafts 20 or 30 ft. deep were then sunk, and the chalk taken from horizontal tunnels was brought to the surface and spread on the land at the rate of about 60 loads per acre. Chalk should be applied in autumn, so that it may be split by the action of frost during the winter. Quicklime is best applied, perhaps, in spring at the rate of one ton per acre every six or eight years, or in larger doses — 4 to 8 tons — every 15 to 20 years. Small dressings applied at short intervals give the most satisfactory results. The quicklime should be placed in small heaps and covered with soil if possible until it is slacked and the lumps have fallen into powder, after which it may be spread and harrowed in. Experiments have shown that excellent effects can be obtained by applying 5 or 6 cwt. of ground quicklime. Gas-lime is a product obtained from gasworks where quicklime is used to purify the gas from sulphur compounds and other objec- tionable materials. It contains a certain amount of unaltered caustic lime and slacked lime, along with sulphates and sulphides of lime, some of which have an evil odour. As some of these sulphur compounds have a poisonous effect on plants, gas-lime cannot be applied to land directly without great risk or rendering it incapable of growing crops of any sort — even weeds — for some time. It should therefore be kept a year or more in heaps in some waste corner and turned over once or twice so that the air can gain access to it and oxidize the poisonous ingredients in it. Many soils of a light sandy or gravelly or peaty nature and liable to drought and looseness of texture can be improved by the addition . of large amounts of clay of an ordinary character. Similarly soils can be improved by applying to them marl, a substance consisting of a mixture of clay with variable proportions of lime. Some of the chalk marls, which are usually of a yellowish or dirty grey colour, contain clay and 50 to 80 % of carbonate of lime with a certain proportion of phosphate of lime. Such a material would not only have an influence on the texture of the land but the lime would reduce the sourness of the land and the phosphate of lime supply one of the most valuable of plant food- constituents. The beneficial effects of marls may also be partially due to the presence in them of available potash. Typical clay-marls are tenacious, soapy clays of yellowish-red or brownish colour and generally contain jess than 50 % of lime. When dry they crumble into small pieces which can be readily mixed with the soil by ploughing. Many other kinds of marls are described; some are of a sandy nature, others stony or full of the remains of small shells. The amount and nature of the clay or marl to be added to the soil will depend largely upon the original composition of the latter, the lighter sands and gravel requiring more clay than those of firmer texture. Even stiff soils deficient in lime are greatly improved in fertility by the addition of marls. In some cases as little as 40 loads per acre have been used with benefit, in others 1 80 loads have not been too much. The material is dug from neighbour- ing pits or sometimes from the fields which are to be improved, and applied in autumn and winter. When dry and in a crumbly state it is harrowed and spread and finally ploughed in and mixed with the soil. On some of the strongest land it was formerly the practice to add to and plough into it burnt clay, with the object of making the land work more easily. The burnt clay moreover carried _. with it potash and other materials in a state readily jj . available to the crops. The clay is dug from the land BuralaZ- or from ditches or pits and placed in heaps of 60 to loo loads each, with laggot wood, refuse coals or other fuel. Great care is necessary to prevent the heaps from becoming too hot, in which case the clay becomes baked into hard lumps of brick-like material which cannot be broken up. With careful management, however, the clay dries and bakes, becoming slowly converted into lumps which readily crumble into a fine powder, in which state it is spread over and worked into the land at the rate of 40 loads per acre. The paring and burning of land, although formerly practised as an ordinary means of improving the texture and fertility of arable fields, can now only be looked upon as a practice „. to be adopted for the purpose of bringing rapidly into ^"7 * cultivation very foul leys or land covered with a coarse turf. The practice is confined to poorer types of land, such as heaths covered with -furze and bracken or fens and clay areas smothered with rank grasses and sedges. To reduce such land to a fit state for the growth of arable crops is very difficult and slow without resort to paring and burning. The operation consists of paring off the tough sward to a depth of I to 2 in. just sufficient to effectually damage the roots of the plants forming the sward and then, after drying the sods and burning them, spreading the charred material and ashes over the land. The turf is taken off either with the breast plough — a paring tool pushed forward from the breast or thighs by the workman — or with specially constructed paring ploughs or shims. The depth of the sod removed should not be too thick or burning is difficult and top much humus is destroyed unnecessarily, nor should it be too thin or the roots of the herbage are not effectually destroyed. The operation is best carried out in spring and summer. After being pared off the turf is allowed to dry for a fortnight or so and is then placed in small heaps a yard or two wide at the base, a little straw or wood being put in the middle of each heap, which is then lighted. As burning proceeds more turf is added to the outside of the heaps in such a manner as to allow little access of air. Every care should be taken to burn and char the sod thoroughly without permitting the heap to blaze. The ashes should be spread as soon as possible and covered by a shallow ploughing. The land is then usually sown with some rapidly growing green crop, such as rape, or with turnips. Paring and burning improves the texture of clay lands, particularly if draining is carried out at the same time. It tends to destroy insects and weeds, and gets rid of acidity of the soil. No operation brings old turf into cultivation so rapidly. Moreover the beneficial effects are seen in the first crop and last for many years. Many of the mineral plant food-constituents locked up in the coarse herbage and in the upper layers of the soil are made immediately available to crops. The chief disadvantage is the loss of nitrogen which it entails, this element being given off into the air in a free gaseous state. It is best adapted for application to clays and fen lands and should not be practised on shallow light sands or gravelly soils, since the humus so necessary for the fertility of such areas is reduced too much and the soil rendered too porous and liable to suffer from drought. Many thousands of acres of low-lying peaty and sandy land adjoin- ing the tidal rivers which flow into the number have been improved by a process termed " warping." The warp consists yfarolax of fine muddy sediment which is suspended in the tidal- river .water and appears to be derived from material scoured from the bed of the Humber by the action of the tide and acertain amount of sediment brought down by the tributary ' streams which join the Humber some distance from its mouth. The field or area to be warped must lie below the level of the water in the river at high tide. It is first surrounded by an embankment, after which the water from the river is allowed to flow through a properly constructed sluice in its bank, along a drain or ditch to the land which is prepared for warping. By a system of carefully laid channels the water flows gently over the land, and deposits its warp with an even level surface. At the ebb of the tide the more or less clear water flows back again from the land into the main river with sufficient force to clean out any deposit which may have accumulated in the drain leading to the warped area, thus allowing free access of more warp- laden water at the next tide. In this manner poor peats and sands may be covered with a large layer of rock soil capable of growing excellent crops. The amount of deposit laid over the land reaches a thickness of two or three feet in one season of warping, which is usually practised SOIL between March and October, advantage being taken of the spring tides during these months. The new warp is allowed to lie fallow during the winter after being laid out in four-yard " lands " and becomes dry enough to be sown with oats and grass and clover seeds in the following spring. The clover-grass ley is then grazed for a year or two with sheep, after which wheat and potatoes are the chief crops grown on the land. Green manures are crops which are grown especially for the purpose of ploughing into the land in a green or actively growing state. The „ crop during its growth obtains a considerable amount of 'ree carbon from the carbon dioxide of the air, and builds it up manuring. jntQ compOuncis which when ploughed into the land become humus. The carbon compounds of the latter are of no direct nutritive value to the succeeding crop, but the decaying vegetable tissues very greatly assist in retaining moisture in light sandy soils, and in clay soils also have a beneficial effect in rendering them more open and allowing of better drainage of superfluous water and good circulation of fresh air within them. The ploughing-in of green crops is in many respects like the addition of farm-yard manure. Their growth makes no new addition of mineral food-constituents to the land, but they bring useful substances from the subsoil nearer to the surface, and after the decay of the buried vegetation these become available to succeeding crops of wheat or other plants. Moreover, where deep-rooting plants are grown the subsoil is aerated and rendered more open and suitable for the development of future crops. The plants most frequently used are white mustard, rape, buck- wheat, spurry, rye, and several kinds of leguminous plants, especially vetches, lupins and serradella. By far the most satisfactory crops as green manures are those of the leguminous class, since they add to the land considerable amounts of the valuable fertilizing con- stituent, nitrogen, which is obtained from the atmosphere. By nitrification this substance rapidly becomes available to succeeding crops. On the light, poor sands of Saxony Herr Schultz, of Lupitz, made use of serradella, yellow lupins and vetches as green manures for enriching the land in humus and nitrogen, and found the addition of potash salts and phosphates very profitable for the subsequent growth of potatoes and wheat. He estimated that by using leguminous crops in this manner for the purpose of obtaining cheap nitrogen he reduced the cost of production of wheat more than 50 %. The growing crops should be ploughed in before flowering occurs ; they should not be buried deeply, since decay and nitrification take place most rapidly and satisfactorily when there is free access of air to the decaying material. When the crop is luxuriant it is necessary to put a roller over it first, to facilitate proper burial by the plough. The best time for the operation appears to be late summer and autumn. (J. PE.) Soil and Disease. — The influence of different kinds of soil as a factor in the production of disease requires to be considered, in regard not only to the nature and number of the micro- organisms they contain, but also to the amount of moisture and air in them and their capacity for heat. The moisture in soil is derived from two sources — the rain and the ground-water. Above the level of the ground-water the soil is kept moist by capillary attraction and by evaporation of the water below, by rainfall, and by movements of the ground- water; on the other hand, the upper layers are constantly losing moisture by evapo- ration from the surface and through vegetation. When the ground-water rises it forces air out of the soil; when it falls again it leaves the soil moist and full of air. The nature of the soil will largely influence the amount of moisture which it will take up or retain. In regard to water, all soils have two actions — namely, permeability and absorbability. Permeability is practically identical with the speed at which percolation takes place; through clay it is slow, but increases in rapidity through marls, loams, limestones, chalks, coarse gravels and fine sands, reaching a maximum in soil saturated with moisture. The amount of moisture retained depends mainly upon the absorb- ability of the soil, and as it depends largely on capillary action it varies with the coarseness or fineness of the pores of the soil, being greater for soils which consist of fine particles. The results of many analyses show that the capacity of soils for moisture increases with the amount of organic substances present; decomposition appears to be most active when the moisture is about 4%, but can continue when it is as low as 2%, while it appears to be retarded by any excess over 4%. Above the level of the ground-water all soils contain air, varying in amount with the degree of looseness of the soil. Some sands contain as much as 50% of air of nearly the same composition as atmospheric air. The oxygen, however, decreases with the depth, while the carbon dioxide increases. Among the most noteworthy workers at the problems involved in the question of the influence of soil in the production of disease we find von Foder, Pettenkofer, Levy, Fleck, von Naegeli, Schleesing, Muntz and Warrington. The study of epidemic and endemic diseases generally has brought to light an array of facts which very strongly suggest that an intimate association exists between the soil and the appearance and propagation of certain diseases; but although experiments and observations allow this view to be looked upon as well established, still the precise r61e played by the soil in an aetiological respect is by no means so well understood as to make it possible to separate the factors and dogmatize on their effects. The earliest writers upon cholera emphasized its remark- able preference for particular places ; and the history of each succes- sive epidemic implies, besides an importation of the contagion, certain local conditions which may be either general sanitary defects or peculiarities of climate and soil. The general evidence indicates that the specific bacteria of cholera discharges are capable of a much longer existence in the superficial soil layers than was formerly supposed; consequently it is specially necessary to guard against pollution of the soil, and through it against the probable contamina- tion of both water and air. The evidence, however, is not suffi- ciently strong to warrant a universal conclusion, the diffusion of cholera appearing to be largely dependent upon other factors than soil states. Again, all accounts of diphtheria show a tendency on the part of the disease to recur in the same districts year after year. The questions naturally suggest themselves — Are the reappearances due to a revival of the contagion derived from previous outbreaks in the same place, or to some favouring condition which the place offers for the development of infection derived from some other quarter; and have favouring conditions any dependence upon the character and state of the soil? Greenhow in 1858 stated that diphtheria was especially prevalent on cold, wet soils, and Airy in 1 88 1 described the localities affected as " for the most part cold, wet, clay lands." An analysis of the innumerable outbreaks in various parts of Europe indicates that the geological features of the affected districts play a less important part in the incidence of the disease than soil dampness. In this connexion it is interesting to note the behaviour of the diphtheritic contagion in soil. Experi- ments show that pure cultures, when mixed with garden soil con- stantly moistened short of saturation and kept in the dark at a temperature of 14° C., will retain their vitality for more than ten months; from moist soil kept at 26° C. they die out in about two months; from moist soil at 30° C. in seventeen days; and in dry soil at the same temperature within a week. In the laboratory absolute soil dryness is as distinctly antagonistic to the vitality of the diphtheria bacillus as soil dampness is favourable. Both statisti- cally and experimentally we find that a damp soil favours its life and development, while prolonged submersion and drought kill it. We may consider that, in country districts, constant soil moisture is one of the chief factors ; while in the case of urban outbreaks mere soil moisture is subsidiary to other more potent causes. Again, many facts in the occurrence and diffusion of enteric fever point to an intimate connexion between its origin and certain con- ditions of locality. Epidemics rarely spread over any considerable tract of country, but are nearly always confined within local limits. Observations made at the most diverse parts of the globe, and the general distribution area ot the disease, show that mere questions of elevation, or even configuration of the ground, have little or no influence. On the other hand, the same observations go to show that the disease is met with oftener on the more recent formations than the older, and this fact, so far as concerns the physical characters of the soil, is identical with the questions of permeability to air and water. Robertson has shown that the typhoid bacillus can grow very easily in certain soils, can persist in soils through the winter months, and when the soil is artificially fed, as may be done by a leaky drain or by access of filthy water.from the surface, the micro- organism will take on a fresh growth in the warm season. The destructive power of sunlight is only exercised on those organisms actually at the surface. Cultures of the typhoid organism planted at a depth of 1 8 in. were found to have grown to the surface. In the winter months the deeper layers of the soil act as a shelter to the organism, which again grows towards the surface during the summer. The typhoid organism was not found to be taken off from the decomposing masses of semi-liquid filth largely contaminated with a culture of bacillus typhosus; but, on the other hand, it was abundantly proved that it could grow over moist surfaces of stones, &c. Certain disease-producing organisms, such as the bacillus of tetanus and malignant oedema, appear to be universally distributed in soil, while others, as the bacillus typhosus and spirillum cholerae, appear to have only a local distribution. The conditions which favour the vitality, growth and multiplication of the typhoid bacillus are the following: the soil should be pervious; it should be permeated with a sufficiency of decaying — preferably animal — organic matters; it should possess a certain amount of moisture, and be subject to a certain temperature. Depriving the organism of any of these essential conditions for its existence in the soil will secure our best weapon for defence. The optimum temperature adapted to its growth and extension is 37° C. =98° -4 F. Sir Charles Cameron attributes the prevalence of typhoid in certain areas in 352 SOISSONS Dublin to the soil becoming saturated with faecal matter and specifi- cally infected. The ratio of cases to population living in Dublin on loose porous gravel soil tor the ten years 1881-1891 was I in 94, while that of those living on stiff clay soil was but I in 145. " This is as we should expect, since the movements of ground air are much greater in loose porous soils than in stiff clay soils." A foul gravel soil is a most dangerous one on which to build. For warmth, for dryness, for absence of fog, and for facility of walking after rain, just when the air is at its purest and its best, there is nothing equal to gravel; but when gravel has been rendered foul by infil- tration with organic matters it may easily become a very hotbed of disease. , (J. L. N.) SOISSONS, a city of northern France, in the department of Aisne, 65 m. N.E. of Paris by the railway to Laon. Pop. (1906), 11,586. Soissons, pleasantly situated amongst wooded hills, stands on the left bank of the Aisne, the suburbs of St Vaast and St Medard lying on the right bank. The cathedral of Notre-Dame was begun in the second half of the i2th century and finished about the end of the i3th. It is 328 ft. long and 87 wide, and the vaulting of the nave is 100 ft. above the pave- ment. The single tower dates from the middle of the i3th century and is an imitation of those of Notre-Dame of Paris, which it equals in height (216 ft.). The south transept, the oldest and most graceful portion of the whole edifice, terminates in an apse. The facade of the north transept dates from the end of the i3th century. The apse and choir retain some fine 13th-century glass. Considerable remains exist of the magnifi- cent abbey of St Jean-des-Vignes, where Thomas Becket resided for a short time. These include the ruins of two cloisters (the larger dating from the i3th century), the refectory, and above all the imposing fagade of the church (restored). Above the three portals (i3th century) runs a gallery, over which again is a large window; the two unequal towers (230 and 246 ft.) of the 1 5th and early i6th centuries are surmounted by beautiful stone spires, which command the town. The church of St Leger, which belongs to the i3th century, was formerly attached to an abbey of the Genovefains. Beneath are two Romanesque crypts. The royal abbey of Notre-Dame, now a barrack, was founded in 660 for monks and nuns by Leutrade, wife of Ebro'in, the celebrated mayor of the palace. The number of the nuns (216 in 858), the wealth of the library in manuscripts, the valuable relics, the high birth of the abbesses, the popularity of the pilgrimages, all contributed to the importance of this abbey, of which there exist only inconsiderable remains. The wealthiest of all the abbeys in Soissons, and one of the most important of all France during the first two dynasties, was that of St Medard, on the right bank of the Aisne, founded about 560 by Clotaire I., beside the villa of Syagrius, which had become the palace of the Prankish kings. St Medard, apostle of Vermandois, and kings Clotaire and Sigebert, were buried in the monastery, which be- came the residence of 400 monks and the meeting-place of several councils. It was there that Childeric III., the last Merovingian, was deposed and Pippin the Short was crowned by the papal legate, and there Louis the Pious was kept in captivity in 833. The abbots of St Medard coined money, and in Abelard's time (i2th century) were lords of 220 villages, farms and manors. At the battle of Bouvines (1214) the abbot commanded 150 vassals. In 1530 St Medard was visited by a procession of 300,000 pilgrims. But the religious wars ruined the abbey, and, although it was restored by the Benedictines in 1637, it never recovered its former splendour. Of the churches and the conventual buildings of the ancient foundation there hardly remains a trace. The site is occupied by a deaf and dumb institution, the chapel of which stands over the crypt of the great abbey church, which dates from about 840. In the crypt is a stone coffin, said to have been that of Childebert II., and close at hand is an underground chamber, reputed to have been the place of captivity of Louis the Pious. The civil buildings of the town are not of much interest. The h6tel-de-ville contains a library and a museum with collec- tions of paintings and antiquities. The foundation of the hotel- dieu dates back to the I3th century. The town has a large botanical garden. Soissons is the seat of a bishop and a sub- prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a communal college and higher ecclesiastical seminary. Among the industrial establishments are iron and copper foundries, and factories for the production of boilers, agricultural imple- ments and other iron goods, straw hats, glass and sugar. Grain, haricot beans of exceptional quality, and -timber are the principal articles of trade. Soissons is generally identified with the oppidum of Gallia Belgica, called Noiiiodunum by Caesar. Noviodunum was the capital of the Suessiones, who occupied twelve towns, and whose king, Divitiacus, one of the most powerful in Gaul, had extended his authority even beyond the sea among the Britons. In 58 B.C. Galba, king of the Suessiones, separated from the confederation of the Belgians and submitted to the Romans. At the beginning of the empire Noviodunum took the name of Augusta Suessionum, and afterwards that of Suessiona, and became the second capital of Gallia Belgica, of which Reims was the metropolis. The town was before long surrounded with a regular wall and de- fended by a citadel, and it became the starting-point of several military roads (to Reims, Chateau-Thierry, Meaux, Paris, Amiens and St Quentin). Christianity was introduced by St Crispin and St Crispinian, men of noble birth, who, however, earned their livelihood by shoemaking, and thus became patrons of that craft. After their martyrdom in 297 their work was continued by St Sinitius, the first bishop of Soissons. After the barbarians had crossed the Rhine and the Meuse Soissons became the metropolis of the Roman possessions in the north of Gaul, and on the defeat of Syagrius by Clovis the Franks seized the town. It was at Soissons that Clovis married Clotilde, and, though he afterwards settled at Paris, Soissons was the capital of his son Clotaire, and afterwards of Chilperic I., king of Neustria. It was not till the time of Chilperic's son, Clotaire II., that the kingdom of Soissons was incorporated with that of Paris. Pippin the Short was at Soissons proclaimed king by an assembly of leudes and bishops, and he was there crowned by the papal legate, St Boniface, before being crowned at Saint Denis by the pope himself. Louis the Pious did penance there after being deposed by the assembly at Compiegne. Under Charles the Fat (886) the Normans failed in an attempt against the town, but laid waste St Medard and the neighbourhood. In 923 Charles the Simple was defeated outside the walls by the supporters of Rudolph of Burgundy, and Hugh the Great besieged and partly burned the town in 948. Under the first Capets Soissons was held by hereditary counts (see below), frequently at war with the king or the citizens. The communal charter of the town dates from 1131. At a synod held at Soissons in 1 121 the teachings of Abelard were condemned, and he was forced to retract them. In 1155, at an assembly of prelates and barons held at Soissons, Louis VII. issued a famous decree forbidding all private wars for a space of ten years; and in 1325 Charles the Fair replaced the mayor of Soissons by a royal provost dependent on the bailiwick of Vermandois, the inhabi- tants retaining only the right of electing four ichevins. The town had to suffer severely during the war of the Hundred Years; in 1414, when it was held by the Burgundians, it was captured and sacked by the Armagnacs under the dauphin ; and this same fate again befell it several times within twenty years. The Treaty of Arras (1435) brought it again under the royal authority. It was sacked by Charles V. in 1544 and in 1565 by the Huguenots, who laid the churches in ruins, and, supported by the prince of Conde, count of Soissons, kept possession of the town for six months. During the League Soissons eagerly joined the Catholic party. Charles, duke of Mayenne, made the town his principal residence, and died there in 1611. A European congress was held there in 1728. In 1814 Soissons was captured and recaptured by the allies and the French. In 1815, after Waterloo, it was a rallying point for the vanquished, and it was not occupied by the Russians till the i4th of August. In 1870 it capitulated to the Germans after a bombardment of three days. COUNTS or SOISSONS. — In the middle ages Soissons was the chief town of a countship belonging in the loth and nth centuries to a family which apparently sprang from the SOKE— SOKOTO 353 counts of Vermandois. Renaud, count of Soissons, gave his property in 1141 to his nephew Yves de Nesle. By successive marriages the countship of Soissons passed to the houses of Hainaut, Chatillon-Blois, Coucy, Bar and Luxem- burg. Marie de Luxemburg brought it, together with the counties of Marie and St Pol, to Francis of Bourbon, count of Vend6me, whom she married in 1487. His descendants, the princes of Conde, held Soissons and gave it to their cadets. Charles of Bourbon, count of Soissons (1566-1612), son of Louis, prince of Conde, whose political vacillations were due to his intrigues with Henry IV.'s sister Catherine, became grand master of France and governor of Dauphine and Normandy. His son, Louis of Bourbon (1604-1641), took part in the plots against Marie de Medici and Richelieu, and attempted to assas- sinate Richelieu. He had only one child, a natural son, known as the Chevalier de Soissons. The countship passed to the house of Savoy-Carignan by the marriage in 1625 of Marie de Bourbon- Soissons with Thomas Francis of Savoy. Eugene Maurice of Savoy, count of Soissons (1635-1673), married the beautiful and witty Olympia Mancini, a niece of Cardinal Mazarin, and obtained high military posts through his wife's influence. He defeated the Spaniards at the battle of the Dunes in 1658; took part in the campaigns at Flanders (1667). Franche-Comte (1668) and Holland (1672); and was present as ambassador extraordinary of France at the coronation of Charles II. of England. His wife led a scandalous life, and was accused of poisoning her husband and others. She was the mother of Louis Thomas Amadeus, count of Soissons, and of the famous Prince Eugene of Savoy. In 1734 the male line of the family of Savoy-Soissons became extinct, and the heiress, the princess of Saxe-Hildburghausen, ceded the countship of Soissons to the house of Orleans, in whose possession it remained until 1789. SOKE (O. Eng. soc, connected ultimately with secan, to seek) , a word which at the time of the Norman Conquest generally denoted jurisdiction, but was often used vaguely and is probably incapable of precise definition. In some cases it denoted the right to hold a court, and in others only the right to receive the fines and forfeitures of the men over whom it was granted when they had been condemned in a court of competent jurisdic- tion. Its primary meaning seems to have been " seeking "; thus " soka faldae '' was the duty of seeking the lords court, just as " secta ad molendinum " was the duty of seeking the lords mill. The " Leges Henrici " also speaks of pleas " in socna, id est, in quaestione sua " — picas which are in his investigation. It is evident, however, that not long after the Norman Conquest considerable doubt prevailed about the correct meaning of the word. In some versions of the much used tract Interpretationes uocabulorum soke is defined " aver fraunc court," and in others as " interpellacio maioris audientiae," which is glossed some- what ambiguously as " claim a justis et requeste." Soke is also frequently associated to " sak " or " sake " in the alliterative jingle " sake and soke," but the two words are not etymologi- cally related. " Sake " is the Anglo-Saxon " sacu," originally meaning a matter or cause (from sacan, to contend), and later the right to have a court. Soke, however, is the commoner word, and appears to have had a wider range of meaning. The term " soke," unlike " sake," was sometimes used of the district over which the right of jurisdiction extended. Mr Adolphus Ballard has recently argued that the interpreta- tion of the word " soke " as jurisdiction should only be accepted where it stands for the fuller phrase, " sake and soke," and that soke standing by itself denoted services only. There are certainly many passages in Domesday Book which support his contention, but there are also other passages in which soke seems to be merely a short expression for " sake and soke." The difficulties about the correct interpretation of these words will probably not be solved until the normal functions and jurisdiction of the various local courts have been more fully elucidated. " The sokemen " were a class of tenants, found chiefly in the eastern counties, occupying an intermediate position between xxv. 12 the free tenants and the bond tenants or villains. As a general rule they were personally free, but performed many of the agricultural services of the villains. It is generally supposed they were called sokemen because they were within the lord's soke or jurisdiction. Mr Ballard, however, holds that a sokeman was merely a man who rendered services, and that a sokeland was land from which services were rendered, and was not neces- sarily under the jurisdiction of a manor. The law term, socage, used of this tenure, is a barbarism, and is formed by adding the French age to soc. See F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond; J. H. Round, Feudal England; F. H. Baring, Domesday Tables; A. Ballard, The Domesday Inquest; J. Tail, review of the last-mentioned book in English Historical Review for January 1908; Red Book of the Ex- chequer (Rolls Series), iii. 1035. (G. J. T.) SOKOTO, an important Fula state of west central Sudan, now a province of the British protectorate of Nigeria. The sultan of Sokoto throughout the igth century exercised an over- lordship over the Hausa states extending east from the Niger to Bornu and southward to the Benue and Adamawa. These states and Sokoto itself, known variously as the Sokoto or Fula empire and Hausaland, came (c. 1900-1903) under direct British control, but the native governments are maintained. The pro- vince of Sokoto occupies the north-west corner of the British protectorate, and is bounded west and north by French territory. South and east it adjoins other parts of the British protectorate. Bordering north on the Sahara, it contains much arid land, but south-west the land is very fertile. Running through it in a south-westerly direction is the Gublin Kebbi or Sokoto river, which joins the Niger in iij° N. 4° E. On a tributary of this river is the town of Sokoto. The Sokoto or Fula empire was founded at the beginning of the i gth century. The country over which the Fula ruled has, however, a history going back to the middle ages. Between the Niger and the kingdom of Bornu (q.ii.) the country was inhabited by various black tribes, of whom the Hausa occupied the plains. Under the influence of Berber and Arab tribes, who embraced Mahommedanism, the Hausa advanced in civiliza- tion, founded large cities, and developed a considerable trade, not only with the neighbouring countries, but, via .the Sahara, with the Barbary states. The various kingdoms which 'grew up round each large town had their own rulers, but in the first half of the i6th century they all appear to have owned the sway of the Songhoi kings (see TIMBUKTU). On the break up of the Songhoi empire the north-eastern part of Hausaland became more or less subject to Bornu, whose sultans in the I7th century claimed to rule over Katsena and Kano. In this century arose a dynasty of the Habe, a name now believed to be identical with Hausa, who obtained power over a large area of the northern portion of the present British protectorate. The Hausa, whose conversion to Mahommedanism began in the izth century, were still in the i8th century partly pagans, though their rulers were followers of the Prophet. These rulers built up an elaborate system of government which left a considerable share in the management of affairs to the body of the people. Dwelling among the Hausa were a number of Fula, mostly herdsmen, and these were devout Mahommedans. One of the more culti- vated teachers of this race, named Othman Dan Fodio, had been tutor to the king of Gobir (a district north of Establish- Sokoto). He incurred the wrath of that king, who, meat of angered at some act of defiance, ordered the massacre pultt *"'"• of every Fula in his dominions. The Fula flocked to Fodio's aid, and in the battle of Koto or Rugga Fakko (1804) the king of Gobir was utterly defeated. Thereupon Fodio unfurled the green banner of Mahomet and preached a, jihad or religious war. In a few years the Fula had subdued most of the Hausa states, some, like Kano, yielding easily in order to preserve their trade, others, like Katsena, offering a stubborn resistance. Gobir and Kebbi remained unconquered, as did the pagan hill tribes. The Fula were also defeated in their attack on Bornu. In most places they continued the system of government which had grown up under the Habe, the chiefs or emirs of the various :54 SOKOTRA states being, however, tributary to Dan Fodio. This sheik established himself at Sokoto, and with other titles assumed that of Sarikin Muslimin (king of the Mahommedans). As such he became the recognized spiritual head of all the Mahommedans of west central Sudan, a headship which his successors retained unimpaired, even after the loss of their temporal position to the British in 1903. On the death of Fodio (c. 1819) the empire was divided between a son and a brother, the son, famous under the name of Sultan Bello, ruling at Sokoto, the brother at Gando. All the other Fula emirs were dependent on these two sultanates. The Fula power proved, before many years had gone by, in many respects harmful to the country. This was especially the case in those districts where there was a large pagan population. Slave-raiding was practised on a scale which devastated and almost depopulated vast regions and greatly hampered the commercial activity of the large cities, of which Zaria and Kano were the most important. The purity of the ancient administration was abandoned. The courts of justice became corrupt, administrative power was abused and degener- ated into a despotism controlled only by personal considerations, oppressive taxes destroyed industry and gradually desolated the country. Soon after the Fula had established themselves Europeans began to visit the country. Hugh Clapperton, an Englishman, was at Sokoto in 1823 and again in 1827, dying there on the i3th of April of that year. Heinrich Earth made a prolonged stay in various Hausa cities at dates between 1851 and 1855. To Barth is due a great deal of our knowledge of the country. In Earth's time American merchants were established on the Niger, bartering goods in exchange for slaves. This traffic was carried on through Nupe " to the great damage," says Barth, " of the commerce and the most unqualified scandal of the Arabs, who think that the English, if they would, could easily prevent it." The over-seas traffic in slaves did not continue long after the date (1851) to which Barth referred, but slave-raiding by the Fula went on unchecked up to the moment of the British occupation of the country. At Sokoto the sultanship continued in the hands of Fodio's descendants, and the reigning sultan concluded in 1885 a treaty with the Royal Niger Company (then called the National African Company) which gave to the company certain rights of sovereignty throughout his dominions. In 1900 the rights of the company were transferred to the Crown. In the course of the years 1900, 1901, 1902, British Submission authority was established in the states bordering to British on the Niger and the Benue and in Bornu. The *"'*• northern states declined to fulfil the conditions of the treaties negotiated with the Niger Company or to submit to the abolition of the slave trade, and in 1902 Sokoto and Kano openly defied the British power. A campaign was undertaken against them in the opening months of 1903 in which the British troops were entirely successful. Kano was taken in February 1903, and Sokoto after some resistance made formal submission on the 22nd of March following. From that day British authority was substituted for Fula authority through- out the protectorate. The emir of Sokoto took an oath of allegiance to the British Crown and Sokoto became a British province, to which at a later period Gando was added as a sub- province — thus making of Sokoto one of the double provinces of the protectorate. The double province thus constituted has an area of about 35,000 sq. m., with an estimated population of something over 500,000. It includes the ancient kingdoms of Zamfara on the east and Argunga or Kebbi on the west. The dominions of the emir of Sokoto have suffered some diminutions by reason of British agreements with France relating to the common frontier of the two European powers in the western Sudan. The emir felt deeply the loss of territory ceded to France in 1904 but accepted the settlement with much loyalty. Like the emir of Kano the new emir of Sokoto worked most loyally with the British administration. The province has been organized on the same principle as the other provinces of Northern Nigeria. A British resident of the first class has been placed at Sokoto and assistant residents at other centres. British courts of justice have been established and British governors are quartered in the province. Detachments of civil police are also placed at the principal stations. The country has been assessed under the new system for taxes and is being opened as rapidly as possible for trade. After the establishment of British rule farmers and herdsmen reoccupied districts and the inhabitants of cities flocked back to the land, rebuilding villages which had been deserted for fifty years. Horse breeding and cattle raising form the chief source of wealth in the province. There is some ostrich farming. Except in the sandy areas there is extensive agriculture, including rice and cotton. Special crops are grown in the valleys by irrigation. Weaving, dyeing and tanning are the principal native industries. Fair roads are in process of construction through the province. Trade is increasing and a cash currency has been introduced. The emir of Gando, treated on the same terms as the emirs of Kano and Sokoto, proved less loyal to his oath of allegiance and had to be deposed. Another emir was installed in his place and in the whole double province of Sokoto-Gando prosperity has been general. In 1906 a rising attributed to religious fanaticism occurred near Sokoto in which unfortunately three white officers lost their lives. The emir heartily repudiated the leader of the rising, who claimed to be a Mahdi inspired to drive the white man out of the country. A British force marched against the rebels, who were overthrown with great loss in March 1906. The leader was condemned to death in the emir's court and executed in the market place of Sokoto, and the incident was chiefly interesting for the display of loyalty to the British administration which it evoked on all sides from the native rulers. (See also NIGERIA; FULA; and HAUSA.) See the Travels of Dr Barth (London 1857); Lady Lugard, A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905) ; P. L. Monteil, De Saint Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad (Paris, 1895); C. H. Robinson, Hausaland (London, 1896) ; The Annual Reports on Northern Nigeria, issued since 1900 by the Colonial Office, London; Sir F. D. Lugard, " Northern Nigeria," in Geo. Journ. vol. xxiii., and Major J. A. Burdon, " The Fulani Emirates," ibid, vol xxiv. (both London, 1904). Except the last-named paper most of these authorities deal with many other subjects besides the Fula. (F. L. L.) SOKOTRA (also spelt Socotra and formerly Socotora), an island in the Indian Ocean belonging to Great Britain. It is cut by 12° 30' N., 54° E., lies about 130 m. E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui and about 190 m. S.E. of the nearest part of the coast of Arabia and is on the direct route to India by the Suez Canal. It is 72 m. long by 22 m. broad and has an area estimated at from 2000 to 3000 sq. m. It is the largest and most easterly member of a group of islands rising from adjacent coral banks, the others being Abd el Kuri, The Brothers (Semha and Darzi) , and Kal Farun. Physical Features. — From the sea Sokotra has an imposing appearance. The centre culminates in a series of rugged pinnacles — the Haghier mountains, which rise to nearly 5000 ft. above a high (1500 ft.) abutting and undulating limestone plateau, deeply _ channelled by valleys. At many parts of the north coast the edges ' of this plateau reach the shore in precipitous cliffs, but in others low plains, dotted with bushes and date-palms, front the heights behind. The southern shore is bordered nearly its entire length by a belt of drifted sand, forming the Nuget plain. On this side of the island there are but one or two possible anchoring grounds, and these only during the north-east monsoon. On the north coast there are no harbours; but fairly safe anchorages, even in the north-east winds, are available off Hadibu or under Haulaf, a few miles distant, and at Kallansayia, at the north-west end of the island. Geology. — The fundamental rocks of the island are gneisses, through which cut the feldspathic granites which form the Haghier massif. Through these, again, pierce other granites in dikes or lava flows, and overlying the whole are limestones of Cretaceous and Tertiary age, themselves cut through by later volcanic eruptions. " In the Haghier hills," to quote Professor Bonney, " we have probably a fragment of a continental area of great antiquity, and of a land surface which may have been an ' ark of refuge ' to a terres- trial fauna and flora from one of the very earliest periods of this world's history." Climate. — From October to May the weather is almost rainless except in the mountains, where there are nightly showers and heavy mists. During this season the rivers, which are roaring torrents throughout the monsoon, are almost all lost in the dry, absorbent SOKOTRA 355 plains. The temperature of the coast area varies from 65° F. in the night to 85° F. in the day — in the hot season it may reach 95° F. ; and on the mountains (3500 ft.), from 52° F. to 72° F. In the low grounds fever of an acute and hematuric form is very prevalent. Flora and Fauna. — The fauna contains no indigenous mammals, a wild ass which roams the eastern plains, perhaps its oldest denizen, is probably of Nubian origin; while the domestic cattle, a peculiar, unhumped, small, shapely, Alderney-like breed, may be a race gradually developed from cattle imported at a distant period from Sind or Farther India. There are 67 species of birds known from Sokotra, of which 15 are endemic; of 22 reptiles, 3 genera and 14 species are peculiar; and of the land and fresh-water shells, to whose distribution great importance attaches, 44 species out of 47 are confined to the island. Among the other invertebrate groups there is also a large proportion of endemic species. The flora is even more peculiar than the fauna- Aloes, dragon's- blood (Dracaena), myrrh, frankincense, pomegranate, and cucumber (Dendrpcycios) trees are its most famous species. The phanerogams number 570, apportioned to 314 genera, and of these over 220 species and 98 genera are unknown elsewhere. The flora and also (though to a less degree) the fauna present not only Asian and Central African affinities, but, what is more interesting, Mascarene, South African and Antipodean-American relationships, indicating a very different distribution of land and water and necessitating other bridges of communication than now exist. The natural history of Sokotra, unravelled by the study of its geology and biology, has been summarized by Professor Balfour as follows : — " During the Carboniferous epoch there was in the region of Sokotra a shallow sea, in which was deposited, on the top of the fundamental gneisses of this spot, . . . the sandstone of which we have such a large development in Nubia. . . . During the Permian epoch Sokotra may have been a land surface, forming part of the great mass of land which probably existed in this region at that epoch, and gave the wide area for the western migration of life which presently took place, and by which the eastern affinities in Sokotra may be explained. In early and middle Tertiary times, when the Indian peninsula was an island, and the sea which stretched into Europe washed the base of the Himalayan hills, Sokotra was in great part submerged and the great mass of limestone was de- posited; but its higher peaks were still above water, and formed an island, peopled mainly by African species — the plants being the fragmentary remains of the old African flora — but with an admixture of eastern and other Asian forms. Thereafter it gradu- ally rose, undergoing violent volcanic disturbance." By this elevation " Madagascar would join the Seychelles, which m turn . . . would run into the larger Mascarene Islands. In this way, then, Africa would have an irregular coast-line, prolonged greatly south of the equator into the Indian Ocean, and running up with an advance upon the present line until it reached its north- west limit outside and south of Sokotra. Thence an advanced land surface of Asia would extend across the Arabian Sea into the Indian peninsula." Sokotra thus " again became part of the mainland, though it is likely for only a short period, and during this union the life of the adjacent continent covered its plains and filled its valleys. Subsequently it reverted to its insular condition, in which state it has remained." The Antipodean-American element in the Sokotran flora probably arrived via the Mascarene Islands or South Africa from a former Antarctic continent. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants, believed to number from 10,000 to 12,000, are composed of two, if not more, elements. On the coast the people are modern Arabs mixed with negro, Indian and European blood; in the mountains live the true Sokotri, supposed to be origin- ally immigrants from Arabia, who have been isolated here from time immemorial. Some of them are as light-skinned as Europeans, tall, robust, thin-lipped, straight-nosed, with straight black hair; others are shorter and darker in complexion, with round heads, long noses, thick lips, and scraggy limbs, indicating perhaps the commingling of more than one Semitic people. Their manner of life is simple in the extreme. Their dwellings are circular, rubble- built, flat, clay-topped houses, or caves in the limestone rocks. They speak a language allied to the Mahra of the opposite coast of Arabia. Both Mahra and Sokotri are, according to Dr H. Miiller, daughter-tongues of the old Sabaean and Minaean, standing in the same relation to the speech of the old inscriptions as Coptic does to that of the hieroglyphics. The Sokotran tongue has been, he believes, derived from the Mahra countries, but it has become so differentiated from the Mahra that the two peoples understand each other only with difficulty. Sokotri is the older of the two languages, and retains the ancient form, which in the Mahran has been modified by Arabic and other influences. Hadibu, Kallansayia and Khadup are the only places of importance in the island. Hadibu, or Tamarida (pop. about 400) the capital, is picturesquely situated on the north coast at the head of the open bay of Tamarida on a semicircular plain enclosed by spurs of the Haghier mountains. A dense grove of date palms surrounds the village. Trade and Products. — The chief export is ghi or clarified butter, which is sent to Arabia, Bombay and Zanzibar. Millet, cotton and tobacco are grown in small quantities. The most valuable vegetable products are aloes and the dragon's-blood tree. The Sokotran aloe is highly esteemed ; in the middle ages the trade was mostly in these products and in ambergris. The people live mainly on dates and milk. They own large numbers of cattle, sheep and goats. Dates are both home-grown and imported. History. — Sokotra has claims to be reckoned one of the most ancient incense-supplying countries. Among the " harbours of incense " exploited by various Pharaohs during some twenty- five centuries it is impossible to believe that the island could be missed by the Egyptian galleys on their way to the " Land of Punt," identified by several writers with Somaliland; nor that, though the roadsteads of the African coast were perhaps oftener frequented, and for other freights besides myrrh and frankin- cense, the shores of Sokotra were neglected by such ardent explorers as those, for instance, of Queen Hatshepsut of the 1 8th dynasty. They would have found on the island, which is probably referred to under the name " Terraces of Incense " (from its step-like contours), the precious " auta trees " — whose divine dew, for use in the service of their gods, was their special quest — in greater abundance and in a larger number of species than any other country. To the Greeks and Romans Sokotra was known as the isle of Dioscorides; this name, and that by which the island is now known, are usually traced back to a Sanskrit form, Dvlpa-Sak- ha.dha.ra, " the island abode of bliss," which again suggests an identification with the vrjaoi tvdainovts of Agatharchides (§ 103). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea speaks of the island as peopled only in one part by a mixed race of Arab, Indian and Greek traders. It was subject to the king of the Incense Country, and was a meeting-place of Arabian and Indian ships. Cosmas in the 6th century says that the people spoke Greek and were largely Christian, with a bishop sent from Persia. The Arab geographers also had a tradition of an early Greek settlement (which they ascribe to Alexander), but also of later Persian influence, followed by a settlement of Mahra tribes, who partly adopted Christianity. The Sokotri appear to have remained Nestorian Christians, with a bishop under the metro- politan of Persia, through the middle ages, though there are indi- cations pointing to a connexion with the Jacobite church. As early as the loth century Sokotra was a haunt of pirates; in the i3th century Abulfeda describes the inhabitants as " Nestorian Christians and pirates " but the island was rather a station of the Indian corsairs who harassed the Arab trade with the Far East. The population seems in the middle ages to have been much larger than it is now; Arabian writers estimate the fighting men at 10,000. The Portuguese under Tristao da Cunha and Albuquerque seized Sokotra in 1507 in pursuance of the design to control all the trade routes between Europe and the East, Sokotra being supposed to command the entrance to the Red Sea. But on the capture of Goa and the building of a fortress there Albuquerque caused the fort which da Cunha had had built at Coco (Tamarida to be dismantled (1511), and though Portuguese ships subse- quently raided the island they made no other settlement on it. The Portuguese found that Sokotra was held by Arabs from Fartak, but the " natives " (a different race) were Christians, though in sad need of conversion. This pious work Portuguese priests attempted, but with scant success. However, as late as the middle of the I7th century the Carmelite P. Vincenzo found that the people still called themselves Christians, and had a strange mixture of Jewish, Christian and Pagan rites. The women were all called Maria. No trace of Christi- anity is now found in the island, all the inhabitants professing Islam. A certain dependence (at least of places on the coast) on some soveieign of the Arabian coast had endured before the occupa- tion of Tamarida by da Cunha, and on the withdrawal of the Portuguese this dependence on Arabia was resumed. In the igth century Sokotra formed part of the dominions of the sultan of Kishin. The opening of the Suez Canal route to India led to the island being secured for Great Britain. From 1876 onward a small subsidy has been paid to the sultan of Kishin by the authorities at Aden; and in 1886 the sultan concluded SOLANACEAE a treaty formally placing Sokotra and its dependencies under the protection of Great Britain. Sokotra is regarded as a depen- dency of Aden, but native rule is maintained, the local governor or viceroy of the sultan of Kishin being a member of that chief's family, and also styled sultan. Since it came under British control the island has been visited by various scientific expedi- tions. Professor Bayley Balfour made an investigation in 1880, expeditions were headed by Drs Riebeck and Schweinfurth in 1881, by Theodore Bent in 1897, and by Dr H. O. Forbes and Mr Ogilvie-Grant (who also visited Abd-el-Kuri) in 1898-1899. Simultaneously with the last named a further expedition, conducted by Professor D. H. Miiller, under the auspices of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, visited Sokotra, Abd-el-Kuri and some other islets of the group to investigate their geology and languages. With the Indian government the relations of the Sokotri have occasionally been strained, owing to their liratical tendencies. ABD-EL-KURI island lies 6p m. W.S.W. of Sokotra, and 53 m. E.N.E. from Cape Guardafui, is 20 m. long by 3$ m. in width. At either end the island is hilly, the central part being a low plateau. On the north side is a sandy beach; on the south cliffs rise abruptly from the ocean. The highest part of the island is towards its eastern end, where the hills rise to 1670 ft. It is largely arid and there are no permanent streams. Its zoology resembles that of Sokotra, but the fauna includes land shells and scorpions peculiar to Abd-el- Kuri. The inhabitants, who number one to two hundred, speak Sokotri and Arabic and are chiefly engaged in diving for pearl shell on the Bacchus Bank N.E. of the island. They live chiefly on turtle (which abounds in the island), fish and molluscs. The land is nowhere cultivated. Kal Farun is the name of two rocky islets rising nearly 300 ft. above the sea 13 m. N.N.E. of the western end of Abd-el-Kuri. Birds flock to them in great numbers; in consequence they are completely covered with guano, which gives them a snow-white appearance. The Brothers (often called by the older navigators The Sisters) lie between Abd-el-Kuri and Sokotra. Semha is 6j m. long and 3 m. broad. It has rocky shores and rises in a table-shaped mountain to 2440 ft. As in Abd-el-Kuri ambergris is found on its snores and turtles abound. There is running water all the year. It is a fishing ground of the Sokotri. Darzi lies 9 m. E. by S. of Semha, is 35 m. long by I m. broad and rises almost perpendicularly from the sea to 1500 ft. The top is flat. The coral banks which surround Sokotra and The Brothers are united and are not more than 30 fathoms below sea-level; a valley some 100 fathoms deep divides them from the bank around Abd-el-Kuri, while between Abd-el-Kuri and Cape Guardafui are depths of over 500 fathoms. See, for the history of Sokotra, Yule, Marco Polo (1903 ed.) ii. '406-410, and, besides the authorities there cited, Yakut, s.v. ; Hamda.ni p. 52; Kazwini ii. 54. Consult also the Commentaries of Afonso Dalboquerque, W. de G. Birch's translation (London 1875- 1884). For the state of the island at the beginning of the l8th century see the account of the French expedition to Yemen in 1708 (Viaggio nell' Arabia Felice: Venice, 1721); and, for the igth century, J. R. Wellsted, City of the Caliphs, vol. ii. (London, 1840), and Mrs J. T. Bent, Southern Arabia, Soudan and Sokotra (London, 1900). For the topography, &c., see Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Pilot (sth ed. London, 1900). For special studies see I. B. Balfour, Botany of Socotra (Edinburgh, 1888); G. Schweinfurth, Das Volk von Socotra (Leipzig, 1883); H. O. Forbes (edited by), The Natural History of Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri (Liverpool, 1903); F. Kossmat, Geologie der Inseln Sokotra, Semha und Abd el Kuri (Vienna, 1902) ; R. V. Wett- stein in Vegetationsbilder (3rd series, Jth pt., Jena, 1906). See also J. Jackson, Socotra, Notes bibliographiques (Paris, 1892), a complete bibliography to the year of publication. (H. O. F. ; X.) SOLANACEAE, in botany, an order of Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae (or Gamopetalae) and to the series Tubiflorae, containing 75 genera with about 1500 species, widely distributed through the tropics, but passing into the temperate zones. The chief centre of the order lies in Central and South America; 32 of the genera are endemic in this region. It is represented in Britain by three genera including 4 species: Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), Solatium Dulcamara (Bittersweet) and 5. nigrum and Alropa Belladonna (Deadly Nightshade). The plants are herbs, shrubs or small trees. Solanum nigrum, a common weed in waste places, is a low-growing annual herb; 5. Dulcamara is an irregularly climbing herb perennial by means of a widely creeping rhizome; Atropa Belladonna is a large perennial herb. The genus Solanum, to which belong more than half the number of species in the order, contains plants of very various habits including besides herbs, shrubs and trees. The leaves are generally alternate, but in the flower-bearing parts of the stem are often in pairs, an arrangement which, like the extra-axillary position of the flowers or cymes, results from a congenital union of axes. Thus in Datura (thorn apple) (fig. I A), where the branching is dichasial, the leaf which originates at any given node becomes ffl FIG. I. — Diagrams illustrating branch development in Solanaceae, in A. Datura Stramonium, B. Atropa Belladonna. I, II, III, Flowers on inflorescences of successive orders; b, bract of I; a, ft, bracts of II; a', ft', bracts of III, and so on. In A the branching is dichasial and the bracts are adnate to their axillary shoots up to the points at which the next branches arise; thus a and ft appear to arise from axis II, though in reality originating on axis I. In B the branching is cincinnal, one of the two branches at each node is undeveloped and its bract a, a', a" is smaller than the other member of the pair, ft, ft', which is adnate to and apparently carried up on its axillary branch. raised upon its axillary shoot as far as the next higher node, from which it appears to spring. In Atropa Belladonna (fig. I B) one of the branches at each node is undeveloped and there is a pair of unequal leaves; the smaller subtends the branch which has not developed, the larger has been carried up from the node below. An interesting anatomical feature is the presence in the stem of bicollateral bundles — that is, the vascular bundles have phloem on the inside as well as on the outside of the xylem. The hermaphrodite, generally regular, flowers have the parts in fives, 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5 stamens in alternating whorls, and two carpels, which are generally placed obliquely (see fig. 2, floral diagram). The sepals persist and often become enlarged in the fruit. The FIG. 2. — Floral diagram of FIG. 3. — Floral diagram of Solanum — the arrow indicates Schizanthus — the arrow indicates the oblique symmetry of the the oblique symmetry. Two flower. stamens only are functional. corolla is regular and rotate as in Solanum (fig. 2), or bell-shaped as in Atropa, or somewhat irregular as in Hyoscyamus; in the tribe Salpiglossideae, which forms a link with the closely allied order Scrophulariaceae, it is zygomorphic, form- ing, e.g. as in Schizanthus (fig. 3), a two- lipped flower. The stamens are inserted on the corolla tube and alternate with its lobes ; in zygomorphic flowers only two or four fertile stamens are present ; the bilocular anthers open by slits or pores (fig. 4). The flowers are generally conspicuous and adapted to insect pollination; honey is secreted on the disk at the .base of the ovary or at the bottom of the corolla tube between the stamens. The ovary is usually a species of Solanum, bilocular, but in Capsicum becomes uni- showing the divergence jocular above, while in some cases an Of the anther-lobes at in-growth of a secondary septum makes it the base< and the dehis- 4-celled as in Datura, or irregularly 3- to cence by pores at the 5-celled as in Nicandra. The anatropous apex a. ovules are generally numerous on swollen axile placentas, sometimes few as in Cestrum, a large American genus with tubular flowers, species of which are grown in Britain as green- house plants; the simple style bears a bilobed or sometimes capitate stigma (fig. 5). The fruit is a many-seeded berry, as in Solanum, or FIG. 4. — Stamen of SOLAR— SOLAR SYSTEM 357 capsule, as in Datura, where it splits lengthwise, and Hyoscyamus (fig. 6), where it opens by a transverse lid forming a pyxidium. The embryo is bent or straight and embedded in endo- sperm. The persistent ca.lyx may serve to protect the fruit or aid in its distribution, as in the bladdery structure enveloping the fruit of Physalis or the prickly calyx of species of Solatium. The order is divided into 5 tribes; the division is based on the greater or less curvature of the embryo, the number of ovary cells and the regular or zygomorphic character of the flower. The great majority of the genera belong to the tribe Solaneae, which is characterized by a 2-celled ovary. Lycium is a genus of trees or shrubs, often thorny, with a cylindrical or narrowly bell- shaped corolla and a juicy berry; L. europ- aeum is a straggling climber often cultivated under the name of tea-plant. For Atropa see NIGHTSHADE; A. Belladonna yields the drug atropin. For Hyoscyamus see HEN- BANE. Physalis, with 45 species mostly in FIG. 5.— The pistil of Tobacco (Nicotiana Ta- bacum), consisting of the ovary o, containing ovules, the style 5, and the capitate stigma g. The pistil is placed on the receptacle r, at the extremity of the pe- duncle. FIG. 6.— Seed-vessel (pyxidium) of Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) opening by circumscissile dehis- the warmer parts of North and South America, includes P. alkekengi, " winter cherry," and P. peruviana, " Cape gooseberry." Capsicum (q.v.) is widely cultivated for its fruit, which are the so-called chillies. Solanum contains 900 species, among which are 5. tuberosum (potato ; q.v.), S. Lycopersicum (tomato; q.v.), and the two British species already mentioned. For Mandragora see MANDRAKE. To the tribe Datureae, characterized by a 4-celled ovary, belongs Datura; D. Stramonium (thorn apple), sometimes found as aa escape in Britain, is officinal. Nicotiana, to which belong the tobacco plant (N. tabacum) and other cultivated species, and Petunia, are American genera belonging to the tribe Cestreae, in which the embryo is straight or only slightly bent, as it is also in the tribe Salpiglossideae, which is characterized by the zygomprphy of the flowers ; Salpiglossis and Schizanthus are known in cultivation. SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr. galetas, Ital. solaio), in architecture, a room in some high situation, a loft or garret, also an elevated chamber in a church from which to watch the lamps burning before the altars. The Latin solarium was used principally of a sundial, but also of a sunny part of a house. SOLARIO, ANTONIO (c. 1382-1455), Italian painter of the Neapolitan school, commonly called Lo Zingaro, or The Gipsy. His father is said to have been a travelling smith. To all appearance Antonio was born at Civita in the Abruzzi, although it is true that one of his pictures is signed " Antonio de Solario Venetus," which may possibly be accounted for on the ground that the signature is not genuine. Solario is said to have gone through a love-adventure similar to that of the Flemish painter, Quintin Massys. He was at first a smith, and did a job of work in the house of the prime Neapolitan painter Colantonio del Fiore; he fell in love with Colantonio's daughter, and she with him; and the father, to stave him off, said if he would come back in ten years an accomplished painter the young lady should be his. Solario studied the art, returned in nine years, and claimed and obtained his bride. The fact is that Colantonio del Fiore is one of those painters who never existed; consequently his daughter never existed, and the whole story, as relating to these particular personages, must be untrue. Whether it has any truth, in relation to some unidentified painter and his daughter, is a separate question which we cannot decide. Solario made an extensive round of study — first with Lippo Dalmasio in Bologna, and afterwards in Venice, Ferrara, Florence and Rome. On returning to Naples he rapidly took the first place in his art. His principal performance is in the court of the monastery of S. Severino — twenty large frescoes illustrating . the life of St Benedict, now greatly decayed; they present a vast variety of figures and details, with dexterous modelling and colouring. Sometimes, however, Lo Zingaro's colour is crude, and he generally shows weakness of draughtmanship in hands and feet. His tendency is that of a naturalist — the heads lifelike and individual, and the landscape backgrounds better invented and cared for than in any contemporary. In the Studj gallery of Naples are three pictures attributed to this master, the. most remarkable one being a "Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints." The heads here are reputed to be mostly portraits. Solario initiated a mode of art new in Naples; and the works painted between his time and that of Tesauro (c. 1470) are locally termed " Zingareschi." He had many scholars, but not of pre-eminent standing — Nicola Vito, Simone Papa, Angiolillo Roccadirame, Pietro and Ippolito dal Donzello. It has often been said that Solario painted in oil, but of this there is no evidence. SOLAR SYSTEM, in astronomy, the group of heavenly bodies, comprising the sun and the bodies which move around the sun as a centre of attraction, of which the Earth is one. These bodies may be classified as follows: first the Sun, 0, distinguished as containing much the greater part of all the matter composing the system, being more than 600 times as massive as all the other bodies combined. It is this great mass which makes it the central one of the system. It is also, so far as is known, the only incandescent body of the system, and therefore the only one that shines by its own light. Secondly, planets. The bodies of this class consist of eight major planets moving round the sun at various distances, and of an unknown number of minor planets, much smaller than the major planets, forming a separate group. Thirdly, satellites, or secondary planets revolving around the major planets, and therefore accompanying them in their revolutions around the sun. A fourth class of bodies, the constitution of which is still in some doubt, comprises comets and meteors. These differ in that comets are visible either in a telescope or to the naked eye, and seem to be either wholly or partially of a nebulous or gaseous character, while meteors are, individually at least, invisible to us except as they become incandescent by striking the atmosphere of the earth. It is, however, an open question whether a comet is other than an accumulation of meteoric bodies (see COMET). The major planets are separated into two groups of four each, between which the minor planets, for the most part, revolve. The arrangement of the major planets, with the numbers of their respective satellites thus far known, in the order of distance from the sun, is as follows: — The first group in order — the smaller major planets — comprises : — Mercury, £, with no known satellite; Venus, 9, with no known satellite; The Earth, ©, with one satellite, the moon; Mars, (f, with two satellites. Outside of this group lies the zone of minor planets or asteroids. The outer group of major planets comprises: — Jupiter, QJ., with eight satellites; Saturn, T?, with ten satellites; Uranus, § or Jji, with four satellites; Neptune, ^, with one satellite. The distances separating the individual orbits in each group seem to approximate to a certain order of progression, expressed in Bode'slaw (see BODE). But there is an obvious gap between the two groups of major planets which is filled by the group of minor planets. Taking the mean distance of this group as that of a planet, the distance of the major planets closely approximates to Bode's law, except in the case of Neptune. A remarkable feature of the solar system, which distinguishes it from all other known systems in the universe, is the symmetry of arrangement and motion of its greater bodies. All the major planets and many of the minor planets revolve in elliptic 358 SOLDER— SOLEU RE orbits so nearly circular in form that the unaided eye woulc not notice the deviation from that form. But as the orbit are not centred on the sun, which is in a focus of each, the displacement of the seeming circle would be readily seen in the case of Mercury and of Mars. The same statement are true of the orbits of the satellites around their primaries. The major planets -all move around the sun in the same direction, from west to east, in orbits but little inclined to each other. All the known minor planets have the same common direction, but their orbits generally have a greater eccentricity and mutual inclination. The general rule is that the satellites also move round in the same direction, and in orbits of moderate inclination. Exceptions occur in the case of the satellites of Uranus, which are nearly perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. The satellite of Neptune, and one satellite, Phoebe, of Saturn, are also quite exceptional, the direction of motion being retrograde. For the elements of the orbits, and the general character of the several planets see PLANET. Details as to each are found under the respective names of the several planets. (S. N.) SOLDER (derived through the French from Lat. soldare, to make solidus, firm) , an alloy easily melted and used for uniting as by a metallic cement two'metal surfaces, joints, edges, &c. (See BRAZING AND SOLDERING.) SOLE (Solea), the most valuable of European flat-fishes.1 For most people who look at fish merely from the culinary point of view, soles are of two kinds: true soles, with such varieties as Dover soles and Brixham soles (slips being the name applied to young specimens), and lemon soles, an inferior fish, which is no sole at all, but a sort of dab (Glyptocephalus microcephalus). Leaving out the latter, there are five species on the British coasts; the common sole (Solea vulgaris) the French sole, or sand sole lemon sole of Yarrell (S. lascaris), the thick-back (S. variegata), and the solenette or little sole (S. lutea). All these agree in the right side being coloured and bearing the eyes, in the elongate form, in the small eyes (separated by a space covered with scaly skin, in the small, twisted mouth, with minute teeth on the colourless side only), and with the snout projecting beyond the mouth and more or less hooked. All true soles are excellent, but the common species is the only one which, from its larger size, growing to a length of 26 in. and attaining maturity at a length of about 10 in., regularly appears on all the markets. It occurs from the south-west coast of Scandinavia, Mecklenburg and Great Britain to the Mediterranean. Most of the best fishing grounds for soles lie comparatively near land, though the spawning takes place some miles away. Much information on the life history of the sole will be found in the monograph by J. T. Cunningham (Plymouth, 1890). SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollennis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus=totus, whole, entire, Gr. oXos, and annus, year), properly that which occurs annually, hence at stated intervals, regular, established; the term being particularly used of religious rites or ceremonies which recur at stated inter- vals, hence festive, sacred, marked by religious ceremony or ritual, and so grave, impressive, serious, the most general current usage. Another branch of meaning stresses the formal, customary aspect; and hence in such phrases as " solemn act," probate in " solemn form," it means that which is done with all due forms and ceremonies. SOLENT, THE, a strait of the English Channel, between the mainland (the coast of Hampshire, England), and the north- western coast of the Isle of Wight, forming the western entrance to Southampton Water, Spithead being the eastern. Its length, from the eastern shore of Southampton Water to the Needles rocks off the western extremity of Wight, is 15 m. The general breadth is from i\ to 3 m., but between Stone Point on the mainland and Egypt Point on the north coast of Wight it narrows to ij m.; and 35 m. north of the Needles there springs from the mainland a great shingle bank, mostly only a few yards in breadth above water, but nearly 2 m. in length. 1 The American sole (Achirus fasciatus) is a small flat-fish of inferior quality. It reduces the breadth of the Solent to a little over £ m., and broadens at the end, on which stands Hurst Castle, an important fortification dating from the time of Henry VIII. Here Charles I. was imprisoned in 1648. The coast of the mainland is low but picturesque, and is broken by the shallow estuaries of the Beaulieu River and the Lym, with the small port of Lymington upon it. The coast of Wight rises more steeply. On this side the Medina estuary opens northward, and those of the Newtown and the Yar north-westward into the strait. At the mouth of Southampton Water is a projecting bar resembling but smaller than that of Hurst Castle, and like it bearing a Tudor fortress, Calshot Castle. The Solent is frequently the scene of yacht races. The configuration of the coast causes a double tide in the strait. SOLESMES, a village of western France on the left bank of the Sarthe in the department of Sarthe, 29 m. W.S.W. of Le Mans by road. In 1010 a priory was founded at Solesmes and placed under the authority of the abbey of La Couture of Le Mans. Suppressed at the revolution, it was established as a Benedictine monastery in 1830. In 1837 it was raised to the rank of abbey and became a centre of learning,- the music here was also famous. A nunnery was afterwards founded beside it, but both institutions were abandoned after the passing of the associations law in 1901. The monastery, rebuilt at the end of the ipth century, forms a lofty mass of buildings on the river bank. Its church (i3th and i6th centuries) is interesting only for the possession of two masterpieces of sculpture of uncertain authorship, executed approximately between 1490 and 1550. The most sl,riking represents the burial of Christ and is sheltered by a stone structure, the front of which is beautifully carved. An arched opening in this front reveals the central group of eight figures surrounding the tomb, that of Mary Magdalen in the foreground being remarkably lifelike and expressive. The other work similarly enclosed represents the burial of the Virgin and is the later of the two in date and in the pure Renais- sance style. Sculptures representing Jesus among the Doctors and other scenes are also in the church. SOLETO, a village of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which it is n m. S. by rail, situated 299 ft. above sea- level. Pop. (i 901) , 3349. The Romanesque church of S. Stefano contains Byzantine frescoes of the I4th century similar to those in the subterranean chapel of the Santi Stefani at Vaste, south of Otranto, and others showing the formation of an independent style. The fine, richly decorated campanile adjoining the former cathedral was erected in 1397. SOLEURE (Ger. Solothurn), one of the cantons of north- western Switzerland. Its total area is 305-5 sq. m., of which 294 sq. m. are reckoned as "productive," 111-3 sq. m. being covered by forests and -29 sq. m. by vineyards. Save two small districts in its southern portion the whole canton is situated in the Jura range, while it is said to be the most irregular in shape of all the Swiss cantons, this being accounted for by the Fact that it consists simply of the territories won at differetit dates by the town from which it takes its name. It includes most of the Aar valley between the towns of Bienne and Aarau, neither of which is in the canton, while in its northern portion the waters join the Birs River, and in its southern portion is the last bit of the Emme before its junction with the Aar. It comprises three isolated districts, of which one (Steinhof) on the south is an " enclave " in the canton of Bern, while the others, Hofstet- ten, that includes the famous pilgrimage resort of Mariastein, and Klein Liitzel, are on the Alsatian frontier, and bounded by the cantons of Bern and of Basel. The highest point in the canton is the Hasenmatt (4748 ft.) which forms the culminating summit of the Weissenstein ridge, that rises just north-west of the town of Soleure, and boasts of an hotel well-known as a ;reat centre for the air and whey cure. The canton is well supplied in its southern portion with railways, the main line 'rom Bienne to Aarau running through it past the great junction of Olten, where the direct lines from Lucerne by the St Gotthard, rom Bern, from Zurich, and from Basel all unite. Formerly the districts composing the canton were in the dioceses cf Lausanne, SOLEURE 359 Basel and Constance, but since the complete reorganization of 1814 they are all in the diocese of Basel, the bishop of which has his chair in Soleure. In 1900 the population was 100,762, of whom 97,930 were German-speaking, 1912 French-speaking, and 829 Italian-speaking, while 69,461 were " Catholics " (the census dqes not distinguish between Romanists and Christian Catholics, who are still fairly strong here), 31,012 Protestants, and 159 Jews. The capital is Soleure, while the only other important town is Olten (6969 inhabitants). Between Soleure and Granges or Grenchen (5202 inhabitants) is the village of Selzach, where since 1893 a passion-play has been performed every summer by the inhabitants. Till about 1850 the canton was mainly agricultural and pastoral, its pastures numbering 209, capable of supporting 4179 cows and of an estimated capital value of 2,395,215 francs. Nowadays it is distinguished for the variety of its industries, especially in and around Soleure and Olten, among them being watch-making, shoe-factories, cotton-spinning and cement factories. The canton is divided into ten administrative districts, that comprise 132 communes. The present cantonal constitution dates from 1887, but was revised as to some Important points in 1895. The Kanlonsrat, or legislative assembly, is elected (since 1895 according to the principles of proportional repre- sentation) by all citizens over twenty years of age, in the pro- portion of one member to 800 inhabitants. Since 1895 the people have elected the Regierungsrat or executive, consisting of five members. In both cases the period of office is four years, though on the demand of 4000 citizens a popular vote must be taken as to whether the existing members shall continue to sit or not. In the canton the " obligatory refer- endum " and the " initiative " have obtained since 1875. By the former all laws passed by the legislative assembly, and all financial resolutions involving the expenditure of 100,000 francs, or of an annual sum of 15,000 francs, must be approved by a popular vote. By the latter 2000 citizens can compel the legislative assembly to consider any proposal for making a new law or for amending an old one. Further, the demand of the majority of the assembly or of 3000 citizens is sufficient to necessitate a popular vote as to the advisability of revising the constitution, the revised draft itself requiring a further popular vote. The two members of the federal Standerat and the five members of the federal Nationalrat are also chosen by a popular vote. AUTHORITIES. — J. Amiet, Das St Ursus Pfarr-Stift d. Stadt Soleure, 6 pts. (Soleure, 1878-1890), and Die Grundungs-Sage der Schwester- stadte, Solothurn, Zurich, und Trier (Soleure, 1890); G. Bloch, Bilder aus d. Ambassadorenherrschaft in Soleure, 1554-7791, (Biel, 1898); W. Flury, Die industrielle Entwickelung d. Kant. S. (Soleure, 1908); K. Meisterhans, Alteste Geschichte d. Kant. Soleure bis 687 (Soleure, 1900); J. R. Rahn, Die MiMalt. Kunstdenkmaler d. Cant. Soleure (Zurich, 1893); K. E. Schuppli, Geschichte der Stadtverfassung von Soleure (Basel, 1897); P. Strohmeier, Der Kant. Soleure (St Gall and Bern, 1836); A. Striiby, Die Weidewirthschaft im Kant. Soleure (Soleure, 1896); and E. Tatarinoff, Die Betheiligung Solothurns am Schwabenkrieg, 1400 (Soleure, 1899). (W. A. B. C.) SOLEURE, the capital of the Swiss canton of that name, is an ancient little town, almost entirely situated on the left bank of the Aar. It was a Roman castrum, remains of which still exist, on the highway from Avenches to Basel, while its position at the foot of the Jura and close to the navigable portion of the Aar has always made it a meeting-point of various routes. Five railway lines now branch thence, while a sixth has been recently added, the tunnel beneath the Weissenstein to Moutier Grandval having been completed. It was strongly fortified in 1667-1727, but since 1830 these defences have been removed for reasons of practical convenience. Its chief building is the minster of SS Ursus and Victor, which dates from the i8th century, though it stands on the site of a far older edifice. Since 1828 it has been the cathedral church of the bishop of Basel, but in 1874 its chapter was suppressed. The ancient clock tower has a quaint 16th-century clock, while the older portions of the town-hall date still further back. The early 17th-century arsenal contains the finest collection of armour and old weapons in Switzerland, while the modern museum houses a splendid collection of fossils from the Jura, the specimens of Alpine rocks collected by F. J. Hugi (1796-1855), a native of Soleure, and a Madonna by the younger Holbein. The building now used as the cantonal school was formerly the residence of the French ambassadors to the Swiss confederation from 1530 to 1797. There are some fine 16th-century fountains in the little town, which in its older portions still keeps much of its medieval aspect, though in the modern suburbs and in the neighbouring villages there is a certain amount of industrial activity. The Polish patriot Kosciusko died here in 1817; his heart is preserved at Rapperswil, but his body is buried at Cracow. In 1900 the town had 10,025 inhabitants, almost all German-speaking, while there were 6098 " Catholics " (either Romanists or Christian Catholics), 3814 Protestants and 8 1 Jews. In 1904 there were twenty churches or chapels in the town itself. One mile north of the town is the Hermitage of St Verena, in a striking rock gorge, above which rises the Weissenstein ridge, the hotel on which (4223 ft.) is much frequented in summer for the air and whey cure as well as for the glorious Alpine panorama that it cdmmands. A 16th-century rhyme claims for the town of Soleure the fame of being the oldest place in " Celtis " save Trier. Certainly its name, " Salodurum," is found in Roman inscriptions, and its position as commanding the approach to the Rhine from the south-west has led to its being more than once strongly fortified. Situated just on the borders of Alamannia and Burgundy, it seems to have inclined to the allegiance of the latter, and it was at Soleure that in 1038 the Burgundian nobles made their final submission to the German king, Conrad II. The medieval town grew up round the house of secular canons founded in the loth century in honour of St Ursus and St Victor (two of the Theban legion who are said to have been martyred here in 302) by Queen Bertha, the wife of Rudolph II., king of Burgundy, and was in the diocese of Lausanne. The prior and canons had many rights over the town, but criminal jurisdiction remained with the kings of Burgundy, then passed to the Zahringen dynasty, and on its extinction in 1218 reverted to the emperor. The city thus became a free imperial city, and in 1252 shook off the jurisdiction of the canons and took them under its protection. In 1295 we find it allied with Bern, and this connexion is the key to its later history. It helped Bern in 1298 in the great fight against the nobles at Dornbiihl, and again at Laupen in 1339 against the jealous Burgundian nobles. It was besieged in 1318 by Duke Leopold of Austria, but he was compelled to withdraw. In the I4th century the government of the town fell into the hands of the gilds, whose members practically filled all the public offices. Through Bern, Soleure was drawn into association with the Swiss Confederation. An attempt to surprise it in 1382, made by the Habsburgs, was foiled, and resulted in the admittance of Soleure in 1385 into the Swabian League and in its sharing in the Sempach War. Though Soleure took no part in that battle, it was included in the Sempach ordinance of 1393 and in the great treaty of 1394 by which the Habsburgs renounced their claims to all territories within the Confederation. In 1411 Soleure sought in vain to be admitted into the Confederation, a privilege only granted to her in 1481 at the diet of Stans, after she had taken part in the Aargau, Italian, Toggenburg, and Burgundian Wars. It was also in the isth century that by purchase or conquest the town acquired the main part of the territories forming the present canton. In 1529 the majority of the " communes " went over to the reformed faith, and men were sent to fight on Zwingli's side at Kappel (1531), but in 1533 the old faith regained its sway, and in 1586 Soleure was a member of the Golden, or Borromean, League. Though the city ruled the surrounding districts, the peasants were fairly treated, and hence their revolt in 1653 was not so desperate as in other places. Soleure was the usual residence of the French ambassador from 1530 to 1797, and no doubt this helped on the formation of a " patri- ciate," for after 1681 no fresh citizens were admitted, and later 36° SOLFATARA— SOLICITOR we find only twenty-five ruling families distributed over the eleven gilds. Serfage was abolished by Soleure in 1785. The old system of the city ruling over eleven bailiwicks came to an end in March 1798, when Soleure opened its gates to the French army, and it was one of the six " directorial " cantons under the 1803 constitution. In 1814 the old aristocratic government was set up again, but this was finally broken down in 1831, Soleure in 1832 joining the league to guarantee the maintenance of the new cantonal constitutions. Though distinctly a Roman Catholic canton, it did not join the " Sonderbund," and voted in favour of the federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874. (W. A. B. C.) SOLFATARA, a volcanic vent emitting vapours chiefly of sulphurous character, whence the name, from the Italian solfo (sulphur). The typical example is the famous Solfatara, near Puzzuoli, in the Phlegraean Fields, west of Naples. This is an old crater which has not been in active eruption since A.D. 1198, but which is continuously exhaling heated vapours, chiefly hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and steam. These issue from orifices in the crust, on the walls of which are yellow incrustations of sublimed sulphur, sometimes orange-red by association with arsenic sulphide, whilst the trachytic rocks of the volcano are bleached and corroded by the effluent vapours, with formation of such products as gypsum and alum. Sal ammoniac occurs among the sublimates. The term solfatara has been extended to all dormant volcanoes of this type; and a volcano which has ceased to emit lava or ashes but still evolves heated vapours, is said to have passed into the " solfataric stage." Examples are to be found in many volcanic districts. By French geologists the term soufrttre is used instead of the Italian solfatara. (See VOLCANOES.) SOLFERINO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua, 5 m. S.W. of San Martino della Battaglia (a railway station 72 m. E. of Milan on the line to Verona), situated 410 ft. above sea-level, on the south-west edge of the hills bordering the Lake of Garda on the south. Pop. (1901), 1350. It was the scene of a battle fought on the 24th of June 1859 between the allied Franco-Sardinian army under Napoleon III. and Victor Emanuel, and the Austrian army commanded by Francis Joseph II., in which, after a severe contest, the latter retired over the Mincio (see ITALIAN WARS). The battle fought by the Sardinians on the left wing of the allied army is often called by the separate title of San Martino, from a hamlet near the Brescia-Verona railway, about which it was fought. From this battle, a certain shade of blue was designated by the name of Solferino, and was very popular for some years, though now, unlike its companion " magenta," it is forgotten. SOLI (mod. Mezetlu), an ancient town of Asia Minor, on the coast bf Cilicia, between the rivers Lamus and Pyramus, from each of which it is about 62 m. Colonists from Argos in Greece and Lindus in Rhodes are described as the founders of the town, which is first mentioned at the time of the expedition of the younger Cyrus. In the 4th century B.C. it was so wealthy that Alexander exacted a fine of 200 talents. In the Mithradatic War, Soli was destroyed by Tigranes, but it was subsequently rebuilt by Pompey, who settled there many of the pirates whom he had captured, and called the town Pompeiopolis. Soli was the birthplace of Chrysippus the Stoic and of the poets Philemon and Aratus. The bad Greek spoken there gave rise to the term (roXot/ctir/ios, solecism, which has found its way into all the modern languages of Europe. The ruins, which lie on the right bank of the Mezetlu Su have been lately plundered to supply building material for Mersina, and little remains except part of the colonnade which flanked the main street leading to the harbour. The place is easily reached from Mersina by carriage in about i| hours. (D. G. H.) SOLI, a Greek city on the north coast of Cyprus, lying at Soliais in the metalliferous country round Karavortasi near Lefka, on the south side of Morphou Bay. Its kingdom was bounded by the territories of Marion, Paphos, Tamassus and Lapathus. It was believed to have been founded after the Trojan War (c. 1180) by the Attic hero Acamas; but no remains have been found in this district earlier than the Early Iron Age (c. 1000-800). The town of " Sillu," whose king Irisu was an ally of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 B.C., is commonly sup- posed to represent Soli.1 In Hellenic times Soli had little political importance, though it stood a five months' siege from the Persians soon after 500 B.C.; its copper mines, however, were famous, and have left copious slag heaps and traces of small scattered settlements. A neighbouring monastery is dedicated to " Our Lady of the Slagheaps " (Panagia Skour- gidtissa). But the copper seems to have been exhausted in Roman times, and thereupon Soli became desert. See W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841; classical authorities); J. L. Myres and M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Cyprus Museum Catalogue, (Oxford, 1899; antiquities): G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of Cyprus (London, 1904; coins). (J. L. M.) SOLICITOR, in England, an officer of the Supreme Court of Judicature qualified to conduct legal proceedings for his clients: see also ATTORNEY. Previous to the reign of Henry III. the common law considered it indispensable that the parties to a suit should be actually present, but the privilege of appearing by attorney was conceded in certain cases by special dispensa- tion. The passing of the statute of Merton and subsequent enactments made it competent for both parties in all judicial proceedings to appear by attorney. Previous to the passing of the Judicature Act of 1873 there was a distinction between the terms " solicitor " and " attorney." Solicitors appear to have been at first distinguished from attorneys, as not having the attorney's power to bind their principals, but latterly the distinction was between attorneys as the agents formally appointed in actions at law, and solicitors who took care of pro- ceedings in parliament, chancery, privy council, &c. In practice, however, and in ordinary language, the terms were synonymous. Down to the I7th century the solicitor of the chancery courts was considered inferior to the attorney of the common law courts, but the rapid growth of equity jurisdic- tion gave the solicitor an importance in no degree inferior to his fellow practitioner at the common law. Until 1873 it was usual for attorneys to be admitted as solicitors as well, but the Judica- ture Act of that year enacted that all persons admitted as solicitors, attorneys or proctors of an English court shall hence- forth be called solicitors of the Supreme Court. Regulations regarding the qualification of attorneys are found as far back as the 20 Edward I. (1292), and the profession has been strinr gently regulated by a series of statutes passed during the igth century, notably the Solicitors Act 1843 and the Solicitors Acts 1877 and 1888. Every person, before he can become a duly qualified solicitor, must serve an apprenticeship or clerkship to a practising solicitor for a term of years varying from three to five, he must pass all the necessary examinations, he must be duly admitted and entered on the roll of solicitors kept by the Incorporated Law Society and must take out an annual certificate to practise. The organization of the profession is in the hands of the Incorporated Law Society. Established originally in 1827, in succession to an earlier society dating back to 1739, it was incorporated in 1831. It began courses of lectures for students in 1833 and ten years later was constituted registrar of attorneys and solicitors. In 1860 it obtained the power of suing unqualified solicitors and in 1888 it was given the custody of the roll of solicitors, on the abolition of the office of the clerk of the Petty Bag. The Solicitors Act of 1888 vested in the In- corporated Law Society the power of investigating complaints as to the professional conduct of solicitors, as well as power to refuse to renew the annual certificate of a solicitor, subject to the solicitor's right of appeal. The statutory committee of the Incorporated Law Society may make application to the court to strike a solicitor off the rolls without preliminary inquiry by the committee where he has been convicted of a criminal offence, but where he is alleged to have been guilty of unprofessional conduct or a statutory offence the committee first hold a preliminary inquiry. Apart from its judicial administrative authority it has exercised powerful influ- ence in the attitude which it has frequently taken towards proposed legislation. Membership of the society, which is not compulsory, is open to any duly qualified practising solicitor, on approval by the council. No person, however duly qualified, can be admitted as a solicitor till he has attained .'the age of twenty-one years. Though admitted as a solicitor and his name entered on the roll he is not at liberty to practise until he has taken out his annual certificate, the fees for which vary according as the applicant 1 E. Schrader, Abh. K. Preuss. Ak. Wiss. (1879), pp. S'-S6- SOLICITOR-GENERAL— SOLfS 361 intends to practise in London or the provinces. Solicitors now have a right to practise in any court, i.e. in every division of the High Court, in every inferior court, in the ecclesiastical courts (as proctors), in the court of appeal, in the privy council and in thejHouse of Lords. Their right of audience, however, is re- stricted. They may appear as advocates in most of the inferior courts, as before justices, magistrates, coroners, revising barristers and county courts. They have no right of audience, however, in the Mayor's court, London, nor in the High Court of Justice, privy council or House of Lords, where, from time immemorial, the right has pertained to the bar, but they have right of audience in chambers and certain bankruptcy matters. Since the Con- veyancing Act 1 88 1 solicitors may do all kinds of conveyancing, which formerly was considered the exclusive business of the bar. The Conveyancing Act 1881 having made great changes in the practice of conveyancing, it became necessary to place the re- muneration of solicitors upon a new basis. This was done by the Solicitors Remuneration Act, passed on the same day as the Conveyancing Act. It provides for the framing of general orders, fixing the principles of remuneration with reference inter alia to the skill and responsibility involved, not, as was generally the case before, with reference simply to the length of the documents per- used or prepared. A solicitor is not responsible for statements made by him in his professional capacity as an advocate, and all communications which pass between a solicitor and his client are privileged, so also is any information or document which he has obtained in his professional capacity on behalf of his client. The relation of solicitor and client disqualifies the former from dealing with his client on his own behalf, while it gives him a lien, on pro- fessional services, over the deeds, &c., of the client in his possession. A solicitor's remuneration is minutely arranged by statute and he has no power of recovering more from his client than his statutory charges, and he is liable to be sued for damages for negligence in his client's behalf. Certain personal privileges belong to a solicitor. He is free from serving on juries, nor need he, against his will, serve as a mayor, alderman, sheriff, overseer or churchwarden. In Scotland solicitors in the Supreme Court are not, as in England, the only persons entitled to act as law agents. They share the privilege with writers to the signet in the Supreme Court, with agents at law and procurators in the inferior courts. They were formed into a society in 1784 and incorporated in 1796, and are usually recognized as members of the College of Justice. This difference is, however, now of little importance, as by the Law Agents Act 1873 any person duly admitted a law agent is entitled to practise before any court in Scotland. In the United States the term solicitor is used in some states in the sense of a law agent practising before a court of equity. Many of the great public offices in England and the United States have their solicitors. In England the treasury solicitor fills an especially important position. He is responsible for the en- forcement of payments due to the treasury, and conducts generally its legal business. The office of king's proctor is also combined -with that of treasury solicitor. Under his powers as king's proctor the treasury solicitor acts as administrator of the personal estate of an intestate which has lapsed to the crown, and intervenes in cases of divorce where collusion is alleged (see under PROCTOR). Under the Prosecution of Offences Act 1884 he also acted as director of public prosecutions, and was sometimes called Crown Solicitor. By the Prosecution of Offences Act 1908 the office of director of public prosecutions was separated from that of treasury solicitor and made a separate appointment. In Ireland, solicitors called crown solicitors are attached to each circuit, their duty being to prepare the case for the crown in all criminal prosecutions. In the United States the office of solicitor to the treasury was created by Act of Congress in 1830. His principal duties are to take measures for protecting the revenue and to deal with lands acquired by the United States by judicial process or vested in them by security for payment of debts. See E. B. V. Christian, A Short History of Solicitors; Cordery on Solicitors ; and A. P. Poley, Law Affecting Solicitors. SOLICITOR-GENERAL, in England, one of the law officers of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He is always a member of the House of Commons and of the political party in power, changing with it. His duties are practically the same as those of the attorney-general (q.v.), to whom he is subordi- nate, and whose business and authority would devolve upon him in case of a vacancy in the office. He receives a salary of £6000 a year, in addition to fees for any litigious business he may conduct on behalf of the crown. The position of the solicitor-general for Scotland in the main corresponds with that of the English solicitor-general. He is next in rank to the lord-advocate. In the United States the office of solicitor- general was created by Act of Congress in 1870. SOLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on a height above the Wupper, 13 m. S.E. of Dusseldorf, and 20 m. N.E. of Cologne by rail. Pop. (1905), 49,018. Solingen is one of the chief seats of the German iron and steel industry, its speciality consisting in all kinds of cutlery, Solingen sword-blades have been celebrated for centuries, and are widely used outside Germany, while bayonets, knives, scissors, surgical instruments, files, steel frames and the like are also produced in enormous quantities. These articles are largely made by the workmen at their own homes and supplied to the depots of the large dealers; there are about 20,000 workers in steel in Solingen and the vicinity. Solingen received its municipal charter in 1374. Sword-blades have been made here since the early middle ages, and tradition affirms that the art was introduced during the Crusades by smiths from Damascus. SOLINUS, GAIUS JULIUS, Latin grammarian and compiler, probably flourished during the first half of the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of Collectanea rerum memorabilium, a description of curiosities in a chorographical framework. Adventus, to whom it is dedicated, is identified with Oclatinius Adventus, consul A.D. 218. It contains a short description of the ancient world, with remarks on historical, social, religious and natural history questions. The greater part is taken from Pliny's Natural History and the geography of Pomponius Mela. According to Mommsen, Solinus also used a chronicle (possibly by Cornelius Bocchus) and a Chorographia pliniana, an epitome of Pliny's work with additions made about the time of Hadrian. Schanz, however, suggests the Roma and Pratum of Suetonius. The Collectanea was revised in the 6th century under the title of Polyhistor (subsequently taken for the author's name). It was popular in the middle ages, hexameter abridgments being current under the names of Theodericus and Petrus Diaconus. The commentary by Saumaise in his Plinianae exercitationes (1689) is indispensable; best edition by Mommsen (1895), with valuable introduction on the MSS., the authorities used by Solinus, and subsequent compilers. See also Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 389; and Schanz, Geschichte der rom- ischen Litteratur (1904), iv. I. There is an old English translation by A. Golding (1587). SOLIPSISM (Lat. solus, alone, ipse, self), a philosophical term, applied to an extreme form of subjective idealism which denies that the human mind has any valid ground for believing in the existence of anything but itsejf. " It may best be defined, per- haps, as the doctrine that all existence is experience, and that there is only one experient. The Solipsist thinks that he is the onel" (Schiller). It is presented as a solution of the problem of explaining the nature of our knowledge of the external world. We cannot know things-in-themselves: they 'exist for us only in our cognition of them, through the medium of sense-given data. In F. H. Bradley's words (Appearance and Reality): " I cannot transcend experience, and experience is my experi- ence. From this it follows that nothing beyond myself exists; for what is experience is its (the self's) states." See IDEALISM ; also F. C. S. Schiller, Mind, New Series (April 1909). SOLfS, ANTONIO DE (1610-1686), Spanish dramatist and historian, was born in 1610 at Alcala de Henares (less .probably, Plasencia), and studied law at Salamanca, where he pro- duced a comedy entitled Amor y obligacidn, which was acted in 1627. He became secretary to the count of Oropesa, and in 1654 he was appointed secretary of state as well as private secretary to Philip IV. Later he obtained the lucrative post of chronicler of the Indies, and, on taking orders in 1667, severed his connexion with the stage. He died at Madrid on the igth of April 1686. Of his ten extant plays, two have some place in the history of the drama. El Amor al uso was adapted by Scarron and again by Thomas Corneille as L' Amour a la mode, while La Gilanilla de Madrid, itself founded on the novela of Cervantes, has been utilized directly or indirectly by P. A. Wolff, Victor Hugo and Longfellow. The titles of the remain- ing seven are Triunfos de amor y fortuna, Euridice y Orfeo, El Alcazar del secreto, Las Amazonas, El Doctor Carlino, Un Bobo hace ciento, and Amparar el enemigo. Amor y obligaciin survives in a manuscript at the Biblioteca Nacional. The 362 SOLITAIRE— SOLOMON Historia de la conquista de Mejico, covering the three years between the appointment of Cortes to command the invading force and the fall of the city, deservedly ranks as a Spanish prose classic. It was published in 1684; an English translation by Townshend appeared in 1724. SOLITAIRE (Fr. for " solitary "), a game played on a board indented with 33 or 37 hemispherical hollows, with the same number of balls or marbles. An unoccupied hollow is left by removing one ball, and the balls, or pieces, are then captured as in draughts. No moves are allowed in diagonal directions or over more than one space at a time. SOLO, OR SOLO WHIST, a card game which is a modification of whist, the chief distinctive feature being that a single player generally has to oppose the other three. The game came into vogue in England towards the end of the ipth century. The following " declarations " can be made, the order being impor- tant: (i) proposition; (2) acceptance; (3) solo; (4) misere; (5) abondance (or abundance); (6) misere ouverte; (7) abandonee diclaree (declared abundance). Proposition and acceptance go together, as will be seen; of the rest " solo " can be declared over " proposition," misere over solo, and so on. The stakes — regarding sixpence as the unit — are: for proposition, sixpence; for solo, sixpence (sometimes a shilling); for misere, a shilling; for abundance, eighteenpence; for open misere, two shillings; for declared abundance, three shillings. A further stake may be arranged for " overtricks," to be paid to the player for every trick made above the number proposed, and for " undertricks," to be paid by the player for every trick below that number. A full pack is used; players cut as at whist for deal and seats; the cards may be dealt singly, but are more commonly dealt by threes, with a single card for the last round. The last card is turned up and left exposed for a round, whether it is used for trumps or not. One deal constitutes a game. The laws of whist obtain, where applicable, in such matters as following suit, revoking, the passing of the deal, &c. The player on the dealer's left is first to declare or pass: if he proposes, any player may accept, the right going first to the player on his left, but any player when his turn comes may make a higher declaration than any that has gone before him, though a player whose call has been superseded may amend his call afterwards. If all the players pass, either there is a new deal, or by arrangement there is a general misere, when the player who takes the most tricks — sometimes, the last trick — • pays a single stake all round. The Dedaratiens. — (i) Proposal: This is an invitation to another player to " accept," i.e. to join the proposer in an attempt to make eight tricks. (2) Solo : . Here a player undertakes to win five tricks, playing against the other three in combination. (3) Misere : This is a declaration by a player that he will not win a single trick. There are no trumps, but the turn-up card is left exposed for the first round. If the caller wins a trick the game is at an end (there are no overtricks or undertricks), but he has a right to see the opponents' hands, to be sure that no revoke has been made. A trick that has been turned may not be seen -afterwards. (4) Abundance is a declaration that a player will make nine tricks single-handed. The caller makes any suit trumps, but abundance in the turn-up suit takes precedence over abundance in other suits. The trump suit must be declared after the other players have passed, before the first round is played. (5) Misere ouverte: This call is a declaration to lose all thirteen tricks, but after the first trick the caller's cards are placed on the table, though he may play them as he pleases. (6) Declared Abundance: This is a declaration of the caller to make all thirteen tricks by his own hand. He makes his own trumps and always leads, but a declara- tion in the suit of the turn-up card takes precedence over others. The game ends when the caller loses a trick. There are no under- tricks. SOLOGNE (Secalaunia from Lat. secale, rye), a region of north-central France extending over portions of the department of Loiret, Loir-et-Cher and Cher. Its area is about 1800 sq. m., and its boundaries are, on the N. the river Loire, on the S. the Cher, on the E. the districts of Sancerre and Berry. The Sologne is watered by the Cosson and the Beuvron, tributaries of the Loire, and the Sauldre, an affluent of the Cher, all three having a west-south-westerly direction. The pools and marshes which are characteristic of the region are due to the impermeability of its soil, which is a mixture of sand and clay. The conse- quent unhealthiness of the climate has been greatly mitigated since the middle of the igth century, when Napoleon III. led the way in the reclamation of swamps, the planting of pines and other trees and other improvements. Arable farming and stock-raising are fairly flourishing in the Sologne, but there is little manufacturing activity, the cloth manufacture of Romorantin being the chief industry. Game is abundant, and the region owes much of its revived prosperity to the creation of large sporting estates. SOLOLA, the capital of the department of Solola, in Guate- mala; on the northern shore of lake Atitlan, 46 m. W.N.W. of Guatemala city. Pop. (1905), about 17,000. Solola is the ancient capital of the Cakchiquel Indians, who form the bulk of the population. In the city coarse cloth, pottery, cigars and soap are manufactured, and there is a large prison and reformatory. Among the surrounding mountains are large and successful coffee plantations, owned by German settlers. Op the 1 8th of April 1902 Solola was wrecked by an earthquake, but as most of the houses were constructed of wood it was speedily rebuilt. SOLOMON1 (loth century B.C.), the son of David by Bath - sheba, and his successor in the kingdom of Israel. The many floating and fragmentary notes of various dates that have found a place in the account of his reign in the book of Kings (q.v.) show how much Hebrew tradition was occupied with the monarch under whom the throne of Israel reached its highest glory; and that time only magnified in popular imagination the proportions of so striking a figure appears from the opinions entertained of him in subsequent writings. The magnificence and wisdom of Solomon (cf. Matt. vi. 29; Luke xi. 31) and the splendour of his reign present a vivid contrast to the troublous ages which precede and follow him, although the Biblical records prove, on closer inspection, to contain so many incongruous elements that it is very difficult to form a just estimate of his life and character. A full account is given of the circumstances of the king's accession (contrast the summary notices, i Kings xxii. 41 seq., 2 Kings xv. i, xxi. 24, xxiv. 18, &c.). He was not the true heir to the throne, but was the son of David by Bathsheba, wife of Uriah the Hittite, whom David sent to his death " in the forefront of the battle." The child of the illegitmate union died; the second was called Jedidiah (" beloved of Yah [weh]") or Shelomoh (the idea of requital or recompense may be im- plied); according to i Chron. iii. 5, on the other hand, Solomon was the fourth, or rather the fifth, child of Bathsheba and David. The episode forms the prelude to family rivalries. David's first-born, Amnon, perished at the hands of the third son, Absalom, who lost his life in his revolt (2 Sam. xiii.-xx.). The second, Chileab, is not mentioned in the history, and the fate of the fourth, who regarded himself as the future king, is described in i Kings i., ii. Bathsheba, relying upon David's promise that Solomon should succeed him, vigorously advanced her son's claims with the support of Zadok the priest, the military officer Benaiah, and David's bodyguard; Adonijah, for his part, had David's old priest Abiathar, the commander Joab, and the men of Judah. A more serious breach could scarcely be imagined. The adherents of Solomon gained the day, and with his accession a new regime was inaugurated, not, however, without bloodshed. Solomon's age at his accession is not recorded. The tradition that he was only twelve (i Kings ii. 12 Septuagint; or fourteen, Jos. Ant. viii. 7, 8) may rest upon iii. 7 (" I am but a little child "; if this is not hyperbole), or upon the chronological scheme embodied in 2 Sam. xiii. 23, 38, xiv. 28, xv. 7. It agrees with his subordinate position in portions of 'Ch. i., but his independent actions in ch. ii. suggest a more mature age, and according to xi. 42, xiv. 21, his son Rehoboam was already born (but contrast again xii. 24 Septuagint, 2 Chron. xiii. 7). See further, Ency. Bib. col. 4681, n. 5- 1 Heb. Shelomoh, as though " his peace "; but the true meaning is uncertain; evidence for its connexion with the name of a god is given by H. Winckler and Zimmern, Keilinschr. u. das Alte Test., 3rd ed., pp. 224, 474 seq. The English form follows the SoXA/wi- of N.T. and Josephus ; the Lat. Salomo agrees with SaXi/ao? (one of several variant forms shown in MSS. of the LXX.). SOLOMON 363 The acute observation that 2 Sam. ix.-xx. ; 2 Kings i. ii. 1-9, 13 sqq., were evidently incorporated after the Deuteronomic re- daction of the books of Samuel (K. Budde, Samuel, p. xi.) is con- firmed by the framework of Kings with its annalistic material similar to that preserved in 2 Sam. v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv. ; I Kings ii. 10-^12. With this may belong iii. 3 (the compiler's judgment) ; and especially v. 3 sqq., where reference is made to David's incessant wars (2 Sam. viii.). That 2 Sam. ix.-xx., &c., had previously been omitted by the Deuteronomic redactor himself (Budde) cannot be proved. These post-Deuteronomic narratives preserve older material, but with several traces of revision, so that I Kings i. ii. now narrate both the end of David's reign and the rise of Solomon (see I. Benzinger's commentary on Kings, p. xi. ; C. Holzhey, Buck d. Konige, p. 17). The latter, however, is their present aim, and some attempt appears to have been made in them to exculpate one whose accession finds a Judaean parallel in Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. 1-4). Thus it has been held that David's charges (ii. 1-9) were written to absolve Solomon, and there is little probability in the story that Adonijah after his pardon really requested the hand of Abishag (ii. 13-25), since in Oriental ideas this would be at once viewed as a distinct encroachment upon Solomon's rights as heir (cf. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, 2nd ed., p. no). Every emphasis is laid on the wisdom of Solomon and his wealth. Yahweh appeared to Solomon in a dream and offered to grant whatever he might ask. Confessing his inexperience, the king prayed for a discerning heart, and was rewarded with the gift of wisdom together with riches and military glory. There follows an example of his sagacity: the famous story of the steps he took to determine which of two claimants was the mother of a child (iii. I6-28).1 His wisdom excelled that of Egypt and of the children of the East; by the latter may be meant Babylonia, or more probably the Arabs, renowned through all ages for their shrewdness. Additional point is made by emphasizing his superiority over four renowned sages, sons of Mahol; but the allusion to these worthies (who are incorporated in a Judaean genealogy, i Chron. ii. 6) is no longer intelligible. He is also credited with an interest in botany and natural history (iv. 33), and later Jewish legend improved this by ascribing to him lordship over all beasts and birds and the power of understanding their speech. To this it added the sovereignty over demons, from a wrong inter- pretation of Eccles. ii. 8 (see Lane, Arabian Nights, introd., n. 21, and ch. i, n. 25). As his fame spread abroad, people came to hear his wisdom, and costly presents were showered upon him. The sequel was the visit of the Queen of Sheba (i Kings iv. 29-34; x.). The interesting narrative appears in another light when we consider Solomon's commercial activity and the trading intercourse between Palestine and south Arabia.2 His wealth was in proportion to his wisdom. Trad- ing journeys were conducted with Phoenician help to Ophir and Tarshish. With the horse-breeding districts of the north he traded in horses and chariots (x. 28 seq.; see MIZRAIM), and gold accumulated in such enormous quantities that the income for one year may be reckoned at about £4,100,000 in weight (x. ii seq., 14 sqq.). Silver was regarded as stones; the precious cedars of Lebanon as sycamores. His realm extended from Tiphsah (Thapsacus) on the Euphrates to the borders of Egypt (iv. 21, 24), and it agrees with this that he gains important conquests in "the north (2 Chron. viii. 3 seq.; but see i Kings ix. 18). He main- tained a very large harem (xi.), and among his wives was the daughter of an Egyptian Pharaoh. For his distinguished con- sort, who brought Gezer as a dowry, a special palace was built (iii. i, ix. 16, 24), and this was only one of many building enter- prises. The description of the magnificent temple of Jerusalem, 1 For parallels, see R. Flint in Hastings's Diet. Bib. iv. 562, n. i. For the Pompeian wall-painting representing Solomon's judgment (the figures are pygmies!), see A. Jeremias, Alles Test, im Lichte d. alt. Orients 2nd ed., p. 492 seq. (with illustration and references). 1 For Mahommedan stories of Solomon, the hoopoe and the queen of Sheba, see the Koran, Sur. xxvii., which closely follows the second Targum to Esther i. 2, where the Jewish fables may be read in full. On this story, see also J. Halevy, Ecole pratique des hautes ttudes (1905), pp. 5-24, and the Chinese parallel in the Mittheilungen of the Berlin Seminar for Oriental Languages (1904), vii. i. pp. 117-172. For the late legends of Solomon see M. Griin- baum, Neue Beitrdge zur semit. Sage, pp. 198-237 (Leiden, 1893); G. Salzberger, Die Salomo-Sage in der semitischen Literatur (Berlin, 1907). which occupies considerable space in Solomon's history (v.- viii.), appears in more elaborate form in the chronicler's later work. The detailed record stands in contrast to the brief account of his other buildings, e.g. the palace, which, from an Oriental point of view, was of the first importance (vii. 1-12). But the Temple and palace were adjoining buildings, separated only by a wall (cf. Ezek. xlii. 20, xliii. 7 seq.), and it cannot be said that the former had originally the prominence now ascribed to it. Nor can the accounts given by Deuteronomic writers of its significance for the religious worship of Israel be used for an estimate of contemporary religion (v. 1-6, viii.). Whatever David had instituted at Jerusalem, it is at Gibeon that Solomon observed the opening sacrificial ceremonies, and there he received the divine revelation, " for that was the great high-place " (iii. 4 sqq.). Though this is justified by a late writer (iii. 2), subsequent history shows that the high-places, like the altars to heathen deities in Jerusalem itself, long re- mained undisturbed; it was the Deuteronomic reformation, ascribed to Josiah, which marked the great advance in the religion of Yahweh, and under its influence the history of the monarchy has been compiled. Moreover, with the emphasis which is laid upon the Jerusalem Temple is to be associated the new superiority of Zadok, the traditional ancestor of the Zadok- ites, the Jerusalem priests, whose supremacy over the other Levitical families only enters into the history of a much later age (see LEVITES). In fact, Solomon, the pious saint, is not the Solomon of the earlier writings. Political, commercial and matrimonial alli- ances inevitably left their mark upon national religion, and the introduction of foreign cults which ensued is characteristically viewed as an apostasy from Yahweh of which he was guilty in his old age? The Deuteronomic writer finds in it the cause of the subsequent separation of the two kingdoms (xi. 1-13), and he connects it with certain external troubles which prove to have affected the whole course of his reign. The general impression of Solomon's position in history is in fact seriously disturbed when the composite writings are closely viewed. On the one side we see genial internal conditions prevailing in the land (iv. 20, 25), or the exalted position of the Israelites as officials and overseers, while the remnant of the pre-Israelite inhabitants serve in labour gangs (ix. 20 sqq.). On the other hand is the mass of toiling Israelites, whose oppressed condition is a prelude to the later dissensions (i Kings v. 13 sqq.; cf. i Kings xii.; see the divergent tradition in 2 Chron. ii.). The description of Solomon's administration not only ignores the tribal divisions which play an important part in the separation of Israel from Judah (xii. 16; cf. 2 Sam. xix. 43-xx. 2), but represents a kingdom of modest dimensions in which Judah apparently is not included. Some north Judaean cities might be named (iv. 9 seq.), but south Judah and Hebron the seat of David's early power find no place, and it would seem as though the district which had shared in the revolt of Adonijah was freed from the duty of furnishing supplies. But the document has intricate textual peculiarities and may be the Judaean adaptation of a list originally written from the standpoint of the north-Israelite monarchy. Further speculation is caused when it is found that Solomon fortifies such cities as Megiddo, Beth-horon and Tamar, and that the Egyptian Pharaoh had slain the Canaanites of Gezer (ix. 15 sqq.). We learn, also, that Hadad, a young Edomite prince, had escaped the sanguinary campaign in the reign of David (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.), and had taken refuge in Egypt. He was kindly received by Pharaoh, who gave him the sister of his queen Tahpenes to wife. On David's death he returned and ruled over Edom, thus not merely controlling the port of Elath and the trade-routes, but even (according to the Septuagint) oppressing Israel (xi. 14-22, 25, see Septuagint on v. 22).* Moreover, an Aramaean dependant 3 On the relation between trade and religion in old Oriental life, see the valuable remarks by G. A. Smith, Ency. Bib. col. 5157 seq. 4 The narrative contains composite features (see the literature cited in article KINGS). There is a curious resemblance between one form of the story and the Septuagint account of the rise of Jeroboam (q.v.). 364 SOLOMON ISLANDS of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, to the north of Palestine (see David's war, 2 Sam. viii. 3 sqq., x. 6 sqq.), deserted his lord, raised a band of followers and eventually captured Damascus, where he established a new dynasty. Like Hadad, " he was an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon " (xi. 23-25). To these notices must also be added the cession of territory in north Palestine to Hiram, king of Phoenicia (ix. n). It is parentheti- cally explained as payment for building materials, which, how- ever, are otherwise accounted for (v. 6, n); or it was sold for 120 talents of gold (nearly £750,000 sterling), presumably to assist Solomon in continuing his varied enterprises — but the true nature of the transaction has been obscured, although the consequences involved in the loss of the territory are unmis- takable. If these situations can with difficulty find a place in our picture of Solomon's might, it is clear that some of them form the natural introduction to the subsequent history, when his death brought internal discontent to a head, when the north under Jeroboam refused allegiance to the south, and when the divided monarchy enters upon its eventful career by the side of the independent states of Edom, Damascus and Phoenicia. It is now generally recognized in histories of the Old Testament that a proper estimate of Solomon's reign cannot start from narratives which represent the views of Deuteronomic writers, although,'_in so far as late narratives may rest upon older material more in accordance with the circumstances of their age, attempts are made to present reconstructions from a combination of various elements. Among the recent critical attempts to recover the underlying traditions may be mentioned those of T. K. Cheyne (Ency. Bib., art. " Solomon ") and H. Winckler (Keil- inschr. u. d. Alte Test., 3rd. ed., pp. 233 sqq.). But, in general, where the traditions are manifestly in a later form they are in agreement with later backgrounds, and it is questionable whether earlier forms can be safely recovered when it is held that they have been rewritten or when the historical kernel has been buried in legend or myth. It is impossible not to be struck with the growing development of the Israelite tribes after the invasion of Palestine, their strong position under David, the sudden ex- pansion of the Hebrew monarchy under Solomon, and the subse- quent slow decay, and this, indeed, is the picture as it presented itself to the last writers who found in the glories of the past both consolation for the present and grounds for future hopes. But this is not the original picture, and, since very contradictory representations of Solomon's reign can be clearly discerned, it is necessary in the first instance to view them in the light of an independent examination of the history of the preceding and following periods where, again, serious fluctuation of standpoint is found. Much therefore depends upon the estimate which is formed of the position of David (q.v.). See also JEWS: History, § 7 seq ; PALESTINE: Old Testament History. On Solomon's relation to philosophical and proverbial literature, see PROVERBS. Another aspect of his character appears in the remarkable " Song of Solomon," on which see CANTICLES. Still another phase is represented in the monologue of Ecclesiastes (q.v.). In the Book of Wisdom, again, the composition of an Egyptian Hellenist, who from internal evidence is judged to have lived somewhat earlier than Philo, Solomon is introduced uttering words of admonition, imbued with the spirit of Greek philosophers, to heathen sovereigns. The so-called Psalter of Solomon, on the other hand, a collection of Pharisee psalms written in Hebrew soon after the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey, and preserved to us only in a Greek version, has nothing to do with Solomon or the traditional conception of his person, and seems to owe its name to a transcriber who thus distinguished these newer pieces from the older " Psalms of David " (see SOLOMON, PSALMS OF). (S. A. C.)1 SOLOMON ISLANDS (Ger., Salomoinselri), an archipelago of the Western Pacific Ocean, included in Melanesia, and forming a chain (in continuation of that of the Admiralty Islands and New Mecklenburg in the Bismarck Archipelago) from N.W. to S.E. between 154° 40' and 162° 30' E., 5° and 11° S., with a total land area of 17,000 sq. m. (For map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.) A comparatively shallow sea surrounds the islands and in- dicates physical connexion with the Bismarck Archipelago and New Guinea, whereas directly east of the Solomons there 1 Some sentences from W. R. Smith's article in Ency. Brit., gth ed., have been retained and in places modified. are greater depths. The principal island at the north-west end of the chain is Bougainville (3900 sq. m.), and that at the south-east San Cristoval or Bauro. Between these the chain is double, consisting (from the north-west) of Choiseul (2260 sq. m.), Isabel (Ysabel, of about the same area as Choiseul) and Malaita (2400 sq. m.) to the north, and Vella Lavella, Ronongo, Kul- ambangra, Kausagi, Marovo (New Georgia or Rubiana) and the Hammond Islands, and Guadalcanal or Guanbata (2500 sq. m.). Between and around these main islands there are many smaller islands. Ongtong Java, a coral reef of many islets, lies considerably north of the main group to which, geographically, it can hardly be said to belong.3 Bougainville, the largest of the group, contains Mt Balbi (10,170 ft.), and two active volcanoes. In Guadalcanar is Mt Lammas (8000 ft.), while the extreme heights of the other islands range- between 2500 and 5000 ft. The islands (by convention of 1899) are divided unequally between Great Britain and Germany, the boundary running through Bougainville Strait, so that that island and Buka belong to Germany (being officially administered from Kaiser Wilhelm's Land), but the rest (South Solomons) are British. The islands are well watered, though the streams seem to be small; the coasts afford some good harbours. All the large and some of the small islands appear to be composed of ancient volcanic rock, with an incrustation of coral limestone showing here and there along the coast. The mountains generally fall steeply to the sea. There is some level land in Bougainville, but little elsewhere. Deep valleys separate the gently rounded ridges of forest-clad mountains, lofty spurs descend from the interior, and, running down to the sea, terminate frequently in bold rocky headlands 800 to looo ft. in height, as in San Cristoval (north coast). On the small high island of Florida there is much undulating grass-land interspersed with fine clumps of trees; patches of cultivated land surround its numerous villages, and plantations on the hill-sides testify to the richness of its soil. The whole chain of islands appears to be rising steadily. Some of the smaller islands are of recent calcareous formation. Barrier and fringing reefs, as well as atolls, occur in the group, but the channels between the islands are dan- gerous chiefly from the strong currents which set through them. The climate is very damp and debilitating. The rainfall is unusually heavy. Fever and ague prevail on the coast. The healthiest portions are the highlands, where most exposed to the south-east trades. The dry season, with north-west winds, lasts from December to May. Vegetation is luxuriant; magnificent forests clothe the mountains, and sandalwood, ebony and lignum vitae, besides a variety of palms, are found in them. Mangrove swamps are common on the coasts. The probable geological connexion with New Guinea would account for the Papuan character of the fauna of the Solomons, which form the eastern limit of certain Papuan types. The existence of peculiar types in the Solomons, however, points to an early severance. _ Mammals are not numerous ; they include the cuscus, several species of bat, and some rats of great size. There are various peculiar species of frogs, lizards and snakes, including the great frog Rana Guppyi, from 2 to 3 ft in weight. Of birds, several parrots and other genera are character- istically Papuan and are unknown east of the Solomons. Population. — The Solomon islanders are of Melanesian (Pa- puan) stock, though in different parts of the group they vary considerably in their physical characteristics, in some islands approaching the pure Papuan, in some showing Polynesian crossings and in others resembling the Malays. As a race they are small and sturdy, taller in the north than in the south. Projecting brows, deeply sunk dark eyes, short noses, either straight or arched, but always depressed at the root, and moderately thick lips, with a somewhat receding chin, are general characteristics. The mesocephalic appears to be the preponderant form of skull; though this is unusual among Melanesian races. In colour the skin varies from a black-brown to a copperish hue, but the darker are the most common shades. The hair is naturally dark, but is often dyed red or fawn, and crisp, inclining to woolly. The islanders of the Bougainville Straits have lank, almost straight, black hair and very dark skins. To strangers the natives have long had the reputation of being treacherous. They are cannibals, infanticide is common, and head 2 Guadalcanal of the Spanish discoverers. 3 This group, so named by Abel Tasman in 1643, 's a'?° called Leuenewa or Lord Howe, and is densely inhabited by natives said to be of Polynesian origin. SOLOMON, ODES OF— SOLOMON, PSALMS OF hunting was formerly prevalent. The average lot of the women is that of slaves. In some cases there is belief in a good spirit in- habiting a pleasant land, and an evil spirit associated with a volcano ; also in a future life. The language is of pure Melanesian type, though a number of dialects are spoken. The natives are good agriculturists. The Solomon Islands are, in the Pacific, the eastern limit of the use of the shield. The canoes are skilfully built of planks sewn together and caulked. The high carved prow and stern give the craft almost a crescent shape. These and the gun- wale are tastefully inlaid with mother-of-pearl and wreathed with shells and feathers. The British islands are under a resident commissioner, and have some trade in copra, ivory, nuts, pearl shell and other produce. Coco-nuts, pine-apples and bananas, with some cocoa and coffee, are cultivated on small areas. The German islands have a small trade in sandalwood, tortoise-shell, &c. The total population may be roughly estimated at 180,000. History. — The Spanish navigator Alvaro Mendana must be credited with the discovery of these islands in 1567, though it is somewhat doubtful whether he was actually the first Euro- pean who set eyes on them. In anticipation of their natural riches he named them Islas de Salomon. The expedition sur- veyed the southern portion of the group, and named the three large islands San Cristoval, Guadalcanal and Ysabel. On his return to Peru, Mendana endeavoured to organize another ex- pedition to colonize the islands, but it was not before June 1595 that he, with Pedro Quiros as second in command, was able to set sail for this purpose. The Marquesas and Santa Cruz islands were now discovered; but on one of the latter, after various delays, Mendana died, and the expedition collapsed. Even the position of the Solomon Islands was now in uncer- tainty, for the Spaniards, fearing lest they should lose the bene- fits expected to accrue from these discoveries, kept secret the narratives of Mendana and Quiros. The Solomon Islands were thus lost sight of until, in 1767, Philip Carteret lighted on their eastern shores at Gower Island, and passed to the north of the group, without, however, recognizing that it formed part of the Spanish discoveries. In 1768 Louis de Bougainville found his way thither. He discovered the three northern islands (Buka, Bougainville and Choiseul), and sailed through the channel which divides the two last and bears his name. In 1769 a French navigator, M. de Surville, was the first, in spite of the hostility of the natives, to make any lengthened stay in the group. He gave some of the islands the French names they still bear,1 and brought home some detailed information concerning them which he called Terre des Arsacides (Land of the Assassins); but their identity with Mendana's Islas de Salomon was soon established by French geographers. In 1788 the English lieu- tenant Shortland coasted along the south side of the chain, and, supposing it to be a continuous land, named it New Georgia; and in 1792 Captain Edward Manning sailed through the strait which separates Ysabel from Choiseul and now bears his name. In the same year, and in 1793, d'Entrecasteaux surveyed portions of the coast-line of the large islands. Dumont d'Urville in 1838 continued the survey. Traders now endeavoured to settle in the islands, and mis- sionaries began to think of this fresh field for labour, but neither met with much success, and little was heard of the islanders save accounts of murder and plunder. In 1845 the French Marist Fathers went to Isabel, where Mgr Epaulle, first vicar- apostolic of Melanesia, was killed by the natives soon after landing. Three years later this mission had to be abandoned; but in 1881 work was again resumed. In 1856 John Coleridge Patteson, afterwards bishop of Melanesia, had paid his first visit to the islands, and native teachers trained at the Melanesian mission college subsequently established themselves there. About this date the yacht " Wanderer " cruised in these seas, but her owner, Mr Benjamin Boyd, was kidnapped by the natives and never afterwards heard of. In 1873 the " foreign- labour " traffic in plantation hands for Queensland and Fiji extended its baneful influence from the New Hebrides to these islands. In 1893 the islands Malaita, Marovo, Guadalcanar 1 He called Gower, Inattendue; Ulava, Contrarietfi; and named Port Praslin, the harbour at the north-west of Ysabel. and San Cristoval with their surrounding islets were annexed by Great Britain, and the final delimitation of German and British influence in the archipelago was made by the conven- tion of the i4th of November 1899. See H. B. Guppy, The Solomon Islands (London, 1887), where full references to earlier works are given; C. Ribbe, Zwei Jahre unter den Kannibalen der Salomon-Inseln (Dresden, 1903). SOLOMON, ODES OF, a collection of 42 hymns, probably dating from the end of the ist century, known to the early Christian Church (as is proved by the quotations and comments in the 3rd century gnostic book, Pistis Sophia, and a short extract in the Institutes of Lactantius). They were recovered by Dr Rendel Harris in 1908 from a 16th-century Syriac manu- script (containing also the Psalms of Solomon, see below) in his possession. The first, second, and part of the third odes are missing, but the first has been restored from the Pistis Sophia. Of their authorship nothing is known, " Solomon " being a recognized pseudonym. While there are thoughts and expres- sions which lend themselves to gnostic use, there is nothing in the odes which is of distinctively gnostic origin. Many of them, indeed, are unmistakably Christian, and the writer of the Pistis Sophia seems to have regarded them as almost if not quite canonical, a fact which secures at latest a 2nd-century origin. Dr Harris indeed would date several of them between A.D. 75 and too. They contain few traces of the New Testament, and the words " gospel " and " church " are not found. Here and there a Johannine atmosphere is detected, though not sufficiently to justify the assumption that the author knew the writer of the Fourth Gospel. References to the life and teaching of Christ are rare, though the Virgin Birth is alluded to in Ode 19 in a passage marked by legendary embellishment, and the descent into Hades is spoken of in quite the apocryphal style in Ode 42. These odes are probably among the latest in the book. There are no clear allusions to baptism and none at all to the eucharistic celebration. One passage speaks of ministers (per- haps = deacons) who are entrusted with the water of life to hand to others; the word " priest " occurs once, at the beginning of Ode 20, " I am a priest of the Lord, and to Him I do priestly service, and to Him I offer the sacrifices of His thought." The odes, which are perhaps the product of a school of writers, and were originally written in Greek, vary in execution and spiritual tone, but are generally characterized by a buoyant feeling of Christian joy. Harnack considers that they form a Jewish Grundschrift, with a number of Christian interpolations; only two are " purely Christian," while several " colourless " ones are more likely Jewish. He finds in them a link between the piety and theology of the Testaments of the Twelve Patri- archs and that of the Johannine gospel and epistles. See J. Rendel Harris, The Odes and Psalms of Solomon (1909); An Early Christian Psalter (1909); Joh. Flemming and A. Harnack, Ein judisch-christliches Psalmbuch aus dem ersten Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1910); The Times (April 7, 1910); W. E. Barnes, in Journ. of Theol. Studies, xi. 615, and The Expositor (July I9lo)l F. Spitta, in Zeitschrift fur N.T. Wissenschaft, xi. 193. SOLOMON, PSALMS OF. These psalms, eighteen in all, enjoyed but small consideration in the early Christian Church; for only six direct references to them are found in early Chris- tian literature, though in the Jewish Church they must have played an important role; for they were used in the worship of the synagogue. They were of course not written by Solomon, but were sub- sequently ascribed to him. The fact that they do not con- tain a single reference to Solomon is in favour of their having been first published anonymously. On the other hand, their author (or authors) may have placed over them the superscrip- tion " Psalms of Solomon " in order to gain currency for this new collection under the shelter of a great name of the past. MSS. AND TEXTS. — Before the publication of Swete's second edition and the edition of von Gebhardt, only five MSS., A, H, V, M, P (of which H represents the Copenhagen MS.) were known, and these were utilized to the full in the splendid edition of Ryle and James (*aXjuoi SoXo/aficros, Psalms of the Pharisees commonly called the Psalms of Solomon, the Text newly revised from all the MSS., 1891). In Swete's edition (The Old Testament in Greek? 1894) there was given in addition to the above a collation of the Vatican 366 SOLON MS. R. Finally in 1895, von Gebhardt published from five MSS. his edition entitled *n\Moi SoXe>M<2>'Tos, Die Psalmen Salomos zum erstenmale mil Benutzung der Athoshandschriften und des Cod. Casanatensis herausgegeben. The five MSS. used by this last editor are C, H, J, L, R, of which C, J, L are exploited for the first time and represent respectively the MSS. Casanatensis, Iberiticus and Laura-Kloster. He represents the affinities of the MSS. in the following table, where Z stands for the archetype: — Z I Thus H is the only MS. common to this edition and that of Ryle and James; for Gebhardt regards the secondary MSS. V, M, P as not deserving consideration. Notwithstanding there is a much finer critical training for the student in the textual discussions and retroversions in the latter edition than in the former. • TRANSLATIONS. — Wellhausen, Die Pharisaer und die Sadducaer (1874), 131 sqq. This translation is unfortunately based on the editio princeps of De la Cerda published in 1626. Pick's translation which appeared in the Presbyterian Review for October 1883, pp. 775—813, is based on the same text and is imperfect owing to a faulty knowledge of English. Ryle and James (op. cit.). Kittel's translation (Kautzsch, Apokr. u. Pseudep. i. 1900, ii. 127 sqq.) was made from von Gebhardt's text. The Original Language. — All modern scholars are practically agreed that the Psalms were written in Hebrew. It is unnecessary to enter into this question here, but a point or two might be mentioned which call for such a presupposition, (i.) First we find that, after the manner of the canonical Psalms, the musical symbol 6idi/aviav TOV SpaKovros kv aTL^iq,. Here tliriiv, which is utterly meaningless, = ip»tl7 a corruption of vp^ or Tpn1? "to change," "turn" (Wellhausen). Thus we arrive at the sense required, " To turn the pride of the dragon into dishonour, (iii.) Finally, there are several passages where the text exhibits the future tense, when it ought to give the past imperfect. This pheno- menon can easily be explained as a false rendering of the Hebrew imperfect.1 Date. — The date can be determined from references to con- temporary events. Thus the book opens with the alarms of war (i. 2, viii. i), in the midst of a period of great prosperity (i. 3, 4, viii. 7), but the prosperity is merely material, for from the king to the vilest of his subjects they are altogether sinful (xvii. 21, 22). The king, moreover, is no descendant of David, but has usurped his throne (xvii. 6-8). But judgment is at hand. " A mighty striker " has come from the ends of the earth (viii. 1 6), who when the princes of the land greeted him with words of welcome (viii. 18), seized the city (viii. 21), cast down its walls (ii. i), polluted its altar (ii. 2), put its princes and counsellors to the sword (viii. 23), and carried away its sons and daughters captive to the west (viii. 24, xvii. 14). But the dragon who con- quered Jerusalem (ii. 29), and thought himself to be more than man (ii. 32, 33), at last meets with shameful death on the shores of Egypt (ii. 30, 31). The above allusions are easy to interpret. The usurping kings who are not descended from David are the Maccabeans. The " mighty striker " is Pompey. The princes who welcomed his approach are Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II. Pompey carried off princes and people to the west, and finally perished on the coast of Egypt in 48 B.C. Thus Ps. ii. was written soon after 48 B.C., while Ps. i., viii., xvii. fall between 63 and 48 B.C., for they presuppose Pompey's capture of Jerusalem, but show no knowledge of his death. Ps. v., vii., 5x., xiii., xv. 1 In addition to Ryle and Tames, Introd. pp. Ixxvii.-lxxxvii., see Perles, " Die Erklarung der Psalm. Sal." (Oriental. Litteralurzeit., 1902, v. 7-10). belong apparently to the same period, but iv. and xii. to an earlier one. On the whole Ryle and James are right in assigning 70-40 B.C. as the limits within which the psalms were written. Authorship. — The authors were Pharisees. They divide their countrymen into two classes — " the righteous " (ii. 38-39, iii. 3-5, 7, 8), and " the sinners " (ii. 38, iii. 13, iv. 9) ; " the saints " (iii. 10) and " the transgressors " (iv. ii). The former are the Pharisees; the latter the Sadducees. The authors protest against the Asmonaean (i.e. the Maccabees) for usurping the throne of David and laying violent hands on the high priest- hood (xvii. 5, 6, 8), and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the true son of David (xvii. 23-25), who is to set all things right and establish the supremacy of Israel. The Messiah is to be pure from sin (xvii. 41), purge Jerusalem from the defilement of sinners and of the Gentiles (xvii. 29, 30, 36), destroy the hostile nations and extend his righteous rule over all the remaining peoples of the earth (xvii. 27, 31, 32, 34, 38)." Ps. xvii., xviii. and i.-xvi. can hardly be assigned to the same authors. The hopes of the Messiah are confined to the former, and a somewhat different eschatology underlies the two works (see Charles, Eschatology: Hebrew, Jewish and Christian, 220-225). In addition to the literature mentioned above, also in Ryle and James's edition and Schurer, Gesch. dei jud. Volkes, 3rd ed., iii. 150 sqq, see Ency. Bib. i. 241-245. (R. H. C.) SOLON (;th and 6th century B.C.), Athenian statesman, the son of Execestides of the family of Codrus, was born about 638 B.C. The prodigality of his father made it necessary for Solon to maintain himself by trade, especially abroad. In his youth he became well known as the author of amatory poems and later of patriotic and didactic verse. Hence his inclusion among the Seven Sages. Solon's first public service was the recovery of Salamis from the Megarians. A law had been passed forbidding any reference to the loss of the island; Solon solved the difficulty by feigning madness, and reciting an inflammatory poem in the agora. It appears that Solon was appointed to recover the " fair island " and that he succeeded in expelling the Megarians. Sparta finally arbitrated in favour of the Athenians (c. 596), who ascribed their success to Solon. About a year later he seems to have moved a decree before the Amphictyons declaring war on Cirrha. At this period the distress in Attica and the accumulating discontent of the poorer classes, for whom Draco's code had proved inadequate, reached its height. Solon was summoned by all classes unanimously to discover a remedy; under the legal title of Archon, he received unlimited powers which he exercised in economic and constitutional reforms (see below). From various sources we learn that these reforms met with considerable opposition, to escape from which Solon left Athens for ten years. After visiting Egypt, he went to Cyprus, where Philocyprus, king of Aepea, received him with honour. Herodotus (v. 113) says that Philocyprus, on the ad- vice of Solon, built himself a new town called, after his guest, Soli. The story that Solon visited Croesus in Lydia, and made to him the famous remark — " Call no man happy till he is dead " — is unfortunately discredited by the fact that Croesus seems to have become king nearly thirty years after Solon's legis- lation, whereas the story must be dated within ten years of it. Subsequently Solon returned to Athens, to find civil strife re- newed, and shortly afterwards his friend (perhaps his relative) Peisistratus made himself tyrant. About 558 B.C. Solon died, and, according to the story in Diogenes Laertius i. 62 (but see Plutarch's Solon, 32), his ashes were scattered round the island of Salamis. If the story is true, it shows that he was regarded as the oecist of Salamis. Reforms. — The date of Solon's archonship has been usually fixed at 594 B.C. (Ol. 46. 3), a date given by Diog. Laert. (i. 62) on the evidence of the Rhodian Sosicrates (fl. 200-128 B.C.; see Clinton, Fast. Hell. ii. 298, and Busolt, 2nd ed., ii. 259). The date 594 is confirmed by "Statements in the Aristotelian Con- stitution of Athens (ch. 14). For various reasons, the dates 592, 8 The conception of the Messiah is vigorous, but the influence of such a conception was hurtful ; for by connecting the Messianic with the popular aspirations of the nation, the former were secular- ized and the way prepared for the ultimate destruction of the nation. SOLON 591 and even 590 have been suggested by various historians (for the importance of this question see the concluding paragraph of this article). The historical evidence for the Solonian reforms has always been unsatisfactory. There is strong reason to conclude that in the 5th and 4th centuries there was no general tradition as to details. In settling differences there is no appeal to tradition, and this though there occur radical and insoluble contradictions. Thus the Constitution of Athens (ch. vi.) says that the Seisachtheia (" shaking off of burdens ") consisted in a cancelling of all debts public and private, whereas Androtion, an elder contemporary, denies this specifically, and says that it consisted in the reduction of the rate of interest and the debasement of the coinage. The Constitution (ch. x.) denies the existence of any connexion between the coinage reform and the relief of debtors. The absence of tradition is further confirmed by the fact that the Constitution always appeals for corroboration to Solon's Poems. Of the Laws it is probable that in the 4th century, though some dealing with agrarian distress were in existence, those embodying the Seisachtheia were not* and few if any of the purely constitutional laws re- mained. The main source of the account in the Constitution is, therefore, the Poems of Solon, from which numerous quota- tions are made (see chs. 5-12). The reforms of Solon may be divided under three heads — economic, constitutional and miscellaneous. They were necessary owing mainly to the tyrannical attitude of the rich to the poorer classes. Of these many had become slaves in lieu of payment of rent and loans, and thus the land had fallen gradually into the hands of the capitalists. It was necessary to readjust the economic balance and to provide against the evil of aristocratic and capitalist predominance. A. Economic Reforms. — Solon's economic reforms consisted of the Seisachtheia and certain commercial laws (e.g. prevention of export trade except in olive oil, Plut. Sol. 24). Among all the problems connected with the Seisachtheia, it is clear (l) that Solon abolished the old Attic law of debt which permitted loans on the security of the debtor's person; (2) that he restored to freedom those who had been enslaved for debt ; (3) that he refused the de- mand for the division of the land (TTJS A.va5aaii.k). As to the can- celling of all debts (\peSiv iironoirii) there is some controversy ; Gilbert and Busolt maintain that all debts were cancelled ; strong reasons, may however, be advanced against it. It is possible that the statement in the Constitution is a hypothesis to explain the restoration of the slaves to freedom. Further, Solon seems to have regulated the accumulation of land (cf. in Rome the legislation of Tiberius Gracchus) and the rate of interest ; and to have simplified commerce by replacing the Pheidonian standard by the Euboic, which was in use among the Ionian traders, in commerce with whom he foresaw that prosperity lay. It is impossible here to enter into the details of the controversy in connexion with Solon's land reforms ; it must suffice to give the bare outlines of the dispute. There is no question that (i) the distressed class whom Solon sought to re- lieve were the Hektemors, and that (2) the achievement on which he prided himself was the removal of the Spot or stones which were seen everywhere in Attica, and were symbolic of the slavery of the soil. Almost all writers say that these opot were mortgage-pillars: that they were originally boundary stones and that when land was mortgaged the terms of the agreement were carved on the stones, as evidence. Now firstly, though such mortgage-pillars existed in the time of Demosthenes, none are found earlier than the year 400 B.C., nor is there any reference before that year to this special sense of the word. If then these stones which Solon removed were mortgage-pillars, it is strange that none should have been found till two hundred years later. Secondly, it is highly improbable that the terms on which land was then cultivated admitted of mortgaging at all. The Hektemors, who, according to the Constitu- tion, paid the sixth part of their produce as rent,1 were not free- holders but tenants, and therefore, could not mortgage their land at all. From this it follows that when Solon said he had " re- moved the stones " he referred to the fatal accumulation of land by landowners. The tenants failed to pay rent, were enslaved, and the " boundary stone " of the landowner was moved forward to include their land. Thus the removal of the Spot was a measure against the accumulation of land in the form of enclosures (TfjutxrjXand fits in with the statement at the end of chapter iv. of the Constitution, 'Others say they were: (i) labourers who received one-sixth of the produce as wages; (2) tenants who paid five-sixths as rent and kept one sixth, or (3) tenants who paid one-sixth as rent and kept five-sixths. As to (3) it is said such tenants could not have been in real distress, and as to (i) and (2) it is said that such a position would have meant starvation from the first. " the land was in the hands of a few." It should be noted (i) that from this releasing of the land it follows that Solon's law against lending on the security of the person must have been retrospective (i.e. in order to provide a sufficient number of freeholders for the land released) ; and (2) that it is one of the most remarkable facts in Athenian economic history that when at the end of the Pelopon- nesian War a proposal was brought forward to limit the franchise to freeholders, it was found that only five thousand failed to satisfy this requirement. B. Constitutional Reforms. — It is on this part of his work that Solon's claim to be considered a great statesman is founded. By his new constitution he laid the foundations of the Athenian democracy and paved the way for its later developments. It should be noted in the first place that the following account is written on the assumption that the Draconian constitution de- scribed in chapter iv. of the Constitution of Athens had never existed (see DRACO). In some respects that alleged constitution is more democratic than Solon's. This, coupled with the fact that Solon is always spoken of as the founder of democracy, is one of the strongest reasons for rejecting the Draconian constitution. It will be seen that Solon's state was by no means a perfected democracy, but was in some respects rather a moderate oligarchy in which political privilege was graduated by possession of land. To Solon are gener- ally ascribed the four classes — Pentacosiomedimni, Hippeis, Zeugitae and Thetes. Of these the first consisted of those whose land pro- duced as many measures (medimni) of corn and as many measures (metretae) of oil and wine as together amounted to 500 measures. The Hippeis (the horsemen, i.e. those who could provide a war- horse for the service of the state) were rated at over 300 and under 500 medimni; the third class (those who tilled their land with a yoke of oxen) at 200 medimni and the Thetes below 200 medimni. The Zeugites probably served as heavy-armed soldiers, and the Thetes were the sailors of the state. It is likely that the Zeugites were mainly Hektemors (see above) whom Solon converted into freeholders. Whether Solon invented these classes is uncertain, but it seems clear that he first put them into definite relation with the political organism. The Thetes (who included probably the servants of the Eupatridae, now secured as freemen), the fisher- men of the Paralia (or sea-coast), and the artisans (cerameis) of Athens) for the first time received political existence by their admis- sion to the sovereign assembly of the Ecclesia (q.v,). Of these classes the first alone retained the right of holding the offices of archon and treasurer; other offices were, however, opened to the second and third classes (sc. the Poletae, the Eleven and the Colacretae; see CLEISTHENES [I.] footnote). It is of the utmost importance to observe that the office of Strategus (q.v.) is not mentioned in connexion with Solon's reform. It is often said that Solon used his classification as the basis of a sliding scale of taxation. Against this, it is known that Peisistratus, whose faction was essentially the poorer classes, established a uniform 5% tax, and it is highly unlikely that he would have reversed an existing arrangement which was particularly favourable to his friends. The admission of the Thetes to the Ecclesia was an important step in the direction of democracy (for the powers which Solon gave to the Ecclesia, see ECCLESIA). But the greatest reform of Solon was undoubtedly the institution of the Heliaea (or courts of justice). The jury were appointed by lot from all the citizens (including the Thetes), and thus the same people elected the magistrates in the Ecclesia and subsequently tried them in the Heliaea. Hence Solon trans- ferred the sovereign power from the areopagus and the magistrates to the citizens as a whole. Further, as the archons, at the expiry of their year of office, passed into the areopagus, the people exer- cised control over the personnel of that body also (see AREOPAGUS). In spite of the alleged Draconian constitution, alluded to above, it is still very generally held that Solon invented the Boule or Council of Four Hundred, one hundred from each of the old tribes. The importance of this body as an advisory committee of the Ecclesia, and the functions of the Prytaneis are explained under BOULE. It is sufficient here to point out that, according to Plutarch's Solon (ch. 19) the state henceforth rested on two councils " as on anchors," and that the large powers exercised by the Cleisthenean Bpule were not exercised by the Solonian. From this, and the articles AREOPAGUS, BOULE, ECCLESIA and GREEK LAW, it will be seen that Solon contrived an absolutely organic constitution of a " mixed " type, which had in it the seeds of the great democratic growth which reached its maturity under Pericles. It should be ^dded here, in reference to the election of magistrates under Solon's con- stitution, that there is discrepancy between the Politics and the Constitution; the latter says that Solon gave to the Thetes nothing but a share in the Ecclesia and the courts of justice, and that the magistrates were elected by a combination of selection and lot (icXTipaiTot IK TrpoKptruv) , whereas the Politics says that Solon gave them only the power to elect the magistrates and try them at the end of their year. It seems likely for other reasons that the former scheme should be assigned to the years after Marathon, and, there- fore, that the account in the Politics is correct (but see ARCHON). C. Miscellaneous. — The miscellaneous laws of Solon are inter- esting primarily as throwing light upon the social condition of Athens at the time (see Evelyn Abbot, History of Greece, I. xiii. § 18). 368 SOLSTICE— SOLUTION In the matter of trade it has been said that he favoured one export only, that of olive oil, in which Athens was peculiarly rich; further he encouraged the settlement of aliens (metoeci) engaged in commerce, and compelled fathers to teach their sons a useful trade under penalty of losing all right to support in old age. The influence of women Solon regarded as most pernicious. Wealthy wives he forbade; no bride might bring more than three changes of raiment and a little light furniture to the house; all brothels and gymnasia were put under stringent state-control (see PROSTITUTION). Solon also regulated intestate succession, the marriage of heiresses, adoption, the use and sinking of wells, bee-farming, the planting of olives and figs, the cutting down of olive trees, the calendar. Further, he ordained that each citizen must show how he obtained his living (Herod, ii. 177) and must, under penalty of losing the franchise, adhere to one or other party in a sedition (for these laws see Plutarch's Solon, chs. 20-24). The laws were inscribed on Kyrbeis or tablets framed in wood which could be swung round (hence also called axones). The boule as a body swore to observe the laws, and each archon undertook to set up a life-size golden statue at Delphi if he should be convicted of transgressing them. Solon appears to have supplemented his enactments by a law that they should remain in force for one hundred years, and accord- ing to another account that his laws, though not the best, should stand unchanged for ten years (Plut. Solon, 25; Herod, i. 29). Yet according to the Constitution of Athens (chs. 11-13) (without which the period from Solon to Peisistratus was a blank), when Solon went abroad in 593(?) the city was disturbed, and in the fifth year dissension became so acute that no archon was elected (for the chronological problem, see J. E. Sandys, Constitution of Athens, ch. 13, note) ; again four years later the same anarchia (i.e. no archon elected) occurred. Then four years later the archon Damasias (582 ?) continued in office illegally for two years and two months. The office of the archon was then put into commission of ten : five from the Eupatrids, three from the Agroeci and two from the Demi- urgi, and for twenty years the state was in a condition of strife. Thus we see that twelve years of strife (owing to Solon's financial reforms) ended in the reversal of Solon's classification by assess- ment. We are, therefore, driven to conclude that the practical value of his laws was due to the strong and enlightened govern- ment of Peisistratus, whose tyranny put an end to the quarrels between the Shore, the Upland and the Plain, and the stasis of rich and poor. See editions with notes of Constitution of Athens (q.v.); histories of Greece later than 1891 (e.g. Busolt, &c.). See also Gilliard, Quelques r&formes de Solon (1907); Cavaignac, in Revue de Philol., 1908. All works anterior to the publication of the Constitution are so far out of date, but reference should be made to the work ofGrote. (J.M. ty.) SOLSTICE (Lat. solstitium, from sol, sun, and sistere, to stand still), in astronomy either of the two points at which the sun reaches its greatest declination north or south. Each solstice is upon the ecliptic midway between the equinoxes, and there- fore 90° from each. The term is also applied to the moment at which the sun reaches the point thus denned. SOLUNTUM (Gr. SoXoets or 2oAoCs), an ancient town of Sicily, one of the three chief Phoenician settlements in the island, situated on the north coast, 10 m. E. of Panormus (Palermo), 600 ft. above sea-level, on the S.E. side of Monte Catalfano (1225 ft.), in a naturally strong situation, and commanding a fine view. The date of its first occupation is, like that of Panor- mus, unknown. It continued to be a Carthaginian possession almost uninterruptedly until the First Punic War, when, after the fall of Panormus, it opened its gates to the Romans. In the Roman period it seems to have been of no great importance; an inscription, erected by the citizens in honour of Fulvia Plau- tilla, the wife of Caracalla, was found there in 1857. It was perhaps destroyed by the Saracens and is now entirely deserted. Excavations have brought to light considerable remains of the ancient town, belonging entirely to the Roman period, and a good deal still remains unexplored. An archaic oriental Artemis sitting between a lion and a panther, found here, is in the museum at Palermo, with other antiquities from this site. With the exception of the winding road by which the town was approached on the south, the streets, despite the unevenness of the ground, which in places is so steep that steps have to be introduced, are laid out regularly, running from east to west and from north to south, and intersecting at right angles. They are as a rule paved with slabs of stone. The houses were constructed of rough walling, which was afterwards plastered over; the natural rock is often used for the lower part of the walls. One of the largest of them, with a peristyle, is currently, though wrongly, called the Gymnasium. Near the top of the town are some cisterns cut in the rock, and at the summit is a larger house than usual, with mosaic pavements and paintings on its walls. (T. As.) SOLUTION (from Lat. sohere, to loosen, dissolve). When a solid such as salt or sugar dissolves in contact with water to form a uniform substance from which the components may be regained by evaporation the substance is called a solution. Gases too dissolve in liquids, while mixtures of various liquids show similar properties. Certain solids also consist of two or more components which are united so as to show similar effects. All these cases of solution are to be distinguished from chemical compounds on the one hand, and from simple mixtures on the other. When a substance contains its components in definite proportions which can only change, if at all, by sudden steps, it may be classed as a chemical compound. When the relative quantities of the components can vary continuously within certain limits, the substance is either a solution or a mixture. The distinction between these two classes is not sharp; though when the properties of the resultant are sensibly thfe sum of those of the pure components, as is nearly the case for a complex gas such as air, it is usual to class it as a mixture. When the properties of the resultant substance are different from those of the components and it is not a chemical compound we define it as a solution. Historical. — Solutions were not distinguished from definite chemical compounds till John Dalton discovered the laws of definite and multiple proportions, but many earlier observations on the solubility of solids in water and the density of the resulting solutions had been made. As early as 1788 Sir Charles Blagden (1748-1820) made measurements of the freezing points of salt solutions, and showed that the depression of freezing point was roughly proportional to the amount of salt dissolved. About 1850 Thomas Graham published his famous experiments on diffusion, both with and without a separating membrane. In 1867 botanical investigations by M. Traube, and in 1877 others by W. Pfeffer, made known the phenomena of the osmotic pressure which is set up by the passage of solvent through a membrane impermeable to the dissolved substance or solute. The importance of these experiments from the physical point of view was recognized by J. H. van't Hoff in 1885, who showed that Pfeffer's results indicated that osmotic pressure of a dilute solution conformed to the well-known laws of gas pressure, and had the same absolute value as the same number of mole- cules would exert as a gas filling a space equal to the value of the solvent. The conception of a semi-permeable membrane, permeable to the solvent only, was used by van't Hoff as a means of applying the principles of thermodynamics to the theory of solution. Another method of applying the same principles is due to J. Willard Gibbs, who considered the whole problem of physical and chemical equilibrium in papers published in 1877, though the application of his principles only began to make extensive progress about twenty years after the publication of his purely theoretical investigations. The phenomena of solution and of vapour pressure constitute cases of equilibrium, and conform to the laws deduced by Gibbs, which thus yield a valuable method of investigating and classifying the equilibria of solutions. Solubility. — Some pairs of liquids are soluble in each other in all proportions, but, in general, when dealing with solutions of solids or gases in liquids, a definite limit is reached to the amount which will go into solution when the liquid is in contact with excess of the solid or gas. This limit depends on the nature of the two components, on the temperature and on the pressure. When the limit is reached the solution is said to be saturated, and the system is in equilibrium. If the solution of a solid more soluble when hot be cooled below the saturation point, the whole of the solid sometimes remains in solution. The liquid is then said to be supersaturated. But here the conditions are different owing to the absence of solid. If a crystal of the solid be added, the condition of supersaturation is destroyed, SOLUTION 369 and the ordinary equilibrium of saturation is reached by precipi- tation of solid from solution. The quantity of substance, or solute, which a given quantity of liquid or solvent will dissolve in presence of excess of the solute measures the solubility of the solute in the given solvent in the conditions of temperature and pressure. The solubilities of solids may be expressed in terms of the mass of solute which will dissolve in 100 grammes of water. The following may be taken as examples: — Chemical Solubility Gnlnta of the Solid. at 0° C. at 20° C. at 100 °C. Sodium chloride NaCl 35-7 36-0 39-8 Potassium nitrate . KNO3 13-3 31-2 247-0 Barium chloride BaClj 3°'9 35-7 58-8 Copper sulphate . Calcium carbonate CuSOi CaCO3 15-5 0-0018 22 -O 73-5 0-0018 Silver nitrate AgN03 121-9 227-3 (at i9°-5 IIII-O (at 110°) When dealing with gases it is usually more convenient to express the solubility as the ratio of the volume of the gas absorbed to the volume of the absorbing liquid. For gases such as oxygen and nitrogen dissolved in water the solubility as thus defined is inde- pendent of the pressure, or the mass of gas dissolved is propor- tional to the pressure. This relation does not hold for very soluble gases, such as ammonia, at low temperatures. As a general rule gases are less soluble at high than at low temperatures — unlike the majority of solids. Thus oxygen, 4-89 volumes of which dissolve at atmospheric pressure in I volume of water at o° C., only dissolves to the extent of 3- 10 volumes at 20° and 1-70 volumes at 100°. Cause of Solubility. — At the outset of the subject we are met by a fundamental problem, to which no complete answer can be given: Why do certain substances dissolve in certain other substances and not in different substances? Why are some pairs of liquids miscible in each other in all proportions, while other pairs do not mix at all, or only to a limited extent? No satisfactory correlation of solubility with chemical or other properties has been made. It is possible to state the conditions of solubility in terms of the theory of available energy, but the result comes to little more than a re-statement of the problem in other terms. Nevertheless, such a re-statement is in itself sometimes an advance in knowledge. It is certain then that when dissolution occurs the available energy of the whole system is decreased by the process, while when equilibrium is reached and the solution is saturated the available energy is a minimum. When a variable quantity is at a minimum a slight change in the system does not affect its value, and therefore, when a solution is saturated, the increase in the available energy of the liquid phase produced by dissolving in it some of the solid must be equal to the decrease in the available energy of the solid phase, caused by the abstraction from the bulk of that part dissolved. The general theory of such equilibria will be studied later under the head of the phase rule. It is possible that a correlation may be made between solubility and the energy of surface tension. If a solid is immersed in a liquid a certain part of the energy of the system depends on, and is proportional to, the area of contact between solid and liquid. Similarly with two liquids like oil and water, which do not mix, we have surface energy proportional to the area of contact. Equilibrium requires that the available energy and therefore the area of contact should be a minimum, as is demon- strated in Plateau's beautiful experiment, where a large drop of oil is placed in a liquid of equal density and a perfect sphere is formed. If, however, the energy of surface tension between the two substances were negative the surface would tend to a maximum, and complete mixture would follow. From this point of view the natural solubility of two substances involves a negative energy of surface tension between them. Gibbs's Phase Rule. — A saturated solution is a system in equili- brium, and exhibits the thermodynamic relations which hold for all such systems. Just as two electrified bodies are in equilibrium when their electric potentials are equal, so two parts of a chemical and physical system are in equilibrium when there is equality between the chemical potentials of each com- ponent present in the two parts. Thus water and steam are in equilibrium with each other when the chemical potential of water substance is the same in the liquid as in the vapour. The chemical potentials are clearly functions of the composition of the system, and of its temperature and pressure. It is usual to call each part of the system of uniform composition through- out a phase; in the example given, water substance, the only component is present in two phases — a liquid phase and a vapour phase, and when the potentials of the component are the same in each phase equilibrium exists. If in unit mass of any phase we have n components instead of one we must know the amount of n— I components present in that unit mass before we know the exact composition of it. Thus if in one gramme of a mixture of water, alcohol and salt we are told the amount of water and salt, we can tell the amount of alcohol. If, instead of one phase, we have r phases, we must find out the values of r(n — i) quantities before we know the composition of the whole system. Thus, to investigate the composition of the system we must be able to calculate the value of r (n — i) unknown quantities. To these must be added the external variables of temperature and pressure, and then as the total number of variables, we have r (n-j-i) + 2. To determine these variables we may form equations between the chemical potentials of the different components — quantities which are functions of the variables to be determined. If p\ and m denote the potentials of any one component in two phases in contact, when there is equilibrium, we know that w=M2- If a third phase is in equilibrium with the other two we have also Hi=H3- These two equations involve the third relation /« = jU3. which therefore is not an independent equation. Hence with three phases we can form two independent equations for each component. With r phases we can form r — l equations for each component, and with n components and r phases we obtain n(r — l) equations. Now by elementary algebra we know that if the number of inde- pendent equations be equal to the number of unknown quantities all the unknown quantities can be determined, and can possess each one value only. Thus we shall be able to specify the system com- pletely when the number of variables, viz. r (n— i) +2, is equal to the number of equations, viz. n(r — i); that is when r=n + 2. Thus, when a system possesses two more phases than the number of its components, all the phases will be in equilibrium with each other at one definite composition, one definite temperature and one definite pressure, and in no other conditions. To take the simplest case of a one component system water substance has its three phases of solid ice, liquid water and gaseous vapour in equilibrium with each other at the freezing point of water under the pressure of its own vapour. If we attempt to change either the temperature or the pressure ice will melt, water will evaporate or vapour con- dense until one or other of the phases has vanished. We then have in equilibrium two phases only, and the temperature and pressure may change. Thus, if we supply heat to the mixture of ice, water and steam ice will melt and eventually vanish. We then have water and vapour in equilibrium, and, as more heat enters, the tem- perature rises and the vapour-pressure rises with it. But, if we fix arbitrarily the temperature the pressure of equilibrium can have one value only. Thus by fixing one variable we fix the state of the whole system. This condition is represented in the alge- braic theory when we have one more unknown quantity than the number of equations; i.e. when r(n — i) + 2=n(r — i) + I or r = » + l, and the number of phases is one more than the number of components. Similarly if we have F more unknowns than we have equations to determine them, we must fix arbitrarily F co- ordinates before we fix the state of the whole system. The number F is called the number of degrees of freedom of the system, and is measured by the excess of the number of unknowns over the number of variables. Thus F = r(n — i) + 2 — n(r — i) = n — r + 2, a result which was deduced by J. Willard Gibbs (1839-1903) and is known as Gibbs's Phase-Rule (see ENERGETICS). The phenomena of equilibrium can be represented on diagrams. Thus, if we take our co-ordinates to represent pressure and tem- perature, the state of the systems p with ice, water and vapour in equilibrium is represented by the point O where the pressure is that of the vapour of water at the freezing point and the tem- perature is the freezing point under that pressure. If all the ice be melted, we pass along the vapour' pressure curve of water OA. If all the water be frozen, we have the vapour pressure curve of ice OB; while, if the pressure be raised, so that all the vapour vanishes, we get the curve OC of equilibrium between the pressure and the freezing point of water. The slope of these curves is determined by the so-called " latent heat equation " FIG. i. SOLUTION (see THERMODYNAMICS), dpli), where p and t denote the pressure and temperature, X the heat required to change unit mass of the systems from one phase to the other, and »2 — DI the resulting change in volume. The phase rule combined with the latent heat equation contains the whole theory of chemical and physical equilibrium. Application to Solutions. — In a system containing a solution we have to deal with two components at least. The simplest case is that of water and a salt, such as sodium chloride, which crystallizes without water. Tp obtain a non-variant system, we must assemble four phases — two more than the number of components. The four phases are (i) crystals of salt, (2) crystals of ice, (3) a saturated solution of the salt in water, and (4) the vapour, which is that practically of water alone, since the salt is non-volatile at the temperature in question. Equili- brium between these phases is obtained at the freezing point of the saturated solution under the pressure of the vapour. At that pressure and temperature the four phases can co-exist, and, as long as all of them are present, the pressure and temperature will remain steady. Thus a mixture of ice, salt and the saturated solution has a constant freezing point, and the composition of the solution is constant and the same as that of the mixed solids which freeze out on the abstraction of heat. This con- stancy both in freezing point and composition formerly was considered as a characteristic of a pure chemical compound, and hence these mixtures were described as components and given the name of " cryohydrates." In representing on a diagram the phenomena of equilibrium in a two-component system we require a third axis along which p to plot the composition of a variable phase. It is usual to take three axes at right - angles to each other to repre- sent pressure, temperature and the' composition of the variable phase. On a plane figure this solid diagram must be drawn in perspec- tive, the third axis C being imagined to lie out of the plane of the paper. The * phase-rule diagram that we FIG. 2. construct is then a sketch of a solid model, the lines of which do not really lie in the plane of the paper. Let us return to the case of the system of salt and water. At the cryohydric point O we have four phases in equilibrium at a definite pressure, temperature and composition of the liquid phase. The condition of the system is represented by a single point on the diagram. If heat be added to the mixture ice will melt and salt dissolve in the water so formed. If the supply of ice fails first the temperature will rise, and, since solid salt remains, we pass along a curve OA giving the relation between temperature and the vapour pressure of the saturated solution. If, on the other hand, the salt of the cryohydrate fails before the ice the water given by the continued fusion dilutes the solution, and we pass along the curve OB which shows the freezing points of a series of solutions of constantly increasing dilution. If the process be continued till a very large quantity of ice be melted the resulting solution is so dilute that its freezing point B is identical with that of the pure solvent. Again, starting from O, by the abstraction of heat we can remove all the liquid and travel along the curve OD of equilibrium between the two solids (salt and ice) and the vapour. Or, by in- creasing the pressure, we eliminate the vapour and obtain the curve OF giving the relation between pressure, freezing point and composition when a saturated solution is in contact with ice and salt. If the salt crystallizes with a certain amount of water as well as with none, we get a second point of equilibrium between four phases. Sodium sulphate, for instance, crystallizes below 32-6° as Na2SO4-ioH2O, and above that temperature as the anhydrous solid Na2SO«. Taking the point O to denote the state of equilibrium between ice, hydrate, saturated solution and vapour, we pass along OA till a new solid phase, that of Na2SO4, appears at 32-6°; from this point arise four curves, analogous to those diverging from the point O. For the quantitative study of such systems in detail it is convenient to draw plane diagrams which are theoretically projections of the curves of the solid phase rule diagram on one or other of these planes. Experiments on the relation between temperature and concentration are illustrated by projecting the curve OA of fig. 2 on the /c-plane. The pressure at each point should be that of the vapour, but since the solubility of a solid does not change much with pressure, measurements under the constant atmospheric pressure give a curve practically identical with the theoretical one. Fig. 3 gives the equilibrium between sodium sulphate and water in this way. B is the freezing point of pure water, O that 3 FIG. 3. of a saturated solution of Na2SO4-ioH2O. The curve OP repre- sents the varying solubility of the hydrate as the temperature rises from the cryohydric point to 32-6°. At that temperature crystals of the anhydrous Na2SO< appear, and a new fixed equilibrium exists between the four phases — hydrate, anhydrous salt, solution and vapour. As heat is supplied, the hydrate is transformed gradually into the anhydrous salt and water. When this process is complete the temperature rises, and we pass along a new curve giving the equilibrium between anhydrous crystals, solution and vapour. In this particular case the solubility decreases with rise of temperature. This behaviour is exceptional. Two Liquid Components. — The more complete phenomena of mutual solubility are illustrated by the case of phenol and water. In fig. 4 A represents the freezing point of pure water, and AB the freezing point curve showing the depression of the freezing point as phenol is added. At B is a non- variant system made up of ice, solid phenol, saturated solution and vapour. BCD is the solubility curve of phenol in water. At C a new ,0°. liquid phase appears — the solution of water in liquid phenol, the solubility of which is represented by the curve Water so FIG. 4. Phenol DE. At D the composition of the two liquids becomes identical, and at temperatures above D, 68° C the liquids are soluble in each other in all proportions, and only one liquid phase can exist. If the two substances are soluble in each other in all proportions at all temperatures above their melting points we get a diagram reduced to the two fusion curves cutting each other at a non- variant point. This behaviour is illustrated by the case of silver and copper (fig. 5). o go w so so ioo7. At the non-variant point the two metals freeze out together and the composi- 100° tion of the liquid is the same as that of the mixed 900 solid which crystallizes from it. The solid is then known soo° as a eutectic alloy. ' A liquid in which the com- position is nearly that of the eutectic shows the changes in the rate of fall of tempera- ture as it is allowed to cool. Silver FIG. 5. Copper First a small quantity of one of the pure components begins to crystallize out, and the rate of cooling is thereby diminished owing to the latent heat liberated by the change of state. This process continues till the composition of the liquid phase reaches that of the eutectic, when the whole mass solidifies on the further loss of heat without change of temperature, giving a very definite freezing point. The process of cooling is thus repre- sented by a path which runs vertically downwards till it cuts the SOLUTION 371 SO FIG. 6. 100 freezing point curve, and then travels along it till the non-variant point is reached. In this way two temperature points are obtained in the investigation — the higher giving a point on the equilibrium curve, the lower showing the non-variaju: point. Other pairs of alloys, showing more complicated relations, are described in ALLOY. Experiments on alloys are, in some ways, easier to make than on pairs of non-metallic substances, partly owing to the possibility of polishing sections for microscopic examina- tion, and the investigation of alloys has done much to elucidate the general phenomena of solution, of which metallic solution constitutes a special case. When 'the two components form chemical compounds with each other, the phenomena of mutual solubility become more complex. •a For a simple case to serve as an introduction, let us again turn to alloys. Copper and antimony form a single compound SbCu2. If either copper or anti- mony be added to this compound, the freezing point is lowered just as it would be if a new sub- stance were added, to a solvent. Thus on each side of the point B repre- senting this compound, the curve falls. Proceeding along . the curve in either direction, we come to a non-variant or eutectic point. In one case (represented by the point A in the figure) the solid which freezes out is a conglomerate of crystals of the compound with those of antimony, in the other case C with those of copper. Thus in interpreting complicated freezing point curves, we must look for chemical compounds where the curve shows a maximum, and for a eutectic or cryohydrate where two curves meet at a minimum point. We are now ready to study a case where several compounds are formed between the two components. A good example is the equilibrium of ferric chloride and water, studied by B. Roozeboom. The experi- mental curve of solubility is shown in fig. 7. At A we have the freezing point of pure water, which is lowered by the gradual addition of ferric chloride in the manner shown by the curve AB. At B we have the non-variant cryohydric point at which ice, the hydrate Fe2Cl6-i2H2O, the saturated solution and the vapour are in equilibrium at 55° C. _ As the proportion of salt is increased, the melting point of the con- glomerate rises, till, at the maximum point C, we have the pure compound the hy- drate with twelve molecules 30 of water. Beyond C, the FIG. 7. addition of salt lowers the melting point again, till at D we obtain another non-variant point. This indicates the appearance of a new compound, which should exist pure at E, the next maximum, and, led by these considerations, Roozeboom discovered and isolated a previously unknown hydrate, Fe2Cl67-H2O. In a similar way the curve FGH, between 30° and 55°, shows the effect of the hydrate Fe2Cl6-5H2O, and the curve HJK that of the hydrate Fe2Cl6-4H2O, which, when pure, melts at 73-5° — the point J on the diagram. At the point K, 66°, begins the solubility curve of the anhydrous salt, Fe2Cl6, the fusion point of which when pure is beyond the limits of the diagram. Let us now trace the behaviour of a solution of ferric chloride which is evaporated to dryness at a constant temperature of 31°. The phenomena may be investigated by following a hori- zontal line across the diagram. When the curve BC is reached, Fe2Cl8-l2H2O separates out, and the solution solidifies. Further renewal of water will cause first liquefaction, as the curve CD is passed, and then resolidification to Fe2Cl6'7H2O when DE is cut. Again the solid will liquefy and once more become solid as Fe2Cl6'5H2O. Still further evaporation causes these crystals to effloresce and pass into the anhydrous salt. As we have seen, the maxima of the various curve-branches at C, E, G, and J corre- spond with the melting points of the various hydrates at 37 , 32-5°, 56° and 73-5° respectively; and at these points melting or solidifica- tion of the whole mass can occur at constant temperature. But we have also found this behaviour to be characteristic of the non- variant or transition points, which, in this case, are represented by the points B,D,F, Hand K (-55°, 27-4°, 30°, 55° and 66 6). Thus in two ways at least a constant melting point can be obtained in a two-component system. Solid Solutions. — In all the cases hitherto considered, the liquid phase alone has been capable of continuous variation in composition. The solid phases each have been of one definite substance. Crystals of ice may lie side by side with crystals of common salt, but each crystalline individual is either ice or salt; no one crystal contains both components in proportions which can be varied continuously. But, in other cases, crystals are known in which both components may enter. Such pheno- mena are well known in the alums — double sulphates of alu- minium with another metal. Here the other metal may be one, such as potassium, or two, such as potassium and sodium, and, in the latter case, the proportion between the two may vary continuously throughout wide limits. Such structures are known as mixed crystals or solid solutions. The theoretical form of the freezing point diagrams when solid solutions are present depends on the relation between the available energy and the composition in the two phases. This relation is known when the amount of either component present in the other is very small, for it is then the relation for a dilute system and can FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10. FIG. n. be calculated. But at intermediate compositions we can only guess at the form of the energy-composition curve, and the freezing point composition curve, deduced from it, will vary according to the supposition which we make. With the most likely forms for the energy curves we get the accompanying diagrams for the relation between freezing point and concentration. It will be noticed that in all these theoretical curves the points of initial fusion and solidification do not in general coincide; we reach a different curve first according as we approach the diagram from below, where all is solid, or from above, where all is liquid. Again, it will be seen that the addition of a small quantity of one component, say B, to the other, A, does not necessarily lower the melting point, as it does with systems with no solid solutions; it is quite as likely to cause it to rise. The second and third figures, too, show that the presence of solid solutions may simulate the phenomena of chemical combination, where the curve reaches a maximum, and of non-variant systems where we get a minimum. The fourth figure shows that, in some cases, it should be possible for solid solutions to be present in a limited part of the field only, being absent between the two nearly vertical lines in fig. II. Experiment has revealed the existence of systems in which these phenomena are displayed. As an example we may take the case of mixtures of naphthalene and /9-naphthol, substances which form solid solutions in each other. The freezing and melting point curves are exactly similar to theoretical curves of fig. 8, the point A representing pure naphthalene and B pure /S-naphthol. When the equilibria become more complex difficulties of interpre- tation of the experimental results often arise. It is often very difficult to distinguish between a chemical compound, for example, and the case of solid solution represented by fig. 9. All available evidence, from the freezing point curve and from other sources must be scrutinized before an opinion is pronounced. But the elucida- tion of the complicated phenomena of solid solutions would have been impossible without the theoretical knowledge deduced from the principle of available energy. Supersaturation. — When a crystal of the solid phase is present the equilibrium of a solution is given by the solubility curves we have studied. If, however, a solution be cooled slowly past its saturation point with no solid present, crystallization does not occur till some lower temperature is reached. Between the saturation point and this lower temperature, the liquid holds in solution more of the solute than corresponds with equilibrium, and is said to be supersaturated. A familiar example is to be found in solutions of sodium sulphate, which may be cooled much below their saturation point and kept in the liquid state till a crystal of the hydrate NazSCvioHjO is dropped in, when solidifi- cation occurs with a large evolution of latent heat. These phenomena are explicable if we consider the energy relations, 372 SOLUTION for the intrinsic energy of a system will contain terms depending on the area of contact between different phases, and, for a given mass of material, the area will be greater if the substance is finely divided. Hence the conditions necessary to secure equilibrium when the solid phase is present are not the same as those necessary to cause crystallization to start in a number of crystals at first excessively minute in size. The corresponding phenomenon in the case of vapours is well known. Dust-free air will remain supersaturated with water-vapour in conditions where a dense cloud would be formed in presence of solid dust- nuclei or electric ions which serve the same purpose. If a solution of a salt be stirred as it cools in an open vessel, a thin shower of crystals appears at or about the saturation temperature. These crystals grow steadily, but do not increase in number. When the temperature has fallen about 10° C. below this point of saturation, a dense shower of new crystals appear suddenly. This shower may be dense enough to make the liquid quite opaque. These phenomena have been studied by H. A. Miers and Miss F. Isaac. If the solution be confined in a sealed glass tube, the first thin shower is not formed, and the system remains liquid till the secondary dense shower comes down. From this and other evidence it has been shown that the first thin shower in open vessels is produced by the accidental presence of tiny crystals obtained from the dust of the air, while the second dense shower marks the point of spon- taneous crystallization, where the decrease in total available energy caused by solidification becomes greater than the increase due to the large surface of contact between the liquid and the potentially existing multitudinous small crystals of the shower. If the _ temperature at which this dense spontaneous shower of crystals is found be determined for different concentrations of solution, we can plot a " supersolubility curve," which is found generally to run roughly parallel to the " solubility curve " of steady equilibrium between liquid and already existing solid. When two substances are soluble in each other in all proportions, we get solubility curves like those of copper and silver shown in fig. 5- We should expect to find supersolubility curves lying below the solubility curves, and this result has been realized experimentally for the supersolubility curves of mixtures of salol (phenyl salicylate) and betol (|8-naphthol salicylate) represented by the dotted lines of fig. 12. In practical cases of crystallization in nature, it is probable that these phenomena of supersaturation often occur. If a liquid mixture mfl of A and B (fig. 12) were inocu- lated with crystals of A when its composition was that represented by x, cooled very slowly and stirred, the conditions would be those of equilibrium throughout. When the temperature sank to a, on the freezing point curve, crystals of pure A would appear. The residual liquid would thus become richer in B, and the tem- perature and composition would pass along the curve till E, the eutectic point, was reached. The liquid then becomes saturated with B also, and, if inoculated with B crystals, will deposit B 20 20 40 BO so too A Percentage of Satal In Mixture B FIG. 12. alongside of A, till the whole mass is solid. But, if no solid be present initially, or if the cooling be rapid, the liquid of composition x becomes supersaturated and may cool till the supersaturation curve is reached at 6, and a cloud of A crystals comes down. The temperature may then rise and the concentration of B increase in the liquid in a manner represented by some such line as 6 /. The conditions may then remain those of equilibrium along the curve / E, but before reaching / the solution may become supersaturated with B and deposit B crystals spontaneously. The eutectic point may never be reached. The possibility of these phenomena should be borne in mind when attempts are made to interpret the structure of crystalline bodies in terms of the theory of equilibrium. Osmotic Pressure. — The phase rule combined with the latent heat equation enables us to trace the general phenomena of equilibrium in solutions, and to elucidate and classify cases even of great complexity. But other relations between the different properties of solutions have been investigated by another series of conceptions which we shall proceed to develop. Some botanical experiments made about 1870 suggested the idea of semi-permeable membranes, i.e. membranes which allow a solvent to pass freely but are impervious to a solute when dis- solved in that solvent. It was found, for instance, that a film of insoluble copper ferrocyanide, deposited in the walls of a porous vessel by the inward diffusion and meeting of solutions of copper sulphate and potassium ferrocyanide, would allow water to pass, but retained sugar dissolved in that liquid. It was found, too, when water was placed on one side of such a membrane, and a sugar solution in a confined space on the other, that water entered the solution till a certain pressure was set up when equilibrium resulted. The importance of these experiments from the point of view of the theory of solution, lay in the fact that they suggested the con- ception of a perfect or ideal semi-permeable partition, arid that of an equilibrium pressure representing the excess of hydrostatic pressure required to keep a solution in equilibrium with its pure solvent through such a partition. Artificial membranes are seldom or never perfectly semi-permeable — some leakage of solute nearly always occurs, but the imperfections of actual membranes need no more prevent pur use of the ideal conception than the faults of real engines invalidate the theory of ideal thermodynamics founded on the conception of a perfect, reversible, frictionless, heat engine. Further, in the free surface the solutions of an involatile solute in a volatile solvent, through which surface the vapour of the solvent alone can pass, and in the boundary of a crystal of pure ice in a solution, we have actual surfaces which are in effect perfectly semi- permeable. Thus the results of our investigations based on ideal conceptions are applicable to the real phenomena of evaporation and freezing. Dilute Solutions. — Before considering the more complicated case of a concentrated solution, we will deal with one which is very dilute, when the theoretical relations are much simplified. The vapour pressure of a solution may be measured experimentally by two methods. It may be compared directly with that of the pure solvent, as the vapour- pressure of a pure liquid is determined, by placing solvent and solution respectively above the mercury in two barometer tubes, and comparing the depressions of the mercury with the height of a dry barometer at the same temperature. This method was used by Raoult. On the other hand, a current of dry air may be passed through the series of weighed bulbs containing solution and solvent respectively, and the loss in weight of each determined. The loss in the solution bulbs gives the mass of solvent absorbed from the solution, and the, loss in the solvent bulbs the additional mass required to raise the vapour pressure in the air-current to equilibrium with the pure solvent. The relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solution compared with that of the solvent is measured by the ratio of the extra mass absorbed from the solvent bulbs to the total mass absorbed from both series of bulbs. Experiments by this method have been made by W. Ostwald and J. Walker, and by Lord Berkeley and E. G. J. Hartley. The vapour pressure of the solution of a non-volatile solute is less than the vapour pressure of the pure solvent. Hence if two vessels, one filled with solvent and one with solution, be placed side by side in an exhausted chamber, vapour will evapo- rate from the solvent and condense on the solution. The solution will thus gain solvent, and will grow more and more dilute. Its volume will also increase, and thus its upper surface will rise in the vessel. But as we ascend in an atmosphere the pressure diminishes; hence the pressure of the vapour in the chamber is less the higher we go, and thus eventually we reach a state of equilibrium where the column of vapour is in equilibrium at the appropriate level both with solvent and solution. Neglecting the very small buoyancy of the vapour, the hydrostatic pressure P at the foot of the column of solution is h g p where h is the height of the column and p the mean density of the solution. If the height be not too great, we may assume the density of the vapour to be uniform, and write the difference in vapour pressure at the surfaces of the solvent and of the solution as p—p'=hgi to osmotic relations. Here n is the number of gramme-molecules of solute, T the absolute temperature, R the gas constant with its usual " gas " value, p the vapour pressure of the solvent and DI the volume in which one gramme-molecule of the vapour is confined. In the vapour pressure equation f — p' = P-£') = R* log (plP')-b(p-p'). For most experimental purposes the small terms involving the factor (p—p') may be neglected, and we have, approximately, P0V' = Rnog (pip'). From this equation the osmotic pressure Po required to keep a solution in equilibrium as regards its vapour and through a SOLUTION 375 semi-permeable membrane with its solvent, when that solvent is under its own vapour pressure, may be calculated from the results of observations on vapour pressure of solvent and solution at ordinary low hydrostatic pressures. The chief difficulty lies in the deter- mination of the quantity V, the change in volume of the solution under the pressure Po when unit mass of solvent is mixed .with it. This determination involves a knowledge of the density and of the compressibility of the solution; the latter property is difficult to measure accurately. In some solutions such as those of sugar the change in volume on dilution is nearly equal to the volume of solvent added ; V then becomes equal to V, the specific volume of the solvent. The osmotic pressures of strong sugar solutions were measured successfully by a direct method with semi-permeable membranes of copper ferro- cyanide by Lord Berkeley and E. G. J. Hartley, who also determined the vapour pressures by passing a current of air successively through weighed vessels containing solution and water respectively. Their table of comparison published in 1906 shows the following agreement :• Concentration in grammes per litre of solution. Osmotic pressure at o° C. in atmospheres. From vapour pressures. From direct measurement. 420 54° 660 750 44-3 (at 12-6°) 69-4 101-9 136-0 43-97 67-5I 100-78 133-74 It seems likely that measurements of vapour pressure and com- pressibility may eventually enable us to determine accurately osmotic pressures in cases where direct measurement is impossible. The slope of the temperature vapour pressure curves in the neighbourhood of the freezing point of the solvent is given by Freezing the latest heat equation. The difference in the two Po/nt— slopes for water and ice is dp/dT — dp' ' jd T=L/T», Solutions. where L, the latent heat of fusion, is the difference between the heats of evaporation for ice and water, and v is the specific volume of the vapour. The difference in the lowering of vapour pressures dp— dp' may be put equal to VdP/v, where P is the osmotic pressure, and V the specific volume of the solvent. We then get VdP = LdT/T. In order to integrate this expression we need to know L and v as functions of the temperature and pressure. The latent heat L at any temperature is given by L = L0— L (s-s')dT, where L0 is value at To and s— s' is the difference in the specific heats of water and ice. The probable error in neglecting any variation of specific heat is small, and we may calculate L from the values of Lo-(s-s') (To-T), where s — s' is about 0-5 calories. The variation of L with pressure is probably small. The volume of a gramme of water also depends on temperature and pressure. Approximately one degree lowering of freezing point corresponds with a change of 12 atmospheres in the osmotic pressure. From the known coefficients of compressibility and thermal expansion we find that V may be represented by the linear equation V= i-ooo+o-oooS A, where A is the lowering of the freezing point below o°. Putting in these values and integrating we have, neglecting terms involving A3, P= 12-06 A— 0-021 A* where P is the osmotic pressure in atmospheres. H. W. Morse and J. C. W. Frazer, who have made direct measure- ments of osmotic pressure of solution of cane-sugar, have also measured the freezing points of corresponding solutions. From these results the equation just given has been examined by G. N. Lewis. Concentration in gramme- molecules per litre of water. Depression of the freezing point = A. Osmotic pressure. Calculated from A. Observed. O-I o-5 I-O 0-195 0-985 2-07 2-35 n-8 24-9 2-44 n-8 24-8 Thus the theory of the connexion of osmotic pressure with freezing point (like that with vapour pressure) seems to give results which accord with experiments. At the limit of dilution, when the concentration of a solution approaches zero, we have seen that thermodynamical theory, verified by experiment, shows that the osmotic Prepare. Pressure has the same value as the Sas Pressure of the same number of molecules in the same space. Gases at high pressures fail to conform to Boyle's law, and solu- tions at moderate concentrations give osmotic pressures which increase faster than the concentration. The variation of gases from Boyle's law is represented in the equation of Van der Waals by subtracting a constant b from the total volume to represent the effect of the volume of the molecules themselves. The corresponding correction in solutions consists in counting only the volume of the solvent in which the solute is dissolved, instead of the whole volume of the solution. 140 •120 too Molecules pe^ 100 mpl? of water 20 FIG. 15. In fig. 15 the curve I represents Boyle's law if the volume is taken to be that of the solution, and the curve II if the volume is that of the solvent. Even this correction is not sufficient in solution of sugar, where the theoretical curve II lies below the experimental observations. A further correction may be made by adding more empirical terms to the' equation, but a more promising idea, due to J. H. Poynting and H. L. Callendar is to trace the effect of possible combination of molecules of solute with molecules of the solvent. These combined solvent molecules are thus removed from existence as solvent, the effective volume of which is reduced to that of the remaining free molecules of solvent. The greater the number of water molecules attached to one sugar molecule, the less the residual volume, and the greater the theor- etical pressure. Callendar finds that five molecules of water in the case of cane-sugar or two molecules in the case of dextrose are required to bring the curves into conformity with the observations of Berkeley and Hartley, which in fig. 15 are indicated by crosses. Solubility and Heat of Solution. — The conceptions of osmotic pressure and ideal semi-permeable membranes enable us to deduce other thermodynamic relations between the different properties of solutions. As an example, let us take the following investigation: — An engine cylinder may be imagined to possess a semi-permeable bottom and to work without friction. If it be filled with a solution and the bottom immersed in the pure solvent, pressure equal to the osmotic pressure must be exerted on the piston to maintain equilibrium. Such a system is in the thermo- dynamic equilibrium. The slightest change in the load will cause motion in one direc- tion or the other — the system is thermodynamically reversi- ble. Such an arrangement may be put through a cycle of operations as in Carnot's engine (see THERMODYNAMICS) and all the laws of reversible engines applied to it. If the solution in the cylinder be kept saturated by the presence of crystals of the solute, enters, and the solution remains an imaginary cycle of FIG. 16. crystals will dissolve as solvent saturated throughout. By operations we may then justify the application to solutions of the latent heat equation which we have already assumed as applicable. In the equation dP/dT = X/T(n»— *i), P is the osmotic pressure, T the absolute tempera- ture and X the heat of solution of unit mass of the solute when dissolving to form a volume lit— vi of saturated solution in an osmotic cylinder. This process involves the performance of SOLUTION an amount of osmotic work P(zi2 — vi). If the heat of solution be measured in a calorimeter, no work is done, so that, if we call this calorimetric heat of solution L, the two quantities are connected by the relation L = X+P(t>2— i>i). If L is zero or negligible, X=-P(f2-fi) and we have dP/dT=-P/T or dP/P=-dT/T, which on integration gives log P = log T+C, or P = kT, i.e. the osmotic pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature. This result must hold good for any solution, but if the solution be dilute when saturated, that is, if the solubility be small, the equation shows that if there be no heat effect when solid dissolves to form a saturated solution, the solubility is independent of temperature, for, in accordance with the gas laws, the osmotic pressure of a dilute solution of constant concentration is proportional to the absolute temperature. It follows that if the thermodynamic heat of solution be positive, that is, if heat be absorbed to keep the system at constant temperature, the solubility will increase with rising temperature, while if heat be evolved on dissolution, the solubility falls when the system is heated. _ In all this investigation it should be noted that the heat of solu- tion with which we are concerned is the heat effect when solid dissolves to form a saturated solution. It is not the heat effect when solid is dissolved in a large excess of solvent, and may differ so much from that effect as to have an opposite sign. Thus cupric chloride dissolves in much water with an evolution of heat, but when the solution is nearly saturated, it is cooled by taking up more of the solid. In a very dilute solution no appreciable heat is evolved or absorbed when solvent is added, but such heat effects are Osmotic generally found with more concentrated solutions. Pressure The result is to change the relation between tempera- and Tern- ture ancj (-ne osmotic pressure of a solution of constant "*' concentration, a relation which, in very dilute solutions, is a direct proportionality. The equation of available energy (see ENERGETICS) A = U+ TdA/dT may be applied to this problem. The available energy A is the work which may be gained from the system by a small rever- sible isothermal operation with an osmotic cylinder, that is Pdv. If I is the heat of dilution per unit change of volume in a calorimeter where all the energy goes to heat, the change in internal energy U is measured by Idv. We then have Neglecting the volume change with temperature this gives P=/+T(iP/.). In March 1544 he was made lieu- tenant-general of the north and instructed to punish the Scots for their repudiation of the treaty of marriage between Prince Edward and the infant Mary Queen of Scots. He landed at Leith in May, captured and pillaged Edinburgh, and returned a month later. In July he was appointed lieutenant of the realm under the queen regent during Henry's absence at Boulogne, but in August he joined the king and was present at the surrender of the town. In the autumn he was one of the commissioners sent to Flanders to keep Charles V. to the terms of his treaty with England, and in January 1545 he was placed in command at Boulogne, where on the 26th he brilliantly repelled an attempt of Marshal de Biez to recapture the town. In May he was once more appointed lieutenant-general in the north to avenge the Scottish victory at Ancrum Moor; this he did by a savage foray SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF 387 into Scotland in September. In March 1546 he was sent back to Boulogne to supersede Surrey, whose command had not been a success; and in June he was engaged in negotiations for peace with France and for the delimitation of the English conquests. From October to the end of Henry's reign he was in attendance on the king, engaged in that unrecorded struggle for predomi- nance which was to determine the complexion of the government during the coming minority. Personal, political and religious rivalry separated him and Lisle from the Howards, and Surrey's hasty temper precipitated his own and his father's ruin. They could not acquiesce in the Imperial ambassador's verdict that Hertford and Lisle were the only noblemen of fit age and capacity to carry on the government; and Surrey's attempt to secure the predominance of his family led to his own execution and to his father's imprisonment in the Tower. Their overthrow had barely been accomplished when Henry VIII. died on the 28th of January 1547. Preparations had already been made for a further advance in the ecclesiastical reformation and for a renewal of the design upon Scotland; and the new government to some extent proceeded on the lines which Chapuys anticipated that Henry VIII. would have followed had he lived. He had no statutory power to appoint a protector, but in the council of regency which he nominated Hertford and Lisle enjoyed a decisive preponderance; and the council at its first meeting after Henry's death determined to follow precedent and appoint a protector. Hertford was their only possible choice; he represented the predominant party, he was Edward VI. 's nearest relative, he was senior to Lisle in the peerage and superior to him in experience. Seven weeks later, however, after Lord-Chancellor Wriothesley, the leading Catholic, had been de- prived of office Hertford, who had been made duke of Somerset, succeeded in emancipating himself from the trammels originally imposed on him as protector; and he became king in everything but name and prestige. His ideas were in striking contrast with those of most Tudor statesmen, and he used his authority to divest the government of that apparatus of absolutism which Thomas Cromwell had perfected. He had generous popular sympathies and was by nature averse from coercion. " What is the matter, then ? " wrote Paget in the midst of the commotions of 1549, " By my faith, sir, . . . liberty, liberty. And your grace would have too much gentleness." In his first parliament, which met in November 1547, he procured the repeal of all the heresy laws and nearly all the treason laws passed since Edward III. Even with regard to Scotland he had protested against his instructions of 1544, and now ignored the claim to suzerainty which Henry VIII. had revived, seeking to win over the Scots by those promises of autonomy, free trade, and equal privileges with England, which many years later eventually reconciled them to union. But the Scots were not thus to be won in 1547: " What would you say," asked one, " if your lad were a lass, and our lass were a lad?" and Scottish sentiment backed by Roman Catholic influence and by French intrigues, money and men, proved too strong for Somerset's amiable invitations. The Scots turned a deaf ear to his persuasions; the protector led another army into Scotland in September 1547, and won the battle of Pinkie (Sept. 10). He trusted to the garrisons he established throughout the Lowlands to wear down Scottish opposition; but their pressure was soon weakened by troubles in England and abroad, and Mary was transported to France to wed Francis II. in 1557- Somerset apparently thought that the religious question could be settled by public discussion, and throughout 1547 and 1 548 England went as it pleased so far as church services were concerned; all sorts of experiments were tried, and the country was involved in a grand theological debate, in which Protestant refugees from abroad hastened to join. The result convinced the protector that the government must prescribe one uniform order which all should be persuaded or constrained to obey; but the first Book of Common Prayer, which was imposed by the first Act of Uniformity in 1549, was a studious compromise between the new and the old learning, very different from the aggressive Protestantism of the second hook imposed after Somerset had been removed, in 1552. The Catholic risings in the west in 1549 added to Somerset's difficulties, but were not the cause of his fall. The factious and treasonable conduct of his brother, the lord high admiral, in whose execution (March 20, 1549) the protector weakly acquiesced, also impaired his authority; but the main cause of his ruin was the divergence between him and the majority of the council over the questions of constitutional liberty and enclosures of the commons. The majority scouted Somerset's notions of liberty and deeply resented his championship of the poor against greedy landlords and capitalists. His efforts to check enclosures by means of parliamentary legislation, royal proclamations, and commissions of inquiry were openly resisted or secretly foiled, and the popular revolts which their failure provoked cut the ground from Somerset's feet. He was divided in mind between his sympathy with the rebels and his duty to maintain law and order. France, which was bent on ruining the protector's schemes in Scotland and on recovering Boulogne, seized the opportunity to declare war on August the 8th; and the outlying forts in the Boulonnais fell into their hands, while the Scots captured Haddington. These misfortunes gave a handle to Somerset's enemies. Warwick combined on the same temporary platform Catholics who resented the Book of Common Prayer, Protestants who thought Somerset's mildness paltering with God's truth, and the wealthy classes as a whole. In September he concerted measures with the ex-lord-chancellor Wriothesley; and in October, after a vain effort to rouse the masses in his favour, Somerset was deprived of the protectorate and sent to the Tower. But the hostile coalition broke up as soon as it had to frame a construc- tive policy; Warwick jockeyed the Catholics out of the council and prepared to advance along Protestant lines. He could hardly combine proscription of the Catholics with that of Somer- set, and the duke was released in February 1550. For a time the rivals seemed to agree, and Warwick's son married Somerset's daughter. But growing discontent with Warwick made Somer- set too dangerous. In October 1551, after Warwick had been created duke of Northumberland, Somerset was sent to the Tower on an exaggerated charge of treason, which broke down at his trial. He was, however, as a sort of compromise, condemned on a charge of felony for having sought to effect a change of government. Few expected that the sentence would be carried out, and apparently Northumberland found it necessary to forge an instruction from Edward VI. to that effect. Somerset was executed on the 22nd of January 1552, dying with exemplary patience and fortitude. His eldest son by his second wife was re-created earl of Hertford by Elizabeth, and his great-grandson William was restored as 2nd duke of Somerset in 1660. His children by his first wife had been disinherited owing to the jealousy of his second; but their descendants came into the titles and property when the younger line died out in 1750. See A. F. Pollard's England Under Protector Somerset (1900; full bibliography, pp. 327-330), also his article in Diet. Nat. Biog. and vol. vi. of Political History of England (1910). (A. F. P.) SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (c. 1590-1645), Scottish politician, the date of whose birth is unrecorded, was a younger son of Sir Thomas Ker of Ferniehurst by his second wife, Janet, sister of Sir Walter Scott of Buccleuch. He accompanied James I. as page to England, but being then discharged from the royal service, sought for a time to make his fortune in France. Returning to England he happened to break his arm at a tilting match, at which James was present, and was recognized by the king. Entirely devoid of all high intellectual qualities, Carr was endowed with good looks, excellent spirits, and considerable personal accomplishments. These advantages were sufficient for James, who knighted the young man and at once took him into favour. In 1607 an opportunity enabled the king to confer upon him a more substantial mark of his affection. Sir W. Raleigh had through his attainder forfeited his life-interest in the manor of Sherborne, but he had previously executed a con- veyance by which the property was to pass on his death to his 388 SOMERSET, LORD R. E. H.— SOMERSETSHIRE eldest son. This document was, unfortunately, rendered worth- less by a flaw which gave the king eventual possession of the property. Acting on Salisbury's suggestion, James resolved to confer the manor on Carr. The case was argued at law, and judgment was in 1609 given for the Crown. Lady Raleigh received some compensation, apparently inadequate, and Carr at once entered on possession. His influence was already such that in 1610 he persuaded the king to dissolve the parliament, which had shown signs of attacking the Scottish favourites. On the 25th of March 1611 he was created Viscount Rochester, and subsequently a privy councillor, while on Lord Salisbury's death in 1612 he began to act as the king's secretary. On the 3rd of November 1613 he was advanced to the earldom of Somer- set, on the 23rd of December was appointed treasurer of Scotland, and in 1614 lord chamberlain. He supported the earl of North- ampton and the Spanish party in opposition to the old tried advisers of the king, such as Lord-Chancellor Ellesmere, who were endeavouring to maintain the union with the Protestants abroad, and who now in 1614 pushed forward another candidate for the king's favour. Somerset, whose head was turned by the sudden rise to power and influence, became jealous and peevish, and feeling his position insecure, obtained in 1615 from the king a full pardon, to which, however, the chancellor refused to put the Great Seal. He still, however, retained the king's favour, and might possibly have remained in power for some time longer but for the discovery of the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury. Before 1609, while still only Sir Robert Carr, Somerset had begun an intrigue with Lady Essex. Supported by the king, the latter obtained a decree of nullity of marriage against Lord Essex in September 1613, and in December she married the earl of Somerset. Ten days before the court gave judgment, Sir Thomas Overbury, who apparently knew facts concerning Lady Essex which would have been fatal to her success, and had been imprisoned in the Tower, was poisoned. No idea seems to have been entertained at the time that Lady Essex and her future husband were implicated. The crime, however, was not dis- closed till September 1615. Coke and Bacon were set to unravel the plot. After four of the principal agents had been convicted and punished, the earl and countess were brought to trial. The latter confessed, and of her guilt there can be no doubt. Somer- set's share is far more difficult to discover, and probably will never be fully known. The evidence against him rested on mere presumption, and he consistently declared himself innocent. Probabilities are on the whole in favour of the hypothesis that he was not more than an accessory after the fact. James, who had been threatened by Somerset with damaging disclosures, let matters take their course, and both earl and countess were found guilty. The sentence was not carried into effect against either culprit. The countess was pardoned immediately, but both remained in the Tower till January 1622. The earl appears to have refused to buy forgiveness by concessions, and it was not till 1624 that he obtained his pardon. He only once more emerged into public view when in 1630 he was prosecuted in the Star Chamber for communicating a paper of Sir Robert Dudley's to the earl of Clare, recommending the establishment of arbitrary government. He died in July 1645, leaving one daughter, Anne, the sole issue of his ill-fated marriage, afterwards wife of the ist duke of Bedford. See the article by S. R. Gardiner in Diet. Nat. Biog., with authori- ties there cited, and the same author's History of England; State Trials II. ; Life and Letters of Bacon, ed. by Spedding; Studies in Eng. Hist., by Gairdner and Spedding. SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842), British soldier, was the third son of the 5th duke of Beaufort, and elder brother of Lord Raglan. Joining the isth Light Dragoons in 1793, he became captain in the following year, and received a majority after serving as aide-de-camp to the duke of York in the Dutch expedition of 1799. At the end of 1800 he became a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1801 received the command of the 4th Light Dragoons. From 1799 to 1802 he represented the Monmouth boroughs in the House of Commons, and from 1803 to 1823 sat for Gloucestershire. He commanded his regiment at the battles of Talavera and Busaco, and in 1810 received a colonelcy and the appointment of A.D.C. to the king. In 1811, along with the 3rd Dragoon Guards, the 4th Light Dragoons fought a notable cavalry action at Usagre, and in 1812 Lord Edward Somerset was engaged in the great charge of Le Marchant's heavy cavalry at Salamanca. His conduct on this occasion (he captured five guns at the head of a single squadron) won him further promotion, and he made the remain- ing campaigns as a major-general at the head of the Hussar brigade (7th, loth and isth Hussars). At Orthes he won further distinction by his pursuit of the enemy; he was made K.C.B., and received the thanks of parliament. At Waterloo he was in command of the Household Cavalry Brigade, which distinguished itself not less by its stern and patient endurance of the enemy's fire than by its celebrated charge on the cuirassiers of Milhaud's corps. The brigadier was particularly mentioned in Wellington's despatches, and received the thanks of parliament as well as the Maria Theresa and other much-prized foreign orders. He died a general and G.C.B. in 1842. SOMERSETSHIRE, a south-western county of England, bounded N. and N.W. by the Bristol Channel, N. and N.E. by Gloucestershire, N.E. and E. by Wiltshire, S.E. by Dorsetshire, S.W. and W. by Devonshire. The area is 1630-3 sq. m. In shape the county resembles an ill-drawn crescent, curving inward where Bridgwater Bay bends south-west and broader at its eastern than at its western horn. It falls into three natural divisions, being in fact a broad alluvial plain bordered by two hill-regions. The Mendip range, breaking off from the high ground near Wiltshire, extends north-west towards the channel, where it ends with Brean Down; while the island of Steep Holm stands as an outpost between the heights of Somerset and Glamorgan. The summit of the Mendips is a long table-land, reaching an extreme height, towards the western end, of 1068 ft. in Black Down, sloping away gently towards the lower hills of the north, but rising on the south in an abrupt line, broken by many coombes or glens; the most striking of which are the cliffs of Ebbor Rocks, near Wells, and the gorge of Cheddar (q.v.), which winds for nearly a mile between huge and fantastic rocks. South of the Mendips lies a broad plain watered by the Parrett and the Brue, and known generally as Sedgemoor, but with different names in different parts. This plain, intersected by ditches known as. rhines, and in some parts rich in peat, is broken by isolated hills and lower ridges, of which the most conspicuous are Brent Knoll near Burnham, the Isle of Avalon, rising with Glastonbury Tor as its highest point, and the long low ridge of Polden ending to the west in a steep bluff. West of Sedgemoor the second great region of hills extends from Devonshire to the sea. It consists of the Black Down, Brendon and Quantock hills, with Exmoor Forest (q.v.) in the extreme west. This entire district is famous for the grandeur of its bare and desolate moors, and the bold outlines and height of its mountains; the chief of which are Dunkery, in Exmoor (1707 ft.); Lype Hill, the westernmost point of the Brendon range (1391 ft.); and Will's Neck, among the Quantocks (1261 ft.). The two principal rivers of Somerset are the Avon and the Parrett. The Avon, after forming for a short distance the boundary with Wiltshire, crosses the north-eastern corner of the county, encircling Bath, and forms the boundary with Gloucestershire till it reaches the sea 6 m. beyond Bristol. It is navigable for barges as far as Bath. The Parrett from South Perrott in Dorset, on the borders of Somerset, crosses the centre of the county north-westwards by Bridgwater, receiving the Yeo and Gary on the right, and the Isle and Tone on the left. Among other streams are the Axe, which rises at Wookey Hole in the Mendips and flows north- westward along their base to the Bristol Channel near Blackrock; the Brue, which rises to the east of Bruton, near the borders of Wiltshire, and enters the Bristol Channel near the mouth of the Parrett; and the Exe (with its tributary the Barle), which rises in Exmoor forest and passes southward into Devon. Some of the Somersetshire streams, especially the Exe and Barle, are in high favour with trout fishermen. Weston-super-Mare is a flourishing seaside resort, and Minehead and other coast villages are also frequented. SOMERSETSHIRE 389 Geology. — The oldest formation in the county is the Devonian, which extends eastwards from Devonshire across Exmoor to the Brendon and Quantock hills, and consists of sandstones, slates and limestones of marine origin. The Old Red Sandstone, the supposed estuarine or lacustrine equivalent of the Devonian, is a series of red sandstones, marls and conglomerates, which rise as an anticline in the Mendips (where they contain volcanic rocks), and also appear in the Avon gorge and at Portishead. The Carbon- iferous Limestone, of marine origin, is well displayed in the Mendip country (Cheddar Cliffs, &c.) and in the Avon gorge; at Weston- super-Mare it contains volcanic rocks. The Coal Measures of the Radstock district (largely concealed by Trias and newer rocks) consist of two series of coal-bearing sandstones and shales separated by the Pennant Sandstone; locally the beds have been intensely folded and faulted, as at Vobster. Indeed, all the formations hitherto mentioned were folded into anticlines and synclines before the deposition of the Triassic rocks. These consist of red marls, sandstones, breccias and conglomerates, which spread irregularly over the edges of the older rocks; the so-called Dolomitic Con- glomerate is an old shingle-beach of Triassic (Keuper Marl) age. The Rhaetic beds are full of fossils and mark the first invasion of the district by the waters of the Jurassic sea. The Lias consists of clays and limestones; the latter are quarried and are famous for their ammonites and reptilian remains. Above the Lias comes the Lower or Bath Oolite Series (Inferior Oolite group. Fuller's Earth and Great Oolite group), chiefly clays and politic limestone; the famous Bath Stone is got from the Great Oolite. The Oxford Clay is the chief member of the Middle or Oxford Oolite Series. Above these follow the Upper Cretaceous rocks, including the Gault, Upper Greensand and Chalk, which extend into the county from Wiltshire near Frome and from Dorset near Chard. There are apparently no true glacial deposits. Low-lying alluvial flats and peat-bogs occupy much of the surface west of Glastonbury. Caves in the Carboniferous Limestone (e.g. Wookey Hole, near Wells) have yielded Pleistocene mammalia and palaeolithic implements. The thermal waters of Bath (120° F.) are rich in calcium and sodium sulphates, &c. The chief minerals are coal, freestone and limestone, and ores of lead, zinc and iron. Agriculture. — The climate partakes of the mildness of the south- western counties generally. A high proportion, exceeding four- fifths of the total area of the county, is under cultivation. In a county where cattle-feeding and dairy-farming are the principal branches of husbandry, a very large area is naturally devoted to pasture; and there are large tracts of rich meadow land along the rivers, where many of the Devonshire farmers place their herds to graze. Floods, however, are common, and the Somerset Drainage Act was passed by parliament on the nth of June 1877, providing for the appointment of commissioners to take measures for the drainage of lands in the valleys of the Parrett, Isle, Yeo, Brue, Axe, Gary and Tone. Cheese is made in various parts, notably the famous Cheddar Cheese, which is made in the farms lying south of the Mendips. Sheep-farming is practised both in the lowlands and on hill pastures, Leicesters and Southdowns being the favourite breeds. In the Vale of Taunton heavy crops of wheat ar* raised; this grain, barley and oats being raised on about equal areas. Turnips, swedes and mangolds occupy most of the area under green crops. Somerset ranks after Devon and Hereford in the extent of its apple orchards, and the cider made from these apples forms the common drink of the peasantry, besides being largely exported. Wild deer are still found on Exmoor, where there is a peculiar breed of ponies, hardy and small. The Bristol Channel and Bridgwater Bay abound in white- and shell-fish; salmon and herring are also caught, the principal fishing stations being Porlock, Minehead and Watchet. Other Indiistries. — Coal, from the Mendips, and freestone, largely quarried near Bath, are the chief mineral products of Somerset, although brown ironstone, zinc, limestone and small quantities of slate, gravel, sand, sulphate of strontia, gypsum, ochre. Fuller's earth, marl, cement, copper and manganese are also found. Lead mining is carried on near Wellington, and lead washing in the Mendips; but these industries, like the working of spathose iron ore among the Brendon hills, are on the wane. The chief manufactures are those of woollen and worsted goods, made in a large number of towns; silk made at Frome, Taunton and Shepton Mallet; gloves at Yeovil, Stoke, Martock and Taunton; lace at Chard; linen and sailcloth at Crewkerne ; horsehair goods at Bruton, Castle Gary and Crewkerne ; crape at Dulverton and Shepton Mallet. Tobacco, snuff and spirits are also manufactured ; and there are large potteries at Bridgwater, where the celebrated bath-brick is made, and at Weston-super- Mare; carriage works at Bath and Bridgwater; engineering and machine-works also at Bridgwater. On the Avon, copper and iron are smelted, while several other rivers provide power for cotton, worsted and paper mills. The bulk of the export trade passes through Bristol, which is situated mainly in Gloucestershire, though it has large docks on the Somerset side of the Avon, and others at Portishead. Communication. — Somerset is well furnished with railways. The Great Western runs between Frome, Radstock, Bath and Bristol, and from Bristol it curves south-west through Weston and Bridgwater to Taunton, dividing there and passing on into Devon. Branches leave the main line for Portishead, Clevedon and Minehead on the north, and for Witham Friary via Wells, Yeovil via Langport, and Chard via Ilminster on the south. The South-Western main line from London passes through the south-west of Somerset, running from Templecombe to Axminster in Devon, a'nd the Somer- set and Dorset runs from Bath to Shepton Mallet via Radstock. The Kennet and Avon Canal flows from Bradford in Wiltshire to Bath, and there joins the Avon, meeting on its way the two branches of the Somersetshire Coal Canal which flow from Paulton and Radstock. The Taunton and Bridgwater Canal flows into the River Parrett. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 1,043,409 acres, with a population in 1891 of 484,337, and in 1901 of 508,256. The area of the administrative county is 1,037,484 acres. The county contains 40 hundreds and two liberties. The municipal boroughs are — Bath, a city and county borough (pop. 49,839), Bridgwater (15,209), Chard (4437), Glastonbury (4016), Taunton (21,087), Wells, a city (4849), Yeovil (9861). The urban districts are— Burnham (2897), Clevedon (5900), Crewkerne (4226), Frome (11,057), Highbridge (2233), Ilminster (2287), Midsomer Norton (5809), Minehead (2511), Portishead (2544), Radstock (3355), Shepton Mallet (5238), Street (4018), Watchet (1880), Wellington (7283), Weston- super-Mare (19,845), Wiveliscombe (1417). Among other towns may be mentioned Bruton (1788), Castle Gary (1902), Cheddar (1975), Keynsham (3512) and Wincanton (1892). The county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Taunton and Wells. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 22 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bath and Bridgwater have separate courts of quarter sessions and commissions of the peace, and those of Taunton, Wells and Yeovil have separate commis- sions of the peace. The total number of civil parishes is 485. Somerset is in the diocese of Bath and Wells, excepting small parts in the dioceses of Bristol and Salisbury; it contains 508 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. There are seven parliamentary divisions — Northern, Wells, Frome, Eastern, Southern, Bridgwater and Western or Wellington, each return- ing one member; while the parliamentary borough of Bath returns two members, and that of Taunton one member; and the county includes the greater part of the southern division of the parliamentary borough of Bristol. History. — In the 6th century Somerset was the debatable borderland between the Welsh and Saxons, the latter of whom pushed their way slowly westward, fighting battles yearly and raising fortifications at important points to secure their conquered lands. Their frontier was gradually advanced from the Axe to the Parrett, and from the Parrett to the Tamar, Taunton being a border fort at one stage and Exeter at another. By 658 Somerset had been conquered by the West Saxons as far as the Parrett, and there followed a struggle between the kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, decided by a great victory of Ine in 710, which led to the organization of the lands east of the Parrett as part of the kingdom of Wessex. There were still occasional inroads by the Welsh, Taunton Castle being captured in 721, but from the 8th century the West Saxon kings were rulers of what is now known as Somersetshire. About this time the bishopric of Wells was founded, and the monastery of Glastonbury restored by Ine. The next hundred and fifty years were the period of Danish invasions. Egbert, king of Wessex, became Bretwalda or overlord of all England in 827, and under him Wessex with the other frontier kingdoms was organized for defence against the Danes, and later the assessment of danegeld led to the sub- division of Wessex for financial and military purposes, which crystallized into the divisions of hundreds and tithings, probably with the system of assessment by hidation. King Alfred's vic- tory in 878, followed by the Peace of Wedmore, ended the incur- sions of the Danes for a time, but a hundred years later they were again a great danger, and made frequent raids on the west coast of Somerset. At some time before the Conquest, at a date usually given as 1016, though evidence points to a much earlier and more gradual establishment, England was divided into shires, one of which was Somerset, and tradition gives the name of the first earl as Hun, who was followed by Earnulf and Sweyn, son of Godwin. There has been curiously little variation in the territory 390 SOMERSETSHIRE included in the county, from the date of the Gheld Inquest in 1084 to the second half of the igth century, when certain minor alterations were ma'de in the county boundary. These have been practically the only changes in the county boundary for 900 years, if we except the exclusion of Bristol from the county jurisdiction in 1373. At the Conquest Somerset was divided into about 700 fiefs held almost entirely by the Normans. The king's lands in Somerset were of great extent and importance, and consisted in addition to the ancient demesne of the Crown of the lands of Godwin and Earl Harold and the estates of Queen Edith who died in 1074. The bishop of Winchester owned a vast property of which Taunton was the centre, and about one-tenth of the county was included in the estates of the bishop of Coutances, which were akin to a lay barony and did not descend as a whole at the bishop's death. The churches of Glastonbury, Athelney and Muchelney still owned vast lands, but Norman spoliation had deprived them of much that they had held before the Conquest. Among the great lay tenants who divided the conquered lands were the count of Mortain (the Conqueror's half-brother), Roger de Corcelles, Walter de Douai, Roger Arundel and William de Mohun. About this time or a little later many Norman castles were built, some of which have survived. The castles at Richmont (near West Harptree), Nunney, Farleigh, Bridgwater, Stoke Courcy, Taunton and Dunster were probably the most important. Somerset was very rich in boroughs at the time of Domesday, which points to a considerable development of trade before the Conquest; Bath, Taunton, Ilchester, Frome, Milborne Port, Bruton, Langport and Axbridge were all boroughs in 1087, and there was the nucleus of a borough at Yeovil. Somerton, Ilchester and Taunton were successively the meeting-places of the shire court. There were joint sheriffs for Somerset and Dorset until 1566 when a separate sheriff for each county was appointed. In the 7th century Somerset, as part of the kingdom of Wessex, was included in the diocese of Winchester. The new bishopric of Sherborne, founded in 704, contained Somerset until QIO when the see was divided into the dioceses of Salisbury, Exeter and Wells, the latter including the whole county of Somerset. The diocese was divided into three archdeaconries, Bath with two deaneries, Wells with seven and Taunton with four. Disputes between the chapters of Bath and Wells as to the election of the bishop led to a compromise in 1245, the election being by the chapters jointly, and the see being known as the bishopric of Bath and Wells. There has always been a strongly marked division of the county into East and West Somerset, a relic of the struggles between the Welsh and Saxons, which was recognized for parliamentary purposes by the act of 1 83 2 . Somer- set contained 37 hundreds in 1087, and now contains 41. There have been considerable modifications of these hundredal divi- sions by aggregation or subdivision, but since the 1 5th century there has been little change. The meeting-place of the hundred courts was at the village or town which gave its name to the hundred in the cases of Bruton, Cannington, Carhampton, Chew, Chewton, Crewkerne, Frome, Glaston Twelve Hides, Huntspili, Kilmersdon, Kingsbury East, Milverton, North Curry, North Petherton, Norton Ferris, Pitney, Portbury, Somerton, South Petherton, Taunton, Tintinhull, Wellow, Wells Forum and Winterstoke. The hundred of Abdick and Bulstone met at Ilford Bridges in Stocklinch Magdalen, Andersfield hundred court was held at the hamlet of Andersfield in the parish of Goathurst, Bath Forum hundred met at Wedcombe, Bemp- stone at a huge stone in the parish of Allerton, Brent and Wrington at South Brent, Catsash at an ash tree on the road between Castle Gary and Yeovil, Hartcliffe and Bedminster at a lofty cliff between the parishes of Barrow Gurnes and Winford, Horethorne or Horethorne Down near Milborne Port, Whitstone at a hill of the same name near Shepton Mallet, Williton and Freemanors in the village of Williton in the parish of St Decumans, and Whitley at Whitley Wood in Walton parish. In the case of Kingsbury the meeting-place of the hundred is not known. The great liberties of the county were Cranmore, Wells and Leigh, which belonged to the abbey of Glastonbury; Easton and Amrill and Hampton and Claverton, which were the liberties of the abbey of Bath; Hinton and Norton, which belonged to the Carthusian priory of Hinton; Witham Priory, a liberty of the house of that name ; and Williton Freemanor, which belonged for a time to the Knights Templars. The chief families of the county in the middle ages were those of De Mohun, Malet, Revel, De Courcy, Montacute, Beauchamp and Beaufort, which bore the titles of earls or dukes of Somerset from 1396 to 1472. Edward Seymour was made duke of Somerset in 1547, and in 1660 the title was restored to the Seymour family, by whom it is still held. The marquess of Bath is the representative of the Thynne family, which has long been settled in the county, and the predecessors of the earl of < Lovelace have owned land in Somerset for three centuries. Hinton St George has been the seat of the Poulet family since the i6th century. The De Mohun family were succeeded in the i4th century by the Luttrells, who own great estates round Dunster Castle. The families of Hood, Wyndham, Acland, Strachey, Brokeley, Portman, Hobhouse and Trevelyan have been settled in Somerset since the. i6th century. Somerset was too distant and isolated to take much share in the early baronial rebellions or the Wars of the Roses, and was really without political history until the end of the middle ages. The attempt of Perkin Warbeck in 1497 received some support in the county, and in 1547 and 1549 there were rebellions against enclosures. Somerset took a considerable part in the Civil War, and with the exception of Taunton, was royalist, all the strong- holds being garrisoned and held for the king. Waller was defeated at Landsdown near Bath in 1643, and Goring at the battle of Allermoor in 1645. This defeat was followed by the capture of the castles held by the royalists. Bridgwater and Bath fell in July 1645, Sherborne Castle was taken in August, and after the capture of Nunney, Farleigh and Bristol in September 1645 the whole county was subdued, and very heavy fines were inflicted upon the royalists, who included nearly all the great landowners of the county. Somerset was the theatre of Mon- mouth's rebellion, and he was proclaimed king at Taunton in 1685. The battle of Sedgmoor on the 4th of July was followed in the autumn by the Bloody Assize held by Judge Jeffreys. Somerset has always been an agricultural county. Grain was grown and exported from the nth to the end of the l8th century. Cider-making has been carried on for centuries. Among other early industries, salmon and herring fisheries on the west coast were very profitable, and mining on the Mendips dated from the pre- Roman period. Stone quarrying at Hambdon Hill and Bath began very early in the history of the county ; and the lead mines at Welling- ton and the slate quarries at Wiveliscombe and Treborough have been worked for more than a century. Coal has been mined at Radstock from a very remote date, but it did not become of great importance commercially until the county was opened up by canals and railways in the igth century. Sheep-farming was largely carried on after the period of enclosures, and the woollen trade flourished in Frome, Bath, Bridgwater, Taunton and many other towns from the I4th to the igth centuries. Glove-making was centred at Stoke and Yeovil at the end of the i8th century and became an important subsidiary occupation in many country districts. The county was represented in the parliament of 1290 and probably in the earlier parliamentary councils of Henry III. In 1295 it was represented by two knights, and twelve boroughs returned two burgesses each. There have been many fluctuations in the borough representation, but the county continued to return two members until 1832, when it was divided into Somerset East and Somerset West, each of which divisions returned two members. Two additional members were returned after 1867 for a third — the Mid-Somerset — division of the county, until by the act of 1885 the whole county was divided into seven divisions. Antiquities. — The great possessions of the bishopric and of the abbey of Glastonbury led to a remarkable lack of castles in the mid part of the county, and also tended to overshadow all other ecclesiastical foundations. Even in the other parts of the county castles are not a prominent feature, and no monastic churches remain perfect except those of Bath and its cell, Dunster. At the dissolution of monasteries Bath was suppressed, the monastery of Glastonbury was destroyed, as were most of the smaller monasteries also. Of those which have left any remains, Woodspring, Montacute (Cluniac) and Old Cleeve (Cistercian) SOMERSWORTH— SOMERVILLE are the most remarkable. Athelney, founded by Alfred on the spot where he found shelter, has utterly perished. Montacute and Dunster fill a place in both ecclesiastical and military history. The castle of Robert of Mortain, the Conqueror's brother, was built on the peaked hill (mons acutus) of Leodgaresburh, where the holy cross of Waltham was found. The priory arose at the foot. Dunster, one of the few inhabited castles in England, stands on a hill crowned by an English mound. Besides these there are also remains at Nunney and Castle Gary. In ecclesiastical architecture the two great churches of Wells and Glastonbury supply a great study of the development of the Early English style out of the Norman. But the individual architectural interest of the county lies in its great parish churches, chiefly in the Perpendicular style, which are especially noted for their magnificent towers. They are so numerous that it is not easy to select examples, but besides those at Bath, Taunton and Glastonbury, the churches at Bridgwater, Cheddar, Crewkerne, Dunster, Ilminster, Kingsbury, Leigh-on-Mendip, Martock and Yeovil may be specially indicated. Of earlier work there is little Norman, and hardly any pre-Conquest, but there is a characteristic local style in some of the smaller buildings of the i4th century. The earlier churches were often cruciform, and sometimes with side towers. In domestic remains no district is richer, owing to the abundance of good stone. Clevedon Court is a very fine inhabited manor-house of the i4th century, and the houses, great and small, of the isth, i6th and i7th centuries are very numerous. Indeed, the style has never quite gone out, as the gable and the mullioned window have lingered on to this day. Barrington Court in the i6th century and Montacute House in the I7th are specially fine examples. There are also some very fine barns, as at Glastonbury, Wells and Pilton. See J. Collinson, History and Antiquities of the County of Somerset (Bath, 1791); W. Phelps, History and Antiquities of Somerset (London, 1839); R. W. Eyton, Domesday Studies: Analysis of the Somerset Survey (London, 1880) ; F. T. Elworthy, West Somerset Word-Book (Dialect Society, London, 1886); Roger, Myths and Worthies of Somerset (London, 1887); C. R. B. Barrett, Somerset Highways, Byways and Waterways (London, 1894) ; C. Walters, Bygone Somerset (London, 1897); Victoria County History: Somerset; also various publications by the Somerset Record Society, the Proceedings of the Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society, and Somerset Notes and Queries. SOMERSWORTH, a city of Strafford county, New Hamp- shire, U.S.A., on the Salmon Falls river, 5 m. N. of Dover, and opposite the town of Berwick, Maine, industrially a part of Somersworth. Pop. (1890) 6207; (1900) 7023 (3166 foreign- born); (1910) 6704. Somercworth is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, and is connected by electric line with Rochester and Dover. The river furnishes good water power, and the city's chief interests are in the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, and boots and shoes. It has a public library. In the south- west part is Central Park, lying along the shore of Willand's Pond. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. A settlement was established here in the latter part of the i7th century, when the territory was a part of Dover. In 1729 the parish of Summersworth was organized; in 1754 this parish was erected into the town of Somersworth; in 1821 the first company was formed to develop the water-power and establish cotton and woollen mills; in 1849 the southern half of the town was set- off and incorporated as Rollinsford; and in 1893 Somers- worth was chartered as a city. See W. D. Knapp, Somersworth, an Historical Sketch (1894). SOMERVILE, WILLIAM (1675-1742), English poet, eldest son of a country gentleman, was born at Edstone, Worcestershire, on the 2nd of September 1675. He was educated at Winchester College and at New College, Oxford. After his father's death in 1 705 he lived on his estate, devoting himself especially to field sports, which supplied the subjects of his best-known poems. His publications were The Two Springs (1725), a fable; Occa- sional Poems. . . (1727) ; The Chase (1735) Hobbinol, or the Rural Games (1740), a burlesque poem; and Field Sports (1742), a poem on hawking. Somervile died on the igth of July 1742. His Chase passed through many editions. It was illustrated by Bewick (1796), by Stothard (1800), and by Hugh Thomson (1896), with a preface by R. F. Sharp. SOMERVILLE, MARY (1780-1872), British scientific writer, was the daughter of Admiral Sir William George Fairfax, and was born on the 26th of December 1780 in the manse of Jedburgh, the house of her mother's sister, wife of Dr Thomas Somerville (1741-1830), author of My Own Life and Times, whose son was her second husband. She received a rather desultory education, and mastered algebra and Euclid in secret after she had left school, and without any extraneous help. In 1804 she married her cousin, Captain Samuel Greig, who died in 1806; and in 1812 she married another cousin, Dr William Somerville (1771-1860), inspector of the army medical board, who encour- aged and greatly aided her in the study of the physical sciences. After her marriage she made the acquaintance of the most eminent scientific men of the time, among whom her talents had attracted attention before she had acquired general fame, Laplace paying her the compliment of stating that she was the only .woman who understood his works. Having been requested by Lord Brougham to translate for the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge the Mecanique Celeste of Laplace, she greatly popularized its form, and its publication in 1831, under the title of The Mechanism of the Heavens, at once made her famous. Her other works are the Connexion of the Physical Sciences (1834), Physical Geography (1848), and Molecular and Microscopic Science (1869). Much of the popularity of her writings was due to their clear and crisp style and the underlying enthusiasm for her subject which pervaded them. In 1835 she received a pension of £300 from government. She died at Naples on the 28th of November 1872. In the following year there appeared her Personal Recol- lections, consisting of reminiscences written during her old age, and of great interest both for what they reveal of her own character and life and the glimpses they afford of the literary and scientific society of bygone times. SOMERVILLE, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Mystic river, adjoining Boston (Charlestown), Cambridge, Medford and Arlington. Pop. (1890), 40,152; (1900), 61,643, of whom 17,232 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 77,236. Of the foreign-born in 1900 6400 were English-Canadians, 5542 were Irish, 1321 were English, 610 were French-Canadians, 590 were Italians, 576 were Scotch and 556 were Swedish. Somerville is served by the Boston & Maine railroad and by suburban electric railway lines. It is a residential and manufacturing suburb of Boston, of which, industrially, it forms a part; it is included in the metro- politan water, sewer and park districts, and in the Boston postal district. It comprises an irregular (land) area of 4-06 sq. m. in the Mystic Valley and along a range of hills or ridges, of which the largest are Prospect, Spring, Winter, Central and Clarendon hills. Among its public buildings and institutions are a fine public library (1872) with 80,000 volumes in 1908, the city hall, a state armoury, Somerville Hospital, the city poor house, a Roman Catholic home for the aged, and two high schools (English and classical). Among the parks are Broadway Park, Central Hill Park, Prospect Hill Park, Lincoln Park, and Nathan Tufts Park. The total value of the city's factory product in 1905 was $22,955,197, an increase of 14-4 per cent, over that of 1900; in 1890 the product value was only $7,307,522. The establishments include slaughtering and meat-packing houses, whose product is by far the most valuable in the city, bleacheries, finishing factories, glassworks, machine shops, tube works, jewelry factories, and a desk factory. There are also lumber and coal yards. Blue slate-stone used for building purposes is quarried. Somerville, originally a part of Charlestown, was settled in 1630. Six hundred acres, the " Ten Hills Farm," were granted here in 1631 to John Winthrop, who built and launched here in that year the " Blessing of the Bay," the first ship built in Massachusetts. For more than a century it was a sparsely settled farming community, the only article of manufacture 392 SOMERVILLE— SOMME being bricks. On the ipth of April 1775 the British columns returning from Concord were harassed by the farmers here, as in the other towns along the line of march. Several of the hills of Somerville (e.g. Prospect and Central Hills) were fortified during the siege of Boston. On Prospect Hill on the i8th of July 1775 Israel Putnam raised the " Appeal to Heaven " flag, and here also is said to have been raised on the ist of January 1776 one of the earliest of the Continental standards, the Union Jack and Stripes. On Powder House Hill (originally Quarry Hill), in Nathan Tufts Park, there still stands an interesting old slate-stone powder house, a circular building, 30 ft. high, with a conical cap, originally built (about 1703) for a windmill, deeded in 1747 to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, used in 1756-1822 as a powder house, and now marked by a bronze tablet erected by the Massachusetts Society of the Sons of the Revolution; on the ist of September 1774, General Gage seized 250 half -barrels of powder stored here in anticipa- tion of the outbreak of hostilities; in 1775 the powder house became the magazine of the American forces besieging Boston, and at that time Nathanael Greene maintained his headquarters at the Samuel Tufts House, and Charles Lee had his head- quarters at the Oliver Tufts House, in Somerville. After the battle of Saratoga some of Burgoyne's officers were housed here. The opening of the Middlesex Canal through the town in 1803 and of the Boston & Lowell railroad in 1835 gave an impetus to the town's growth. In 1834 an Ursuline Convent, built in 1827 on Mt Benedict, was sacked and destroyed by an anti-Catholic mob. In 1842 Somerville was separated from Charlestown and incorporated under its present name; it was chartered as a city in 1871. See T. H. Hurd, History of Middlesex County (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1890); S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston, 1880); E. A. Samuels, Somerville Past and Present (Boston, 1897); Miss M. A. Haley, The Story of Somerville (Boston, 1903). SOMERVILLE, a borough and the county-seat' of Somerset county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the north central part of the state, on the Raritan river, about 36 m. S.W. of New York City. Pop. (1890), 3861; (1900), 4843, of whom 560 were foreign-born; (1905), 4782; (1910), 5069. It is served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey and by inter-urban electric lines. Adjoining the borough on the west is the town of Raritan (pop. in 1905, 3954). Places of interest in Somerville are the Old Parsonage of the Dutch Reformed Church, built in 1750- 1751 of brick imported from Holland by the Rev. Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen, the first pastor; the Wallace House, built in 1778 and occupied by General Washington as his head- quarters during the following winter, when the main army was in camp at Bound Brook; and Duke's Park (partly in Raritan), the immense private estate (laid out as a park and open to the public) of James B. Duke, president of the American Tobacco Company. Somerville has a fine county court house (1909) of Alabama white marble. Among the borough's manufactures are stoves, ranges, soil pipe, brick, woollen goods and shirts. Settlements were made within the present limits of Somerville in the last quarter of the i7th century, and the village was at first called Raritan, all that part of the Raritan Valley from Bound Brook to the junction of the north and south branches of the river, and including the present Somerville and Raritan, then being popularly called " Raritans." The present name was adopted in 1801. Somerville became the county-seat in 1 783, after the destruction of the court-house in what is now the borough of Millstone (in Hillsborough township, about 6 m. south of Somerville) on the 27th of October 1779 by British troops under Colonel John Graves Simcoe; it was incorporated as a town in 1863, and as a borough in 1909. SOMME, a department of northern France, formed in 1790 of a large part of the province of Picardy (comprising Vermandois, Santerre, Amienois, Ponthieu, Vimeu, and Marquenterre) and a small portion of Artois. Pop. (1906), 532,567. Area 2423 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by Pas-de-Calais, E. by Aisne, S. by Oise, and S.W. by Seine-Inferieure, and its sea-coast extends 28 m. along the English Channel. Two streams flowing into the Channel — the Authie on the north and the Bresle on the south- west— bound it in these directions. The surface consists of great rolling plains, generally well cultivated and very fertile. The highest point, about 700 ft. above the sea, lies in the south- west, not far from Aumale. From the mouth of the Authie to the Bay of the Somme the coast is lined with a belt of sand dunes about 2 m. broad, behind which is the Marquenterre, a tract of 50,000 acres reclaimed from the sea by means of dykes and traversed by drainage canals. The Bay of the Somme, obstructed by dangerous sandbanks, contains the three fishing ports of Crotoy, St Valery, which is also the chief commercial port, and Le Hourdel. Next come the shingle banks, behind which the low fields of Cayeux (25,000 acres) have been reclaimed; and then at the hamlet of Ault commence the chalk cliffs, which continue onwards into Normandy. The river Somme rises to the N.N.E. of St Quentin in the department of Aisne, where it has a course of about 25 m.; it traverses the department of Somme from the south-east to the north-west for a distance of about 125 m., through a marshy valley abounding in peat. Commanded by Ham, Peronne, Amiens and Abbeville, this valley forms a northern line of defence for Paris. Apart from the water-power it supplies, the Somme is of great commercial value, being accompanied by a canal all the way from its source wherever it is not itself navig- able. From Abbeville to St Valery its lower course forms a maritime canal 165 ft. wide, 12 ft. deep, and 8 to 9 m. long, capable of bearing at high tide vessels of 300 tons burden. From St Valery to the open sea the current hollows out a very variable bed accessible at certain tides for vessels of 500 tons. The most important affluents of the Somme — the Ancre from the north-east by way of Albert and Corbie, the Avre from the south-east by Roye, and the Selle from the south by Conty— join the main streams at Amiens. The Authie and the Bresle are respectively 63 and 45 m. long. The latter ends in a maritime canal about 2 m. long between Eu and Treport. The mean temperature is lower than that of Paris (49° F. at Abbeville). The mean annual rainfall is 33 in. at Abbeville. The department, especially in the north-east, is one of the best cultivated in France. Beetroot for sugar is the staple crop of the Pe'ronne arrondissement ; cereals, chiefly wheat, fodder and mangel-wurzels, oil plants, poppy, colza, flax, hemp and potatoes are grown through- out the department, the latter more largely on the seaboard. Stock- raising of all kinds is successfully carried on. No wine is grown, the principal drinks being beer and cider. Market gardening is of great importance round Amiens. Peat-cutting is actively carried on, the best qualities and the deepest workings being in the valley of the Somme, between Amiens and Abbeville. Phosphate of lime is also an important mineral product. The manufacture of a great variety of textile goods, especially velvet (Amiens), of beet sugar and alcohol, and of locks, safes and the like (in the Vimeu), are charac- teristic industries of the department, which also carries on saw- milling, flour-milling, brewing, dyeing, ironfounding and forging, printing and the manufacture of paper, chemical products, machines and ironmongery, hosiery (in the Santerre), &c. Cereals, horses of the Boulogne or Norman breed, cattle, hemp and linen, and the manufactured goods are the exports of the department. St Valery (pop. 3389) exports vegetables and farm-products (to England), and shingle for the manufacture of earthenware. Besides the raw materials for the manufacturing industries, wines and timber, the latter largely imported at St Valery, dyestuffs and coal are imported. The department is served principally by the Northern railway, and its canals and rivers provide 140 m. of navigable waterway. Administratively the department comprises 5 arrondissements (those of Amiens, the capital, Abbeville, Doullens, Montdidier and Pe'ronne), 41 cantons and 836 communes. The department belongs to the academic (educational circumscription) of Lille, and consti- tutes the diocese of Amiens, which city is also the seat of a court of appeal and the headquarters of the region of the II. army corps, wherein the department is included. The most noteworthy places are Amiens (the capital), Abbeville, Montdidier, Pe'ronne, Doullens, St Riquier, Crcfcy and Ham, which are treated under those headings. The following places may also be mentioned : Albert (pop. 6656), after Amiens and Abbeville the most populous town in the department and a centre for machine construction; Villers-Bretonneux (pop. 4447), a centre of hosiery manufacture; Corbie, once celebrated for its Benedictine abbey (founded in the 7th century) the church of which (i6th-i8th century) is still to be seen; L'Etoile, with the well-preserved remains of a Roman camp; Folleville, which has a church (isth century) contain- ing the fine Renaissance tomb of Raoul de Lannoy; Picquigny, with SOMMER— SOMNATH 393 the remains of a chateau of the I4th, I5th and i6th centuries, once one of the chief strongholds of Picardy; Rue, where there is a fine chapel of the I5th century; and Tilloloy, which has a Renaissance church. SOMMER, in architecture, a girder or main beam of a floor; if supported on two storey posts and open below, it is called a bress or breast-summer. The word is also spelled " summer," and is the same as " sumpter," a pack-horse, Fr. sommier, O. Fr., saume, from Low Lat. salma, pack, burden, Gr. cray/aa, ffaTTdv, to fasten a pack on a horse. SOMMERFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Lubis, 40 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder, by the railway from Berlin to Breslau. Pop. (1905), 12,251. It has a Roman Catholic church, three Evangelical churches, several schools and a hospital. Its manufactures of woollen cloth are important; and it also contains finishing and dye- works, an ironfoundry, boiler-works and breweries. SOMMERS, WILLIAM (d. 1560), court fool of Henry VIII., is said to have been brought to the king at Greenwich by Richard Fermor, about 1525. He was soon in high favour with Henry, whose liberality to Sommers is attested by the accounts of the royal household. The jester possessed a shrewd wit, which he exercised even on Cardinal Wolsey. He is said to have warned his master of the wasteful methods of the exchequer and to have made himself the advocate of the poor. His portrait is shown in a painting of Henry VIII. and his family at Hampton Court, and he again appears with Henry VIII. in a psalter which belonged to the king and is now in the British Museum. He was probably the William Sommers whose death is recorded in the parish of St Leonard's, Shoreditch, on the isth of June 1560. For his position in i6th- and 17th-century literature see T. Nash, Pleasant Comedie called Summers' last Will and Testament (pr. 1600); S. Rowlands, Good Newes and Bad Newes (1622); and a popular account, A Pleasant Historie of the Life and Death of William Som- mers (reprinted 1794). See also John Doran, History of Court Fools (1858). SOMNAMBULISM (from Lat. somnus, sleep, and ambulare, to walk), or sleep-walking, the condition under which people are known to walk along while asleep, apparently unconscious of external impressions, return to bed, and when they awake have no recollection of any of these occurrences. Sometimes the actions performed are of a complicated character and bear some relation to the daily life of the sleeper. Thus a cook has been known to rise out of bed, carry a pitcher to a well in the garden, fill it, go back to the house, fill various vessels carefully and without spilling a drop of water, then return to bed, and have no recollection of what had transpired. Again, somnambulists have been observed to write letters or reports, execute drawings, and play upon musical instruments. Frequently they have gone along dangerous paths, executing delicate movements with precision. Four types of somnambulists may be noticed: (i) those who speak without acting, a common variety often observed in children and not usually considered somnambulistic; (2) those who act without speaking, also well known and the most common type; (3) those who both act and speak, more exceptional; and (4) those who both act and speak and who have not merely the sense of touch active but also the senses of sight and hearing. The fourth class is the most extreme type and merges into the physiological condition of mesmerism or hypnotism (q.v.), and it is necessary here only to notice it in connexion with the subject of sleep. Many observations indicate that, at all events in some cases, the somnambulist engaged, for example, in writing, has a mental picture of the page before him and of the words he has written. He does not see what he really writes. This has been proved by causing persons to write on a sheet of paper lying on the top of other sheets. After he had been allowed to write a few sentences, the sheet was carefully withdrawn and he continued his writing on the next sheet, beginning on the new sheet at the corresponding point where he left off on the first one. Moreover, the somnambulist, by force of habit, stroked t's and dotted i's at the exact places Organic life. Conscious- ness. Imagin- ative faculties. Co-ordi- nating faculties. Power of movement and sensibility. Normal waking state Sleep, I st degree . ,, 2nd degree . „ 3rd degree . . Deep sleep .... Waking, ist degree * ,, 2nd degree (speci- ally dreaming state) . ,, 3rd degree. . Complete waking Dreaming state . • • Ordinary somnambulism — (2) above. Profound somnambulism (perfect unconscious- ness) Somnambulistic dream (movements in a dream) where the t's and i's would have been had he written continuously on one sheet, showing that what he was conscious of was not what was before him, but the mental picture of what he had, done. The following table, modified from two such tables given by Benjamin Ball (b. 1833) and Chambard in their classical article " Somnambulisme " in the Dictionnaire encyclopedique des sciences medicales, shows the relation of the various intermediate conditions of sleeping and awaking and of the dreaming and somnambulistic states. The horizontal stroke indicates the presence of the condition the name of which heads the column : — The somnambulist acts his dream. His condition is that of a vivid dream in which the cerebrum is so active as to influence centres usually concerned in voluntary movements. Under the dominant idea he executes the movements that this idea would naturally excite in the waking state. Many of his movements are in a sense purposive; his eyes may be shut so that the movements are executed in the dark, or the eyes may be open so that there is a picture on the retina that may awaken no consciousness, and yet may, by reflex mechanisms, be the starting-point of definite and deliberate movements. In many cases he does not hear, the audi- tory centres not responding; but in others suggestive words may alter the current of his dream and lead him to perform other actions than what he intended to do. On awaking there is either no memory of what has taken place or the dim recollection of a fading dream. It is important to notice that there is scarcely any action of which a somnambulist may not be capable, and immoral acts from which the individual would shrink in waking hours may be per- formed with indifference. Considering the abrogation of self-con- trol peculiar to the physiological condition, it is evident that no moral responsibility can be attached to such actions. In cases where somnambulistic propensities place a person in danger, an endeavour should be made to induce him to return to bed without awaking him ; as a rude awakening may produce a serious shock to the nervous system. Inquiry should then be made into the exciting cause of the somnambulistic dream, such as a particular train of thought, over-excitement, fhe reading of special books, the recollec- tion of an accident or of a crisis in the person's history, with the view of removing the cause if possible. It should never be forgotten that somnambulism, like chorea, hysteria and epilepsy, is the expression of a general morbid predisposition, an indication of a nervous diathesis, requiring careful treatment so as to avoid more dangerous maladies. See also SLEEP and MUSCLE AND NERVE (physiology). SOMNATH, an ancient decayed city of Kathiawar in the province of Bombay, India. Pop. (1901), 8341. It is situated on a bay of the Arabian Sea. The port, which is called Vera- wal, is distinct from the city proper (Deva-Pattan, Somnath- Pattan, or Prabhas). The latter occupies a prominence on the south side of the bay, is surrounded by massive fortifications, and retains in its ruins and numerous tombs many traces of its former greatness as a commercial port. But the city was most famous for the temple just outside its walls in which stood the great idol or rather columnar emblem of Siva called Somnath (Moon's lord), which was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. The famous " Gates of Somnath," which were supposed to have been carried off by Mahmud to Ghazni, had probably no connexion with Somnath. They are built of deodar (n ft. in height and 9! in width) and are richly carved in geometric 394 SOMNUS— SONATA FORMS Saracenic patterns. The gates were attached to the building covering Mahmud's tomb at Ghazni until their removal to India. under Lord Ellenborough's orders, on the evacuation of Afghani- stan in 1842. They are now contained in the arsenal at Agra. SOMNUS, the Latin name for the personification of sleep, in Greek Hypnos ("Tir^os). He is the son of Night and the twin brother of Death, with whom he dwells in the darkness of the underworld. At first the difference between the two is strongly marked. While Death is cruel and merciless, and never lets go his prey once seized, Sleep is gentle and kindly, the bestower of rest and pleasant dreams, the soother of care and sorrow. Even Zeus is unable to resist his influence, and on two occasions was put to sleep by him at the instance of Hera. In time, however, the conception of Death was greatly modified, until at last he was depicted as a beautiful boy, with or without wings. In like manner, Sleep came to be used as a euphemism for Death. In art the representations of Sleep are numerous and varied. On the chest of Cypselus, Night was depicted holding in her hands two sleeping children — one white (Sleep), the other black (Death). His most common form is that of a vigorous young man, with wings on his forehead; his attributes a stalk of poppy, and a horn from which he drops slumber upon those whom he puts to rest. In Ovid (Metam. xi. 592) the home of Sleep is placed in a dark grotto in the land of the Cimmerians, where he dwells surrounded by a band of Dreams. See Homer, Iliad xiv. 231 — xvi. 672; Hesiod, Theog. 212, 758; Pausanias, v. 18, i. SONATA (From Ital. sonare, to sound), in music, originally merely a piece " played " as opposed to " cantata," a piece sung, though the term is said to have been applied once or twice to a vocal composition. By the time of Corelli two polyphonic types of sonata were established, the sonata da chiesa and the sonata da camera. The s.onata ,da chiesa, generally for one or more violins and bass, consisted normally of a slow introduction, a loosely fugued allegro, a cantabile slow movement1 and a lively finale in some such " binary " form (see SONATA FORMS) as suggests affinity with the dance-tunes of the SUITE (q.v.). This scheme, however, is not very clearly defined, until the works of Bach and Handel, when it becomes the sonata par excellence and per- sists as a tradition of Italian violin music even into the early ipth century in the works of Boccherini. The sonata da camera consisted almost entirely of idealized dance-tunes. By the time of Bach and Handel it had, on the one hand, become entirely separate from the sonata, and was known as the suite, partita, ordre or (when it had a prelude in the form of a French opera-overture) the overture. On the other hand, the features of sonata da chiesa and sonata da camera became freely intermixed. But Bach, who does not use those titles, yet keeps the two types so distinct that they can be recognized by style and form. Thus, in his six solo violin, sonatas, Nos. i, 3 and 5 are sonate de chiesa, and Nos. 2, 4 and 6 are called partitas, but are admissible among the sonatas as being sonate da camera. The sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti (q.v.) are a special type determined chiefly by those kinds of keyboard technique that are equally opposed, on the one hand, to contrapuntal style, and, on the other hand, to the supporting of melodies on a life- less accompaniment. Longo's complete collection of Scarlatti's sonatas shows that, short of the true developed sonata-style, there is nothing between the old sonata da chiesa and Beet- hovenish experiments in unorthodox "complementary keys" that Scarlatti does not carry off with a delightfully irresponsible " impressionism " that enables him to be modern in effect without any serious modern principle. Great, however, as the variety of his forms is now known to be, and numerous as are 1 A movement is a piece of music forming a complete design, or at least not merely introductory; and within such limits as either to contain no radical change of pace or else to treat changes of pace in a simple and symmetrical alternation of episodes. The first complete movement of a sonata seldom leads without break to the others, except in modern examples; but the later movements are often connected. the newly published slow movements, the normal Scarlatti sonata is that which the concert-player popularizes; fireworks in binary form, with a perfunctory opening, a crowd of pregnant ideas in the complementary key, and, after the double bar, a second part reproducing these ideas as soon as possible in the tonic. The sonatas of Paradies are mild and elongated works of this type with a graceful and melodious little second move- ment added. The manuscript on which Longo bases his edition of Scarlatti frequently shows a similar juxtaposition of move- ments, though without definite indication of their connexion. The style is still traceable in the sonatas of the later classics, whenever a first movement is in a uniform rush of rapid motion, as in Mozart's violin sonata in F (Kochel's Catalogue, No. 377), and in several of dementi's best works. The sonata in its main classical significance is a work for one or two instruments consisting of a group of movements, four movements being the full scheme; the last movement in the same key as the first; each movement normally in one tempo, complete in design, independent from the other movements in themes, but aptly related to them in key and style; and constructed in the SONATA FORMS (q.v.). Though, since the time of Bach (when trios were called sonatas), the term is not applied to works for more than two instruments, the full (and even the, normal) characteristics of this most important of all instrumental art-forms are rarely revealed except in trios, quartets, &c., and symphonies. SONATA FORMS, in music. The sonata forms (see SONATA above) cover the whole ground of instrumental music from C. P. E. Bach to the advent of the instrumental lyric as matured by Schumann and of the symphonic poem originated by Liszt. They also have a profound influence on classical opera and vocal music, and hence, by repulsion, upon Wagner, whose life-work consisted in emancipating the music-drama from them. The conditions which developed them were the conditions which made Gluck's reform of opera possible; for they are at once the means and the expression of that iSth-century change in the language of music which made it a truly dramatic medium. Hence our present task is the discussion of the largest and most central problems pure music has ever dealt with; and, while the external technicalities are numerous and prominent, they are significant only so long as we maintain their connexion with those problems with which the true masters (and only the true masters) of the sonata forms are concerned. Much, then, that is essential to the true sonata forms must come under the headings of instru- mentation, harmony, and other musical categories. But here we must confine ourselves to the purely formal aspect, allowing only such allusion to other aspects as will help us to see behind superficial appearances. i. The Sonata Style. — The sonata forms are representative of the type of music that attracts us primarily by its design and its larger contrasts, and only in the second place by the vitality of its texture. In Bach's art the reverse is the case; we listen chiefly to the texture, and our delight in the larger designs, though essential, is seldom more than subconscious. Art-forms existed already in Bach's time, in which the shape, and not the texture, was the object of attention, but these were lighter forms. Bach himself was the greatest master of them, but he never transcended what was then their legitimate limit as an art which is related to his larger work much as decorative designs are related to architecture. Bach's suites and partitas (see SUITE) contain (apart from their great preludes, in which other principles are involved) one form embodied in several different dance rhythms, which is the germ from which the sonata was developed. It is sometimes known as the " binary " form; but as some eminent writers classify its later develop- ment as " ternary," we shall here avoid both terms, and refer to it in its earlier manifestations as the " suite " form, and in its later as the " sonata " form. In the suite it may be repre- sented by the following diagram: — SONATA FORMS 395 where the long horizontal line represents the main key, the short horizontal lines represent a second key, the perpendicular line represents the division into two portions,1 and the letters represent the phrases. This form is often typified in the com- pass of a single melody without change of key or marked divi- sion, as in that beautiful English tune " Barbara Allen," where the half-close on the dominant in the fourth bar is symmetrically reproduced as the full close on the tonic at the end (see MELODY, example i). On a larger scale it admits of great variety and elaboration, but the style of the classical suite never allows it to become much more than the musical analogue of a pattern on a plate. The passage from the material in the main key to that in the foreign key (from A to B in the above diagram) is continuous and unnoticeable, nor is the second part of the design which leads to the return of B in the tonic noticeably different in style or movement from the earlier part. It has a slightly greater range of key, for the sake of variety, but no striking contrast. Lastly, the rhythms, and such texture as is necessary to keep the details alive, are uniform throughout. Now, the essential advance shown by the true sonata forms involves a direct denial of all these features of the suite style. No doubt one natural consequence of working on a larger scale is that the sonata composer tends to use several contrasting themes where the suite composer used only one; and an equally natural consequence is that the shape itself is almost invariably amplified by the introduction of a recapitulation of A as well as of B in the tonic, so that our diagram would become modified into the following: — DtwtcpTTient varvmis fays AS But these facts do not constitute a vital difference between sonata and suite forms. They do not, for instance, enable composers like Boccherini and the later Italian violin writers to emancipate themselves from the influence of the suite forms, though the designs may be enlarged beyond the bursting point. The real difference lies, indeed, in every category of the art, but primarily* in a variety of rhythm that carries with it an entirely new sense of motion, and enables music to become not only, as hitherto, architectural in grandeur and decorative in detail, but dramatic in range. The gigue of Bach's C major suite for violoncello, and the allemande of his D major clavier partita, will show that the suite forms were amply capable of digesting a non-polyphonic style and a group of several con- trasted themes; but they still show the uniformity of rhythm and texture which confines them to the older world in which visible symmetry of form is admissible only on a small scale. Haydn can write a movement, perhaps shorter than some of Bach's larger dance movements, containing only one theme and mainly polyphonic in texture, as in the finale of his tiny string quartet in D minor, Op. 42; but the transformations of his one theme will be contrasted in structure, the changes of rhythm will be a continual surprise, the passage from the first key to the second will be important and emphatic, and at every point the difference in scope between his sonata music and Bach's suite music will be as radical as that between drama and lyric. The process of this change was gradual; indeed, no artistic revolution of such importance can ever have been accomplished more smoothly and rapidly. Yet Philipp Emmanuel Bach, the first to realize the essentials of the new style, obtained his object only at the cost of older elements that are essential to artistic completeness. And Haydn himself was hardly able to reinfuse such vitality of texture as would give the new form permanent value, before he was forty years of age. Haydn's earlier string quartets, from Op. i to Op. 33, present one of the most fascinating spectacles of historical development in all music. He was content to begin at a lower level of brilliance 1 In all stages of development it has been usual to repeat at least the first portion. The repetition is indicated by a sign and may be ignored in analysis, though Haydn, Beethoven and Brahms have sometimes produced special effects by it. The repetition of the second part is now obsolete, and that of the first nearly so. than some of his contemporaries; because from the outset his object was the true possibilities o.f the new style, and no luxuriance of colour could blind him to the lifelessness of an art that is merely suite-form spun out. Haydn's earliest quick move- ments in sonata forms are often as short as any suite movement, except when he writes for orchestra, where he is influenced by the style of the operatic overture as we find it in Gluck and in the symphonies of Philipp Emmanuel Bach In his slow movements he at first more often than not worked in the style and form of the operatic aria; and in so mature a piece as the quartet in G major, Op. 17, No. 5, he not only en- dorses Philipp Emmanuel Bach's evident conviction that opera- tic recitative is within the scope of the sonata, but convinces us that he is right. It was easy for the early composers of sonatas to introduce theatrical features into their instrumental music; for the very fact that the sonata forms were in poly- phonic days the forms of lighter music is a consequence of their original identity with the forms of stage-music and dance (see OVERTURE and SYMPHONY). But it needed a very great com- poser to realize not only the radically dramatic character of a sonata form in which the rhythm and texture is emanci- pated from the metrical bondage of the suite, but also its true limitations as pure instrumental music. As Haydn's work' proceeded, so did the freedom of his rhythm and its consequent inner dramatic life increase; while the external operatic influences soon disappeared, not so much because they were out of place, as because opera itself " paled its ineffectual fires " in the daylight of the pure instrumental drama with its incomparably swifter and terser action. Polyphony, on the other hand, steadily increased, and was so openly encouraged that in the first set of Haydn's quartets which is entirely free from archaism (Op. 20) three of the finales are regular fugues. And from that time onward there is hardly a work of Haydn's in which highly organised fugalo passages are not a frequent means of contrast. 2. The Sonata Form. — In the last-mentioned quartets of Haydn and the works of Mozart's boyhood, the normal sonata form, as we now accept it, is firmly established, and may be represented as follows: — subject ?"« subject Rapi Rapidly nujiittla/uig EXPOSITION i" subject .- I RECAPITULATION I This diagram is, no doubt, equally true of Philipp Emmanuel Bach's form; and thus we see how little the external shape of a movement tells us as to the ripeness or genuineness of the specimen. Apart from this, much confusion of thought is caused by the unfortunate terms " first and second subject," which have misled not only many teachers but nearly all pseudo- classical composers into regarding the exposition of the move- ment as consisting essentially of two themes expanded to the requisite size by appropriate discourse. When we use the terms " first and second subject," then, let us be understood to mean any number of different themes, in any variety of proportion, but separable into two groups of which the first is in the tonic while the second is in another related key, which is called the complementary key. The exposition of a move- ment in sonata form contains, then, these two "subjects" and represents these two keys; and unless the work is too large or too emotional for merely decorative emphasis, the exposition is generally repeated. Then the development follows. It is normally founded on the materials of the exposi- tion, but neither confines itself steadily to any key nor leaves its material as it found it. On the contrary, its function is to provide a wide range of modulation, and to put the materials into fresh light by regrouping them (see MELODY, examples 2-7). It cannot be too strongly insisted that in the sonata forms there are no rules whatever for the number of themes and their relative prominence among themselves and in their development. After the development the first subject returns in the tonic, with an effect which, after so many changes of key, is always reassuring as regards 396 SONATA FORMS design, and sometimes intensely dramatic. The second subject follows, also in the tonic. This recapitulation is normally very exact, except for the alteration necessary to bring the second subject into the tonic instead of the complementary key, an alteration which, of course, will chiefly affect the first subject, if, indeed, the original transition was not so simple that it could be merely suppressed. In highly organized works, however, this point is often marked by some special stroke of genius, and even in the most exact recapitulations the great masters make minute changes which throw the second subject into higher relief. Modern criticism tends to dismiss the recapitulation as a conventional and obsolescent feature; but this is a great mistake. The classics, from Scarlatti to Brahms, give overwhelming proof that it is a primary instinct of com- posers with a living sense of form to conceive of all kinds of exposition as predestined to gain force by recapitulation, especially in any part that resembles a second subject. Haydn we shall find to be an extreme case; but we have only to regard his true second subject as residing in the very end of his exposi- tion, and his mature work will then illustrate the point with special force. Beethoven seems to give one notorious detail to the contrary effect, in the first movement of his C minor symphony, but the passage only proves the rule more forcibly when seen in its context. The powerful phrase that announced the second subject is in the recapitulation transferred from the resounding triumph of the horns to the impotent croaking fury of the bassoons. This looks like a mere inconvenient result of the fact that in 1808 the horns could not transfer the phrase from E flat to C without a change of crook. But in earlier works Beethoven has made them change crooks on far less provocation; and besides, he could easily have contrived a dozen tone-colours more dignified than that of the bassoons. The point must, then, be one of Beethoven's touches of Shake- spearian grotesqueness; and certainly it draws attention to the recapitulation. But even if we dismiss it with impatience we are then immediately confronted with a new melodic and harmonic poignancy in the subsequent crescendo, produced by changes as unobtrusive and as essential to the life of the whole as are the deviations from mechanical symmetry in the forms of leaves and flowers. With the recapitulation the bare essentials of sonata form end; but the material will probably, in works on a large scale, furnish ample means of adding a more emphatic conclusion, which is then called the coda. In Beetho- ven's hands the coda ranges from a dramatic non-existence, as in the distant thunder in which the first movement of the D minor sonata expires, to the mighty series of new develop- ments and climaxes which, in the 3rd and pth symphonies and many other works, tower superbly above the normal structure. Haydn's later treatment of sonata form is very free. He shows a sense of space and breadth which, if second to Beet- hoven's, can only be said to be so because the terms of Haydn's art did not give it fuller expression. The scale on which he worked was so small that he soon found that a regular recapitula- tion took up all the room he wanted for larger growths to a brilliant climax. Moreover, he found that if his second subject began with material in sharp contrast to the first, it tended to make his movements sound too undeveloped and sectional for his taste; and so in his later works he generally makes his second subject on the same material as his first, until the very end of the exposition, where an exquisitely neat new theme forms the close. This cadence-theme also rounds off the whole movement with an appearance of regularity which has led to the belief that Haydn, like Mozart, observes a custom of rigid recapitula- tion from which Beethoven was the first to emancipate the form. The truth is that the brilliant new developments which oust the recapitulation almost entirely in Haydn's form are more like Beethoven's codas than anything else in earlier music, and the final appearance of the neat cadence-theme at the end is, from its very formality, the most brilliant stroke of all. Lastly, these tendencies are characteristic, not of Haydn's early, but of his late work. They have been described as " showing form in the making "; but this is far from true. They show form in an advanced state of development; and further pro- gress was only possible by the introduction" of new qualities which at first had a decidedly restraining effect. Mozart's greater regularity is due, not to a more formalizing tendency than Haydn's, but to the fact that he works on a larger scale and with a higher polyphony. In actual length, Mozart's movements are so much greater than Haydn's that sharply contrasted themes and regular recapitulations do not hamper him. On the contrary, they give his designs the necessary breadth. This was not more his aim than Haydn's; but he had the opportunities of a later generation and the example of Haydn's own earlier work, besides a vast experi- ence of composition (both in contrapuntal and sonata forms) that began in his miraculous infancy and made all technical difficulties vanish before he was fifteen. At sixteen he was writing string-quartets in which his blending of polyphonic and sonata style is more surprising, though less subtle, than Haydn's. At "twenty-two he was treating form with an expansiveness which sometimes left his music perilously thin, though he was never merely redundant. The emphatic reiterations in the Paris symphony are not mannerisms or formulas; they are the naturally simple expression of a naturally simple material. In a series of easy-going works of this kind he soon learnt the conditions of breadth on a large scale; and, by the time he came under the direct influence of Haydn, every new polyphonic, rhythmic and instrumental resource enlarged the scale of his designs as fast as it increased their terseness and depth. His career was cut short, and his treatment of form reached its limit only in the direction of emotional expression. The sonata style never lost with him its dramatic character, but, while it was capable of pathos, excitement, and even vehemence, it could not concern itself with catastrophes or tragic climaxes. The G minor symphony shows poignant feeling, but its pathos is not that of a tragedy; it is there from first to last as a result, not a foreboding nor an embodiment, of sad experiences. In the still more profound and pathetic G minor quintet we see Mozart for once transcending his limits. The slow movement rises to a height not surpassed by Beethoven himself until his second period; an adequate finale is unattainable with Mozart's resources, and he knows it. He writes an introduction, beautiful, mysterious, but magnificently reserved, and so reconciles us as he best can to the enjoyment of a lighthearted finale which has only here and there a note of warmth to suggest to us any pretension of compatability with what went before. Beethoven discovered all the new resources needed to make the sonata a means of tragic expression, and with this a means of expressing a higher rapture than had ever been conceived in music since Palestrina. He did not, as has sometimes been said, emancipate sonata forms from the stiffness of the recapitu- lation. On the contrary, where he alters that section it is almost invariably in order to have, not less recapitulation, but more, by stating some part of the second subject in a new key before bringing it into the tonic. Here, as has been suggested above, the effect of his devices is, both in minutiae and in surprises, to throw the second subject into higher relief. Every one of the changes which appear in the outward form of his work is a development from within; and, as far as any one principle is more fundamental than others, that development is primarily har- monic. • We have elsewhere mentioned his practice of organizing remote or apparently capricious modulations on a steady sequential progression of the bass, thereby causing such har- monies to appear not as mere surprises or special effects (a form in which they have a highly artistic function in Mozart and Haydn) but as inevitable developments (see BEETHOVEN and HARMONY). The result of this and a host of similar principles is an incalculable intensification of harmonic and emotional expression. Let us compare the opening of the second subject of Haydn's quartet in A major, Op. 20, No. 6, with the corre- sponding passage in the first movement of Beethoven's sonata, Op. 2, No. 2. Haydn executes the masterly innovation of a second subject that before establishing its true key passes through a series of rich modulations. He begins in E minor, SONATA FORMS 397 rapidly passing through G and A minor, and so to the dominant of E, in various phases of tender humour and cheerful climax. The keys are remote but not unrelated, the modulations are smooth, and the style is that of a witty improvization. Beet- hoven's second subject is intensely agitated; its modulation begins like Haydn's as regards key, but its harmonies are startling and its pace tremendous. Its regular rising bass carries it in two steps to a totally unrelated key, through which it is urged by the same relentless process with increasing speed, and when it is at last driven to the threshold of the key which it seeks as its home there is a moment of suspense before it plunges joyfully into its cadence. Such resources as this enable Beethoven to give rational dramatic force to every point in his scheme, and so they soon oust those almost symbolical formulas of transition and cadence which are a natural feature in Mozart's music and a lifeless convention in imitations of it. The growth of Beet- hoven's forms is externally most evident in his new freedom of choice for the complementary key. Hitherto the only possible key for the second subject was in major movements the dominant, and in minor movements the relative major or dominant minor. A sonata which begins by treating all directly related keys as mere incidents in establishing the tonic, will very probably choose some remoter key as its main contrast; and it is worth while trying the opening of the Waldstein sonata (Op. 53) with the simple alteration of C sharp and A natural for C natural and A sharp in the bass of the twenty-first bar, so as to bring the whole transition to the second subject on to the orthodox dominant of G, in order to see, on the one hand, how utterly inadequate that key is as a contrast to the opening, and, on the other hand, how unnecessarily long the transition seems when that is the key which it is intended to establish. 3. The Sonata as a whole. — The history of the Waldstein sonata marks the irrevocable transition from Mozart to Beet- hoven (see iv. 88); and in his rejection of the well-known Andante in F (which was originally intended for its slow move- ment) Beethoven draws attention to the problem of the sonata as a whole, and the grouping of its movements. The normal sonata, in its complete (or symphonic) form, consists of four movements: firstly, a quick movement in that sonata form par excellence to which our discussion has been hitherto confined; then two middle movements, interchangeable in position, the one a slow movement in some lighter form, and the other a dance movement (the minuet, or scherzo) which in earlier examples is of hardly wider range than a suite movement. The finale is a quick movement, which may be in sonata form, but generally tends to become influenced by the lighter and more sectional rondo form, if indeed it is not a set of variations, or even, in the opposite extreme, a fugue. Aesthetically, if not historically, this general scheme is related to that of the suite, in so far as it places the most elaborate and highly organized movement first, corresponding to the allemande and courante; while the slow movement, with its more lyric character and melodious expres- sion, corresponds to the sarabande; the minuet or scherzo to the lighter dance tunes or " Galanterien " (such as the gavotte and bourree) , and the lively finale to the gigue. But just as the whole language of the sonata is more dramatic, so are the contrasts between its movements at once sharper and more essential to its unity. Hence, the diversity of outward forms within the limits of these four movements is incalculable. The first movement is almost always in the sonata form par excellence, because that admits of higher organization and more concentrated dramatic interest than any other. Often after such a movement a slow piece in the form conveniently known as A B A, or simple " ternary " form (i.e. a broad melody in one key, followed by a contrasted melody in another, and concluded by a recapitulation of the first) is found to be a welcome relief, and of great breadth of effect. Of course in all true classics the very simplicity of such movements will be inspired by that sense of rhythmic freedom and possibility of development that per- manently raises sonata forms from the level of a mere decorative design; nor, on the other hand, is there any limit to the complexity of form possible to a slow movement, except that imposed by the inevitable length of every step in its slow progress. Still, the tendency of slow movements, even more than of finales, is to prefer a loose and sectional organization. Sonata form is frequently used in them by Haydn and Mozart with the success attainable only by the greatest masters of rhythmic flow; but even in their works the development is apt to be episodic in character, and is very often omitted. The minuet, in Haydn's and Mozart's hands, shows a surprising amount of rhythmic variety and freedom within the limits of a dance tune; but Haydn, as is well known, sighed for its develop- ment into something larger; and, though Beethoven had long emerged from his " first period " before he could surpass the splendid minuet in Haydn's quartet in G major, Op. 77, No. i, he achieved in the scherzo of his Eroica symphony the first of a long line of movements which establish the scherzo (q.v.) as an essentially new art-form. The only condition that affects the forms of finales is that a sonata involves a considerable stretch of time, and therefore its end must be so designed as to relieve the strain on the atten- tion. In a drama or a story the deeper artistic necessity for this is masked by the logic of cause and effect, which automatically produces the form of an intrigue ending in a denouement. In music the necessity appears in its purest form. There is no need for finales to be less serious than first movements; or even, in certain ways, less complex; but the attention which could be aroused at the outset by problems must be maintained at the end by something like a solution. Hence the use of the lighter rondo forms, which, by dividing the work into shorter and more distinct sections, make the development easier without unduly limiting its range. Hence, also, the influence of rondo style upon such finales as are cast in true sonata form; and hence, lastly, the paradox that the fugue has occasionally been found a possible means of expression for the finale of a dramatic sonata. For the complexity of the fugue, though incessant, is purely a complexity of texture, and the mind in following that texture instinctively abandons any effort to follow the form at all, finding repose in the change of its interests. Now, just as within the typical scheme of first and second sub- ject development and recapitulation in the first movement, there is room for genius in the contrasting of different rhythms and proportions, so, within the limits of the simple four-move- ment scheme of the whole sonata is there room for genius in the contrast of various types and degrees of organization. The complete four-movement scheme seldom appears in works for less than three instruments. Beethoven was the first to adopt it for solo sonatas, and he soon thought fit to make omissions. In Haydn's work for less than four instruments it was not even necessary that the " sonata " form itself should be represented at all. Its essential spirit could be realized in the melodic and rhythmic freedom of a group or couple of more sectional move- ments, nor did Beethoven (in Op. 26 and Op. 2 7, No. i) consider such works unworthy of the name of sonata, or (in Op. 54) incapable of expressing some of his most original ideas. No design is known to pure instrumental music that is not possible as a movement of a sonata, if it has the characteristic freedom of rhythm and is not much over a quarter of an hour in length. There is no form that has not been so applied; and, indeed, the only instrumental form that has maintained a larger develop- ment outside than inside the scheme of the sonata is that of variations (q.v.). As the scope and complexity of the sonata style grew, so did the interdependence of its movements become more evident. With Mozart and Haydn it is already vital, as we have seen in the crucial case of Mozart's G minor quintet; but the differences between one scheme and another are not remarkable until we study them closely; and, except in key-relationship, it would be difficult to trace anything more concrete than principles of con- trast as interacting between one movement and another. But Beethoven's dramatic power finds as free expression in the contrasts between whole movements as it finds within the move- ments themselves. In his later works, the increase in harmonic 39* SONATA FORMS range, with the consequent prominence of remoter key-relation- ships, necessitating the dwelling on these keys at greater length causes the key-system of each movement to react on the others to an extent that would be purposeless in the art of Haydn and Mozart. Thus in the B flat trio, Op. 97, we find such remote keys as G major, D flat and D major placed in positions of great functional importance, until we come to the finale, which keeps us in suspense by its very low and quiet key-colour, contrasting so oddly with its bacchanalian temper. But when the whole main body of this finale has passed before us in the drab colours of tonic, dominant and sub-dominant, the coda marvellously explains everything by opening with an enharmonic modulation to the most distant key yet attained except as a transitory modulation. As Beethoven proceeded, his growing sense of the functional expression of musical forms enabled him to modify and strengthen them until their interaction was as free as its principles were exact. In the C sharp minor quartet (Op. 131) the opening fugue is functionally an enormously developed introduction. The following allegro, in the startling key of D major, the " arti- ficial " flat supertonic, is a first movement, with its development suppressed, and with certain elements of rondo style as a neces- sary contrast to the preceding fugue. The startling effect produced by this key of D major necessitates a simple and limited key-system within the movement itself, thus accounting for the absence of a development. The remaining movements fall into their place among the keys that lie between the keys of D major and C sharp minor. Thus the slow movement (to which the brief allegro moderato forms a dramatic introduction) is a great set of variations in A major, and the strictness of its variation form allows no change of key until the two brilliant bursts of remoter harmony, F and C, in the coda. Then follows a scherzo of extremely simple design, in E major, with a small part of its trio in A. A short introduction in G sharp minor, the dominant, completes the circle of related keys and leads to the finale which (though cast in a compound of rondo and sonata form that would allow it a free range of modulation) contents itself with very simple changes, until towards the end, where it systematically demonstrates the exact relationship of that first surprising key of D major to C sharp minor. 4. The Unity of the Sonata. — The gigantic emotional range of Beethoven's work is- beyond the scope of technical discussion, except in so far as the technical devices themselves suggest their emotional possibilities. The struggle between decadence and reaction since the time of Beethoven indicates on the one side the desire to rival or surpass Beethoven in emotional expression without developing the necessary artistic resources; and, on the other side, a tendency to regard form as a scheme which the artist first sets up and then fills out with material. Early in the ipth century these tendencies gave rise to controversies which are not yet settled; and before we discuss what has taken place since Beethoven we must consider the connexion between sonata movements in a last new light. Historical views of art are apt to be too exclusively progressive and to regard higher and lower degrees of organization in an art-form as differing like truth and falsehood. But in trying to prove that the megatherium could not survive under present conditions, we must beware of arguing that it never existed; nor must we cite the fact that man is a higher organism in order to argue that a jelly-fish is neither organic nor alive. Organiza- tion in art, as elsewhere, may be alive and healthy in its lowest forms. The uniformity of key in the suite forms is low organiza- tion; but it is not inorganic until a mild seeker after novelty, like A. G. Muffat, tries to introduce more keys than it will hold. The interdependence of movements in Haydn and Mozart is not such high organization as the ideal form of the future, in which there is no more breaking up of large instrumental works into separate movements at all; but neither is it a mere survival from the decorative contrasts of the suite. Evolutionists must not forget that in art, as in nature, the survival of the fit means the adaptability to environment. And the immortal works of art bring their proper environment with them into later ages. The large instrumental forms have, until recent times, remained grouped into sonata movements, because their expression is so concentrated and their motion so swift that they cannot, within the limits of a single design, give the mind time to dwell on the larger contrasts they themselves imply. Thus, in the " Sonata Appassionata," the contrast between the first subject and the main theme of the second is magnificent; but that calm second theme lasts just the third part of a minute before it breaks off. Now, though the third part of a minute bears about the same proportion to the whole design as five hundred lines does to the design of Paradise Lost; though, moreover, this theme recurs three times later on, once in an exact recapitulation, and twice transformed in terribly tragic climaxes; yet the mind refuses to be whirled in less than ten minutes through a musical tragedy of such Shakespearian power without opportunity for repose in a larger scheme of contrasts than any attainable by the perfection and breadth of the single design within these limits. Hence the need for the following slow set of variations on an intensely quiet tune, which, by its rigorous confinement to the tonic of a nearly related key, its perfect squareness of rhythm, and the absolute simplicity and strictness of its variations, reveals the true pathos of the first movement by contrast with its own awful repose; until its last chord, the first in a new key, falls like a stroke of fate, and carries us headlong into the torrent of a finale in which nothing dares oppose itself to those sublime forces that make the terror of tragedy more beautiful than any mere appeal for sympathy. Thus the dramatic interdependence of sonata movements is very strict. Yet the treatment by each movement of its own thematic material is so complete that there is little or no scope for one movement to make use of the themes of another. Such instances as may be suspected in Beethoven's later works (for example, the similarity of opening themes in various movements of the sonatas, Op. 106 * and Op. no) are too subtle to be felt more than subconsciously; while the device of clearly quoting an earlier movement occurs only in three intensely dramatic situations (the introductions to the finales in Op. 101, the violoncello sonata, Op. 102, No. i, and the gth symphony) where its whole point is that of a surprise. 5. The Sonata since Beethoven. — It is unlikely that really vital sonata work will ever be based on a kind of Wagnerian Leit- motif system, until the whole character of instrumental form shall have attained the state of things in which the move- ments are not separated at all. There has been no ambitious or " progressive " composer since Beethoven who has not, almost as a matter of etiquette, introduced the ghosts of his earlier movements into his finale, and defended the procedure as the legitimate consequence of Beethoven's Op. 101. But, while there is no a priori reason for condemning such devices, they illustrate no principle, new or old. The nearest approach to some such principle is furnished once by Schumann, who always ingeniously adapts the outward forms of the sonata to his own peculiar style of epigrammatic and antithetic expression, discarding as beyond his scope the finer aspects of freedom and continuity of rhythm, and constructing works which bear much the same relation to the classical sonata as an elaborate mosaic bears to an easel-picture. Dealing thus with a looser and more artificial typeof organization, Schumann was ablein his D minor symphony to construct a large work in which the movements are thermatically connected to an extent which in more highly organ- ized works would appear like poverty of invention, but which here furnishes a rich source of interest. Many other experi- ments have been tried since Beethoven, by composers whose easy mastery is that of the artist who, from long practice in putting material into a ready-made form, becomes interested in the construction of new ready-made forms into which he can continue to put the same material. A sense of beauty is not a thing to be despised, even in pseudo-classical art; and neither the many beautiful, if mannered, works of Spohr, which disguise one stereotyped form in a bewildering variety of instrumental 1 In Op. 106 the first two notes of the slow movement were an afterthought added (as Beethoven told his publisher) for the purpose of producing such a connexion. SONCINO— SONE 399 and literary externals, nor the far more important and essentially varied works of Mendelssohn deserve the contempt which has been the modern correction for their high position in their day. But we must not forget that the subject of sonata forms is no mere province, but covers the whole of classical instrumental music; and we must here pay attention only to the broadest essentials of its central classics, mentioning what diverges from them only in order to illustrate them. Schubert's tendencies are highly interesting, but it would carry us too far to attempt to add to what is said of them in the articles on Music and SCHUBERT. The last great master of the sonata style is Brahms. A larger scale and more dramatic scope than Beethoven's seems unattain- able within the limits of any music identifiable with the classical forms; and the new developments of Brahms lie too deep for more than a bare suggestion of their scope here. Much of the light that can as yet be shed upon them will come through the study of Counterpoint and Contrapuntal Forms (q.v.). Outwardly we may see a further evolution of the co- herence of the key-system of works as wholes; and we may especially notice how Brahms's modern use of key-relationships makes him carry on the development of a first movement rather in a single remote key (or group of keys) than in an incessant flow of modulations which, unless worked out on an enormous scale (as in the 2nd and 4th symphonies), will no longer present vivid enough colours to contrast with those of the exposition. Beethoven's last works already show this tendency to confine the development to one region of key. Another point, fairly easy of analysis, is Brahms's unlimited new resources in the transformation of themes. Illustrations of this, as of older principles of thematic development, may be found in musical type in the article MELODY (examples 8-10). But no mere formal analysis or argument will go further to explain the greatness of Brahms than to explain that of Beethoven, Haydn or Mozart. Yet by that outward sign of dramatic mastery in the true sonata style, that variety of rhythmic motion which we have taken as our criterion, Brahms has not only shown in every work his kinship with Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but in one particular work he has given us documentary evidence of his faith in it. In his last years he revised, or rather recomposed, his first piece of chamber music, the trio in B major, Op. 8. The new material differs from the old, not only as a fresh creative impulse, but also in the simple fact that it moves literally four times as fast. Such rapidity is not shown by any external display of energy; indeed there is incomparably more repose in the new version than in the old. But the comparison of the two clearly demonstrates that the true sonata style is, now, as at the outset, primarily a matter of swift action and rhythmic variety; and nothing more certainly indicates the difference between the true style and the lifelessness of decadence or academicism than this sense of motion and proportion. In so far as the tendencies of modern instrumental music represent an artistic ideal which is foreign to that of the sonata without being false, they represent a different type of motion, wider in its sweep, and consequently slower in its steps. The forms such a motion will produce may owe much to the sonata when they are realized, but they will certainly be beyond recognition different. In all probability they constitute the almost unconscious aims of the writers of symphonic poems (q.v.) from Liszt onwards, just as the classical sonata constituted the half-conscious aim of more than one quaint writer of i8th- century programme-music. But the growing importance and maturity of the symphonic poem does not exclude the continued development of the sonata forms, nor has it so far realized sufficient consistency and independence of style to take as high a place in a sound artistic consciousness. The wider sweep of what we may conveniently call " ultra-symphonic " rhythm owes its origin to Wagner's life-work, which consisted in evolving it as the only musical medium by which opera could be emanci- pated from the necessity of keeping step with instrumental music. Small wonder, then, that the new art of our time is as yet, like that of Haydn's youth, stage-struck; and that all our popular criteria suffer from the same obsession. One thing is certain, that there is more artistic value and vitality in a sym- phonic poem which, whatever its defects of taste, moves at the new pace and embodies, however imperfectly, such forms as that pace is fit for, than in any number of works in which the sonata form appears as a clumsy mould for ideas that belong to a different mode of thought. If from the beginnings exemplified by the symphonic poems of the present day a new art-form arises in pure instrumental music that shall stand to the classical sonata as the classical sonata stands to the suite, then we may expect a new epoch no less glorious than that which seems to have closed with Brahms. Until this aim is realized the sonata forms will represent the highest and purest ideal of an art-form that music, if not all art, has ever realized. See also BEETHOVEN; CONCERTO; HARMONY; OVERTURE; RONDO; SCHERZO; SERENADE; SYMPHONY; VARIATIONS. (D. F. T.) SONCINO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Cremona, n m. E. of Crema by steam tramway, 282 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 6150 (town); 8136 (commune). It contains a handsome castle built in 1469-1475 for Galeazzo Maria Sforza by Benedetto Terrini (cf. L. Beltrami, // Castello di Soncino, Milan, i8qo). The town was the seat of a Hebrew printing-press founded in 1472, but suppressed in 1597, when the Jews were expelled from the duchy of Milan. SONDERBUR6, a seaport and seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the S.W. coast of the island of Alsen, of which it is the chief town, and 17 m. by steamboat N.E. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905), 7047. It is connected with the mainland by a pontoon bridge, and has a castle, now used as barracks, in the beautiful chapel of which many members of the Sonderburg-Augustenburg line lie buried ; a Lutheran church and a town hall. There is an excellent harbour, and a considerable shipping trade is done. The town, which existed in the middle of the i3th century, was burnt down in 1864 during the assault by the Prussians upon the Duppler trenches. SONDERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, situated in a plain 37 m. by rail N. of Erfurt. Pop. (1905), 7383. It possesses a castle, with natural history and antiquarian collections, and a parish church (restored 1891), with the mausoleum (1892) of the reigning princes. There are manufactures of woollens and pins. SONDRIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, capital of the province of Sondrio, in the Valtellina, 1140 ft. above sea-level, on the river Adda, 26 m. E. of Lake Como and 82 m. by rail N.E. of Milan. Pop. (1901), 4425 (town); 7707 (commune). The Valtellina, of which Sondrio is the capital, produces a considerable quantity of red wine. Sondrio also has silk-works. Above the town to the north rise the snowclad peaks of the Bernina group. The railway goes on to Tirano, 16 m. farther east, from which diverge the Bernina and Stelvio roads. SONE, or SON, a river of central India which has been identified with the Erannoboas of the Greek geographers. With the exception of the Jumna it is the chief tributary of the Ganges on its right bank. It rises in the Amarkantak highlands about 3500 ft. above sea-level, the Nerbudda and Mahanadi also having their sources in the same table-land. From this point it flows north-west through an intricate mass of hills, until it strikes the Kaimur range, which constitutes the southern wall of the Gangetic plain. Here it turns east and continues in that direc- tion until it falls into the Ganges about 10 m. above Patna, after a total course of 465 m. Its upper waters drain about 300 m. of wild hilly country, which has been imperfectly explored; while in its lower section of 160 m. it traverses the British districts of Mirzapur, Shahabad, Gaya and Patna. The Sone canals, fed by the river, form a great system of irrigation in the province of Behar. The headworks are situated at Dehri about 25 m. below the point where the river leaves the hilly ground. The weir across the Sone at this point is believed to be the longest con- structed in a single unbroken piece of masonry, the length between abutments being 12,469 ft. A main canal is taken off on either bank of the river, and each of these is divided into branches. 400 SONG according to the requirements of the ground. The system consists of some 370 m. of canals and 1200 m. of distributaries, irrigating 555,000 acres. The Sone canals were begun in 1869, and came into operation in 1874; they form a valuable protection to the rice crop of Behar. SONG, either an actual " singing " performance, or in a literary sense a short metrical composition adapted for singing or actually set to music. In the second sense of the word it must strictly be lyrical in its nature; but musicians and others fre- quently use the word in the wider sense of any short poem set to music. A " song," as a form of poem, usually turnsonsome single thought or emotion, expressed subjectively in a number of stanzas or strophes. Almost every nation is in possession of an immense store of old simple ballads (q.v.), which are the spontaneous outcome of the inspiration of the people (" folk- songs "), and represent in a remarkable degree their tastes, feelings and aspirations; but in addition to these, there are, of course, the more finished and regular compositions born of the conscious art of the civilized poet. In a purely literary sense the song may exist, and does largely exist, without any necessary accompaniment of music. With the accession of Elizabeth the attention of the English poets was immediately drawn to the importance of this branch of lyrical literature. The miscellanies, one of which Master Slender would have paid more than forty shillings to have in his pocket on a celebrated occasion, were garlands of songs, most of them a little rude in form, only mere " packets of bald rhymes." But about 1590 the popularity of the song having greatly in- creased, more skilful writers were attracted to its use, and the famous England's Helicon of 1600 marked the hey-day of Eliza- bethan song-writing. In this Shakespeare, Sidney, Lodge, Barnfield and Greene, to name no others, were laid under contribution. Lyly, with such exquisite numbers as " Cupid and my Campaspe " (1584), had preceded the best anthologies, and is really the earliest of the artist-songsters of England. Among superb song-writers who followed were Marlowe (" Come live with me and be my love"), Campion ("My sweetest Lesbia") Ben Jonson ("Drink to me only with thine eyes") and Fletcher (" Here ye Ladies, thatdepise "), most of these being dramatists, who illuminated their plays, and added a delicate ornament to them, by means of those exquisite lyrical interpolations. Side by side with such poets, and a little later, began to flourish the school of cavalier song-writers, for whose purpose the lyric was self-sufficient. They added to our literature jewels of perennial lustre — Wither, with his " Shall I wasting in despair," Herrick with " Bid me to live " and " Gather ye Rosebuds," Carew with " Ask me no more where June bestows," Waller with " Go, lovely Rose," Suckling with " Why so pale and wan, fond Lover?" and Lovelace with " Tell me not, Sweet, I am unkind." This was the classic age of the true British song, which survived all other forms of poetry after the decay of taste, and continued to flourish in the hands of Dryden, Sedley, Aphra Behn and Rochester down to the last decade of the i8th century. That outburst of song was followed by nearly a hundred years during which the simplest and more direct forms of lyrical utterance found comparatively little encouragement. Just before the romantic revival the song reasserted its position in literature, and achieved the most splendid successes in the hands of Burns, who adapted to his purpose all kinds of fragmentary material which had survived up to his time in the memories of rustic persons. In Scotland, indeed, the song was rather revived and adorned than resuscitated; in England it may be said to have been recreated by Blake. At the opening of the igth century it became the vehicle of some of the loveliest fancies and the purest art of Coleridge, Keats, Shelley, Byron and Landor; while in a later day songs of rare perfection were composed by Tennyson and by Christina Rossetti. (E. G.) Song in Music. The history of song as a musical form falls into two main divisions, the one belonging to the folk-song, the other to the art-song. Though the line of demarcation between the two cannot be definitely drawn, for they have acted and reacted upon each other ever since music existed as a cultivated art, yet it may reasonably be maintained that the folk-song, which lies at the base of all music, preserves, and has in all ages preserved, characteristics such as must always distinguish the rude and unconscious products of the human mind, working more by instinct than by method, from the polished and conscious pro- ducts of the schools. For the purposes then of this article, art-song may be distinguished from folk-song by the fact that it is the work of trained musicians and is designed, at any rate after the close of the i6th century, for voice with instrumental accompaniment, whereas we shall restrict the term folk-song to such melodies as appear to have been the work of untutored minds, and to have arisen independently of any felt necessity for harmonic support. The early history of song on its musical side may be regarded as the history of the evolution of melody: and since what is known of melody before the end of the i6th century, apart from the folk-song, is extremely slight, it is in the folk-song itself that this evolution is primarily to be studied. Previously to the period named the instrumental accompaniment to vocal melody, both in the folk-song and in the art-song, played an entirely insignificant part. Afterwards the new conception of harmony which came in with the I7th century not only shifted the basis of melody itself but made the instrumental accompaniment an essential feature of artistic song. Though it lies beyond the province of this article to discuss fully the complex questions involved in the evolution of vocal melody, some slight sketch is a necessary preliminary to a proper understanding of the subject under consideration. It may be assumed that in the course of ages the uncouth vocal utterances of primitive man developed, under the influence of an instinct for expressing his inner nature through Qrtolns a more expressive medium than language alone, into sounds of more or less definite pitch, bearing intelligible relation- ships one to another; and that from these emerged short phrases, in which rhythm probably played the principal part, reiterated with that interminable persistency, which many travellers have noted as characteristic of savage nations in the present day. A further stage is reached when some such primitive phrase is repeated at a different level by way of contrast and variety, but melody in any true sense of the word does not begin till two different phrases come to be combined in some sort of scheme or pattern. When the power to produce such combinations become common in a nation, its musical history may be said to have begun .l Racial characteristics are displayed in the choice of notes out of which such phrases are formed. But in all races it may be surmised that the main determining cause in the first instance is that natural rise and fall of the voice which gives expressiveness and meaning to speech, even though contributory causes arising from the imitative faculty common to man may perhaps be admitted — such as the sound of the wind, the waves of the sea, the cries of animals, the notes of birds, the striking of one object against another, and finally the sounds made by primitive instruments. The tendency of the speaking voice to fall a fourth and to rise a fifth has often been noted. It is probable that these intervals were among the first to be defined, and that the many modes or scales, underlying the popular melodies of the various nations of the world, were the result of different methods 1 If the one phrase is represented by A, and the other by B, the commonest melodic schemes presented by the folk-songs of the world may be viewed thus— AS, AAB, ABB, ABA, ABAB, AABB, AABA, ABBA. Of these, those in which the opening phrase A is repeated at the conclusion are the most satisfactory, for both instinct and reason are gratified by a connexion between the beginning and the end. As exact conformity to pattern becomes wearisome and is alien to the progressive instinct, the element of surprise is introduced into the above schemes by various modifications of the repeated phrase on its second appearance, or by the entrance of an entirely new phrase C. In some fine melodies there is no repetition of phrase, a number of different phrases being knit, by principles, which defy analysis, into one structure. Such melodies imply a melodic sense of an exceptional order. Many melodies involve more than four phrases; of these the rondo form should be mentioned — ABA CAD A. SONG 401 of determining the intervening sounds. It has been generally assumed that the fall of a fourth is the interval earliest arrived at by the instinct of the Indo-European race — and that inter- vening sounds were added which resulted eventually in the three possible forms of the diatonic tetrachord, the earliest being that which is characteristic of the ancient Dorian mode or scale (the basis of the Greek musical system) in which two tetrachords, having the semitone between the lowest note and the next above it, are superimposed (see Bourgault Ducoudray, Introduction to jo Chansons de Grece et d' Orient). It must, however, be remembered that the popular, instinct knows nothing about tetrachords or scales, which are abstractions, and only creates melodies, or at least successions of sounds, which are the outward expression of inward feelings. The Greek theorists therefore, in recording certain modes as being in use in their day, were in effect merely stating results arrived at by analysing popular melodies — and from the persistence with which the Greeks, and following them, most of the musical historians of Europe, have insisted upon a tetrachordal basis for the art of music it may be assumed that in these melodies a basis of four diatonic notes was a conspicuous feature. It is a feature which marks a considerable number of folk- songs heard in Greece at the present day, and also of many folk- songs which are not Greek, the Breton, for example (see Bour- gault Ducoudray, Chansons de Basse- Bretagne). The interval of a fourth is nearly always prominent too in the music of savages. If it is natural to connect these facts with the drop of a fourth, characteristic of the speaking voice, it is dangerous to assume an exclusively " tetrachordal period " of primitive song, at any rate till it can be shown that melodies based on other principles did not exist side by side with those that are tetrachordal. From the rise of a fifth and the fall of a fourth, the octave, which results from combining these intervals, may well have become familiar at a very early epoch. Indeed a prolonged howl begin- ning on a high note and descending a full octave in semitones — or notes approximately resembling semitones — is recorded both of the Caribs and of the natives of Australia, so that familiarity with the octave need not presuppose an advanced stage of musical development. To pass from the sphere of mere speculation nearer to the domain of history, it may be asserted with confidence that the oldest form of song or chant which can be established is found in certain recitation formulae. These, as is natural, will be found to be derived from the rise and fall of the voice in speech. It is therefore not surprising that O. Fleischer (Sammelbiinde der inlernationalen Musik-Gesellschaft, Jan.-Mar. 1902) is able to trace practically identical formulae in the traditional methods of reciting the Vedas, the Koran, the Jewish and Christian liturgies. The simplest form consists of four notes (a diatonic tetrachord), a reciting note, preceded by two notes rising to it, and followed by a fall, or cadence, for the close, the voice rising above the reciting note in order to emphasize important words, or according to the nature of the sentence. An extended form is both natural and common. 3=1= The influence of these and similar formulae l upon popular melodies can be illustrated by countless examples (for which 1 The derivation of such formulae from more primitive incan- tations of magicians and medicine-men is a possible and plausible theory (see J. Combarieu, La Musique: ses lois et son Evolution, Paris, 1907). the reader is referred to I.M.G.). As characteristic as any is the melody of the Christian hyntn which begins Te lu - cis an - te ter - mi - num, and concludes Sis prae-sul et cus - to - di - a. Another is the Hungarian folk-song: Nem Szoktam. Many French songs have been collected in recent years, of which the following formula, or variations of it, form an essential feature: — This corresponds closely with the third example given above. That the melodies in question are of great antiquity may be inferred from the fact that they are almost confined to the oldest class of folk-song, that which celebrates May Day and the begin- ning of spring. M. Tiersot (La Chanson populaire en France, Paris, 1889) plausibly finds in them a survival of a melodic fragment, which may have belonged to pagan hymns in honour of spring, basing his supposition upon the fact that the phrase in question occurs in the melody of the Easter hymn " O Filii et Filiae." The medieval Church, acting on principles familiar in all ages, may well have helped to merge a pagan in a Christian festival by adopting, not merely old rites and observances, but the actual melody with which these had for ages been associated. A similar survival in French folk-song is that of the melody of the Tonus peregrinus, the chant used for the psalm " When Israel came out of Egypt " (mentioned in the 9th century by Aurelian Reome as being very old). Its appearance, like that of the Easter hymn, in songs, which on other grounds can be proved to be of great antiquity, points to the probability of its being of popular origin. It also bears equally strong marks of being derived from a recitation formula, as indeed its appropriation for chanting a psalm sufficiently indicates. Endeavours to detach other primitive formulae from the popular melodies in which they are enshrined form a branch of folk-lore now being actively pursued. It may be hoped that " comparative melodology " — if the phrase may be coined — will do for this department of musical knowledge what the science of comparative philology has done for language. Oscar Fleischer (I.M.G. i. i) has endeavoured to trace the history in Europe of the primitive phrases belonging to the melody of " Les Series " (or Unus est Deus) as given by De Villemarque in Barzaz-Breiz 402 SONG No. i, in the musical appendix, as also of the opening phrase in the old Christian hymn, " Conditor alme siderum " (attributed to Bishop Ambrose): — The phrase here belongs to a melody in the Phrygian mode, but when it is used in major melodies its characteristic notes are those of the common chord, with a rise to the sixth at the point of climax, corresponding to the rise in the recitation formulae given above. By what processes the notes of the common chord became universally established it is not possible to determine, but it may be said in a general way that the reference to a given tonic was felt in all ages to be a necessary condition even of the simplest melody, and that, as the melodic instinct grew, an almost equal necessity was found for a point of contrast, and that this point of contrast became with most nations of Aryan origin the fifth note above the tonic, at any rate in the more popular scales. Combarieu (La Musique, p. 121) observes that we owe the use of the octave, the fifth and the fourth to the South and East, but that the importance of the third in our modern musical system is due to the instinctive genius of the West and North, i.e. to England and Scandinavia (see also Hugo Riemann, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, Leipzig, 1898, and Wooldridge, Oxford History of Music, i. 161-162, where the well-known quotation from Giraldus Cambriensis, or Gerald Barry, of the i2th century, establishing the fact of part-singing in England, is given). If, as has been shown, the origin of many melodies can be traced to formulae originally used for chanting or reciting, it must not be forgotten that formulae thus derived assume very different characters under the influence of more decided rhythms than that of speech. To accompany bodily movements (which by a natural law become rhythmical when often repeated) with music, vocal or instrumental, is an almost universal human instinct, whether to alleviate the burden or the monotony of labour, as in rowing, sowing, spinning, hammering and a score of other pursuits, or to promote pleasure and excitement, as in the dance. It is unsafe to infer, as some have done, from the custom, known in all ages, of dancing and singing at the same time, that song arose as a mere accessory to the dance. It is more probable that the dance has its origin in the mimetic actions, which are the natural accompaniment of rudimentary song. At the same time, no one will deny that races with ballads of their own early made use of them for the dance, and that, especially on the rhythmical side, melody owes to the dance an incalculable debt.1 It may be assumed then that upon some such basis as has been roughly indicated the different nations of the world have develo'ped each their own musical phraseology, emanating from and answering to their several needs and temperaments and that the short melodic phrases, out of which folk-tunes are made, have their roots in a past as distant as that in which the elements of language were formed, and that the popular instinct which through countless ages has diversified those forms and arranged them into melodies, whose constructions are mostly susceptible to analysis, is the same instinct as that which has given to language its grammar and its syntax. In proceeding now to the actual history of song in Europe, it must be remembered that it is inseparably connected with History of poetry. Melody till within comparatively recent Song la times continued to fulfil its original function of Europe. enhancing the value and expressiveness of language. For poetry of the epic kind with the long lines common to early European peoples, some such forms of chanting as have been indicated must have sufficed. 1 For the growth of the refrain from communal dancing and singing, see C. J. Sharp, English Folk-Songs, p. 93. Nor should the association of dancing with all primitive religious ceremonies be forgotten — see K. J. Freeman, Schools of Hellas (1907). Melody, as we understand it, with compact form and balanced phrases, could only have existed if and when the same qualities appeared in popular poetry. This was probably the case long before the taste for long epic narratives began to disappear in favour of more concise forms of ballad and of lyric. The stanza form must have been generally familiar in the early middle ages from the Latin hymns of the Church, and these hymns themselves are likely to have been formed, in part at any rate, on models which were already known and popular. We have definite information that in the early middle ages two sorts of popular poetry existed — the historical ballads (descen- dants of those alluded to by Tacitus in his Germania as characteristic of the Germans, and as constituting sons-"" their only historical records), and popular songs of a character which caused them to be described as cantica nefaria by St Augustine; the council of Agde (506) forbade Christians to frequent assemblies where they were sung: St Cesaire, bishop of Aries, speaks of the chants diaboliques sung by country folk, both men and women; the Council of Chalons menaced the women, who seem to have been the chief offenders, with excom- munication and whipping; lastly Charlemagne, whose love for the better class of song is attested by the fact that he ordered a collection of them to be made for his own use, said of the other " canticum turpe et luxuriosum circa ecclesias agereomnino,quod et ubique vitandum est." Beyond the fact of their existence we know nothing of these songs of the early middle ages. Their influence on the popular mind was vigorously resisted, as we have seen, by the Church, and for many centuries efforts were made to supplant them by songs, the subjects of which were taken from the Gospel narratives and the lives of the saints, so that folk-song and church song strove together for popularity. Doubtless the church song borrowed musical elements from its rival: nor was the folk-song uninfluenced in its turn by the tradi- tional music of the Church. In considering this latter music, it is important to distinguish between the melodies adapted to the prose portions of the ritual without definite rhythm, and those of the hymns, where the metre of the Latin verses and their stanza form necessitated a corresponding rhythm and musical form. Rhythm in music, which has its origin and counterpart in the regular bodily movements involved in various departments of labour and in the dance, must, as has already been said, have always been an essential feature of popular melody, and it is reasonable to conclude from its absence in the plain-song, and indeed for many centuries in the compositions of musicians, which had the plain-song for their basis, that these hymns, which repre- sented the popular part of the Church services, were also repre- sentative of the popular tastes of the time. In all ages the Church has drawn largely from popular song for the melodies of its hymns. It is moreover in the highest degree improbable that the Church should have been able to evolve out of its inner consciousness, without pre-existing models, a melody — to take a single instance — like that of " Conditor alme siderum " — the survival of which in innumerable European folk-songs has already been alluded to. Numerous additions to the store of plain-song melodies were made by the monastic composers of the middle ages- the most notable is that of the Dies Irae, of which the words are attributed to Thomas de Celano (d. 1250). Reference should also be made to the music of the liturgical dramas or mysteries, popular in medieval times: The Lamentation of Rachel, The Wise and Foolish Virgins and The Prophets of Christ, are given, both text and music, in Coussemaker's L'Har- monie au moyen dgc. They reflect the severe style of the plain- song, and were probably intended for cultivated rather than popular audiences. The same is probably true of the secular songs quoted in the same work. These have a special interest as being the earliest specimens of song which have come down to us in Christian times. The best known is the " Complainte," on the death of Charlemagne (quoted in many histories), the digni- fied, if somewhat dreary, melody of which revolves mostly on the first three notes of a major scale, once rising to the fourth (thus recalling the old recitation formula). Rhythm is practically SONG 403 absent. On the other hand, the song in honour of Otto III. has definite rhythm and a degree of tunefulness. The " modus Ottino " was a well-known air, which, unlike the rest of those quoted by Coussemaker, was probably of popular origin, for the Latin words do not fit the melody and probably represent a free translation from an original in the vernacular tongue.1 Modus Ottinc. i 3 nus Cae - sar Ot - to, quern hie mo - dus re - fert, in no - mi - ne Ot - tine die - tus, quadam noc - te mem-bra su - a dum col- lo- cat Pa - la - ti - i V ca - su su - bi - to in - flam - ma - tur. (12 more stanias.) More remarkable still is a "Chanson de Table" of the loth century, a really graceful melody, the quotation of which may serve to destroy the illusion that the major scale, so often described as modern, has any other claim to the title than the fact that it has been preserved by modern musicians, while others have been discarded. Jam, dul-cis a - mi - ca, ve - ni - to, quam si-cut cor In-tra in cu - bi - cu-luni me-um, or- na-men-tis cunc - tis or - na -turn. In the same collection may be found, beside other historical songs, two odes of Boethius and two odes of Horace, set to music;2 but whether the melodies given represent medieval music or Roman music, corrupted or not, it is impossible to determine. These songs have been dwelt upon, for they not only represent some kinds of music that were sung in the gth and loth centuries, but indicate the sources from which later on the work of the troubadours was derived. They may be summed up as a church-song and folk-song, and the songs by more or less cultured persons made after these models. For the subsequent history of the art the folk-song represents by far the most potent influence, but the melodies quoted by Coussemaker which might be regarded as the works of the popular instinct afford in- sufficient data for safe generalization. More direct evidence is to be found in the 12th-century pastoral play — Le Jeu de Robin ct de Marion, till within recent years considered as the work of Adam de la Hale, but since the able criticisms of M. Tiersot in the work referred to above, likely henceforth to be regarded as 1 This melody, which is plainly derived from recitation, with A as tonus carrens, closely resembles that of Ljomur, a folk-song of the I-aeroe islanders, noted by H. Thuren in 1902 and identified by him with a piece of recitation (" Fili care ") from a 12th-century Drame liturgique " (deciphered by O. Fleischer, Neumensludien, A p; 25>- . See Folkesangenpaa Farperne, H. Thuren (Copenhagen, 1908). Identity of style between a popular song of the gth century a drame liturgique of the I2th and a folk-song still sung in the 2oth is sumciently striking — especially in view of the fact that in the ,croe ' slands instrumental music is practically unknown. Lord Ashburnham has a Virgil of the loth century, " dans lequel les discours directs de 1'Eneide sont accompagne's de notations musicales" (Coussemaker). the oldest collection of folk-songs in existence; for the original compositions which Maitre Adam has bequeathed to posterity preclude us from believing that he could have originated the dainty airs contained in that play, of which Robin m'aime is generally familiar, and is still to be heard on the lips of peasants in the north of France (see Tiersot, p. 424, n.). If M. Tiersot's view is correct, the melodies in Robin et Marion may be taken to represent the popular style of an epoch considerably anterior to the date of the play itself (though allowance must be made for the correcting hand of a professional musician) which is our excuse for introducing them at this place. Before speaking of the songs of troubadours, trouveres and minnesingers, allusion must be made to a class of men who played a part the importance of which both in the social and political life of the middle ages is attested by innumerable chroniclers and poets, viz. the skalds, bards or minstrels— the chief depositories of the musical and poetical traditions of the several countries to which they belonged. They varied greatly in rank. Some were attached to the retinue of kings and nobles, whilst others catered for the ear of the peasantry (eventually to be classed with jugglers, acrobats, bearwards and the like, sharing the unenviable reputation which attached to these representatives of popular medieval amusements). That these latter were also welcome at the halls of the great, is an estab- lished fact, which may serve as a reminder that in feudal times the distinction that now exists, bet ween the music of the culti- vated classes and of the peasantry was but slight. The style of the church music was as universally familiar as the style of the folk-song. For musicians, both of high and low degree, no other models existed. This fact is patently clear when the songs of the troubadours, trouveres and minnesingers are studied. Those minstrels continued the traditions of the better class of their predecessors, with strivings after a more polished, elaborate and artistic style. In forming their style upon an admixture of folk-song and church-song they in fact assimilated neither, and created a mongrel product without real vitality — a product that left practically no mark upon the subsequent development of the art. The astonishing skill which they exhibited in adapting the language of poetry to the most complicated metrical forms deserted them when they touched the question of musical form and of melody. Indeed their music, except in rare instances, was an adornment which the poetry could have dispensed with, and may be regarded in the main simply as a concession to the immemorial custom of treating music and poetry as inseparable arts. The real importance of these courtly minstrels in the history of song consists in their having firmly established the rhyming stanza as the vehicle for the expression of lyrical feeling, for with the rhyming stanza a corresponding compact and sym- metrical melodic form was bound to come. It was, however, reserved for the popular instinct, and not for trouveres and minnesingers, to develop this form (it is probable too that some at least of the stanza forms employed belonged first to popular poetry and were afterwards developed and elaborated by these musicians of the great houses). The scheme upon which the lyrical stanza was usually based was one in which two similar parts (called by the German Meister -singers, Stollen or props, and constituting the Aufgesang or opening song) were followed by an independent third part, the length of which was not prescribed (called Abgesang or concluding song). The complete stanza was called Lied and was knit together by different schemes of rhyme. For the first part the trouveres and Meister singers were content with some simple phrase, often borrowed direct from the folk-song, repeating it, as was natural, for the exactly similar second part: then for the third the style was apt to change towards the ecclesiastical and to wander aimlessly on to an unconvincing conclusion. The popular in- stinct was finer, for we find in innumerable folk-songs, belonging to the i4th and i$th centuries, that the greater length of the Abgesang was seized upon as an opportunity, not merely for introducing fresh material, after the repetition of the phrase attached to the two Stollen, but also for a rcMirn to that phrase, 404 SONG or some reminiscence or variation of it, by way of conclusion, thus producing a compact form, answering to the natural requirements of the artistic sense. Thus the favourite scheme of the troubadours, which may be represented as AAB, had developed in the folk-song into the scheme AABA — and this scheme has served for thousands of popular melodies throughout Europe. In some rare cases the contrasting portion might be conceived as implying modulation into the key of the dominant, thus foreshadowing the form of the first movement in modern sonatas and symphonies.1 But the present writer is sceptical, from the evidence afforded by folk-song melodies recently collected, of an instinct for modulation among a peasantry unfamiliar with harmonic music. Be that as it may, the courtly minstrels both of France and Germany rendered a real service to music in following the popular verdict in favour of the major scale or Ionian mode, and in so doing prepared the way for modern harmony, which is based upon a particular relationship of contrast between the notes composing the chord of the tonic and those composing the chords of the dominant and the sub- dominant— a relationship inherent in no other scale of the Gregorian system but the Ionian. On it the secret of musical form in the modern sense depends, for it brings with it the power of modulation (unknown to medieval times), i.e. the power of treating the same note as belonging to different tone centres (G, for instance, as the dominant of the scale of C, and also as the tonic of the scale of G), and the further power, by means of the chord of the dominant seventh, of proceeding from one tone centre to another. As long then as musicians held the Ionian scale at arm's length, progress in the modern direction was impossible. They did indeed arrive eventually at the goal, partly through the practice of using popular melodies as the foundation, or canto fermo, of masses and motets, and of arrang- ing the melodies themselves for choirs of voices, and also through the increasing need, as the art of part-writing became more elaborate and better understood, of modifying the strict char- acter of the modes by the introduction of accidentals, till, as Sir Hubert Parry remarks, " after centuries of gradual and cautious progress they ultimately completed a scale which they had known all along, but had rather looked down upon as an inferior specimen of its kind." The melodic instinct, thus developing consciously in the minds of trained musicians, and unconsciously in the makers of folk-songs, arrived eventually at the same result. But the major scale once firmly estab- lished, the trained musician based upon it a new art of harmony; further, he modified existing minor scales for harmonic purposes, leaving the old traditional scales as the almost exclusive posses- sion of the folk-song (which has cherished and preserved them in their pristine integrity up to the present day) and working out the problem of musical composition, and of melody itself, on a new foundation.2 The fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and the troublous times that ensued in Europe, involved the removal of the patronage to which the higher kinds of minstrelsy owed their position and their influence. Song passed with the close of the age of chivalry from the noble to the burgher class. The Minnesingers were succeeded by the Meister singers, the first gild of whom is said to have been established in 1311 by Heinrich von Meissen (popularly known as Frauenlob) at Mainz. In their hands song was treated more in the spirit of a trade than an art, and subjected to many absurd and pedantic regulations. In Wagner's famous opera is given a very accurate and faithful 1 For examples see Bohme, Altdeutsches Liederbuch, Nos. 131 and 195. ! Modal folk-song melodies are often tested by their conformity or otherwise to the modes as known from medieval composers. This is to limit our conception of natural forces by the use made of them by a few men at a particular epoch for special purposes. If a mode can be said to exist for a purpose, that purpose is melody : to apply to modal folk-melodies the canons laid down by composers with whom melody was a quantite negligeable is sheer perversity. Recent discoveries in the field of folk-song place us in a far better position for understanding the true nature of the modes than medieval composers : for in the folk-song their free development has not been hampered by restrictions, which were a necessary condition of polyphonic work. picture of their methods and ideals. Their importance in the history of song consists not so much in actual work achieved as in the enthusiasm widely spread through their means in the class from which most of the great German composers were eventually to spring. The real interest for the historian of song centres during this period not in the attempts of minstrels and burgher gilds to improve upon the folk-song, but in the folk-song itself. Those who have studied the large collection of medieval melodies contained in Bohme's Altdeutsches Liederbuch for Germany, and in Duyse's Het oude Nederlandshe Lied for the Nether- lands, will on other grounds than those mentioned above be ready to confirm this judgment. It is not too much to say that they contain many of the noblest melodies which the world possesses, earnest and dignified in spirit, broad of outline, and knit together in all their parts with rare and unconscious art, on principles of structure which are carefully analysed in the chapter on folk-song in Sir Hubert Parry's The Art of Music. To the examples there quoted may.be added the wonderful Tagelied (" Der Dag wil nict verborghen sin"), Ik sek adieu, Lieblich hab sich gesellet, Abschied von Innspruck (of which both Bach and Mozart are reported to have said that they would rather have been the author than of any of their own composi- tions), and " Entlaubet ist der Walde " (which, like so many of the p*opular songs of the I4th and isth centuries, was utilized by the Reformers for one of their finest hymns). A characteristic feature of many of these songs, both German and Dutch, is the melisma, or vocal flourish, of the concluding phrase, derived, if German historians are to be trusted, from the vocalization on the last syllable of the word Alleluia, which in the early Church represented the congregational portion of its services and which afterwards developed into the sequences, so popular in the middle ages. A similar feature is not uncommon in French melodies of the same period (see L' Amour de moi, Vrai Dieu d'amour, and Reveillez-wus, Piccars, in Chansons du xV siecle, by Gaston Paris and Gevaert, Paris, 1875). If the charming English song " The Nightingale " (Medieval and Plainsong Society) is of popular origin, it may serve as an indication that these melismata were also common in England (cf. also " Ah! the sighs that come from my heart," which belongs to the reign of Henry VIII.). It is in the highest degree unfortunate that no collections were made of English popular songs of the middle ages: every- thing points to the fact that quantities of them existed. The importance of song in the social life of every class is attested by all the chroniclers and poets. An age that produced " Sumer is a cumin in " (1240) must have been prolific of melody. It is impossible to regard it as an isolated phenomenon. The beauty of songs by early composers, and of others, which are possibly of popular origin, met with in the reigns of Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Elizabeth (see Wooldridge's edition of Chappell's Popular Music of the Olden Time) argue a great and healthy activity in the preceding centuries. It is sufficient to mention Morley's " It was a lover and his lass " and " O Mistress mine," or " The Three Ravens," which though it first appeared in print in 1611 is undoubtedly a folk-song belonging to a much earlier period (for versions still to be heard see Kidson's Traditional Times). The same is probably true of " A poor soul sat sighing " and many others. It is to be remarked, however, that printed versions of popular songs can seldom be relied upon as faithfully representing their original form, or even the form in which they were sung at a particular epoch. Editors have seldom resisted the temptation of tamper- ing with popular airs, if by so doing they can render them more attractive to polite tastes. Within recent years, however, the collection and publication of folk-songs has been undertaken in a different spirit — and it is possible in most countries to study the folk-songs in versions which have been taken direct from the lips of the peasantry and are presented without editorial alterations. The question as to the propriety of such alterations, or the larger question of what is suitable in the way of SONG 405 instrumental accompaniment, need not be discussed here more than to point out that the strictly scientific point of view — which seeks to understand the folk-song in its native simplicity — should not be mixed up with that of the artist who aims at adding to the world's store of beautiful music. It is to be deplored that the English composers of the i5th and 1 6th centuries did not follow the example of Dutch, German and French musicians, who utilized popular melodies as the foundation or canto fermo of their masses and motets (one example only is known, " O Westron Wynde ") and also arrange them in parts for music-loving circles (to a limited extent this appears to have been done in England, e.g. the Freemen's Songs in Deuteromela) . But in England, as in other European countries, survivals of medieval melodies are still to be found among the peasantry in quantities which vary according to the degree in which modern music has penetrated to country districts. In Germany, for instance, where musical culture has been most widely spread, the medieval folk-song, according to Herr Bohme, is no longer heard; it is possible, however, that this statement may be contradicted or modified, if the same systematic search for the Germanic folk-song, which has been made recently in France, England and elsewhere, is undertaken before it is too late. Melodies formed by composers under the principles of modern harmonic music have largely usurped their place.1 The folk-song is eventually killed by the products of the musical manufactories of the town. The peasantry provided with songs from outside is relieved from the necessity of pro- viding for its own needs, or of cherishing with the love of earlier times its own traditional inheritance. It is true that for many centuries numbers of composed songs have found their way into the popular repertory and have there undergone in many in- stances transformations which serve as a complete disguise to their real origin: but in general a fine ear can detect these intruders. Fcr even when they have suffered change or transformation in passing through a new environment the stamp of an individual or a period remains, whereas the folk-song of tradition is the work not of one age, but of many, not of the individual, but the collective mind. For songs made by uncultivated persons, and passed on to others without the aid of writing or of printing, soon lose in the course of oral transmission even such traces of individual authorship as they may once have possessed. Moreover the makers of folk-songs are concerned with nothing so little as the assertion of their own individuality. They know that it is the most familiar that is the most acceptable. Novelty has no charms for themselves or their audiences. Instinct as well as policy keep them to recognized types and formulae; and the innumerable variations which these undergo from age to age are probably far more frequently due to lapses of memory than to capacity for invention. Major tunes inadvertently sung in minor modes, or vice versa, or the accidental application of a tune to verses, for which it was not originally intended, give rise in many cases to practically new melodies. Though an author might be named, if it were possible to know the history of a folk-melody, for each change that it has assumed in the course of its history, it is clear that authorship of this kind is not what we mean when we name Dibdin as the author of " Tom Bowling." The theory that the folk-song is but the degenerate offspring of a cultivated ancestry, that the peasantry have, in fact, taken their music from a superior class, and trans- formed it to suit their own tastes and idioms, has been and is still held apparently by many (see Closson, Chansons populaires beiges; and Combarieu, La Musique, p. 114). This is tanta- mount to the assumption that the presence among songs of the 1 The error must be guarded against of supposing that melodies, heard to-day among the peasantry, which suggest medieval times, are necessarily medieval in origin. It has been already indicated that dorian, aeolian and mixolydian modes (to name those which are most prevalent) are natural modes, not church modes; they are still employed by folk-singers in many parts of Europe. A melody in the modern major scale is just as liable at the present day to submit to transformation into the mixolydian or some other mode, as melodies in other modes are liable to become major. peasantry of beautiful melodies involves pre-existing musical civilization, and that the popular instinct is incapable, without cultivation, of creating melodies that are. artistically beautiful. It would be difficult to support this assumption in the case of the German and Dutch medieval songs, to which reference has been made; the cases that could be cited, in which well-known airs of the town have passed to the country and suffered trans- formation, are insufficient data for establishing a general rule as to the origin of folk-songs. Indeed, the very fact of such transformation tends to prove the existence of a strictly popular music, into whose idiom the town music is transformed. To deny that uncultivated peasants can create melody is to forget that the languages even of savages have their grammar and syntax, as well as qualities that are rhythmical and musical, and that even among civilized people those same qualities existed long before they were analysed and tabulated by grammarians, and further developed by trained literary men. The case of melody is strictly analogous to that of languages. As every country has its own store of folk-songs in which national characteristics find expression through idioms which differentiate its songs from those of other countries, it would be arbitrary to select the songs of one country rather than those of another for separate discussion. The history of the art-song has now to be considered, of solo song, that is, with instrumental accompaniment as an essential part. Songs for two or more voices with or without accompaniment, though they properly belong to the subject of this article, are passed over, for they but exhibit the tendencies manifested in solo song when applied to more complicated forms. Operatic songs and arias are likewise omitted (except in the early Italian period), as belonging to a branch of music which requires separate treat- ment (see ARIA; OPERA). Instrumental song arose during the i6th century, a time in which composers, released by the spirit of the Renaissance from the exclusive service of the Church, were already becoming active in secular directions. The madrigal was the favourite form of composition and was rapidly approaching its period of maturity: it was now to be superseded as the popular diversion of cultivated society by solo song. The habit had already sprung up of supplying voices that might be missing in a madrigal by instruments: if all the voices but one were absent, the effect of a solo with instrumental accompani- ment was realized. A still nearer approach to solo song was made when singers, selecting one part of a madrigal for the voice, themselves played the rest on lute or chilarrone. In such performances the voice part was likely to receive most attention — even in madrigal-singing it was not unknown for the soprano to embroider her part with gruppetti and ornamental passages (see Kiesewetter's Schicksale u. Beschaffenheit des Weltlichen Gesanges, p. 72, for an example of a simple part as embellished by the well-known Signora Vittoria Archilei) — and the accom- paniment to undergo processes of simplification, thus preparing the way for melodies, simple or ornate, with unobtrusive accom- paniments, and perhaps also contributing to the invention of that declamatory or recitative style, attributed to Cavalieri, Peri and Caccini, the founders of oratorio and opera. Such melodies are found in Caccini's famous Nuove Musiche, published in Venice in 1601 (" Feri Selvaggi " may serve as a beautiful specimen of simple melody; " Cor mio " is typical of the ornate style, " Deh! dove son fuggite " of the declamatory: the last two are quoted in Kiesewetter, Ceschichte und Beschafenheit des Weltlichen Gesanges, p. 73). Caccini claimed in the preface to that work to be the first to invent songs " fora single voice to the accompaniment of a simple instrument." It is true that his friends in Rome (his native city), at whose houses these new compositions were performed, assured him that they had never heard the like before, and that his style exhibited possibil- ities for the expression of feeling, that were excluded, when the voice sang merely one part in a contrapuntal work. But, about thirty years before Caccini, lutenists in France had anticipated his innovations, and composed solo songs, with lute accompani- ments, in which is evidenced the struggle, not always successful, 406 SONG to break away from polyphonic traditions. Le Roy's Airs de Cour, published in 1571, may be cited in proof of this statement. Of these airs " Je suis amour " is somewhat in the declamatory recitative style of Caccini's Nuove musiche (see Sammelba'nde, Int. Musik Gesellschaft, article " Airs de Cour of Adrien le Roy," by Janet Dodge). Generally speaking, it may be said of early French songs that they were longer in shaking off the influence of the past than the songs of the Italians, many tricks of ex- pressions, belonging to polyphonic times, surviving both in voice parts and accompaniments. In the voice parts sometimes the influence of popular song is evident, at others they are neither melodious nor yet declamatory, but merely suggest a single part in a polyphonic composition, while the accompaniments for the lute are generally a mixture of chords used with harmonic effects, and certain polyphonic tricks inherited from the past two centuries. In England two books of " Ayres," for a single voice with lute accompaniment, one by Jones, and another by Campion and Rosseter, were published in 1601; Jones in his preface claims that his songs were the first of the kind, and Rosseter says that those of Campion had been for some time " privately imparted to his friends." Both sets therefore seem to be independent of Caccini's Nuove musiche, the influence of which was not felt for some years. In England the break with the past was less violent and sudden than in Italy; for the established practice of arranging popular songs and dances as lute solos led naturally to, and profoundly influenced, the later " ayres " with lute accompaniment. As Dr Walker remarks (History of Music in England, p. 121, Clarendon Press, 1907), " A folk-song of 1 500, a song of Thomas Campion and a song of Henry Lawes are all bound together by a clear and strong tie." In a simple and unpretentious way these first English attempts at solo-song were singularly successful. The best of them, such as Rosseter's " And would you see my Mistress' face ? " and Campion's " Shall I come if I swim? " rank as master- pieces of their kind. Both in structure and in feeling they exactly catch the essentials of the lyrics of the period. Their daintiness and charm make it easy to forgive an air of artifi- ciality, which was after all inevitable — if the songs were to represent the spirit of their environment.1 Meanwhile Italian composers, who, in spite of the frottole, villote, villanelle, balletti and falalas (arrangements in vocal parts of popular melodies common in the last half of the i6th century) seem to have been unaffected in the new song movement by popular influences, went straight from the polyphonic to the recitative style, and advanced with extraordinary rapidity. Melody was quickly added to relieve the monotony of recitative which must have been acutely felt by the hearers of the early operas, and considerable advance in this direction was made by Cavalli and Cesti (see Oxford History of Music, vol. iii., for details of their methods). Monteverde, though a greater genius than either of them, did not succeed in forcing the daring qualities of his own conceptions on others. The famous lament of Ariadne was the expression of an individual genius casting all rules aside for the sake of poignant emotional effect rather than the begin- ning of a new epoch in song. Carissimi and Rossi in oratorio and cantata (a word which then merely described a piece that was sung, as sonata a piece that was played, and consisted generally of alternate recitative and aria) brought the organiza- tion of mejody to a high degree of elaboration, far beyond anything attempted by Cavalli and Cesti. In their hands the declamatory rriethods of Monteverde were made subordinate to larger purposes of design. A broad and general characterization 1 John Dowland, the chief of English lutenists, published his first book of songs and ayres in four parts in 1597, " So made that all the parts together or either of them severally may be sung to the lute, orpherion or viol da gamba." Though not strictly speaking solo- songs they are too important not to be mentioned. Three other books followed in 1600, 1603 and 1612, in the second of which appears the famous " Flow my tears " (Lachrymae) for two voices, but al- most equally effective as a solo, and doubtless often used as such. It is published in vol. vii. of Euterpe (Breitkopf & Hartel, London), which also contains a valuable monograph on English lutenists and lute music by Miss Janet Dodge. Dowland's few solo-songs are unimportant. of emotional situations was more natural to them and to their successors than a treatment in which points are emphasized in detail. It was moreover inevitable in these early developments of musical style, in which melody had to play the leading part, that such sacrifices as were necessary in ' balancing the rival claims of expression and form should be in favour of the latter rather than the former. But, the formal perfection of melody was not the only problem which 17th-century Italian composers had to face. The whole question of instrumental accompani- ment had to be worked out; the nature and capacities of in- struments, including the voice itself, had to be explored; the reconciliation of the new art of harmony with the old art of counterpoint to be effected. It speaks volumes for the innate musical sense and technical skill of the early Italian composers that the initial stage of tentative effort passed so quickly, and that at the close of the i7th century we are conscious of breathing an atmosphere not of experimental work, but of mature art. Alessandro Scarlatti (1650-1725) sums up the period for Italy. That much of his work is dry, a mere exhibition of consummate technical skill without inspiration, is not surprising when the quantity of it is realized, and also the unfavourable conditions under which operatic composers had to work, but the best of it is singularly noble in conception and perfect in design. The same is true of the best work of Legrenzi, Stradella, Caldara. Leonardo Leo, Durante, work which was of incalculable im- portance for the development of musical, and particularly of vocal, art, and which will always, for minds attuned to its atmo- sphere of classical intellectuality, severity and self-restraint, possess an abiding charm: but comparatively few specimens have retained the affections of the world at large. Carissimi's " Vittoria," Scarlatti's " O Cessate " and " Le Violette " are the most notable exceptions (" Pieta Signore " is not included, as no one now attributes it to Stradella). The almost universal preference of the Italians in the i7th and 1 8th centuries for the aria in da capo form involved serious sacrifices on the dramatic and emotional side: for although this form was but an elaboration of the folk-song type, ABA, yet it involved, as the folk-song type did not, the repetition note merely of the melody of the opening part, but of the words attached to it. It is this double repetition which from the point of view of dramatic sincerity forms so disturbing an element. But composers, as has been remarked, were too much occupied with exploring the formal possibilities of melody t6 establish a really intimate connexion between music and text (Monteverde being a notable exception), a detailed interpretation of which lay outside their scheme of song. Elaboration of melody soon came to involve much repetition of words, and this was not felt as an absurdity so long as the music was broadly in accord with the atmosphere or situation required. A few lines of poetry were thought sufficient for a fully developed aria. Ex- ceptions are however to be found in what is known as the recitatiw arioso — of which remarkably fine specimens appear in some of Scarlatti's cantatas — and in occasional songs in slighter form than the tyrannous da capo aria, such as Caldara's " Come raggio di sol " — which foreshadows with its dignified and expressive harmonies the Schubertian treatment of song. Before Scarlatti's death in 1725 symptoms of decline had appeared. He was himself often compelled to sacrifice his finer instincts to the popular demand for mere vocal display. A race of singers, who were virtuosi rather than artists, dominated the taste of the public, and forced composers to furnish oppor- tunities in each role for a full display of their powers. An opera was expected to provide for each favourite five kinds of aria! (aria cantabile, aria di portamento, aria di mezzo caraitere, ariu parlanle and aria d' agilitd). It was not long before easier and more obvious types of melody, expressing easier and more obvious feelings, became the fashion. The varied forms of accompani- ment, in which a good contrapuntal bass had been a conspicuous feature, were wasted upon a public which came to hear vocalists, not music; and stereotyped figures, of the kind which second- rate art after the first half of the i8th century has made only too familiar, took the place of sound contrapuntal workmanship, SONG 407 till the Italian school, which had stood as a model for the world, became identified with all that was trivial, insipid, conventional, melodramatic. Not that the Italian tendency in the direction of mere tunefulness was in itself either unhealthy or unworthy. It was indeed a necessary reaction from the severe earlier style, as soon as that style began to lose its earnestness and sincerity, and to pass into cold and calculating formalism. But the spirit of shallowness and frivolity which accompanied the reaction involved the transference of musical supremacy from Italy to Germany, the only country, which, while accepting what was necessary to it of Italian influences, steadily remained true to its own ideals. Before speaking of German song, it is necessary to glance at what was being done outside of Italy in the 1 7th century. Reference has already been made to the French as pioneers in establishing solo song to lute accompaniment, which here, as in Italy, origi- nated in adaptations of polyphonic compositions. But in France from the first the main influence was derived from popular sources, the native folk-song and the vaudeville, the ditties of country and of town. In both that union of grace, simplicity and charm, characteristic of the French nation, tended to produce an art of dainty unpretentious attractiveness, in strong contrast to the serious and elaborate Italian work. It preserved these characteristics in spite of the artificial atmosphere of the French court, in which it mainly flourished up to the time of the Revolution, in spite too of the somewhat different influences which might have been expected to affect it, derived from opera, the mania for which did not, as in Italy, kill the smaller branch of vocal music. Brunettes, musettes, minuets, vaude- villes, bergerettes, pastourelles, as the airs de cour were styled according to the nature of the poetry to which they were attached, may be found in Weckerlin's Echos du temps passe, but the reader must beware of judging the real character of these songs from that which they assume under the hands of the modern arranger. With the latter part of the i8th century came in the languid and sentimental romance, in which the weaker phases of Italian melody are felt as an enervating influence. The romance became after the Revolution the most popular form of polite song, lead- ing by degrees to that purely melodious type of which Gounod may be considered the best representative, and which other composers, such as Godard, Massenet, Widor, have been for the most part content to follow and develop, leaving to more adventurous spirits the excitement of exploring less obviously accessible regions. In England, as in France and Italy, the beginning of the 1 7th century brought into existence solo song. Its beginnings have already been alluded to in speaking of the songs of Rosseter, Jones, Campion and Dowland. The work of H. Lawes, and his contemporaries, Wiliam Lawes, Coleman and Wilson, was equally unpretentious and simple. A gem here and there, such as " Gather ye Rosebuds " (W. Lawes), is the student's reward for a mass of uninspired, though not ungraceful, work in which is to be noted an attempt to come to closer quarters with poetry, by " following as closely as they could the rhyth- mical outlines of non-musical speech: they listened to their poet friends reciting their own verses and then tried to produce artificially exact imitations in musical notes " (Ernest Walker, History of Music in England, p. 130), producing what was neither good melody nor good declamation. Such tentative work, in spite of Milton's sonnet to H. Lawes, could only have a passing vogue, especially with a Purcell so near at hand to show the world the difference between talent and genius, between amateurish effort and the realized conceptions of a master of his craft. Songs like " Let the dreadful Engines " and " Mad Bess of Bedlam " reach a level of dramatic intensity and de- clamatory power, which is not surpassed by the best work of contemporary Italian composers. " I attempt from love's sickness to fly " is so familiar in its quiet beauty that we are apt to forget that melodies so perfectly proportioned were quite new to English art (though Dr Blow's " The Self-banished " deserves fully to stand with it side by side). Monteverde's " Lament of Ariadne " has already been alluded to. It is interesting to contrast its emotional force, obtained by daring defiance of rule, with the equally intense, but more sublime pathos of PurcelPs " Lament of Dido," in which song a ground bass is used throughout. The " Elegy on the death of Mr John Playford " (quoted in full by Dr Walker, p. 176 of his history) exhibits the same feature and the same mastery of treatment. The " Morning Hymn " is scarcely less remarkable, and has likewise a ground bass. Purcell died in 1695; Bach and Handel were then but ten years old, and Scarlatti had still thirty years to live — facts of which the significance may be left to speak for itself. It is among the ironies of musical history that so great a beginning was not followed up. There are echoes of Purcell in the generation that succeeded him, in Croft, Greene, Boyce and Arne: but they quickly died away. The genius of Handel first and of Mendelssohn later seem to have prevented English- men from thinking musically for themselves. At least this is the orthodox explanation: but it should be borne in mind that a list of English composers, who have been willing to sacrifice ease and prosperity to a life of devotion to artistic ideals, would be exceedingly difficult to draw up and would certainly not include many of the best-known names. From the death of Purcell to the Victorian era there is no consistent development of artistic song that is worth recording in detail. The only songs that have survived are of the melodious order; of these Arne contributes several that are still acceptable for an air of freshness and gracefulness which marks them as his own. " Where the Bee sucks " and " Blow, blow, thou Winter Wind " are typical of his style at its best, as " The Soldier tired of War's Alarms " is typical of it at its worst. Song writers that followed him, Shield, Hook, Dibdin, Storace, Horn, Linley (the elder) and Bishop, were all prolific melodists, who have each left a certain number of popular songs by which their names are remembered, and which are still pleasant enough to be heard occasionally; but there is no attempt to advance in any. new direction, no hint that song could have any other mission than to gratify the public taste for tuneful melodies allied to whatever poetry — pastoral, bacchanalian, patriotic or senti- mental— lay readiest to hand. The musical genius of Germany, which has created for the world the highest forms as yet known of symphony, oratorio and opera, is not less remarkable as the originator of the Lied — the term by. which are most easily conveyed the modern conceptions of ideal song. Germany is moreover the only country in which in orderly and progressive development the art of song may be traced from the simple medieval Volkslied to the elaborate productions of Schubert, Schumann and Brahms. If Germany is united to the rest of Europe in her debt to Italy, still her final conceptions of song belong to herself alone. And these conceptions have more profoundly influenced the rest of Europe than any Italian conception ever influenced Germany. When the rest of Europe was content with the vapid outpourings of Italian and pseudo- Italian puerilities, an acute observer could have read the signs in Germany, from which the advent of a Schubert might have been foretold. The student therefore is more profitably employed in studying the phases of song-development in Germany than in any other country. German ideals and German methods of technique have permeated the best modern song-work of coun- tries differing as widely in idiom as Russia, Norway, France and England. It is not necessary to dwell, except in very general terms, upon German song of the i7th century. There had been no development corresponding with that which produced the airs de cour of France and the ayres of England. The very literature necessary for such development was wanting. Indeed German art was too profoundly affected by the spirit which produced the Reformation to develop freely in secular directions. Even in the domain of the Volkslied the sacred songs can scarcely have been less numerous than the secular; and at the Reforma- tion adaptations of secular airs to sacred words constituted 408 SONG borrowings on a very large scale. In the i7th century the work of the Italian monodists was bound eventually to stimulate German composers to make songs, but their main interest lay in larger choral-instrumental works, in which solo songs natur- ally appear, not in song as an independent branch of art. A good general view of such isolated songs as appeared can be obtained from Reimann's collections Das dculsche geistliche Lied and Das deutsche Lied (Simrock). In spite of some stiffness and awkwardness, these 17th-century songs exhibit a loftiness of aim, a touching earnestness and sincerity, which mark them off as quite distinct from any work done elsewhere at the same time. On the other hand there is not that sure grasp of their material, nor the melodic and declamatory power, which make Purcell in England stand out pre-eminently as the greatest song composer of the i7th century. The treatment of the aria by Bach and Handel is discussed in separate articles (see ARIA; BACH; HANDEL), which render unnecessary any further comment here. Nor need we pause to consider the vastly inferior work of lesser composers such as Telemann, Marpurg and Agricola, most of which is confined to opera, oratorio and cantata. Our concern is rather with the smaller lyrical forms, and to these the absence of suitable poetry was for long an insurmountable barrier. It was not till the middle of the i8th century that the reform in German poetry associated with the name of Martin Opitz (who translated Rinuccini's text of Dafne, ]. Peri's first opera, for Heinrich Schtitz) bore real fruit. At the outset it is necessary to make a broad distinction between the more distinctly popular form of song, known as the Volkstiimliches Lied, in which the same music served for each stanza of a poem (as in the Volkslied itself, on which the Volks- tiimliches Lied was modelled), and the Kunstlied, or, to adopt the more descriptive term, the durch-componirtes Lied, in which the music forms a running commentary on a poem, without respect to its form — or, if stanza form is preserved, varying the music in some stanzas or in all in accordance with their poetical significance. Generally speaking the former aims at a wider audience than the Kunstlied, the appreciation of which, when it is worth appreciating, involves some degree of culture and intelligence, inasmuch as it aims as a rule at interpreting more complex and difficult kinds of poetry. In the i8th century the simpler Volkstiimliches Lied in strophic form was most in favour, and those who care to trace its history in the hands of popular composers like J. A. Hiller, J. A. P. Schulz, Reichhardt, Berger and Zelter, can easily do so by consulting Hartel's Liederlexicon (Leipzig, 1867) or one of a number of similar publications. Side by side with the outpouring of somewhat obvious and senti- mental melodiousness, which such volumes reveal, it must be remembered that the attention of greater men to instrumental composition, the growing power to compose for keyed instru- ments (which began to replace the lute in the middle of the i7th century), and the mechanical improvements, through which spinet, clavichord and harpsichord were advancing toward the modern pianoforte, were preparing the way for the modern Lied, in which the pianoforte accompaniment was to play an increasingly important part. C. P. E. Bach (d. 1788) alone of his contemporaries gave serious attention to lyrical song, selecting the best poetry he could get hold of, and aspiring to something beyond merely tuneful melody. The real outburst of song had to wait for the inspiration which came with Goethe and Schiller. It is unfortunate that Haydn and Mozart, pre-eminently endowed with every gift that makes for perfect song except that of literary discernment, should have left us so little of real value. There is indeed much to admire in some of Haydn's canzonets, of which " My Mother bids me bind my Hair " fully deserves its continued popularity, while Mozart's " Schlafe mein Prinzchen " — if it is Mozart's — and a few others, like these in simple strophic form, are isolated treasures which we could not afford to lose. But in only two songs by Mozart, " Abendempfindung " and " Das Veilchen," is the goal, to which the art was to advance, clearly discerned and in the latter case perfectly attained. Both are durchcomponirt, that is, they follow the words in detail; in both the general spirit, as well as each isolated point of beauty in the verses, is seized and portrayed with unerring insight. " Abendempfindung " is indeed seriously marred by some carelessness in accentuation (worse examples may be seen in " An Chloe ") and by annoying repetition of words, due to the development of the melody into a formal and effective climax. In the process the balance of the poem is destroyed, and the atmosphere of suffused warmth and tenderness, which pervades the rest of the song, is almost lost. The lyrical mood passes into one in which the operatic aria is suggested on the one hand, and on the other the formality of instrumental methods of developing melody. Not till Schubert were these traditions, fatal to the pure lyric, finally overthrown, and the conditions of true union between music and poetry perfectly realized. In " Das Veilchen " however, where Mozart touched a poem that was worthy of his genius and appealed to his extra- ordinarily fine dramatic instinct, he produced a masterpiece — rightly regarded as the first perfect specimen of the durch- componirtes Lied. Every incident in the flower's story is minutely followed, with a detailed pictorial and dramatic treatment (involving several changes of key, contrasts be- tween major and minor, variations of rhythm and melody, declamatory or recitative passages) which was quite new to the art. The accompaniment too takes its full share, illustrating each incident with exquisite fancy, delicacy and discretion — and all with no violence done to the form of the poem. With Beethoven song was suddenly exalted to a place among the highest branches of composition. Taken in hand with the utmost seriousness by the greatest musician of the age and associated by him for the most part with lyrical poetry of a high order, it could at last raise its head, and, freed from the conventional formalities of the salon, look a larger world con- fidently in the face. It cannot, however, be admitted that Beet- hoven, in spite of several noble songs, was an ideal song com- poser. His genius moved more easily in the field of abstract music. The forms of poetry were to him rather a hindrance than a help. His tendency is to press into his melodies more meaning than the words will bear. The very qualities in fact which make his instrumental melodies so inspiring tell against his songs. Though his stronger critical instinct kept him as a rule from the false accentuation which marred some of the work of Haydn and Mozart, yet, like them, he often failed to escape from the instrumentalist's point of view, especially in the larger song-forms. The concluding melody of " Busselied " would be equally effective played as a violin solo: the same might be said of the final movements of " Adelaide " and of the otherwise noble cycle " An die feme Geliebte " — movements in which the words have to adapt themselves as well as they can to the exigencies of thematic development, and to submit to several displacements and tiresome repetitions. In songs of a solemn or deeply emotional nature Beethoven is at his best, as in that cycle, to sacred words of Gellert, of which " Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur " stands as a lasting monument of simple but expressive grandeur, in " Trocknet nicht," in " Partenza," " In questa tomba," in the first of his four settings of Goethe's " Nur .wer die Sehnsucht kennt," and more than all, in the cycle " An die feme Geliebte," which represents a further stage reached in song on the road marked out by Mozart in " Das Veilchen." We have left behind the pretty artificialities so dear to the i8th century, that play around fictitious shepherds and shepherdesses, and entered the field of deeper human feeling with the surrounding influences upon it of nature and romance. The new spirit of the age, represented in German poetry by the lyrics of Burger, Voss, Claudius and Holty, members of the famous Gottinger Hainbund, and more notably by those of Goethe and Schiller, communicates itself in Beethoven to song, which now assumes its rightful position of joint interpreter. It needs no deep study of Beethoven's songs to perceive that the accompaniment has assumed, especially in the " Liederkreis, " an importance, im- measurably greater than in the songs of any previous composer. It begins to act the part of the chorus in Greek drama and to SONG 409 provide both a background and a commentary to the central personages. The tentative and uninspired work of Zelter, Reichardt, Schulz and others, when they attempted anything beyond a merely tuneful melody in the strophic form, may be passed over, but a word is due to J. R. Zumsteeg, because in spite of the sometimes childish simplicity of his work he yet, in the kind of use which he made of modulation as a means of lyrical ex- pression, anticipated, more than any other composer of songs, one of the chief features of the greatest song writer of all ages, Franz Schubert. Schubert's " Erlkonig " was written a few months before Beethoven's " Liederkreis," " Gretchen am Spinn- rade " about a year before the " Erlkonig." He was eighteen when he composed the latter, in' 1815. Lyrical song, divorced from all hindering elements and associations, whether of salon or theatre, was here at the threshold of his short career in almost full maturity and plenitude of power. It is sufficiently remark- able that a lad with so little education should have composed such music: it is more astonishing still that he should have penetrated with such unerring insight into the innermost secrets of the best poetry. Two of the necessary qualifications for a great song composer were thus at last united. Schubert pos- sessed the third — a knowledge of the human voice, partly intuitive, partly the result of his experience as a chorister boy. The beauty of his melodies is scarcely more striking than the gratefulness of their purely vocal qualities. The technique of singing had indeed been understood for nearly two centuries; but Schubert was the first to divine fully its emotional range, and to dissociate it in lyrical work from all traditions of the schools. From the beginning to the end of his career he never penned a note or a phrase because it was vocally effective. What he wrote for the voice to sing was there because for him the poetry could not have it otherwise. This was inherent in his method of working, in which he relied implicitly upon his musical in- spiration for a response, usually instantaneous, to the inordinate receptivity of his mind to the impressions of poetry. To read through a poem was for him not only to seize its innermost significance, and every salient point of language or of form, but also to visualize the scheme by which both the whole and the parts could be translated and glorified through the medium of music. As the singer Vogl, the first of his profession to appreciate him, remarked, " He composed in a state of clair- voyance." Hence the impossibility of summarizing in a short space the innovations he introduced, for new poems invariably suggested new types of song. His settings of Goethe's lyrics (that is, the best of them) differ as essentially from his settings to those of W. Muller in the cycles "Die Schone Mullerin" and " Die Winterreise," as these again from his settings of Heine. Hardly a single development in subsequent phases of the art (except those which eliminate the melodious element) is not foreshadowed in one or other of his six hundred (and more) songs. Brahms, perhaps the greatest of his successors, said that there was something to be learned from every one of Schu- bert's songs. He was as perfectly at home in the durchcompo- nirtes Lied as in the simple strophic type or the purely de- clamatory (" Der Wegweiser," " Nahe des Geliebten," " Der Doppelganger " may serve as familiar but supreme examples of each). Certain features may be selected for emphasis, first, his use of modulation as a means of emotional expression. " Du liebst mich nicht " traverses in two pages more keys than would serve most composers for a whole symphony, whilst the discords on the words " Die Sonne vermissen " and " Was bliih'n die Narcissen " gave a piercingly thrilling effect, which is quite modern. The modulations in " Wehmuth " illustrate the subtle atmospheric effects which he loved to produce by sudden contrasts between major and minor harmonies. More familiar instances occur in " Gute Nacht," " Die Rose," " Rosamunde." Secondly, his inexhaustible fertility in devising forms of accompaniment, which serve to illustrate the pictorial or emotional background of a poem; we have the galloping horses (and the horn) in "Die Post," the spinning wheel in " Gretchen," murmuring brooks in many songs from " Die Schone Mullerin " and in " Liebesbot- schaft," the indication of an emotional mood in " Die Stadt " or " Litanei." Occasionally, it is true, the persistence of a particular figure and rhythm induces monotony, as in " Ave, Maria!" or " Normans Gesang," but generally Schubert has plenty of means at his command to prevent it, such as the presence of an appropriate subsidiary figure making its appear- ance at intervals, as in " Halt," " Der Einsame," or some enchanting ritornello, by which a phrase of the vocal melody is echoed in the accompaniment, as in " Liebesbotschaft," " An Sylvia," " Standchen " and " Fischerweise." Thirdly, the sud- den entrance of declamatory passages, as in " Der Neugier'ge," " Am Feierabend," in " Gretchen," at the famous " Ach sein Kuss," and in " Erlkonig " at " Mein Vater, mein Vater." Fourthly, the realistic touches by which suggestions in a poem are incorporated into the accompaniment, such as the cock crowing in " Friihlingstraum," the convent bell in " Die Junge Nonne," the nightingale's song in " Ganymed " or the falling tears in " Ihr Bild." Finally should be noted the extreme rarity of any slips in the matter of the just accentuation of syllables, and this is especially remarkable in a song writer who relies so much upon pure melody as Schubert, for to preserve a per- fect melodic outline which shall do not the least violence to a poet's text, presents far more difficult problems than the de- clamatory style. Yet Schubert is as successful in " Liebes- botschaft " as in " Prometheus." Purists may be disturbed by the repetitions of words involved in the magnificent " Dithy- rambe " — but Schubert cannot be expected to betray a sensi- tiveness which is really post-Wagnerian. Nor is it just to a composer of over 600 songs to fasten for critical purposes on those which do not represent him at his best. His best level is so often attained as to make attacks on points which he has missed — as in some of the songs from Wilhelm Meister — some- what beside the mark. It is usually the work of enthusiasts who wish to exalt others at Schubert's expense. For further details the reader is referred to the brilliant essay on Song with which Mr Hadow concludes vol. v. of the Oxford History of Music. It must suffice here to point out in a general way that in wideness of scope and aim, in intensity of expression Schubert produced the same transformation in the lyrical field that Beethoven had produced in the larger forms of sonata, string quartet and symphony. Beethoven's work was necessary before Schubert could arise, but Schubert's conceptions and methods were the fruit of his own genius. Of his contemporaries Loewe deserves mention for his singular success in overcoming the difficulties involved in setting long ballads to music. To preserve homogeneity in a form in which simple narration presents perpetually shifting changes of action, of picture, of mood, is a problem which Schubert himself only once trium- phantly solved. Weber contributed nothing to song, except in his operas, of permanent value, beyond a few strophic songs of a popular nature. He disqualified himself for higher work by that singular preference for vapid and trivial verse which so often led Haydn and Mozart astray. Mendelssohn's literary tastes took him to the best poetry, but he made but little attempt as a rule, to penetrate beyond its superficial and obvious import. His own lovable personality is far more clearly revealed in his songs than the spirit of his poets. Differences of literary style affected the style of his music perhaps less than that of any other distinguished composer. He attained his highest level in " Auf Flugeln des Gesanges,;' the first of the two songs to Zuleika, and Nachtlied. It is noteworthy that there is no trace of Schubert's influence. Had Schubert not lived, Mendelssohn's songs would have been just the same. Hence in spite of graceful and flowing melodies, elegant but simple in form, and instinct with that polished taste and charm of manner which endeared both him- self and his works to his own generation, his songs have exercised no permanent influence upon the art. Their immediate in- fluence, it is true, was enormous: it is felt occasionally in Schumann, only too often in Robert Franz, and a host of lesser composers in many countries besides his own, such as Gade, Lindblad, Sterndale Bennett, and others who need not be specified. SONG Of far greater importance is the work of Robert Schumann, whose polyphonic methods of technique and peculiarly epigram- matic style enabled him to treat complex phases of thought and feeling which had hardly become prominent in Schubert's time with quite extraordinary success. Both by temperament and by choice he is identified with the so-called romantic move- ment, a movement in which both poetry and music have tended more and more to become rather a personal revelation than " a criticism of life." Thus with Schubert the note of univer- sality, the abiding mark of the classical composers, is stronger than the impress of his own personality. With Schumann the reverse is the case. If the romantic movement gave a new impetus of vast importance both to music and literature, yet it had its weaker side in extremes of sensibility, which were not always equivalent to strength of feeling. Mendelssohn's songs admittedly err on the side of pure sentimentality- Schumann, with Liszt, Jensen and Franz, frequently betrays the same weakness, but his best work, his settings to Heine (especially the Dichterliebe), the Eichendorf " Liederkreis," Chamisso's " Frauenliebe u. Leben " (with some reservations), besides a fair number of other songs, such as " Widmung," " Der Nussbaum," " Ihre Stimme," and his one completely successful ballad, " Die beiden Grenadiere," are strong in feeling and full of poetic and imaginary qualities of the very highest order. The new poetry called for new methods of treatment. These Schumann, instinctively an experimenter, provided, first, by a closer attention to the minutiae of declamation than had hitherto been attempted-r-and herein syncopation and suspension furnished possibilities unsuspected even by Schubert — secondly by increasing the role of the pianoforte accompani- ment— and in this he was helped on the one hand by novel methods of technique, of which himself and Chopin were the chief originators, and on the other by his loving study of Bach, which imparted a polyphonic treatment, quite new to song. In nearly all Schubert's songs, and in quite all of Mendelssohn's, the melody allotted to the voice maintained its position of supremacy. In Schumann it not infrequently becomes the secondary factor, the main r61e of lyric interpreter passing to the accompaniment, as in " Es ist ein Floten u. Geigen " or " Roselein." He also gave quite a new prominence to the opening and closing instrumental symphonies, which become in his hands no merely formal introduction or conclusion but an integral part of the whole conception and fabric of the Lied. This may be illustrated by many numbers of the Dichterliebe, but most remarkable is the final page, in which the pianoforte, after the voice has stopped, sums up the whole tenour of the cycle. This feature has been seized upon by many subsequent composers, but by few with Schumann's rare insight and judg- ment. In Franz, for instance, the concluding symphony is often introduced without necessity, and becomes a mere irritating mannerism. In Brahms however it is developed, both at the opening and close of many songs, to an importance and preg- nancy of meaning which no other composer has attained. A third point in Schumann's method is his fondness for short interrupted phrases (often repeated at different levels) in place of the developed Schubertian melodies; it is alluded to here because of the great extension of the practice by later composers, too often, as in the case of Franz, without Schumann's tact. On many grounds, then, Schumann may be regarded as having widely extended the conception of the Lied; his example has encouraged later composers to regard no lyric poetry as too subtle for musical treatment. Unfortunately in presenting com- plexity of mood Schumann was not invariably careful to pre- serve structural solidity. Many later composers have followed the occasional looseness of design which is his fault, without approaching the beauty of spirit, in which he stands alone. A bold experimenter in song was Franz Liszt, whose wayward genius, with its irrepressible bent towards the theatrical and melodramatic, was never at home within the limits of a short lyric. It is true that there is sincerity of feeling, if not of the deepest kind, in " Es muss ein Wunderbares sein " and " Uber alien Gipfeln "; but concentrated emotion, which involves for its expression highly organized form, was alien to Liszt's genius, which is more truly represented in songs like " Die Lorelei," " Kennst du das Land," " Am Rhein " — in which are presented a series of pictures loosely connected, giving the impression of clever extemporizations on paper. It is not sufficiently recognized that such work is far easier to produce than a successful strophic song, even of the simplest kind, because the composer ignores the fact that a formal lyric implies formal music, and that the most formal poetry is often the most emo- tional. Critics, who measure the advance of song by the increase in number of those that are durchcomponirt, and the decreasing output of those which have the same music to each stanza, are in danger of forgetting the best qualities both of music and of poetry. Formless music never interpreted a finely formed poem, and unless the durchcomponirtes Lied has more form instead of less than the strophic song, it is artistically valueless. The popularity therefore of " Die Lorelei " is not so much a tribute to Liszt's genius as an example of the extent to which gifted singers and undiscerning critics can mislead the public. Mere scene painting, however vivid, however atmospheric — and these qualities may be conceded to Liszt and to others who have followed his example — takes its place upon the lower planes of art. The admiration expressed by Liszt and Wagner for the songs of Robert Franz, and the cordial welcome extended by Schumann to those which first made their appearance, have led to an undue estimate of their importance in many quarters. They are characterized by extreme delicacy both of feeling and of workmanship, but the ingenuity of his counterpoint, which he owed to his intimate knowledge of Bach and Handel, cannot conceal the frequent poverty of inspiration in his melodic phrases nor the absence of genuine constructive power. To build a song upon one or two phrases repeated at different levels and coloured by changing harmonies to suit the requirements of the poetic text (as in " Fur Musik " and " Du bist elend ") is a dangerous substitute for the power to formulate large and ex- pressive melodies. But it is the method which Franz instinc- tively preferred and elaborated with skill. His songs are mostly very short and in the strophic form, some alteration being nearly always reserved to give point to the last verse. His tricks of style and procedure so quickly become familiar as to exhaust the patience even of the most sympathetic student. But the sincerity of his aims, the idealistic and supersensitive purity of his mind (which banished as far as possible even the dramatic element from his lyrics), its receptiveness to the beauties of nature and all that is chaste, tender and refined in human character render his songs an important contribution to our knowledge of the intimate side of German feeling, and compensate in some degree for the lack of the larger qualities of style and imagination. All his best qualities are represented in the beautiful setting of Lenau's " Stille Sicherheit." Those who care to study his limitations may compare his settings of Heine's lyrics with the masterpieces of Schumann in the same field, or the dulness of his " Verborgenheit " (Morike) with the romantic fervour imparted to that poem by the later genius of Hugo Wolf. A higher value than is usually conceded attaches to the songs of Peter Cornelius, a friend of Liszt and Wagner, but a follower of neither. Before he came under their influence he had under- gone a severe course of contrapuntal training, so that his work, though essentially modern in spirit, has that stability of structure which makes for permanence. He was, moreover, an accom- plished linguist, a brilliant essayist, and a poet. That perfect fusion between poetry and music, which since Schubert has increasingly been the ideal of German song, is realized -in an exceptional manner when, with Cornelius as with Wagner, librettist and musician are one person. More exquisite declama- tion is hardly to be found in the whole range of song than in the subtly imaginative " Auftrag," whilst for nobility of feeling, apart from technical excellencies of the highest order, the " Weihnachtslieder," the " Brautlieder " and much of the sacred cycle " Vater Unser," are hardly surpassed even by Schumann SONG 411 at his best, and point to Cornelius as one of the most beautiful and original spirits of the ipth century. In the song-work of the igth century, though Schubert remains the rock upon which it has been built, Schumann represents the most directly inspiring influence, even when, as in the case of Adolph Jensen (whose spontaneously melodious and graceful, if not very deep, songs deserve mention), there are importations from such widely divergent sources as those of Mendelssohn and Wagner. The application of the principles of Wagnerian music-drama to lyrical work, allied, as was natural, with the exaggerations and unconventionalities of Liszt and Berlioz, was sooner or later bound to come, bound also for a time to issue in confusion ; to rescue song from which was the work of two men of genius, who, though approaching the task from standpoints removed by the whole distance of pole to pole, may be considered as placing the crown of final achievement upon the aspirations of 19th-century song — Hugo Wolf and Johannes Brahms. Wolf exhibits an entirely unconventional and original style. He is as untroubled by tradition as Schubert, whom he resembles not often, as in " Fussreise," and " Der Gartner," in pure melodiousness, but in the intensity of his power to penetrate to the very heart of poetry. To him may also be most fitly applied the epithet' clairvoyant. He is the first who published songs for voice and pianoforte, not songs with pianoforte accompaniment, thus finally asserting the identity of singer and accompanist in true lyrical interpretation. The unerring sagacity of Brahms discerned that the pos- sibilities of song on the lines set by Schubert were far from being exhausted: his practical mind preferred to develop those pos- sibilities rather than to seek after strange and novel methods, conforming thus in song to his practice in other branches of composition. A broad melodic outline is for him an essential feature: equally essential is a fine contrapuntal bass. In form the majority of his songs follow the orthodox ABA pattern, the central portion being so organized as to offer, with the least possible introduction of new unrelated material, a heightened contrast with the opening portion by means of new treatment and new tonalities and at the same time to justify itself by producing the mood in which the return to the opening portion is felt as a logical necessity. Chromatic effects in Brahms's scheme of melody are rarely introduced till the middle section, the opening being almost invariably diatonic. It must however be admitted that Brahms's formal perfection involves occasion- ally an awkward handling of words, and that in a few instances (see Magelone-lieder, Nos. 3 and 6), they are frankly sacri- ficed to that formal development of his material which has been criticized in the cases of Mozart and Beethoven. No part of his songs deserves closer study than the few bars of instru- mental prelude and conclusion, in which is enshrined the very essence of his conception of a poem. It may almost be said that, since Schumann set the example, the first and the last word has passed from the voice to the instrument. Accompanist, like singer, must understand poetry as well as music: but with no composer is his responsibility greater than with Brahms. Complete mastery in close organization of form was allied in Brahms not only with the warmth and tenderness of romance, but with the imagination and insight of a profound thinker. Concentration of style and of thought have nowhere in the whole history of song been combined on a plane so high as that which is reached, with all perfection of melodic and harmonic beauty, in " Schwermuth," " Der Tod das ist die kuhle Nacht," " Mit vierzig Jahren," " Am Kirchhof ," " O wiisst' ich doch den Weg zuriick " and the " Vier ernste Gesange," which closed the list of his 197 songs. The alliance to song of so dangerous a companion as philosophy, or at any rate of thoughts which are philosophical rather than lyrical, proved no obstacle to Brahms's equal success in the realm of romance. This side of his genius may be illustrated by numerous songs from the Magelone cycle (notably " Wie froh und.frisch " and " Ruhe, suss, Liebchen ") and by others, of which " Liebestreu," " Die Mainacht," " Feldeinsamkeit," " Wie rafft' ich mich auf in der Nacht," " Minnelied " and " Wir wandeltcn " are a few examples picked at random. It has already been indicated that Brahms was a deep student of Schubert. If he had not Schubert's absolute spontaneity of melody, he restored it to its Schubertian place of supreme importance. In spite of all the tendencies of his age he never shirked that supreme test of a composer, the power to originate and organize melody: but it is melody often of a type so severe in its outline and proportions as to repel those hearers who are unable to attain to his level of thought and feeling. All mere prettiness and elegance are as alien to his nature as even the slightest approach to sentimental weakness on the one hand, or to realistic scene-painting on the other, so that for the world at large his popularity is jeopardized by an attitude which is felt to be uncompromisingly lofty and severe. It has hardly yet had time to reconcile itself to the union of modern lyrical poetry with a style whose elaborate contrapuntal texture differs as much from the delicate polyphony of Schumann as that in its turn differed from the broad harmonic system of Schubert. But that Brahms was never difficult without reason, or elaborate when he might have been simple, appears plainly from the preference he felt for his slighter songs in the Volksliimlich style and form, rather than for those which were durchcom- ponirl. He was strongly influenced by the Volkslieder of his country, the words of which he loved to repeat to himself, as they suggested ideas even for his instrumental compositions. His arrangements of Volkslieder mark an epoch in that field of work.1 In the history of song Brahms's name is likely to stand for the closing of a chapter. It is difficult to conceive of more com- plete work on lines that are essentially classical. The soundest traditions find in him their justification and their consummation. He has enshrined the best thought and the noblest feeling of his age in forms where elaboration and complexity of detail serve essential purposes of interpretation, and are never used as a brilliant artifice to conceal foundations which are insecure. It is not proposed to discuss the work and tendencies of contemporary German composers — of whom Felix Weingartner (b. 1863), Max Reger (b. 1873) and Richard Strauss have at- tracted the largest share of attention. The above summary, though necessarily incomplete and confined only to the most conspicuous names, may yet provide some points of view from which the songs of other countries than Germany may be re- garded, especially those in which German conceptions and German methods of technique have been dominant factors. Actual settings of German lyrics figure largely in the works of many non-German composers, and these it is hard to judge except by German standards. But, strongly as German influence has been felt in Russia, for instance, in Norway and in Finland, yet the last half century has seen the rise of more distinctly national schools of song in all these countries, and to this result the cult of the folk-song has very largely contributed. Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin, Balakirev, Cesar Cui (b. 1835), and Moussorgsky in Russia, Nordraak (1842-1866) and Grieg in Norway, Sibelius (b. 1865) in Finland, are conspicuous names in this connexion. The Latin countries have, as is natural, been but little subject to German influences; of these France alone seems to be working her way towards a solution of artistic problems Modern which has interest for those who live beyond her French • borders and which bears emphatically her own hall- Sonz- mark. The melodious style of Gounod, which has so powerfully affected composers like Massenet, Godard and Widor, has 'Their value may be tested by comparing them with the small volume containing arrangements by R. Franz, which are sympatheti- cally done but without inspiration, with those of Tappert, which are models of what such things ought not to be, and with the dull, uninviting work of A. Saran. Many of Reimann's arrangements, however, deserve cordial recognition as both sympathetic and scholarly. One fact emerges clearly from the study of folk-song arrangements, in Germany and elsewhere, that success depends upon qualities which are as rare as, and are seldom dissociated from, the power of original composition. Only a great composer can be a great arranger. 412 SONG begun to yield during the last quarter of a century to tendencies which correspond closely with those of the impressionist move- ments in French literature and painting. The deeper side of the movement, in which a strong element of mysticism plays an important part, is represented in the best songs of Cesar Franck, Faure and Bruneau, a notable group of composers, whose occasional extravagances are atoned for by original impressions of nature in her more unusual moods, and by much that arrests attention both in thought and style. The songs of Duparc (b. 1848) and Vincent d'Indy likewise repay study. Nothing can be clearer than that traditional methods were inadequate, if modern French poetry was to find interpretation in the sister sphere of music ; but how far the work of composers such as those named is likely to be regarded as final, it is pre- mature to ask. The world had hardly had time to feel at home with them before it was called upon to face what it is difficult not to regard as representing the extreme limits of impressionistic style in Debussy. We are still too much accustomed to melody and rhythm, to harmonies that have some intelligible principle in their successions, to judge securely of music which is neither melodious nor rhythmical nor in the accepted sense harmonious. We are still too much accustomed to music regulated by analys- able laws to feel at ease with music that seems, at any rate at present, to acknowledge none. Whether the work of Debussy is the beginning of a new epoch the future alone can decide, but it is permissible to feel apprehensive of an art which is based upon impressions rather than upon convictions; and the value of impressions is apt to be measured more by the degree in which they are fugitive, elusive, evanescent, or merely peculiar to the composer's temperament, than by the relation which they bear to permanent elements in nature or humanity. Hence in the modern school of song-writers, which finds its culmination in Debussy, the quality of unselfconsciousness is the one which seems most difficult for them to attain. In French art we are too often reminded how close the sublime is to the ridiculous, the dramatic to the theatrical, pathos to bathos, truth to paradox. Even in the quieter pictures we are conscious of a forced atmo- sphere, an unnatural calm, not the abiding peace of a landscape by Corot or Millet. Lastly, the opinion of Bruneau (La Musique franqaise, p. 233) that prose will in time supplant poetry in drama and song is, at least to those to whom form is still an essential element of beauty, a disquieting omen for the future. The best qualities of the French nation, its unaffected gaiety, its sincerity, grace, humour, pathos, tenderness, are far more touchingly and truthfully revealed in the simple melodies of the country-side — or in the less pretentious songs (of which Bruneau and Massenet have given examples, as well as many others) formed upon their model. Limitations of space do not form the only reason for dealing in a cursory manner with English songs of the igth century. Modem A more valid one is to be found in the absence, English until its two closing decades, of great names to Song. which can be attached the history of any orderly development, of any well-conceived and definite ideals. The authors of the very limited number of good songs are too oftep the authors of others in larger quantities which are bad, and that not in every case owing to failure of inspiration but to a lowering of ideals in order to gratify the tastes of an unin- telligent public on the one hand, and the demands of exacting publishers on the other. That a healthier art might have arisen is indicated by the presence of such songs as Hatton's " To Anthea," Loder's unexpectedly fine setting of " The Brooklet " (the words of which Schubert had already immortalized in its original German version as "Wohin"), Sullivan's fresh and original settings of several Shakespearian lyrics, and of Tennyson's uninspired cycle of verses entitled " The Songs of the Wrens," and Clay's " I'll sing thee songs of Araby." The name of Sterndale Bennett stands out as that of a composer who remained steadfastly true to his ideals. His output was indeed a small one, and covered a somewhat limited range of style and feeling: but the thought, like the workmanship, is always of delicate and beautiful quality. Though Mendelssohn's influence is apparent he has a touch which is all his own. " To Chloe in sickness," " Forget-me-not," " Gentle Zephyr " and " Sing, Maiden, sing," have certainly not yet lost their charm. Stern- dale Bennett marks the beginning of higher ideals in English song — but it is only within the last twenty-five years that we have begun to see their realization, owing to the training of many English musicians in German schools and to the increasing familiarity of the musical public with the best German Lied.tr. The lead has been taken by Parry and Stanford — composers who have published large numbers of songs in great variety of styles, and with uniform seriousness of aim and treatment. Parry's delightfully fresh early work is represented at its best in " A Spring Song," " A Contrast," and " Why does azure deck the skies?" The transition to a later manner is marked by the four anacreontic odes; and several small volumes of lyrics have since made their appearance. If some of these miss the true lyrical note, of which absolute spontaneity is an essential condition, yet a lofty level of thought and workmanship is always manifest, rising to highest inspiration perhaps in " When we two parted," " Through the ivory gate," and " I'm weaving Sweet Violets." Stanford has essayed songs in many styles, suited to poems drawn from many periods, but he is most himself and most successful in Keats's weird and dramatic ballad " La Belle dame sans merci," in Browning's cavalier songs, in the cycle of sea songs (H. Newbolt) and above all in the Irish idyll (Moira O'Neill) — where in six pieces of rarest beauty the composer has revealed different phases of Irish feeling, pathos and humour with a poetical and imaginative power unequalled in British art. It is hard to imagine a more perfect alliance between poetry and music, from the general conception of each song down to the minutest detail of declamation, than is found here. As an arranger of Irish melodies — of which four volumes have been published — Stanford has also shown himself a com- plete master. Cowen, Mackenzie and Elgar have contributed few songs worthy of reputations gained in larger forms of com- position. Of the work done and being done by younger com- posers much might be said. There is activity in many directions; a cycle of songs by Arthur Somervell from Tennyson's Maud, •is an artistic work of very real value, beautiful and original as music, and forming a highly interesting commentary upon the poem. R. Vaughan Williams, in the more difficult task of setting six sonnets from Rossetti's House of Life and in three of Stevenson's Songs of Travel, has displayed imaginative qualities of a remarkable order. Not less original is the highly finished and poetical work of H. Walford Davies. Somewhat slighter in style and thought, but instinct with true lyrical tenderness and charm, are the songs of Roger Quilt er, drawn mainly from the Elizabethan period, and the poems of Herrick. Various songs by Maude V. White, W. H. Hadow, Hamilton Harty, Harold Darke, Ernest Walker, Donald Tovey, William Wallace and others give evidence, with the work already men- tioned, of a revolution in the treatment and conception of song .in England, which is full of promise for the future. Its fulfilment however is likely to depend upon a change in the 'prevailing conditions, under which professional vocalists have a financial interest in popularizing inferior productions. Good songs, apart from the initial difficulty of finding a publisher, are thus penalized from the start, whilst the larger and less instructed portion of the public, which forms its taste upon what the singers of the day provide, remains ignorant of precisely those works which are most necessary for its enlightenment. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (new ed.) Mrs E. Woodhouse's article on " Song " (vol. iv.) gives a practically exhaustive bibliography of the whole subject of song and folk-song, country by country; her account is quite unique, and indispensable to the student. The following list is mainly of books which the present writer has found most valuable: Sir Hubert Parry, Art of Music (London, 1897); Oxford History of Music (1901-1905), esp. vol. iii.;" The Seventeenth Century "bySirHubert Parry, vol. iv.; " The Age of Bach and Handel " by J. A. Fuller- Maitland, vol. v. ; " The Viennese Period " by W. H. Hadow, vol. vi. ; "The Romantic Period" by E. Dannreuther ; Combarieu, La Musique, ses lois et son evolution (Paris, 1907) ; Ambros, Geschichte der Musik (1862-1882) ; Coussemaker, Histoire de I'harmonie au moyen SONG Age (1852) ; Kiesewetter, Schicksale u. Beschaffenheit des weltlichen Gesanges (1841); Reissmann, Das deutsche Lied (1861 ; rewritten as Geschichte des deutschen Liedes, 1874); Schneider, Das musikalische Lied (1863) ; E. Walker, History of Musicin England (1907) ; VV. Nagel, Geschichte der Musik in England (1894-1897); C. J. Sharp, English Folk-songs, some Conclusions (1907) ; J. Tiersot, Histoire de la chanson populaire en France (1889) ; Lavoix, La Musique franfaise (1891). Collections of songs with valuable introduction and notes (those marked with an asterisk have pianoforte accompaniments) : F. M. Boehme, Altdeutsches Liederbuch (Breitkopf & Hartel, 1877); Gaston Paris and Gevaert, Chansons du XV' siecle (Paris, 1875); J. Tiersot, Chansons populaires des Alpes fran$aises (Grenoble, 1903) ; De la Villemarque, Barzaz-Breiz, Chansons pop. de la Bretagne (Paris, 1867); *Bourgault-Ducoudray, 30 melodies pop. de la Basse- Bretagne (Paris, 1885); *Champfleury and Weckerlin, Chansons pop. des provinces de France (Paris, 1860); *Weckerlin, Echos du temps passe (3 vols., Paris, 1855), and *Chansons pop. du pays de France (2 vols. Paris, 1903); *V. D'Indy, Chansons pop. du Vivarais, op. 52 (Paris) ; Hjalmar Thuren, Folkesangen paa Faererne (Copenhagen, 1908) ; F. van Duyse, Het oude nederlandsche Lied (The Hague, 1903-1905) ; *E. Closson, Chansons pop. des provinces beiges (Brussels, I9°5) I *Bourgault-Ducoudray, 30 melodies, pop. de Grece et d'orient (Paris, 1897) ; Eugenie Lineff , Peasant Songs of Great Russia (St Petersburg and London, 1905) ; *W. Chappell, Popular Music of the Olden Time (London, 1855-1859); *E Wooldridge, revised edition of the above, with title Old English Popular Music (London, 1893); Folk-song Society's Journals; *C. J. Sharp, Folk-songs from Somerset (5 vols., Barnicott & Pearce, Taunton) ; *J. A. Fuller-Maitland and L. E. Broadwood, County Songs (Novello) ; *Sharpand Baring-Gould, Songs of the West (Methuen); *L. E. Broadwood, English Traditional Songs and Carols (Boosey). (W. A. J. F.) THE SONG OF BIRDS The characteristic modulated voice of birds is the outstanding example of natural " song " in the animal world. The essential requirements of a vocal organ, the pressure of vibratory mem- branes or chord, are found in the bird's syrinx (see BIRD), but how these membranes act in particular, and how their tension is modified by the often numerous syringeal muscles, we do not know. The voice of birds is produced entirely by the syrinx; the larynx no doubt modifies it, but the tongue seems to play no part in it. The " loosening of the tongue " by cutting its frenum, in order to assist a bird in talking &c., is an abso- lutely silly operation. The possession of the most elaborate syrinx is not enough to enable a bird to sing. In this respect they are like ourselves: special mental faculties are required to control the apparatus. Anatomically the raven has the same elaborate syrinx as the thrush or the nightingale, and yet the raven cannot " sing " although it can modulate its voice and can even learn to talk. As a rule the faculty of singing is restricted to the males, although the females possess the same organs; moreover, birds vary individually. Some learn to sing marvellously well, while others remain tyros in spite of the best education. But given all the necessary mental faculties, birds sing only when they are in such a healthy condition that there is a surplus of energy. This, of course, is greatest during the time of propagation, when much of the surplus of the general metabolism comes out — to use . homely words — in unwonted functions, such as dancing, posing, spreading of feathers and giving voice. Every one of these muscular exertions is a spasm, releasing some energy, and — again in homely parlance — relieving the mind. In many cases these antics and other manifestations become rhythmical, and music consists of rhythmical sounds. Of course birds, like other creatures, are to a certain extent reflex machines, and they often sing because they cannot help it, just as male frogs continue to croak long after the pairing season, and not necessarily because they or their mates appreciate those sounds. But birds stand mentally on such a high level that we can scarcely doubt that in many cases they enjoy, and therefore sing their song. Many a tame bird, a canary, starling, magpie, will repay its keeper with its song, out of season, for any kindness shown to it, or for his mere presence. If we regard any sound made by a bird under the all-powerful influence of love or lust as its " song," then probably every bird is possessed of this faculty, but in the ordinary acceptance of the term very few, besides the oscines, can sing, and even this group contains many which, like the ravens and the crows, are decidedly not songsters. On the other hand, it seems unfair not to call the charming series of notes of the dove its song. D. Barrington in a very remarkable paper (" Experiments and Observations on the Singing of Birds," Phil. Trans., 1773, pp. 240-291) defines a bird's song " to be a succession of three or more different notes, which are continued without interruption during the same interval with a musical bar of four crotchets in an adagio movement, or whilst a pendulum swings four seconds." The late A. Newton (Ency. Brit., pth ed., iii. 771; see also Diet. Birds, s.v. " Song," pp. 892-894), taking a much wider view of " song," proceeds as follows: — " It seems impossible to draw any but an arbitrary line between the deep booming of the emeu, the harsh cry of the guillemot (which, when proceeding from a hundred or a thousand throats, strikes the distant ear in a confused murmur like the roar of a tumultuous crowd), the plaintive wail of the plover, the melo- dious whistle of the wigeon, ' the cock's shrill clarion,' the scream of the eagle, the hoot of the owl, the solemn chime of the bell -bird, the whip-cracking of the manakin, the chaffinch's joyous burst, or the hoarse croak of the raven, on the one hand, and the bleating of the snipe or the drumming of the ruffled grouse, on the other. Innumerable are the forms which such utterances take. In many birds the sounds are due to a com- bination of vocal and instrumental powers, or, as in the cases last mentioned, to the latter only. But, however produced — and of the machinery whereby they are accomplished there is not room here to speak — all have the same cause and the same , effect. The former has been already indicated, and the latter is its consummation. Almost coinstantaneously with the hatch- ing of the nightingale's brood the song of the sire is hushed, and the notes to which we have for weeks hearkened with rapt admiration are changed to a guttural croak, expressive of alarm and anxiety, inspiring a sentiment of the most opposite character. No greater contrast can be imagined, and no instance can be cited which more completely points out the purpose which ' song ' fulfils in the economy of the bird, for if the nightingale's nest at this early time be destroyed or its contents removed, the cock speedily recovers his voice, and his favourite haunts again resound to his bewitching strains. For them his mate is content again to undergo the wearisome round of nest-building and incubation. But should some days elapse before disaster befalls their callow care, his constitution under- goes a change and no second attempt to rear a family is made. It would seem as though a mild temperature, and the abundance of food by which it is generally accompanied, prompt the phy- siological alteration which inspires the males of most birds to indulge in the ' song ' peculiar to them. Thus after the annual moult is accomplished, and this is believed to be the most critical epoch in the life of any bird, cock thrushes, skylarks, and others begin to sing, not indeed with the* jubilant voice of spring but in an uncertain cadence which is quickly silenced by the super- vention of cold weather. Yet some birds we have which, except during the season of moult, hard frost, and time of snow, sing almost all the year round. Of these the redbreast and the wren are familiar examples, and the chiffchaff repeats its two- noted cry, almost to weariness, during the whole period of its residence in this country. " Akin to the ' song of birds,' and undoubtedly proceeding from the same cause, are the peculiar gestures which the males of many perform under the influence of the approaching season of pairing, but these again are far too numerous here to describe with particularity. It must suffice to mention a few cases. The ruff on his hillock in a marsh holds a war-dance. The snipe and some of his allies mount aloft and wildly execute unlooked-for evolutions almost in the clouds. The woodcock and many of the goatsuckers beat evening after evening the same aerial path with its sudden and sharp turnings. The ring-dove rises above the neighbouring trees and then with motionless wings slides down to the leafy retreat they afford. The capercally and blackcock, perched on a commanding eminence, throw themselves into postures that defy the skill of the caricaturist — other species of the grouse-tribe assume 414- SONGHOI— SONNET the strangest attitudes and run in circles till the turf is worn bare. The peacock in pride spreads his train so as to show how nearly akin are the majestic and the ludicrous. The bower- bird, not content with its own splendour, builds an arcade, decked with bright feathers and shining shells, through and around which he paces with his gay companions. The larks and pipits never deliver their song so well as when seeking the upper air. Rooks rise one after the other to a great height and, turning on their back, wantonly precipitate themselves many yards towards the ground, while the solemn raven does not scorn a similar feat, and, with the tenderest of croaks, glides supinely alongside or in front of his mate." The following may be cited as the principal treatises on the subject, besides Barrington's paper quoted above: J. Blackwall, Mem. Litt. Phil. Soc., Manchester (1824), pp. 289-323; also in Froriep's Notizen (1825), col. 292-298; F. Savart, Memoir sur la voix des oiseaux, Froriep's Notizen (1826), col. l-io; C. L. Brehm, Naumannia (1855), pp. 54-59, 96-101, 181-195; and Journ. f. Ornith. (1855, pp. 348-351; 1856, pp. 250-255); C. Gloger, Journ.f. Ornith. (1859), pp. 439-459; J. E. Halting, Birds of Middlesex (London, 1866), where the notes of many of the common English birds are musically expressed; J. A. Allen, Bull. Comp. Zool. Harvard (1871), ii. 166-450; L. Paolucci, // Canto degli uccelli (Milan, 1878), and Muano soc. ital. atti. 20 (1877), pp. 125-247; C. L. Hett, A Dictionary of Bird Notes (Brigg, 1898) ; C. A. Witchell, Bird-Song and its Scientific Teaching (Gloucester, 1892); F. S. Mathews, Field Book of Wild Birds and their Music (New York, 1904). See also W. Warde Fowler, A Year With the Birds (1886). (H. F. G.) SONGHOI, SONRHAY, SURHAI, &c., a great negroid race in- habiting a large tract of country on both banks of the middle Niger. They formed a distinct state from the 8th to the i6th century, being at one period masters of Timbuktu (q.ii.) and the most powerful nation in the western Sudan. The origin of this people, who are said still to number some two millions, though their national independence is lost, has been a source of much dispute. Heinrich Barth, who has given the fullest account of them, reckoned them as aborigines of the Niger valley; but he also tried to connect them with the Egyptians. The people them- selves declare their original home to have been to the eastward, but it seems unlikely that they or their culture are to be connected at all with the Nile valley. According to the Tarik 6 Sudan, a i ;th century history of the Sudan written by Abderrahman Sadi of Timbuktu, the first king of the Songhoi was called Dialliaman (Arabic Dia min al Jemen, " he is come from Yemen "), and the account given in this Arabic manuscript leaves little doubt that he was an Arab adventurer who, as has been fre- quently the case, became chief of a negro people and led them westward. The Songhoi emigration must have begun towards the middle of the 7th century, for Jenne, their chief city, was founded one hundred and fifty years after the Hejira (about A.D. 765), and it represents the extreme western point in their progress. From a hundred to a hundred and twenty years would be about the time whtch must be allowed for the years of wandering and those of settlement and occupation in the Songhoi countries. In the north they have mixed with the Ruma " Moors," and in the south with the Fula. The Songhoi, then, are probably Sudanese negroes much mixed with Berber and even Arab blood, who settled among and crossed with the natives of the Niger valley, over whom they long ruled. In their physique they bear out this theory. Although often as black as the typical West African, their faces are fre- quently more refined than those of pure negroes. The nose of the Songhoi is straight and long, pointed rather than flat; the lips are comparatively thin, and in profile and jaw "projection they are easily distinguishable from the well-known nigritic type. They are tall, well-made and slim. In character, too, they are a contrast to the merry light-heartedness of the true negro. Barth says that of all races he met in negroland they were the most morose, unfriendly and churlish. The Songhoi language, which, owing to its widespread use, is, with Hausa, called Kalam al Sudan (" language of the Sudan " ) by the Arabs, is often known as Kissur. According to Friedrich Muller it resembles in structure none of the neighbouring tongues, though its vocabulary shows Arab influence. Keane states that the language " has not the remotest connexion with any form of speech known to have been at any time current in the Nile valley." See Heinrich Barth, Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa (1857-1858); A. H. Keane, Man Past and Present (Cambridge, 1899); Brix Forster in Globus, Ixxi. 193; Felix Dubois, Timbuctoo the Mysterious (1897); Lady Lugard, A Tropical Depen- dency (1905). SONNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe- Meiningen, situated in a narrow valley of the Thuringian forest, 13 m. by rail N.E. of Coburg. Pop. (1905), 15,003. It is famous for its manufacture of toys; its other industries are the making of glass and porcelain articles, electrical works and breweries. The town possesses a fine Gothic church, and a hydropathic establishment. SONNENTHAL, ADOLF VON (1834-1909), Austrian actor, was born of Jewish parentage in Budapest on the 2ist of Decem- ber 1834. Though brought up in penury and apprenticed to a working tailor, he yet cultivated the histrionic art, and was fortunate in receiving the support of a co-religionist, the actor Bogumil Dawison, who trained him for the stage. He made his first appearance at Temesvar in 1851, and after engagements at Hermannstadt and Graz came in the winter of 1855-1856 to Konigsberg in Prussia, where his first performance was so successful that he was engaged by Heinrich Laube for the Burgtheater in Vienna, making his first appearance as Mortimer in Schiller's Maria Stuart. Under Laube's careful tuition he developed within three years into an actor of the first order, excelling both in tragedy and comedy; and in 1882, after 25 years of brilliant service at the Court Theatre, he was given a patent of nobility. In 1884 he became manager-in-chief of the theatre; and in 1887-1888 acted as artistic adviser. He visited the United States in 1885, and again, in 1899 and 1902, achieving great success. His chief parts were Nathan in Lessing's Nathan der Weise, Wallenstein, and Der Meister von Palmyra. SONNET (Ital. Sonetto, dim. of Suono, Fr. Sonnet). The sonnet in the literature of modern Europe is a brief poetic form of fourteen rhymed verses, ranged according to prescription. Although in a language like the English it does no doubt require considerable ingenuity to construct a satisfactory sonnet of octave and sestet running upon four rhymes, this ingenuity is only a means to an end, the end being properly that a single wave of emotion, when emotion is either too deeply charged with thought, or too much adulterated with fancy, to pass spon- taneously into the movements of pure lyric, shall be embodied in a single metrical flow and return. Whether any given sonnet be composed like that of Pier delle Vigne (of two quatrains with rhymes running a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, and of two tercets with rhymes running, c, d, e, c, d, e), or whether the verses be arranged (on the authority of Shakespeare and Drayton) in three quatrains of alternate rhymes clinched by a couplet, or, as in the sonnet of Petrarch, in an octave of two rhymes and a sestet of either two or three rhymes — in each case the peculiar pleasure which the ear derives from the sonnet as a metrical form lies in the number and arrangement of the verses being prescribed, and distinctly recognizable as being prescribed. That the impulse to select for the rendering of single phases of feeling or reflection a certain recognized form is born of a natural and universal instinct is perhaps evidenced by the fact that, even when a metrical arrangement discloses no structural law demanding a prescriptive number and arrangement of verses, the poet will nevertheless, in certain moods, choose to restrict himself to a prescribed number and arrangement, as in the cases of the Italian slornello, the Welsh Iriban, and the beautiful rhymeless short ode of Japanese poetry. And perhaps, if we probed the matter deeply, we should find that the recognized prescription of form gives a sense of oneness that nothing else save the refrain can give to a poem which, being at once too long for a stanza in a series and too short to have the self-sustaining power of the more extended kinds of poetic art, suffers by suggesting to the ear a sense of the fragmentary and the inchoate. It is not then merely the number of the verses, it is also their arrange- ment as to rhymes — an arrangement leading the ear to expect SONNET a prescribed sequence and then satisfying that expectation — which entitles a form of fourteen verses to be called a sonnet. Hence the so-called irregular sonnets of S. T. Coleridge, which lead the ear of the reader to expect the pleasure of a prescribed arrangement when what they have to offer is a pleasure of an exactly opposite kind — the pleasure of an absolute freedom from prescribed arrangement — are unsatisfactory, while (as the present writer has often pointed out) the same poet's fourteen-line poem, " Work without Hope," in which the reader expects and gets freedom from prescription, is entirely satisfactory. This same little poem of Coleridge's also affords an excellent illustration of another point in connexion with the sonnet. If we trace the history and the development of the sonnet from Pier delle Vigne to D. G. Rossetti we shall find that the poet's quest from the very first has been to write a poem in fourteen verses so arranged that they should, better than any other number and arrangement of verses, produce a certain melodic effect upon the ear, and an effect, moreover, that should bear iteration and reiteration in other poems similarly constructed. Now if we ask ourselves whether, beautiful as is this poem, " Work without Hope," taken as a single and original metrical arrangement, we should get out of a series of poems modelled line for line upon it that pleasure of iteration which we get out of a series of Petrarchan sonnets, we shall easily see why the regular sonnet of octave and sestet on the one hand, and what is called the Shakespearean sonnet on the other, have survived all other competing forms. In modern Europe the sonnet has always had a peculiar fascination for poets of the first class — poets, that is, in whom poetic energy and plastic power are equally combined. It would seem that the very fact that the sonnet is a recognized structure suggestive of mere art — suggestive in some measure, indeed, of what Schiller would call " sport " in art — has drawn some of the most passionate poets in the world to the sonnet as the medium of their sincerest utterances. Without being coldly artificial, like the rondeau, the sestina, the ballade, the villanelle, &c., the sonnet is yet so artistic in structure, its form is so universally known, recognized, and adopted as being artistic, that the too fervid spontaneity and reality of the poet's emotion may be in a certain degree veiled, and the poet can whisper, as from behind a mask, those deepest secrets of the heart which could otherwise only find expression in purely dramatic forms. That the sonnet was invented, not in Provence, as French critics pretend, but in Italy in the I3th century, is pretty clear, but by whom is still perhaps an open question. S. Waddington and several other critics have attributed to Fra Guittone the honour of having invented the form. But J. A. Symonds has reminded us that the sonnet beginning Pero ch' amore, attributed to Pier delle Vigne, secretary of state in the Sicilian court of Frederick, has claims which no student of early Italian poetry can ignore. As regards English sonnets, whether the Petrarchan and the Shakespearean are really the best of all possible forms we need not inquire. But, inasmuch as they have become so vital and so dominant over other sonnet forms that whenever we begin to read the first verse of an English sonnet we expect to find one or other of these recognized rhyme-arrangements, any departure from these two arrangements, even though the result be such a magnificent poem as Shelley's " Ozymandias," disappoints the expectation, baffles the ear, and brings with it that sense of the fragmentary and the inchoate to which we have before alluded. If, however, some writer should arise with sufficient originality of metrical endowment and sufficient poetic power to do what Keats, in a famous experiment of his, tried to do and failed — impress the public ear with a new sonnet structure, impress the public ear so powerfully that a new kind of expectance is created the moment the first verse of a sonnet is recited1 — then there will be three kinds of English sonnets instead of two. With regard to the Petrarchan sonnet, all critics are perhaps now agreed that, while the form of the octave is invariable, the form of the sestet is absolutely free, save that the emotions should govern the arrangement of the verses. But as regards the division between octave and sestet, Mark Pattison says, with great boldness, but perhaps with truth, that by blending octave with sestet Milton missed the very object and end of the Petrarchan scheme. Another critic, however, Hall Caine, contends that by making " octave flow into sestet without break of music or thought " Milton consciously or unconsciously in- vented a new form of sonnet; that is to say, Milton, in his use of the Petrarchan octave and sestet for the embodiment of intellectual substance incapable of that partial disintegration which Petrarch himself always or mostly sought, invented a species of sonnet which is English in impetus, but Italian, or partially Italian, in structure. Hence this critic, like William Sharp, divides all English sonnets into four groups: (i) sonnets of Shakespearean structure; (2) sonnets of octave and sestet of Miltonic structure; (3) sonnets of contemporary structure, i.e. all sonnets on the Petrarchan model in which the metrical and intellectual " wave of flow and ebb " (as originally formulated by the present writer in a sonnet on the sonnet, which has appeared in most of the recent anthologies) is strictly observed, and in which, while the rhyme-arrangement of the octave is invariable, that of the sestet is free; (4) sonnets cf miscellaneous structure. With regard to what is called the contemporary form— a Petrarchan arrangement with the sestet divided very sharply from the octave — the crowning difficulty and the crowning triumph of the sonnet writer has always been to so handle the rhythm of the prescribed structure as to make it seem in each individual sonnet the inevitable and natural rhythm demanded by the emotion which gives the individual sonnet birth, and this can perhaps only be achieved when the richness and apparent complexity of the rhyme-arrangement is balanced by that perfect lucidity and simplicity of syntax which is the special quest of the " sonnet of flow and ebb." The wave theory has found acceptance with such students of the sonnet as Rossetti and Mark Pattison, J. A. Symonds, Hall Caine, and William Sharp. Symonds, indeed, seems to hint that the very name given by the Italians to the two tercets, the volta or turn, indicates the metrical meaning of the form. " The striking metaphorical symbol," says he, " drawn from the observation of the swelling and declining wave can even in some examples be applied to sonnets on the Shakespearean model; for, as a wave may fall gradually or abruptly, so the sonnet may sink with stately volume or with precipitate subsidence to its close. Rossetti furnishes incomparable examples of the former and more desirable conclusion; Sydney Dobell, in ' Home in War Time,' yields an extreme specimen of the latter." And now as to the Shakespearean sonnet. Some very acute critics have spoken as if this form were merely a lawless succes- sion of three quatrains clinched by a couplet, and as if the number of the quatrains might just as well have been two or four as the present prescribed number of three. If this were so, it would unquestionably be a serious impeachment of the Shakespearean sonnet, for, save in the poetry of ingenuity, no metric arrangement is otherwise than bad unless it be the result of a deep metrical necessity. If the prescriptive arrangement of three quatrains clinched by a couplet is not a metrical necessity, if it is not demanded in order to prevent the couplet from losing its power, such an arrangement is idle and worse than idle; just as in the case of the Petrarchan sonnet, if it can be shown that the solid unity of the outflowing wave can be maintained as completely upon three rhymes as upon two, then the restriction of the octave to two rhymes is simple pedantry. But he who would test the metrical necessity of the arrangement in the Shakespearean sonnet has only to make the experiment of writing a poem of two quatrains with a couplet, and then another poem of four quatrains with a couplet, in order to see how inevitable is the metrical necessity of the Shakespearean number and arrange- ment for the achievement of the metrical effect which Shakespeare, Drayton and others sought. While in the poem of two quat- rains the expected couplet has the sharp epigrammatic effect of the couplet in ordinary stanzas (such as that of ottava rima. 416 SONNINO— SONPUR and as that of the " Venus and Adonis " stanza), destroying that pensive sweetness which is the characteristic of the Shake- spearean sonnet, the poem of four quatrains is just sufficiently long for the expected pleasure of the couplet to be dispersed and wasted. The quest of the Shakespearean sonnet is not, like that of the sonnet of octave and sestet, sonority, and, so to speak, metrical counterpoint, but sweetness; and the sweetest of all possible arrangements in English versification is a succession of decasyllabic quatrains in alternate rhymes knit together and clinched by a couplet — a couplet coming not so far from the initial verse as to lose its binding power, and yet not so near the initial verse that the ring of epigram disturbs the " linked sweetness long drawn out " of this movement, but sufficiently near to shed its influence over the poem back to the initial verse. A chief part of the pleasure of the Shakespearean sonnet is the expectance of the climacteric rest of the couplet at the end (just as a chief part of the pleasure of the sonnet of octave and sestet is the expectance of the answering ebb of the sestet when the close of the octave has been reached); and this expectance is gratified too early if it comes after two quatrains, while if it comes after a greater number of quatrains than three it is dispersed and wasted altogether. The French sonnet has a regular Petrarchan octave with a sestet of three rhymes beginning with a couplet. The Spanish sonnet is also based on the pure Italian type, and is extremely graceful and airy. The same may be said of the Portuguese sonnet — a form of which the illustrious Camoens has left nearly three hundred examples. (T. W.-D.) See also ENGLISH LITERATURE : 3. Elizabethan ; Sidney Lee on the Elizabethan sonnet in Arber's English Garner (1904) ; J. A. Noble, The Sonnet in England (1893); M. Jasinski, Histoire du sonnet en France (1903); C. A. Lentzner, Das Sonnett in d. eng. Dichtung bis Milton (1886); S. Waddington, English Sonnets by Living Writers (1881), and Sonnets of Europe (1886) ; T. Hall Caine, Sonnets of Three Centuries (1882); William Sharp, Sonnets of this Century (1886), and American Sonnets (1889); John Dennis, English Sonnets (1873). SONNINO, SIDNEY, BARON (1847- ), Italian statesman and financier, was born at Florence on the nth of March 1847. Entering the diplomatic service at an early age, he was appointed successively to the legations of Madrid, Vienna, Berlin and Versailles, but in 1871 returned to Italy, to devote himself to political and social studies. On his own initiative he conducted exhaustive inquiries into the conditions of the Sicilian peasants and of the Tuscan mltayers, and in 1877 published in co-operation with Signor Leopoldo Franchetti a masterly work on Sicily (La Sicilia, Florence, 1877). In 1878 he founded a weekly economic review, La Rassegna Seltimanale, which four years later he con- verted into a political daily journal. Elected deputy in 1880, he distinguished himself by trenchant criticism of Magliani's finance, and upon the fall of Magliani was for some months, in 1889, under-secretary of state for the treasury. In view of the severe monetary crisis of 1893 he was entrusted by Crispi with the portfolio of finance (December 1893), and in spite of determined opposition dealt energetically and successfully with the deficit of more than £6,000,000 then existing in the exchequer. Uy abolishing the illusory pensions fund, by applying and amending the Bank Laws, effecting economies, and increasing taxation upon corn, incomes from consolidated stock, salt and matches, he averted national bankruptcy, and placed Italian finance upon a sounder basis than at any time since the fall of the Right. Though averse from the policy of unlimited colonial expansion, he provided by a loan for the cost of the Abyssinian War in which the tactics of General Baratieri had involved the Crispi cabinet, but fell with Crispi after the disaster at Adowa (March 1896). Assuming then the leadership of the constitutional opposition, he combated the alliance between the Di Rudini cabinet and the subversive parties, criticized the financial schemes of the treasury minister, Luzzatti, and opposed the " democratic " finance of the first Pelloux administration as likely to endanger financial stability. After the modification of the Pelloux cabinet (May 1899) he became leader of the ministerial majority, and bore the brunt of the struggle against Socialist obstruction in connexion with the Public Safety Bill. Upon the formation of the Zanardelli cabinet (Feb. 1901) he once more became leader of the constitutional opposition, and in the autumn of the year founded a daily organ, // Giornale d'ltalia, the better to propagate moderate Liberal ideas. Although highly esteemed for his integrity and genuine ability, it was not until February 1906 that he was called upon to form a ministry, on the fall of the Fortis cabinet. He immedi- ately set about introducing certain urgent reforms, suppressed all subsidies to the press, and declared his intention of governing according to law and justice. In May, however, an adverse vote of the Chamber on a purely technical matter led to his resignation. SONORA, a northern state of Mexico, bounded N. by the United States, E. by Chihuahua, S. by Sinaloa and W. by the Gulf of California. It is the second largest state in the republic, having an area of 76,900 sq. m. Pop. (1900), 221,682, a large part being Indian. The surface of the state is much broken by the Sierra Madre Occidental, which extends through it from north to south and covers its entire width with parallel ranges, enclosing fertile valleys. Four important rivers traverse the state from east to west with courses of 145 to 390 m. and discharge into the Gulf of California, viz.: the Altar, or Asuncion, Sonora, Yaqui and Mayo. The longest is the Yaqui, which has its source on the eastern side of the Sierra Tarahumare in Chihuahua and breaks through several ranges of the Sierra Madre before reaching the gulf near Guaymas. The smaller tributaries of these rivers of Sonora are often only dry canyons in the dry season. Agriculture has been developed only to a limited extent in Sonora, because of its aridity, lack of irrigation facilities, lack of railways and roads, and the unsettled state of the country. The soil of the sierra valleys is fertile, and when it is irrigated forage and cereal crops may be grown in abundance. Sugar- cane, tobacco, maguey, cotton, in small quantities, and fruits are also produced. There are excellent pasture lai*ds, especially in the upland districts, and stock-raising is an important and profitable industry. Land is held in large estates, some of them upwards of 100 sq. m. in area. The mineral resources include silver, gold, copper, lead, tin, iron and coal, and mining is the chief industry. The lack of transportation facilities has been partly relieved by the construction of a branch of the Southern Pacific (American) from Nogales southward to Guaymas and the Sinaloa frontier, from which it has been extended to Mazatlan. Guaymas is the only port of importance on the coast, but it has a large trade and is visited by the steamers of several lines. The capital of the state (since 1882) is Hermosillo (pop. 1900, 17,618), on the Sonora river, no m. north of Guaymas, with which it is connected by rail. It suffered much in 1865-1866 from the savage struggle between Imperialists and Repub- licans, and in subsequent partisan warfare. Other important towns are Alamos (pop. 1895, 6197), 132 m. E.S.E. of Guaymas, Moctezuma, 90 m. north of Hermosillo, and Ures, the old capital of Sonora and seat of a bishopric, 33 m. north- east of Hermosillo. The first Jesuit mission in Sonora, founded among the Mayos in 1613, seems to have been the first permanent settlement in the state, although Coronado passed through it and its coast had been visited by early navigators. The hostility of certain tribes prevented its rapid settlement. Ures was founded in 1636, and Arizpe in 1648. Near the end of the century Sonora and Sinaloa were divided into two districts, in 1767 the Jesuit missions were secularized, in 1779 the government of the province was definitely organized by Caballero de Croix, and in 1783 Arizpe became the provincial capital. The bishopric of Sonora was created in 1781 with Arizpe as its seat. Up to this time the history of the province is little else than a record of savage warfare with the Apaches, Serfs, Yaquis and other tribes. The development of rich gold and silver mines brought in more Spanish settlers, and then the recorcl changes to one of partisan warfare, which continued down to the administration of President Porfirio Diaz. SONPUR, a feudatory state of India, in the Orissa division of Bengal, to which it was transferred from the Central Provinces SONSONATE— SOPHIA ALEKSYEEVNA in 1905. Area, 906 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 169,877, showing a decrease of 13% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Estimated revenue £8000, tribute £600. The chief is a Rajput of the Patna line. Rice and timber are exported, and iron ore is said to abound. The town of Sonpur is on the Mahanadi river just above the point where it enters Orissa. Pop. (1901), 8887. SONSONATE, the capital of the department of Sonsonate, Salvador; on the river Sensunapan and the railway from San Sal- vador to the Pacific port of Acajutla, 13 m. south. Pop. (1905), about 17,000. Sonsonate is the centre of a rich agricultural district, and one of the busiest manufacturing towns in the republic. It produces cotton cloth, pottery, mats and baskets, boots and shoes, sugar, starch, cigars and spirits. Through Acajutla it exports coffee and sugar, and imports grain for distribution to all parts of the interior. SOOT (O. Eng. sot, cf. Icel. sot, Dan. sod; possibly from root sed, to sit), the black substance produced in the process of the combustion of fuel and deposited in finely granulated particles on the interior of chimneys or pipes through which the smoke passes. Soot is a natural nitrogenous manure (la), which was unattainable, but " virtue " or " excellence " (dpen?), he sought to communicate, not a theory of the universe, but an aptitude for civic life. " The lesson which I have to teach," Plato makes him say (Prot. 318 E), " is prudence or good counsel, both in respect of domestic matters that the man may manage his household aright, and in respect of public affairs, that he may be thoroughly qualified to take part, both by deed and by word, in the business of the state. In other words, I profess to make men good citizens." As instruments of education Protagoras used grammar, style, poetry and oratory. Thus, whereas hitherto the young Greek, having completed his elementary training in the schools of the 7pa^tm(rrijj, the KiBapiarris, and the iraidoTpifiiis, was left to prepare himself for his life's work as best he might, by philo- sophical speculation, by artistic practice, or otherwise, one who passed from the elementary schools to the lecture-room of Protagoras received from him a " higher education." The programme was exclusively literary, but for the moment it enabled Protagoras to satisfy the demand which he had discovered and evoked. Wherever he went, his lecture-room was crowded with admiring pupils, whose homage filled his purse and enhanced his reputation. After Protagoras the most prominent of the literary sophists was Prodicus of Ceos. Establishing himself at Athens, he taught " virtue " or " excellence," in the sense attached to the word by Protagoras, partly by means of literary subjects, partly in discourses upon practical ethics. It is plain that Prodicus was an affected pedant; yet his simple conventional morality found favour, and Plato (Rep. 600 C) couples him with Protagoras in his testimony to the popularity of the sophists and their teaching. At Athens, the centre of the intellectual life of Greece, there was soon to be found a host of sophists; some of them strangers, others citizens; some of them bred under Protagoras and Prodicus, others self-taught. In the teaching of the sophists of this younger generation two points are observable. First, their independence of philosophy and the arts being assured, though they continued to regard " civic excellence " as their aim, it was no longer necessary for them to make the assertion of its claims a principal element in their exposition. Secondly, for the sake of novelty they extended their range, including scientific and technical subjects, but handling them, and teaching their pupils to handle them, in a popular way. In this stage of sophistry then, the sophist, though not a specialist, trenched upon the provinces of specialists; and accordingly Plato (Prot. 318 E) makes Protagoras pointedly refer to sophists who, " when young men have made their escape from the arts, plunge them once more into technical study, and teach them such subjects as arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music." The sophist of whom the Platonic Protagoras is here thinking was Hippias of Elis, who gave popular lectures, not only upon the four subjects just mentioned, but also upon grammar, mythology, family history, archaeology, Homerology and the education of youth. In this polymath we see at once the degradation of the sophistry of culture and the link which connects Protagoras and Prodicus with the eristics, who at a later period taught, not, like Hippias, all branches of learning, but a universally applicable method of disputation. Meanwhile, Gorgias of Leontini, who, as has been seen, had studied and rejected the philosophy of western Greece, gave to sophistry a new direction by bringing to the mother country the technical study of rhetoric— especially forensic rhetoric (Plato, Gorg. 454 B; cf. Aristotle, Rhet. 1354, b 26) — which study had begun in Sicily with Corax and Tisias nearly forty years before. Gorgias was already advanced in years and rich in honours when, in 427, he visited Athens as the head of an embassy sent to solicit aid against Syracuse. Received with acclamation, he spent the rest of his long life in central Greece, winning applause by the display of his oratorical gifts and acquiring wealth by the teaching of rhetoric. There is no evi- dence to show that at any period of his life he called himself a sophist; and, as Plato (Gorg. 449 A) makes him describe himself as a Aijrcop, it is reasonable to suppose that he preferred that title. That he should do so was only natural, since his position as a teacher of rhetoric was already secure when Protagoras made his first appearance in the character of a sophist; and, as Protagoras, Prodicus and the rest of the sophists of culture offered a comprehensive education, of which oratory formed only a part, whilst Gorgias made no pretence of teaching " civic excellence " (Plato, Meno, 95 C), and found a substitute for philosophy, not in literature generally, but in the professional study of rhetoric alone, it would have been convenient if the distinction between sophistry and rhetoric had been maintained. But though, as will be seen hereafter, these two sorts of educa- tion were sometimes distinguished, Gorgias and those who succeeded him as teachers of rhetoric, such as Thrasymachus of Chalcedon and Polus of Agrigentum, were commonly called by the title which Protagoras had assumed and brought into familiar use. Rhetorical sophistry, as taught by Gorgias with special reference to the requirements of the law courts, led by an easy transition to political sophistry. During the century which had elapsed since the expulsion of the Peisistratids and the establish- ment of the democracy, the Athenian constitution had developed with a rapidity which produced an oligarchical reaction, and the discussion of constitutional principles and precedents, always familiar to the citizen of Athens, was thus abnormally stimulated. The Peloponnesian War, too, not only added a deeper interest to ordinary questions of policy, but also caused the relations of dissentient parties, of allied and belligerent states, of citizens and aliens, of bond and free, of Greeks and barbarians, to be eagerly debated in the light of present experience. It was only natural then that some of those who professed to prepare young Athenians for public life should give to their teaching a distinctively political direction; and accordingly we find Isocrates recognizing teachers of politics, and discriminating them at once from those earlier sophists who gave popular instruction in the arts and from the contemporary eristics. To this class, that of the political sophists, may be assigned Lycophron, Alcidamas and Isocrates himself. For, though that celebrated personage would have liked to be called, not " sophist " but " political philosopher," and tried to fasten the name of " sophist " upon his opponents the Socratics, it is clear from his own statement that he was commonly ranked with the sophists, and that he had no claim, except on the score of superior popu- larity and success, to be dissociated from the other teachers of political rhetoric. It is true that he was not a political sophist of the vulgar type, that as a theorist he was honest and patriotic, and that, in addition to his fame as a teacher, he 420 SOPHISTS had a distinct reputation as a man of letters; but he was a professor of political rhetoric, and, as such, in the phraseology of the day, a sophist. He had already reached the height of his fame when Plato opened a rival school at the Academy, and pointedly attacked him in the Gorgias, the Phaedrus and the Republic. Thenceforward, there was a perpetual controversy between the rhetorician and the philosopher, and the struggle of educational systems continued until, in the next generation, the philosophers were left in possession of the field. While the sophistry of rhetoric led to the sophistry of politics, the sophistry of culture led to the sophistry of disputation. It has been seen that the range of subjects recognized by Protagoras and Prodicus gradually extended itself, until Hippias professed himself a teacher of all branches of learning, including in his list subjects taught by artists and professional men, but handling them irom a popular or non-professional point of view. The successors of the polymath claimed to possess and to communicate, not the knowledge of all branches of learning, but an aptitude for dealing with all subjects, which aptitude should make the knowledge of any subject superfluous. In other words, they cultivated skill in disputation. Now skill in disputation is plainly a valuable accomplishment; and, as the Aristotelian logic grew out of the regulated discussions of the eristics and their pupils, the disputant sophistry of the 4th century deserves more attention and more respect than it usually receives from historians of Greek thought. But when men set themselves to cultivate skill in disputation, regarding the matter discussed not as a serious issue, but as a thesis upon which to practise their powers of controversy, they learn to pursue, not truth, but victory; and, their criterion of excellence having been thus perverted, they presently prefer ingenious fallacy to solid reasoning and the applause of bystanders to the consciousness of honest effort. Indeed, the sophists generally had a special predisposition to error of this sort, not only because sophistry was from the beginning a substitute for the pursuit of truth, but also because the successful professor, travelling from city to city, or settling abroad, could take no part in public affairs, and thus was not at every step reminded of the importance of the " material " element of exposition and reasoning. Paradox, however, soon becomes stale, and fallacy wearisome. Hence, despite its original popularity, eristical sophistry could not hold its ground. The man of the world who had cultivated it in his youth regarded it in riper years as a foolish pedantry, or at best as a propaedeutic exercise; while the serious student, necessarily preferring that form of disputation which recognized truth as the end of this, as of other intellectual processes, betook himself to one or other of the philosophies of the revival. In order to complete this sketch of the development of sophistry in the latter half of the 5th century and the earlier half of the 4th, it is necessary next to take account of Socrates and the Socratics. A foe to philosophy and a renegade from art, Socrates took his departure from the same point as Protagoras, and moved in the same direction, that of the education of youth. Finding in the cultivation of " virtue " or " excellence " a substitute for the pursuit of scientific truth, and in disputation the sole means by which " virtue " or " excellence " could be attained, he resembled at once the sophists of culture and the sophists of eristic. But, inasmuch as the " virtue " or " excellence " which he sought was that of the man rather than that of the official, while the disputation which he practised had for its aim, not victory, but the elimination of error, the differences which separated him from the sophists of culture and the sophists of eristic were only less considerable than the resemblances which he bore to both; and further, though his •whole time and attention were bestowed upon the education of young Athenians, his theory of the relations of teacher and pupil differed from that of the recognized professors of education, inasmuch as the taking of fees seemed to him to entail a base surrender of the teacher's independence. The principal character- istics of Socrates's theory of education were accepted, mutatis mutandis, by the leading Socratics. With these resemblances to the contemporary professors of education, and with these differences, were Socrates and the Socratics sophists or not? To this question there is no simple answer, yes or no. It is certain that Socrates's contemporaries regarded him as a sophist ; and it was only reasonable that they should so regard him, because in opposition to the physicists of the past and the artists of the present he asserted the claims of higher education. But, though according to the phraseology of the time he was a sophist, he was not a typical sophist — his principle that, while scientific truth is unattainable by man, right opinion is the only basis of right action, clearly differentiating him from all the other professors of " virtue." Again, as the Socratics — Plato himself, when he established himself at the Academy, being no excep- tion— were, like their master, educators rather than philosophers, and in their teaching laid especial stress upon discussion, they, too, were doubtless regarded as sophists, not by Isocrates only, but by their contemporaries in general; and it may be conjectured that the disputatious tendencies of the Megarian school made it all the more difficult for Plato and others to secure a proper appreciation of the difference between dialectic, or discussion with a view to the discovery of truth, and eristic, or discussion with a view to victory. Changing circumstances, however, carry with them changes in the meaning and application of words. Whereas, so long as philosophy was in abeyance Socrates and the Socratics were regarded as sophists of an abnormal sort, as soon as philosophy revived it was dimly perceived that, in so far as Socrates and the Socratics dissented from sophistry, they preserved the philosophical tradition. This being so, it was found convenient to revise the terminology of the past, and to include in the philosophical succession those who, though not philosophers, had cherished the sacred spark. As for Socrates, he ranked himself neither with the philosophers, who professed to know, nor with the sophists, who professed to teach; and, if he sometimes described himself as a <^iX6tro0oj he was careful to indicate that he pretended to no other knowledge than that of his own limitations. It would seem then, (i) that popular nomenclature included under the term " sophist " all teachers — whether professors, or like Socrates, amateurs — who communicated, not artistic skill, nor philosophical theory, but a general or liberal education; (2) that, of those who were commonly accounted sophists, some professed culture, some forensic rhetoric, some political rhetoric, some eristic, some (i.e. the Socratics) dialectic; (3) that the differences between the different groups of sophists were not inconsiderable, and that hi particular the teaching of the rhe- toricians was distinct in origin, and, in so far as its aim was success in a special walk of life, distinct in character, from the more general teaching of the sophists of culture, the eristics, and the dialecticians, while the teaching of the dialecticians was discriminated from that of the rest, in so far as the aim of the dialecticians was truth, or at least the bettering of opinion; and, consequently, (4) that, in awarding praise and blame to sophistry and its representatives, the distinctive characteristics of the groups above enumerated must be studiously kept in view. Lapse of time and change of circumstances brought with them not merely changes in the subjects taught, but also changes in the popular estimate of sophistry and sophists. The first and most obvious sentiment which sophistry evoked was an enthusiastic and admiring interest. The sophist seemed to his youthful hearers to open a new field of intellectual activity and thereby to add a fresh zest to existence. But in proportion to the fascination which he exercised upon the young was the distrust which he inspired in their less pliable elders. Not only were they dismayed by the novelty of the sophistical teaching, but also they vaguely perceived that it was subversive of authority, of the authority of the parent over the child as well as of the authority of the state over the citizen. Of the two conflicting sentiments, the favour of the young, gaining as years passed away, naturally prevailed; sophistry ceased to be novel, and attendance in the lecture-rooms of the sophists came to be thought not less necessary for the youth than attendance in the elementary schools for the boy. The lively enthusiasm SOPHISTS 421 and the furious opposition which greeted Protagoras had now burnt themselves out, and before long the sophist was treated by the man of the world as a harmless, necessary pedagogue. That sophistry must be studied in its historical development was clearly seen by Plato, whose dialogue called the Sophist contains a formal review of the changing phases and aspects of sophistical teaching. The subject which is discussed in that dialogue and its successor, the Statesman, being the question " Are sophist, statesman, and philosopher identical or different?" the Eleate who acts as protagonist seeks a definition of the term " sophist " by means of a series of divisions or dichotomies. In this way he is led to regard the sophist successively — (i) as a practitioner of that branch of mer- cenary persuasion in private which professes to impart " virtue " and exacts payment in the shape of a fee, in opposition to the flatterer who offers pleasure, asking for sustenance in return; (2) as a practi- tioner of that branch of mental trading which purveys from city to city discourses and lessons about " virtue," m opposition to the artist who similarly purveys discourses and lessons about the arts ; (3) and (4) as a practitioner of those branches of mental trading, retail and wholesale, which purvey discourses and lessons about " virtue " within a city, in opposition to the artists who similarly purvey discourses and lessons about the arts; (5) as a practitioner of that branch of eristic which brings to the professor pecuniary emolument, eristic being the systematic form of antilogic, and dealing with justice, injustice and other abstractions, and antilogic being that form of disputation which uses question and answer in private, in opposition to forensic, which uses continuous discourse in the law-courts; (6) as a practitioner of that branch of education which purges away the vain conceit of wisdom by means of cross- examination, in opposition to the traditional method of reproof or admonition. These definitions being thus yarious, the Eleate notes that the sophist, in consideration of a fee, disputes, and teaches others to dispute, about things divine, cosmical, metaphysical, legal, political, technical — in fact, about everything — not having know- ledge of them, because universal knowledge is unattainable; after which he is in a position to define the sophist (7) as a conscious impostor who, in private, by discontinuous discourse, compels his interlocutor to contradict himself, in opposition to the Sij/ioXo-yucis, who, in public, by continuous discourse, imposes upon crowds. It is clear that the final definition is preferred, not because of any intrinsic superiority, but because it has a direct bearing upon the question " Are sophist, statesman and philosopher identical or different?" and that the various definitions represent different stages or forms of sophistry as conceived from different points of view. Thus the first and second definitions represent the founders of the sophistry o,f culture, Protagoras and Prodicus, from the respective points of view of the older Athenians, who disliked the new culture, and the younger Athenians, who admired it; the third and fourth definitions represent imitators to whom the note of itinerancy was not applicable; the fifth definition represents the earlier eristics, contemporaries of Socrates, whom it was necessary to distinguish from the teachers of forensic oratory; the sixth is framed to meet the anomalous case of Socrates, in whom many saw the typical sophist, though Plato conceives this view to be unfortunate; and the seventh and final definition, having in view eristical sophistry fully developed, distinguishes it from Srifto\oyu may be discriminated, they are neverthe- less near akin, the one being the ape of philosophy, the other the ape of statesmanship. In short, Plato traces the changes which, in less than a century, had taken place in the meaning of the term, partly through changes in the practice of the sophists, partly through changes in their surroundings and in public opinion, so as to show by a familiar instance that general terms which do not describe natural kinds cannot have a stable connotation. _ Now it is easy to see that in this careful statement Plato recog- nizes three periods. The first four definitions represent the period of Protagoras, Prodicus, and their immediate successors, when the object sought was " virtue," " excellence," " culture," and the means to it was literature. The fifth and sixth definitions represent the close of the 5th century, when sophistry handled eristically, and perhaps, Chough Plato demurs to the inclusion, dialectically, ques- tions of justice, injustice and the like, SIKCUUK^ or forensic rhetoric being its proximate rival. The seventh definition represents the first half of the 4th century, when sophistry was eristical in a wider field, having for its rival, not forensic rhetoric, but the rhetoric of the assembly. Plato's classification of educational theories is then substantially the classification adopted in this article, though, whereas here, in accordance with well-attested popular usage, all the educational theories mentioned are included under the head of sophistry, Plato allows to rhetoric, forensic and political, an inde- pendent position, and hints that there are grounds for denying the title of sophist to the dialectician Socrates. Incidentally we gather two important facts — (i) that contemporary with the dialectic of Socrates there was an eristic, and (2) that this eristic was mainly applied to ethical questions. Finally, we may be sure that, if Plato was thus careful to distinguish the phases and aspects of sophistical development, he could never have fallen into the modern error of bestowing upon those whom the Greeks called sophists either indiscriminate censure or indiscriminate laudation. 2. Relations of Sophistry to Education, Literature and Philosophy. — If then the sophists, from Protagoras to Isocrates, were before everything educators, it becomes necessary to inquire whether their labours marked or promoted an advance in educa- tional theory and method. At the beginning of the sth century B.C. every young Greek of the better sort already received rudi- mentary instruction, not only in music and gymnastics, but also in reading and writing. Further, in the colonies, and especially the colonies of the West, philosophy and art had done something for higher education. Thus in Italy the Pythagorean school was, in the fullest sense of the term, an educational institution ; and in Sicily the rhetorical teaching of Corax and Tisias was presumably educational in the same sense as the teaching of Gorgias. But in central Greece, where, at any rate down to the Persian Wars, politics, domestic and foreign, were all- engrossing, and left the citizen little leisure for self-cultivation, the need of a higher education had hardly made itself felt. The overthrow of the Persian invaders changed all this. Hence- forward the best of Greek art, philosophy, and literature gravitated to Athens, and with their concentration and conse- quent development came a general and growing demand for teaching. As has been seen, it was just at this period that philosophy and art ceased to be available for educational pur- poses, and accordingly the literary sophists were popular precisely because they offered advanced teaching which was neither philosophical nor artistic. Their recognition of the demand and their attempt to satisfy it are no small claims to distinction. That, whereas before the time of Protagoras there was little higher education in the colonies and less in central Greece, after his time attendance in the lecture-rooms of the sophists was the customary sequel to attendance in the elementary schools, is a fact which speaks for itself. But this is not all. The education provided by the sophists of culture had positive merits. When Protagoras included in his course grammar, style, interpretation of the poets, and oratory, supplementing his own continuous expositions by disputations in which he and his pupils took part, he showed a not inadequate appreciation of the requisites of a literary education; and it may be conjectured that his comprehensive programme, which Prodicus and others extended, had something to do with the development of that versatility which was the most notable element in the Athenian character. There is less to be said for the teachers of rhetoric, politics and eristic, who, in limiting themselves each to a single subject — the rhetoricians proper or forensic rhetoricians to one branch of oratory, the politicians or political rhetoricians to another, and the eristics to • disputation — ceased to be educators and became instructors. Nevertheless, rhetoric and disputation, though at the present day strangely neglected in English schools and universities, are, within their limits, valuable instruments; and, as specialization in teaching does not necessarily imply specialization in learning, many of those who attended the lectures and the classes of a rhetorician or an eristic sought and found other instruction elsewhere. It would seem then that even in its decline sophistry had its educational use. But in any case it may be claimed for its professors kthat in the course of a century they discovered and turned to account most of the instruments of literary education. With these considerable merits, normal sophistry had one defect, its indifference to truth. Despairing of philosophy — that is to say, of physical science — the sophists were prepared to go all lengths in scepticism. Accordingly the epideictic sophists in exposition, and the argumentative sophists in debate, one and all, studied, not matter but style, not accuracy buteffect, not proof but persuasion. In short, in their hostility to science they refused to handle literature in a scientific spirit. That this defect was serious was dimly apprehended even by those who frequented and admired the lectures of the earlier sophists; that it was fatal was clearly seen by Socrates, who, himself commonly regarded as a sophist, emphatically reprehended, 422 SOPHISTS not only the taking of fees, which was after all a mere incident, objectionable because it seemed to preclude independence of thought, but also the fundamental disregard of truth which infected every part and every phase of sophistical teaching. To these contemporary censures the modern critic cannot refuse his assent. To literature and to oratory the sophists rendered good service. Themselves of necessity stylists, because their professional success largely depended upon skilful and effective exposition, the sophists both of culture and of rhetoric were professedly teachers of the rules of grammar and the principles of written and spoken discourse. Thus, by example as well as by precept, they not only taught their hearers to value literary and oratorical excellence, but also took the lead in fashioning the style of their time. Their influence in these respects was weighty and impor- tant. Whereas, when sophistry began, prose composition was hardly practised in central Greece, the sophists were still the leaders in literature and oratory when Plato wrote the Republic, and they had hardly lost their position when Demosthenes delivered the Philippics. In fact, it is not too much to say that it was the sophists who provided those great masters with their consummate instrument, and it detracts but little from the merit of the makers if they were themselves unable to draw from it its finer tones. The relation of sophistry to philosophy was throughout one of pronounced hostility. From the days of Protagoras, when this hostility was triumphant and contemptuous, to the days of Isocrates, when it was jealous and bitter, the sophists were declared and consistent sceptics. But, although Protagoras and Gorgias had examined the teaching of their predecessors so far as to satisfy themselves of its futility and to draw the sceptical inference, their study of the great problem of the day was preliminary to their sophistry rather than a part of it; and, as the overthrow of philosophy was complete and the attrac- tions of sophistry were all-powerful, the question " What is knowledge? " ceased for a time to claim or to receive attention. There is, then, no such thing as a " sophistical theory of know- ledge." Similarly, the recognition of a " sophistical ethic " is, to say the least, misleading. It may have been that the sophists' preference of seeming to reality, of success to truth, had a mischievous effect upon the morality of the time; but it is clear that they had no common theory of ethics, and there is no warrant for the assumption that a sophist, as such, specially interested himself in ethical questions. When Protagoras asserted " civic excellence " or " virtue " to be the end of educa- tion, he neither expressed nor implied a theory of morality. Prodicus in his platitudes reflected the customary morality of the time. Gorgias said plainly that he did not teach " virtue." If Hippias, Polus and Thrasymachus defied conventional morality, they did so independently of one another, and in this, as in other matters, they were disputants maintaining paradoxical theses, rather than thinkers announcing heretical convictions. The morality of Isocrates bore a certain resemblance to that of Socrates. In short, the attitude of the sophists towards inquiry in general precluded them, collectively and individually, from attachment to any particular theory. Yet among the so-called sophists there were two who had philosophical leanings, as appears in their willingness to be called by the title of philosopher. First, Socrates, whilst he conceived that the physicists had mistaken the field of inquiry, absolute truth being unattainable, maintained, as has been seen, that one opinion was better than another, and that consistency of opinion, resulting in consistency of action, was the end which the human intellect properly pro- poses to itself. Hence, though an agnostic, he was not unwilling to be called a philosopher, in so far as he pursued such truth as was attainable by man. Secondly, when sophistry had begun to fall into contempt, the political rhetorician Isocrates claimed for himself the time-honoured designation of philosopher, " herein," says Plato, " resembling some tinker, bald-pated and short of stature, who, having made money, knocks off his chains, goes to the bath, buys a new suit, and then takes advantage of the poverty and desolation of his master's daughter to urge upon her his odious addresses " (Rep. vi. 495 E). It will be seen, however, that neither Socrates nor Isocrates was philosopher in any strict sense of the word, the speculative aims of physicists and metaphysicians being foreign to the practical theories both of the one and of the other. As for the classification of sophistical methods, so for their criticism, the testimony of Plato is all-important. It may be conjectured that, when he emerged from the purely Socratic phase of his earlier years, Plato gave himself to the study of contemporary methods of education and to the elaboration of an educational system of his own, and that it was in this way that he came to the metaphysical speculations of his maturity. It may be imagined further that, when he established himself at the Academy, his first care was to draw up a scheme of education, including arithmetic, geometry (plane and solid), astronomy, harmonics and dialectic, and that it was not until he had arranged for the carrying out of this programme that he devoted himself to the special functions of professor of philosophy. However this may be, we find amongst his writings — intermediate, as it would seem, between the Socratic conversations of his first period of literary activity and the meta- physical disquisitions of a later time — a series of dialogues which, however varied their ostensible subjects, agree in having a direct bearing upon education. Thus the Protagoras brings the educa- tional theory of Protagoras and the sophists of culture face to face with the educational theory of Socrates, so as to expose the limita- tions of both ; the Gorgias deals with the moral aspect of the teach- ings of the forensic rhetorician Gorgias and the political rhetorician Isocrates, and the intellectual aspect of their respective theories of education is handled in the Phaedrus; the Meno on the one hand exhibits the strength and the weakness of the teaching of Socrates, and on the other brings into view the makeshift method of those who, despising systematic teaching, regarded the practical poli- tician as the true educator; the Euthydemus has for its subject the eristical method ; finally, having in these dialogues characterized the current theories of education, Plato proceeds in the Republic to develop an original scheme. Plato's criticisms of the sophists are then, in the opinion of the present writer, no mere obiter dicta, introduced for purposes of literary adornment or dramatic effect, but rather the expressions of profound and reasoned conviction, and, as such, entitled at any rate to respect. For the details of Plato's critique the reader should go not to the summaries of commentators, but to the dialogues themselves. In this place it is sufficient to say that, while Plato accounts no education satis- factory which has not knowledge for its basis, he emphatically prefers the scepticism of Socrates, which, despairing of knowledge, seeks right opinion, to the scepticism of the sophists, which, despairing of knowledge, abandons the attempt to better existing beliefs. 3. The Theory of Grote. — The post-Platonic historians and critics, who, while they knew the earlier sophistry only through tradition, were eyewitnesses of the sophistry of the decadence, were more alive to the faults than to the virtues of the movement. Overlooking the differences which separated the humanists from the eristics, and both of these from the rhetoricians, and taking no account of Socrates, whom they regarded as a philo- sopher, they forgot the services which Protagoras and Prodicus, Gorgias and Isocrates had rendered to education and to litera- ture, and included the whole profession in an indiscriminate and contemptuous censure. This prejudice, establishing itself in familiar speech, has descended from antiquity to modern times, colouring, when it does not distort, the narratives of biographers and the criticisms of commentators. " The sophists," says Grote, " are spoken of as a new class of men, or sometimes in language which implies a new doctrinal sect or school, as if they then sprang up in Greece for the first time — ostentatious impostors, flattering and duping the rich youth for their own personal gain, undermining the morality of Athens, public and private, and encouraging their pupils to the unscrupulous prosecution of ambition and cupidity. They are even affirmed to have succeeded in corrupting the general morality, so that Athens had become miserably degenerated and vicious in the latter years of the Peloponnesian War, as compared with what she was in the time of Miltiades and Aristeides;" and, although amongst the pre-Grotian scholars there were some who saw as clearly as Grote himself that "the sophists are a much- calumniated race " (G. H. Lewes), it is certain that historians of philosophy, and editors of Plato, especially the " acumen plumbeum Stallbaumii," had given ample occasion for the energetic protest contained in the famous sixty-seventh chapter of Grote's History of Greece. Amongst the many merits of that SOPHISTS 423 admirable scholar, it is one of the greatest that he has laid " the fiend called die Sophistik," that is to say, the theory that sophistry was an organized conspiracy against law and morals. Nevertheless, in this matter he is always an advocate; and it may be thought that, while he successfully disposes of the current slander, his description of his clients needs correction in some important particulars. Hence the following paragraphs, while they will resume and affirm his principal results, will qualify and impugn some of his positions. In so far as he is critical, Grote leaves little to be desired. That the persons styled sophists " were not a sect or school, with common doctrines or method," is clear. Common doctrine, that is to say, common doctrine of a positive sort, they could not have, because, being sceptics, they had nothing which could be called positive doctrine; while there was a period when even their scepticism was in no wise distinctive, because they shared it with all or nearly all their contemporaries. Neither were they united by a common educational method, the end and the instruments of education being diversely conceived by Pro- tagoras, Gorgias and Isocrates, to say nothing of the wider differences which separate these three from the eristics, and all the four normal types from the abnormal type represented by Socrates. Again, it is certain that the theoretical and practical morality of the sophists, regarded as a class, was " neither above nor below the standard of the age." The taking of fees, the pride of professional success, and the teaching of rhetoric are no proofs either of conscious charlatanism or of ingrained depravity. Indeed, we have evidence of sound, if conventional, principle in Prodicus's apologue of the " Choice of Heracles," and of honourable, though eccentric, practice in the story of Pro- tagoras's treatment of defaulting pupils. But, above all, it is antecedently certain that defection from the ordinary standard of morality would have precluded the success which the sophists unquestionably sought and won. In fact, public opinion made the morality of the sophists, rather than the sophists the morality of public opinion. Hence, even if we demur to the judgment of Grote that " Athens at the close of the Peloponnesian War was not more corrupt than Athens in the days of Miltiades and Aristeides," we shall not " consider the sophists as the corrupters of Athenian morality," but rather with Plato lay the blame upon society itself, which, " in popular meetings, law courts, theatres, armies and other great gatherings, with uproarious censure and clamorous applause" (Rep. vi. 492), educates young and old, and fashions them according to its pleasure. Nor can we regard " Plato and his followers as the authorized teachers of the Greek nation and the sophists as the dissenters." On the contrary, the sophists were in quiet possession of the field when Plato, returning to Athens, opened the rival school of the Academy; and, while their teaching in all respects accom- modated itself to current opinion, his, in many matters, ran directly counter to it. But if thus far Crete's protest against prevalent assumptions carries an immediate and unhesitating conviction, it may be doubted whether his positive statement can be accounted final. " The appearance of the sophists," he says, " was no new fact. . . . The paid teachers— whom modern writers set down as the sophists, and denounce as the modern pestilence of their age — were not distinguished in any marked or generic way from their predecessors." Now it is true that before 447 B.C., besides the teachers of writing, gymnastics and music, to whom the young Greek resorted for elementary instruction, there were artists and artisans who not only practised their crafts, but also communicated them to apprentices and pupils, and that accordingly the Platonic Protagoras recognizes in the gymnast Iccus, the physician Herodicus, and the musicians Agathocles and Pythoclides, forerunners of the sophists. But the forerunners of the sophists are not to be confounded with the sophists themselves, and the difference between them is not far to seek. Though some of those who resorted to the gymnasts, physicians and musicians derived from them such substitute for " higher education " as was before 447 generally obtainable, it was only incidentally that professional men and artists communicated anything which could be called by that name. Contrariwise, the sophists were always and essentially professors of the higher education; and, although in process of time specialization assimilated sophistry to the arts, at the outset at any rate, its declared aim — the cultivation of the civic character — sufficiently distinguished sophistical education both from professional instruction and from artistic training. It is true too that in some of the colonies philosophy had busied itself with higher education; but here again the forerunners of the sophists are easily distinguished from the sophists, since the sophists condemned not only the scientific speculations of their predecessors, but also their philosophical aims, and offered to the Greek world a new employment for leisure, a new intellectual ambition. Nor is it altogether correct to say that " the persons styled sophists had no principles common to them all and distinguishing them from others." Various as were the phases through which sophistry passed between the middle of the 5th century and the middle of the 4th, the sophists — Socrates himself being no exception — had in their declared antagonism to philosophy a common characteristic; and, if in the interval, philosophical speculation being temporarily suspended, scepticism ceased for the time to be peculiar, at the outset, when Protagoras and Gorgias broke with the physicists, and in the sequel, when Plato raised the cry of " back to Parmenides," this common characteristic was distinctive. Further, it may be doubted whether Grote is sufficiently care- ful to distinguish between the charges brought against the sophists personally and the criticism of their educational methods. When the sophists are represented as conscious imposters who " poisoned and demoralized by corrupt teaching the Athenian moral character," he has, as has been seen, an easy and complete reply. But the question still remains — Was the education provided by Protagoras, by Gorgias, by Isocrates, by the eristics and by Socrates, good, bad or indifferent? And, though the modern critic will not be prepared with Plato to deny the name of education to all teaching which is not based upon an ontology, it may nevertheless be thought that normal sophistry — as opposed to the sophistry of Socrates — was in various degrees unsatisfactory, in so far as it tacitly or confessedly ignored the " material " element of exposition by reasoning. And if Grote overlooks important agreements he seems also to understate important differences. Regarding Protagoras, Gorgias and Isocrates as types of one and the same sophistry (PP- 487, 493, 49S, 499, 544, 2nd ed.), and neglecting as slander or exaggeration all the evidence in regard to the sophistry of eristic (p. 540), he conceives that the sophists undertook " to educate young men so as to make them better qualified for statesmen or ministers," and that " that which stood most prominent in the teaching of Gorgias and the other sophists was, that they cultivated and improved the powers of public speaking in their pupils." Excellent as a statement of the aim and method of Isocrates, and tolerable as a statement of those of Gorgias, these phrases are inexact if applied to Protagoras, who, making " civic virtue " his aim, regarded statesmanship and administra- tion as parts of " civic virtue ", and consequently assigned to oratory no more than a subordinate place in his programme, while to the eristics — whose existence is attested not only by Plato, but also by Isocrates and Aristotle — and to Socrates — whom Grote himself accounts a sophist — the description is plainly and palpably inappropriate. Grote's note about the eristical sophists is perhaps the least satisfactory part of his exposition. That " there were in Athens persons who abused the dialectical exercise for frivolous puzzles " he admits; but "to treat Euthydemus and Dionysodorus as samples of ' the Sophists ' is, " he continues, " altogether un- warrantable." It would seem, then,' that, while he regards rhetoric as the function of normal sophistry, taking indifferently as his types Protagoras, Gorgias and Isocrates, he accounts Euthydemus and Dionysodorus (together with Socrates) as sophists, but as sophists of an abnormal sort, who may therefore be neglected. Now this view is inconsistent with the evidence of Plato, who, in the 424 SOPHOCLES Sophist, in his final and operative definition, gives prominence to the eristical element, and plainly accounts it the main character- istic not indeed of the sophistry of the 5th century, but of the sophistry of the 4th. It must be presumed, then, that, in virtue of his general suspicions of the Platonic testimony, Grote in this matter leaves the Sophist out of account. There is, however, another theory of the significance of Plato's allusions to eristical sophistry, that of Professor H. Sidgwick, whose brilliant defence of Grote is an indispensable supplement to the original document. Giving a hearty general assent to Grote's theory, Sidgwick never- theless introduces qualifications similar to some of those which are suggested in this article. In particular he allows that " there was at any rate enough of charlatanism in Protagoras and Hippias to prevent any ardour for their historical reputation," that the sophists generally _ " had in their lifetime more success than they deserved, ' that it was " antagonism to their teaching which developed the genius of Socrates," and, above all, that, " in his anxiety to do justice to the Sophist, Grote laid more stress than is at all necessary on the partisanship of Plato." Now this last admission precludes Sidgwick from neglecting, as Grote had done, the evidence of the Euthydemus. Pointing out that the sophists of that dialogue "profess «£j iperijs firifif\tiav irporpe^at by means of dialogue," that they challenge the interlocutor virix"' *&yov," that " their examples are drawn from common objects and vulgar trades," that " they maintain positions that we know to have been held by Megarians and Cynics," he infers that " what we have here presented to us as ' sophistic ' is neither more nor less than a caricature of the Megarian logi; "; and further, on the ground that " the whole conception of Socrates and his effect on his contemporaries, as all authorities combine to represent it, requires us to assume that his manner of discourse was quite novel, that no one before had systematically attempted to show men their ignorance of what they believed themselves to know," he is " dis- posed to think that the art of disputation which is ascribed to sophists in the Euthydemus and the Sophistes (and exhaustively analysed by Aristotle in the n«pi aottH.vrut.Siv i\kyx^") originated entirely with Socrates, and that he is altogether responsible for the form at least of this second species of sophistic." To this theory the present writer is unable to subscribe. That Plato was not care- ful to distinguish the Megarians and the Cynics from the eristical sophists, and that the disputants of the 4th century affected some of the mannerisms of the greatest disputant of the 5th century, he willingly concedes. But he cannot allow either that the Megarians and the_Cynics were the only eristics, or that eristical sophistry began with Socrates. Plainly this is not the place for a full ex- amination of the question; yet it may be remarked — (i) that the previous history of the sophists of the Euthydemus, who had been professors of tactics (Xenophon, Mem. iii. i, i), swordsmanship, and forensic argumentation, implies that they came to eristic not from the sophistry of Socrates, but from that of the later human- ists, polymaths of the type of Hippias; (2) that the fifth and sixth definitions of the Sophist, in which " that branch of eristic which brings pecuniary gain to the practitioner " is opposed to the " patience-trying, purgative elenchus " of Socrates, indicate that contemporary with Socrates there were eristics whose aims were not his; (3) that, whereas the sophist of the final definition " dis- putes, and teaches others to dispute, about things divine, cosmical, metaphysical, legal, political, technical, in fact, about all things," we have no ground for supposing that the Megarians and the Cynics used their eristic for any purpose except the defence of their logical heresies. Nor is it possible to accept the statements that " the splendid genius, the lasting influence, and the reiterated polemics of Plato have stamped the name sophist upon the men against whom he wrote as if it were their recognized, legitimate and peculiar designation," and that " Plato not only stole the name out of general circulation, in order to fasten it specially upon his opponents the paid teachers, but also connected with it express discreditable attributes which formed no part of its primitive and recognized meaning and were altogether distinct from, though grafted upon, the vague sentiment of dislike associated with it." That is to say, Grote supposes that for at least eight and forty years, from 447 to 399, the paid professors had no profes- sional title; that, this period having elapsed, a youthful opponent succeeded in fastening an uncomplimentary title not only upon the contemporary teachers, but also, retrospectively, upon their predecessors; and that, artfully enhancing the indigrity of the title affixed, he thus obscured, perverted and effaced the records and the memories of the past. Manifestly all three propositions are antecedently improbable. But more than this: whereas in the nomenclature of Plato's contemporaries Pro- tagoras, Gorgias, Socrates, Dionysodorus and Isocrates were all of them sophists, Plato himself, in his careful investigation summarized above, limits the meaning of the term so that it shall include the humanists and the eristics only. Now, if his use of the term was stricter than the customary use, he can hardly be held answerable for the latter. Nor is Grote altogether just in his account of Plato's attitude towards the several sophists, or altogether judicious in his appreciation of Plato's testimony. However contemptuous in his portraiture of Hippias and Dionysodorus, however severe in his polemic against Isocrates, Plato regards Protagoras with admiration and Gorgias with respect. While he emphasizes in the later sophists the consequences of the fundamental error of sophistry — its indifference to truth — he does honour to the genius and the originality of the leaders of the movement. Indeed, the author of this article finds in the writings of Plato a grave and discriminating study of the several forms of sophistry, and no trace whatsoever of that blind hostility which should warrant us in neglecting his clear and precise evidence. In a word, the present writer agrees with Grote that the sophists were not a sect or school with common doctrine or method; that their theoretical and practical morality was neither above nor below that of their age, being, in fact, determined by it; and that Plato and his followers are not to be regarded as the authorized teachers of the Greek nation, nor the sophists as the dissenters, but vice versa. At the same time, in opposi- tion to Grote, he maintains that the appearance of the sophists marked a new departure, in so far as they were the first professors of " higher education " as such; that they agreed in the rejection of "philosophy"; that the education which they severally gave was open to criticism, inasmuch as, with the exception of Socrates, they attached too much importance to the form, too little to the matter, of their discourses and arguments; that humanism, rhetoric, politic and disputation were characteristic not of all sophists collectively, but of sections of the profession; that Plato was not the first to give a special meaning to the term " sophist " and to affix it upon the professors of education; and, finally, that Plato's evidence is in all essentials trustworthy. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — On the significance of the sophistical move- ment, see E. Zeller, Philosophic d. Griechen, i. 932-1041 (4th ed., Leipzig, 1876); Presocratic Philosophy, ii. 394-516 (London, 1881); G. Grote, History of Greece, ch. Ixvii. (London, 1851, &c.); E. M. Cope, " On the Sophists," and " On the Sophistical Rhetoric," in Journ. Class, and Sacr. Philol. vol. ii. (Cambridge, 1855), and vol. iii. (1857), an erudite but inconclusive reply to Grote; H. Sidgwick, " The Sophists," in Journ. of Philol., vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1872), and vol. v. (1874), a brilliant defence of Grote; A. W. Benn, The Greek Philosophers i. 53-107 (London, 1882). For lists of treatises upon the life and teaching of particular sophists, see Ueberweg, Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Philos., i. §§ 27-32 (History of Philosophy, London, 1880). On the Hater use of the term " sophist," see RHETORIC. (H. JA.) SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.C.), Greek tragic poet, was born at Colonus in the neighbourhood of Athens. His father's name was Sophillus; and the family burial-place is said to have been about a mile and a half from the city on the Decelean Way. The date assigned for the poet's birth is in accordance with the tale that young Sophocles, then a pupil of the musician Lamprus, was chosen to lead the chorus of boys in the celebration of the victory of Salamis (480 B.C.). The time of his death is fixed by the allusions to it in the Frogs of Aristophanes and in the Muses, a lost play of Phrynichus, the comic poet, which were both produced in 405 B.C., shortly before the capture of Athens. And the legend which implies that Lysander allowed him funeral honours is one of those which, like the story of Alexander and Pindar's house at Thebes, we can at least wish to be founded on fact, though we should probably substitute Agis for Lysander. Apart from tragic victories, the event of Sophocles' life most fully authenticated is his appointment at the age of fifty-five as one of the generals who served with Pericles in the Samian War (440-439 B.C.). Conjecture has been rife as to the possi- bility of his here improving acquaintance with Herodotus, whom he probably met some years earlier at Athens. But the distich quoted by Plutarch — 'fliofiv 'Hpo56r<|) rtv&v l'o<£o*.-Xf;s iriuv &v is a slight ground on which to reject the stronger tradition according to which Herodotus was ere this established at Thurii; SOPHOCLES 425 and the coincidences in their writings may be accounted for by their having drawn from a common source. The fact of Sophocles' generalship is the less surprising if taken in connexion with the interesting remark of his biographer (whose Life, though absent from the earliest MS. through some mischance, bears marks of an Alexandrian origin) that he took his full share of civic duties, and even served on foreign embassies. The large acquaintance- ship which this implies, not only in Athens, but in Ionic cities generally, is a point of main importance in considering the opportunities of information at his command. And, if we credit this assertion, we are the more at liberty to doubt the other state- ment, though it is not incredible, that his appointment as general was due to the political wisdom of his Antigone. The testimony borne by Aristophanes in the Frogs to the amiability of the poet's temper (6 5" eu/coXos H& ev0&8', e&KoXos 5' end) agrees with the record of his biographer that he was univer- sally beloved. And the anecdote recalled by Cephalus in Plato's Republic, that Sophocles welcomed the release from the passions which is brought by age, accords with the spirit of his famous Ode to Love in the Antigone. The Sophocles who, according to Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 18), said of the government of the Four Hundred that it was the better of two bad alternatives (probably the same who was one of the probuli), may or may not have been the poet. Other gossiping stories are hardly worth repeating — as that Pericles rebuked his love of pleasure and thought him a bad general, though a good poet; that he humorously boasted of his own " generalship " in affairs of love; or that he said of Aeschylus that he was often right without knowing it, and that Euripides represented men as they are, not as they ought to be. (This last anecdote has the authority of Aristotle.) Such trifles rather reflect contemporary or subsequent impressions of a superficial kind than tell us anything about the man or the dramatist. The gibe of Aristophanes (Pax 695 seq.), that Sophocles in his old age was become a very Simonides in his love for gain, may turn on some perversion of fact, without being altogether fair to either poet. It is certainly irreconcilable with the remark (Vit. anon.) that in spite of pressing invitations he refused to leave Athens for kings' courts. And the story of his indictment by his son lophon for incompetence to manage his affairs — to which Cicero has given some weight by quoting it in the De senectute — appears to be really traceable to Satyrus (fl. c. 200 B.C.), the same author who gave publicity to the most ridiculous of the various absurd accounts of the poet's death — that his breath failed him for want of a pause in reading some passage of the Antigone. Satyrus is atr least the sole authority for the defence of the aged poet, who, after reciting passages from the Oed. Col., is supposed to have said to his accusers, " If I am Sophocles I am no dotard, and if I dote I am not Sophocles." On the other hand, we need not the testimony of biographers to assure us that he was devoted to Athens and renowned for piety. He is said to have been priest of the hero Alcon, and himself to have received divine honours after death. That the duty of managing the actors as well as of training the chorus belonged to the author is well known. But did Aeschylus act in his own plays? This certainly is implied in the tradition that Sophocles, because of the weakness of his voice, was the first poet who desisted from doing so. In his Thamyras, however, he is said to have performed on the lyre to admiration, and in his Nausicaa (perhaps as coryphaeus) to have played gracefully the game of ball. Various minor improvements in decoration and stage carpentry are attributed to him — whether truly or not who can tell ? It is more interest- ing, if true, that he wrote his plays having certain actors in his eye; that he formed an association for the promotion of liberal culture; and that he was the first to introduce three actors on the stage. It is asserted on the authority of Aristoxenus that Sophocles was also the first to employ Phrygian melodies. And it is easy to believe that Aj. 693 seq., Track. 205 seq., were sung to Phrygian music, though there are strains in Aeschylus (e.g. Choeph. 152 seq., 423 seq.) which it is hard to distinguish essentially from these. Ancient critics had also noted his familiarity with Homer, especially with the Odyssey, his power of selection and of extracting an exquisite grace from all he touched (whence he was named the " Attic Bee "), his mingled felicity and boldness, and, above all, his subtle delineation of human nature and feeling. They observed that the balanced proportions and fine articulation of his work are such that in a single half line or phrase he often conveys the impression of an entire character. Nor is this verdict of antiquity likely to be reversed by modern criticism. His minor poems, elegies, paeans, &c., have all perished; and of his hundred and odd dramas only seven remain. These all belong to the period of his maturity (he had no decline) ; and not only the titles but some scanty fragments of more than ninety others have been preserved. Several of these were, of course, satyric dramas. And this recalls a point of some im- portance, which has been urged on the authority of Sui'das, who says that " Sophocles began the practice of pitting play against play, instead of the tetralogy." If it were meant that Sophocles did not exhibit tetralogies, this statement would have simply to be rejected. For the word of Suidas (A.D. 950) has no weight against quotations from the lists of tragic victories (Si6a., 332-333)=— *E7r' inavTln> oCre a' &\ywS>. rl TO.VT' This is called synaphea, and is peculiar to Sophocles. He differentiates more than Aeschylus does between the metres to be employed in -the KOH^O'L (including the KOjUjuariKi) and in the choral odes. The dochmius, cretic, and free anapaest are employed chiefly in the jcojujuot. In the stasima he has greatly developed the use of logaoedic and particularly of glyconic rhythms, and far less frequently than his predecessor indulges in long continuous runs of dactyls or trochees. The light trochaic line-*-1-' — u-i-\j — , so frequent in Aeschylus, is comparatively rare in Sophocles. If, from the very severity with which the choral element is subordinated to the purely dramatic, his lyrics have neither the magnificent sweep of Aeschylus nor the " linked sweetness " of Euripides, they have a concinnity and point, a directness of aim, and a truth of dramatic keeping, more perfect than is to be found in either. And even in grandeur it would be hard to find many passages to bear comparison with the second stasimon, or central ode, either of the Antigone (fi>8aiiMves olai KO.KUIV) or the first Oedipus (el /ioi ^vvdi] fapovri). Nor does anything in Euripides equal in grace and sweetness the famous eulogy on Colonus (the poet's birthplace) in the Oedipus Coloneus. _ BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sophocles was edited (probably from the Venetian MSS.) by Aldus Manutius, with the help of Musurus, in 1502. The Juntine editions in which the text of Aldus was slightly modified with the help of Florentine MSS. were published in 1522, 1547, respectively. An edition of the Scholia, very nearly corre- sponding to those on the margin of the Medicean or chief Laurentian MS. (La or L) has previously appeared at Rome in 1518. The first great modification of the text was due to Turnebus, who had access to the Parisian MSS.; but he was not fortunate in his selection. The earliest editors had been aware that the traditional arrange- ment of the metres was faulty, but little way had been made towards a readjustment. Now it so happens that the Parisian MS. T, which is a copy of the recension of Tnclinius, an early 14th-century scholar, contains also the metrical views of the same editor; and, having found (as he erroneously supposed) a sound authority, Turnebus (1552) blindly adopted it, and was followed in this by H. Stephanus (1568), and by Canter in Holland (1579), who was the first to recognize the arrangement of the odes in strophe and antistrophe. The error was to a large extent corrected by Brunck (1786), who rightly preferred Par. A (2712), a 13th-century MS., belonging, as it happened, to the same family with Ven. 467, which Aldus had mainly followed. Thus after nearly three centuries the text returned (though with conjectural variations) into the former channel. Musgrave's edition was published posthumously in 1800, and Gilbert Wakefield had published a selection shortly before. Erfurdt in Germany then took up the succession, and his edition formed the basis of Hermann's, whose psychological method set the example of a new style of commentary which was adopted by Wunder. A new era commenced with Peter Elmsley's collation of the Laurentian MS. (made in 1818, but only published in full after his death). His transcription of the Scholia still exists in the Bodleian Library. The most important German commentaries SOPHOMORE— SORA 429 since Hermann's have been those of Schneidewin, G. Wolff and VVecklein. L. Campbell's edition of the plays and fragments (1871-1881) was quickly followed by Jebb's edition of the seven plays (1881-1896). Editions of one or more dramas most worth consulting are Elmsley's Oedipus Tyrannus and Oedipus Coloneus, Bockh's Antigone, Lobeck's Ajax, I. W. Donaldson's Antigone, O. Jahn's Electro and J. William White's Oed. Tyr. A monograph on the Antigone by Kaibel is also well worth mention- ing. Translations: in verse, by Francklin, Potter, Dale, Plumptre, L. Campbell, Whitelaw; in prose by R. C. Jebb. The chief German translations are those of Solger (1824), Donner (1839), Hartung (1853) and Thudichum. The French prose translation by Leconte de Lisle, and the Italian in verse by Bellotti deserve special mention. The Antigone was produced at Berlin with Mendelssohn's music in 1841 and the Oedipus Colonews in 1845. They have been reproduced in English several times — the Antigone notably with Helen Faucit (Lady Martin) in the title-role in 1845. The Oedipe Roi (trans. La Croix) and the Antigone (trans. Vacquerie) have been frequently performed in Paris. A performance of the Oedipus Tyrannus in Greek at Harvard University, U.S.A. (1880), was remarkably successful. Of dissertations immediately devoted to Sophocles those of Lessing, Patin, Dronke and Evelyn Abbott (in Hellenica) are especially noteworthy. (L. C.) SOPHOMORE, the name in American universities (corre- sponding to " sophister " at Cambridge, England, and Trinity College, Dublin) for a student who has completed his first year of academic studies. It is a corruption of the earlier " sophi- more," due to a supposed derivation from aocjtos, wise, and fttipos, foolish, alluding to the air of wisdom assumed by students after their freshman's year was concluded. The earlier word " sophimore " (cf. " Laws of Yale Coll., 1774," in Hall's College Words) represents " sophismer," a doublet of " sophister," and means an arguer or debater (cf. the Cambridge use of " wrangler "), and is formed from the Greek by means of a colony 4000 strong, to confirm its annexa- tion. In 209 it was one of the colonies which refused further contributions to the war against Hannibal. By the lex Julia it became a municipium, but under Augustus it was colonized by soldiers of the legio IV. Sorana, which had been mainly enrolled there. It belonged technically to Latium Adjectum. The castle of Sorella, built on the rocky height above the town, 430 SORACTE— SORBONNE was in the middle ages a stronghold of some note. Charles I. of Anjou made Sora a duchy for the Cantelmi; it was afterwards seized by Pius II., but, being restored to the Cantelmi by Sixtus IV., it ultimately passed to the Delia Rovere of Urbino. Against Caesar Borgia the city was heroically defended by Giovanni di Montefeltro. It was purchased by Gregory XIII. for 11,000 ducats and bestowed on the Buoncompagni, the ancestors of the line of Buoncompagni-Ludovisi. In ancient times Sora was the birthplace of the Decii, Attilius Regulus, and Lucius Mummius; and among its later celebrities is Cardinal Baronius. (T. As.) SORACTE, a mountain in the province of Rome, Italy. It is a narrow, isolated limestone ridge, some 5 m. S.E. of Civita Castellana, and 35 m. in length. The highest summit is 2267 ft. above sea-level; just below it is a monastery removed there from the summit in 1835; it was originally founded about 748 by Carloman, son of Charles Martel (the altar has, indeed, fragments of sculptures of this period), and until modern times was occupied by Trinitarian monks. On the actual summit is a church. Owing to the isolated position of the mountain the view is magnificent, and Soracte is a conspicuous object in the landscape, being visible from Rome itself. It is thus mentioned by Horace ("vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte?" Carm. i. 9), and Virgil, who mentions Apollo as its guardian deity, though no traces of his temple exist ; and in reality it was sacred to Dis Pater and the gods of the lower world. At the bottom of the mountain on the east is a disused limestone quarry. The village of S. Oreste at the south-east end of the ridge owes its name to a corruption of the ancient name. In the communal palace is a fine processional cross of the nth century in the Byzantine style (see Romische Quartalschrift, 1905, 209— Archaologie) . SORANUS, Greek physician, born at Ephesus, lived during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (A.D. 98-138). According to Suidas, he practised in Alexandria and subsequently in Rome. He was the chief representative of the school of physicians known as " methodists." Two treatises by him are extant : On Fractures (in J. L. Ideler, Physici et medici minores, L 1841) and On Diseases of Women (first published in 1838, later by V. Rose, in 1882, with a 6th-century Latin translation by Moschio, a physician of the same school). Of his most important work (On Acute and Chronic Diseases) only a few fragments in Greek remain, but we possess a complete Latin translation by Caelius Aurelianus (sth century). The Life of Hippocrates (in Ideler) probably formed one of the collection of medical biographies by Soranus referred to by Suidas, and is valuable as the only authority for the life of the great physician, with the exception of articles in Suidas and Stephanus of Byzantium (s.v. Kcis). The Introduction to the Science of Medicine (V. Rose, Anecdota graeca, ii. 1870) is considered spurious. See article by J. Hahn, in Dechambre's Dictionnaire encyclo- pediqite des sciences medicales, 3rd series, torn. 10; W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen LUteratur (1898); J. Ilberg. Die Vber- lieferung der Gynaekologie des Soranos von Ephesos (Leipzig, 1910). SORANUS, BAREA, Roman senator, lived in the reign of Nero. His gentile name was possibly Servilius. In 52 he was consul suffectus, and (perhaps in 61) proconsul of Asia. The upright and considerate manner in which he treated the pro- vincials won him their affection, but at the same time brought upon him the hatred of Nero, who felt specially aggrieved because Soranus had refused to punish a city which had defended the statues of its gods against the Imperial commissioners. Soranus was accused of intimacy with Rubellius Plautus (another object of Nero's hatred), and of endeavouring to obtain the goodwill of the provincials by treasonable intrigues. One of the chief witnesses against him was Egnatius Celer of Berytus, his client and former tutor. Soranus was condemned to death (in 65 or 66), and committed suicide. His daughter Servilia, who was charged with having consulted the sorcerers, professedly in regard to her father's fate, but in reality with evil designs against the emperor, was involved in his downfall. The accuser, who was condemned to death in the reign of Vespasian for his conduct on this occasion, is a standing example of ingratitude and treachery. Tacitus, Annals, xvi. 30, 32; Hist. iv. 10; Juvenal iii. 116; Dio Cassius Ixii. 26. SORAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Sorebach, 54 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on- Oder by rail, and at the junction of lines to Cottbus and Gorlitz. Pop. (1905), 16,410. Ofte of the oldest towns in Lower Lusatia, Sorau contains a number of ancient buildings, among which the most prominent are several of the churches (one dating from 1204), the town hall, built in 1260, and the old palace of 1207 (now a prison). The new palace, erected in 1711 by Count Erdmann II. of Promnitz, is utilized for government offices. The varied manufactures of the town comprise cloth, linen, wax candles, starch, glass and porcelain. Sorau is said to have existed in 840, and to have belonged to the abbey of Fulda till the i2th century. It received civic rights in 1260. With the surrounding district, known as the barony of Sorau, it became the seat of successive noble families; and in 1400 it was united with the barony of Triebel. The last Count of Promnitz, whose ancestor had purchased both baronies from Frederick of Bohemia in 1556, sold them in 1765 to the elector of Saxony for an annuity of 12,000 thalers (£1800). In 1815 Saxony ceded them to Prussia. See Worbs, Geschichte der Herrschaft Sorau und Triebel (Sorau ,1826). SORBONNE, the name given originally to the college founded by Robert de Sorbon in Paris; hence applied afterwards popu- larly to the theological faculty, and so to the institution which is now the seat of the Academic of that city (see UNIVERSITIES). The Sorbonne owes its origin and its name to Robert of Sorbon, near Reims (1201-1274), who went to Paris about the beginning of the reign of St Louis in order to qualify for the priesthood, attained high repute by his sanctity and eloquence, and was appointed by the king to be his confessor. Assisted by royal liberality, he built a modest establishment in which were accommodated seven priests charged with the duty of teaching theology gratuitously; to this he added a college of preparatory studies, all under the direction of a provisor, under whom was an annual prior who had the actual management. The new institution was authorized in 1252 by a deed signed by Queen Blanche, on behalf of Louis IX. (who was in Palestine); and in 1257 a site was given by the king in the heart of the Latin quarter. It was declared " useful to religion " by Pope Alex- ander IV. in 1259, and papal bulls authorizing and confirming the college were granted in 1263 and 1268. Destined originally for poor students (and called domus magistrorum pauperrima, " most poor house of masters "), the Sorbonne soon became a meeting-place for all the students of the university of Paris, who resorted thither to hear the lectures of the most learned theologians of the period — Guillaume de Saint Amour, Eudes de Douai, Laurent 1'Anglais, Pierre d'Ailly. At the close of the century it was organized into a full faculty of theology, and under this definite form it conferred bachelors', licentiates' and doctors' degrees, and the severity of its examinations gave an exceptional value to its diplomas. The so-called " these sorbonique," instituted towards the beginning of the I4th century, became the type of its order by the length and difficulty of its tests. Ultimately the professors of the Sorbonne came to be resorted to not only for lectures and examinations, but also for dogmatic decisions and judgments in canon law; the clergy of France and of the whole Catholic world had recourse to them in difficult cases, and the Curia Romana itself more than once laid its doubts before them, giving them the title of " Concilium in Gallia subsistens." To the Sorbonne belongs the glory of having introduced printing into France in 1469: « within its precincts it assigned quarters for Ulric Gering and two companions in which to set up their presses. The Sorbonne took a leading part in the religious discussions which agitated France during the i6th and i8th centuries, and its influence thus inevitably extended to political questions. During the insanity of Charles VI. it helped to bring about the absolution of Jean Sans-Peur for the assassination of the duke of Orleans. SORBS— SORDINO Shortly afterwards it demanded and supported the condemnation of Joan of Arc; during the Reformation it was the animating spirit of all the persecutions directed against Protestants and unbelievers: without having advised the massacre of St Bartholomew, it did not hesitate to justify it, and it inflamed the League by its vigorous anathemas against Henry III. and the king of Navarre, hesitating to recognize the latter even after his abjuration. From this point dates the beginning of its decadence, and when Richelieu in 1626 ordered the recon- struction of its church and buildings the following prophetic couplet was circulated — "Instaurata ruet jamjam Sprbona. Caduca Dum fuit, inconcussa stetit; renovata peribit." The declaration of the clergy in 1682, which it subscribed, proved fatal to its authority with the Curia Romana; it revived for a short time under Louis XV. during the struggle against Jansenism, but this was its last exploit; it was suppressed like the old universities in 1792. • When the university of France was organized in 1808 the Sorbonne became the seat of the academic of Paris; and between 1816 and 1821 the faculties of theology (since disappeared), science and literature were installed there. The university library was transferred to the Sorbonne in 1823. In 1868 was organized the ficole des Hautes Etudes, and in 1897 tHe Ecole des Chartes also found its home at the Sorbonne. In 1852 the Sorbonne was made the property of the city of Paris; a reconstruction of the buildings, projected by Napoleon III., was begun in 1884, under the architectural direction of Nenot, and completed in 1889. The old church containing the tomb of Richelieu was retained on account of its artistic merit. This new Sorbonne is one of the finest university edifices in the world, and has developed into the chief French centre of learning. See A. Franklin, .La Sorbonne (1875) ; Denifle, Documents relatifs a la fondation de Vuniversite de Paris (1883); J. A. Randolph, History of the Sorbonne. SORBS, the tribal name of the Slavonic people, whom the Germans call Wends in Lusatia (Lausitz) ; they call themselves Serbs or Luzicane. Their country includes the western ex- tremity of the kingdom of Saxony and parts of the districts of Hoyerswerda, Muskau, Kottbus, Kalau, Spremberg and Sorau in Prussia; they are now surrounded on all sides by Germans, but they formerly had them as neighbours only on the west along the Fulda, while on the north towards Kopenick they marched with the Lutici, on the east with the Poles and Silesians along the Queiss and Bobr, and on the south were separated from the Bohemians by the mountains that now make the Austrian frontier. The Sorbs are divided into High and Low along a line from Sagan to Muskau and Spremberg. They are in all about 180,000 in number; 80,000 Low Sorbs and 40,000 of the 100,000 High Sorbs are hi Prussia, and 60,000 High Sorbs in Saxony. These have gained definite rights for their language in school and administration, so that Bautzen (Budysin), their capital, is the intellectual centre not only for Saxon subjects, but for all High Sorbs and to a great extent for Low Sorbs. The first monuments of both dialects belong to the Reformation period, these being translations of Luther's Catechism by Warichius and Moller. Some Sorbs are Protestants, though the Saxon Sorbs are mostly Roman Catholics. Early in the igth century the High Sorbs had a revival under the leadership of F. A. Klin, a lawyer and politician; A. Seidler, a considerable poet, and S. E. Smoler, an ethnographer and publicist. More recent writers are J. Cisinsk and J. Radyserb. A Macica or Literary and Linguistic Society was founded in 1847, and publishes a Casopis or Periodical. Meanwhile Low Sorb has remained almost unculti- • vated owing to the pressure of the Prussian administration. The two dialects stand between Polish and Cech: they have lost the nasal vowels, have the accent on the first syllable, and make tj into t, dj into 2, like Cech, but they retain x and y and, like Polish, have grod for Cech grad. High Sorb has h, Low the original g. They have kept the old aorist and dual. Sorb is usually printed in German blackletter variously adapted; the Macica publishes some books spelt after the Cech system. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — G. Krai, Grammatik der wendischen Sprache in der Oberlausitz (Bautzen, 1895) ; K. E. Mucke, Historische und vergleichende Laut- u. Formen-Lehre d. niedersorbischen Sprache (Jablonowski Preisschrift, xviii.) (Leipzig, 1891) ; Pfuhl, Lausitzisch- Wendisch Worterbuch (High Sorb) (Bautzen, 1866) ; J. G. Zwahr, Niederlausitz-wendisch-deutsches Handworterbuch (Spremberg, 1847); M. Hornik, Citanka (Chrestomathy of High Sorb) (Bautzen, 1863); L. Haupt and J. S. Smoler, Volkslieder der Wenden in der Ober- und Niederlausitz (Grimma, 1842-1843). (E. H. M.) SORBY, HENRY CLIFTON (1826-1908), English micro- scopist and geologist, was born at Woodbourne near Sheffield on the loth of May 1826. He early developed an interest in natural science, and one of his first papers related to the excava- tion of valleys in Yorkshire. He subsequently dealt with the physical geography of former geological periods, with the wave- structure in certain stratified rocks, and the origin of slaty cleavage. He took up the study of rocks and minerals under the microscope, and published an important memoir On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals in 1858 (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.). In England he was one of the pioneers in petrography; he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1869, and when president of the society he published hi his addresses the results of original researches on the structure and origin of limestones, and of the non-calcareous stratified rocks (1879-1880). He had previously been president of the Royal Microscopical Society. He wrote on the construc- tion and use of the micto-spectroscope in the study of animal and vegetable colouring matter, and in later essays he dealt with such varied subjects as the microscopical structure of iron and steel, and the temperature of the water in estuaries. He also applied his skill in making preparations of invertebrate animals for lantern-slides. In 1882 he was elected president of Firth C611ege, Sheffield. He died on the 9th of March 1908. SORCERY, magic, enchantment, witchcraft; the use of supposed supernatural powers by the agency of evil spirits called forth by spells, incantations, &c., on the part of the magician, sorcerer or witch. The word meant originally divina- tion by means of the casting or drawing of lots, and is derived from the O. Fr. sorcerie, sorcier, a sorcerer, Med. Lat. sortiarius, one who practises divination by lots, sortes (see MAGIC, DIVINA- TION and WITCHCRAFT). SORDELLO, a 13th-century Italian troubadour, bom at Mantua, who is praised by Dante in the De imlgari eloquio, and hi the Purgalorio made the type of patriotic pride. He is also the hero of a well-known poem by Robert Browning. The real Sordello, so far as we have authentic facts about his life, hardly seems to justify these idealizations, though he was the most famous of the Italian troubadours. About 1220 he appears at Florence in a tavern brawl; and hi 1226, while at the court of Richard of Bonifazio at Verona, he abducts his master's wife, Cunizza, at the instigation of her brother, Ezze- lino da Romano. The scandal resulted in his flight (1229) to Provence, where he seems to have been for some tune. He entered the service of Charles of Anjou, and probably accom- panied him (1265) on his Naples expedition; in 1266 he was a prisoner in Naples. The last documentary mention of him is in 1269, and he is supposed to have died in Provence. His didactic poem, L'Ensenhamen d'onor, and his love songs and satirical pieces have little in common with Dante's presentation, but the invective against negligent princes which Dante puts into his mouth in the 7th canto of the Purgatorio is more ade- quately paralleled in his Seruentese (1237) on the death of his patron Blacatz, where he invites the princes of Christendom to feed on the heart of the hero. For Sordello's life and works see the edition of Cesare de Lollis ( Halle, 1896); for Browning's poem see Stopford Brooke's Browning (1902). SORDINO, SORDONI, SORDUNI, Italian terms somewhat promiscuously applied by various writers (i) to contrivances for damping or muting wind, string and percussion instruments (Sordini); (2) to a family of obsolete wind instruments blown by means of a double reed (Sordoni or Sordun) ; (3) to a stringed instrument. To these must also be added the Surdellina or 432 SOREL, AGNES-^-SOREL, ALBERT Sordellina, a kind of musette invented (see BAGPIPE) in Naples in the lyth century, and evidently named after class 2. 1. Under the Italian term sordini are comprised the dampers used with stringed instruments, such as the violin, and the dampers of keyboard instruments, all well known, and described with the instruments themselves. As a certain amount of misconception exists concerning the sordini (Fr. sourdines, Ger. Dampfer), used from the i6th century with the trumpet and later with the horn, they may be briefly described. It would appear that the art has almost been lost of making mutes for trumpets and French horns, which should affect the timbre only, giving it a certain veiled mysterious quality similar to that of the sons bcuches or hand- stopped notes, but affecting the pitch not at all. We read that when it is necessary to produce this peculiar timbre on the valve- horn, as for instance in Wagner's Rheingold, the rise of a semi tone in pitch caused by the introduction of the mute or the hand into the bell of the horn must be compensated by means of the second piston which lowers the pitch a semi-tone.1 If the sordino used early in the iyth century had had this effect of raising the pitch, the fact would have been stated by such writers as Mersenne and Praetorius; it would, moreover, have rendered the mute useless with instruments on which no sort of com- pensation was possible. H. Domnich 1 and J. Frohlich,8 however, describe the sordino which leaves the pitch unaffected: it con- sisted of a hollow cone of wood or cardboard, truncated at the apex to allow the air to pass through and escape through a hole in the base. The bore of the instrument thus continued through the cone of the mute was the essential point, and the proportions to be maintained between the diameters of the two bores were also, no doubt, of importance. Domnich expressly states that it was when Hampel substituted a plug of cotton-wool (therefore solid and providing no central passage for the air) for the mute, that he found the pitch of the horn raised a semi-tone. Domnich's evidence is of value, for his father was a horn-player contemporary with Hampel, and he himself was the intimate friend and colleague of Punto, Hampel's most celebrated pupil. 2. The sordun or sordoni family are often confused with the dolcians (Fr. cniinaud, Eng. single curtail, Ger. Kort'or Kortholt), from which, however, they differed radically. This difference was not understood by Michael Praetorius, who acknowledges his mystification. The contra-bass sordun, he says, hardly half the length of the contra-fagotto, is yet practically of the same pitch, which is astonishing since the bore is only double once upon itself as in the fagotto. The kprt likewise is of the same size as the bass sordun, and yet in pitch it is but a tenor. _ The following description of the construction and acoustic properties of the sordoni will clear up the mystery. The body consisted of a cylinder of wood in which were cut two parallel channels of narrow cylindrical bore, communicating with each other at the bottom through a bend, but not with ambient air. At the top of the cylinder was fitted a double-reed mouthpiece giving access to the column of air at one end of the bore, while the other was vented through a small hole in the side, similar to the finger-holes; in the tenor, bass and contra members of the family, the reed was attached to a curved brass crook similar to that of the fagotto. So far the description would almost apply to the dolcian also, but in the latter there is the radical difference that the bore of the channels is conical, so that it has the acoustic properties of the open pipe. The sordun, however, having a cylindrical bore, has the acoustic properties of the stopped pipe, i.e. the sound waves are twice the length of the pipe, so that to produce a sound of any given pitch, for instance for C, the bore need only be half the length, i.e. 4 ft. long. Over- blowing, on the sordoni, moreover, produced as first harmonic (the only one required for reed-blown instruments in order to produce the diatonic scale for the second octave) not the octave, but the twelfth, or number 3 of the series. This accounts for the fact that instruments of the fagotto and dolcian type require but 6 or 7 holes to give the diatonic scale throughout the compass, whereas the sordoni require II or 12 holes. Praetorius states that those figured by him (Plate XII.) have 12 open holes, and that some speci- mens have in addition two keys; a hole is also bored through the bottom of the instrument to allow the moisture condensed from the breath 'to be shaken out. The 12 holes are stopped by means of fingers and thumbs and by the ball of the hand or the fleshy under- part of the joints of the fingers. The compass of the 5 sizes of sordoni was as follows : — g; to ~ £- —f i. — to- 3E I tC — I Contrabass. s 7 ^<*" Tenor or Alto. Basses 1 See Victor Mahillon, " (Brussels and London, 1907] 1 Methode de premier et de Le Cor," Instruments . a . »en< , pp. 34 and 53. second cor (Pans, c. 1807), pp. , pt. 3 and ii. 4- * Vollstandige theor.-prakt. Musiklehre fur alle bei dem Or- chester gebrauchliche Instrumente (Cologne and Bonn, c. 1811). Two sourdines belonging to the Museum of the Brussels Conserva- toire, said to be facsimiles of some instruments belonging to the emperor Maximilian I.'s band, are reproduced in Captain C. R. Day's Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments (London, 1891). They differ slightly in construction from the Italian instruments described by Praetorius. The straight crook is set in the side of the instru- ment, almost at right angles, the top of the cylinder is surmounted by a cap, and there are but 6 open holes, the rest being covered by brass keys in wooden boxes. The pitch of these instruments lies within a semi-tone of that of the contra-bass and bass of Praetorius. (K. S.) SOREL, AGNES (c. 1422-1450), mistress of King Charles VII. of France, was born of a family of the lesser nobility at Fromen- teau in Touraine. While still a girl she was attached to the service of Isabel of Lorraine, queen of Sicily, wife of Rene of Anjou, the brother-in-law of Charles VII. From 1444 until her death in 1450 she was the acknowledged mistress of the king, the first woman to hold that semi-official position which was to be of so great importance in the subsequent history of the old regime. Her ascendancy dated from the festivals at Nancy in 1444, the first brilliant court of Charles VII. Here her great beauty captivated the king, whose love for her remained constant until her death. He gave her wealth, castles and lands, and secured for her the state and distinction of a queen. This first public recognition of his mistress by a king of France scandal- ized alf good people and awakened jealousy and intrigue. Her sudden death from dysentery, shortly after the birth of her fourth child, was accordingly attributed to poison. Burgundian historians even openly accused the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., of her death, and later the enemies of Jacques Coeur, in their search for crimes to be brought against him, used this rumour to charge him with the one crime most likely to turn the king against him. Her heart was buried in the abbey of Jumieges, her body in the collegiate church of Loches. Contemporary writers all bear witness to her extra- ordinary beauty, but no genuine portraits of her have come down to us. Legend has made an entirely different character of this first official mistress of the French kings. The date of her birth was placed at about 1409, her liaison with the king dated from 1433. Then, so the story ran, she drew him from his indolence, continuing the work of Joan of Arc, both by nerving the king to warlike enterprises — she did apparently induce him to take part personally in the conquest of Normandy — and by surround- ing him with that band of wise advisers who really adminis- tered France during her ascendancy. Recent investigation has exploded this romantic story by simply showing that Charles VII. had not met her until ten years later than in the legend. Instead of being his sole good angel, she seems rather to have demoralized the king, who, hitherto chaste, henceforth gave himself up to courtesans. Yet she favoured the best advisers of the king, and at least in this deserved the gratitude of the realm. Pierre de Breze seems especially to have used Agnes to gain his ascendancy over the king. See A. Vallet de Viriville's articles in Bibliotkeque de I'&cole des chartes (3rd series, torn, i.); and R. Duquesne, Vie et aventures galantes de la belle Sorel (1909). SOREL, ALBERT (1842-1906), French historian, was born at Honfleur on the I3th of August 1842. He was of a character- istically Norman type, and remained all his life a lover of his native province and its glories. His father, a rich manufac- turer, would have liked him to succeed to the business, but his literary vocation prevailed. He went to live hi Paris, where he studied law, and after a prolonged stay in Germany entered the Foreign Office (1866). He had strongly-developed literary and artistic tastes, was an enthusiastic musician, even composing a little, and wrote both verses and novels, which appeared a little ' later (LaGrande Falaise, 1785-1793, in 1871, Le Docteur Egra in 1873); but he did not go much into society. He was anxious to know and understand present as well as past events, but he was above all things a student. In 1870 he was chosen as secretary by M. de Chaudordy, who had been sent to Tours as a delegate in charge of the diplomatic side of the problem of national defence; in these affairs he proved himself a most valuable collaborator; SOREL, C.— SORGHUM he was unremitting in his labours, full of finesse, good temper and excellent judgment, and at the same time so discreet that we can only guess at the part he played in these terrible crises. After the war, when Boutmy founded the Ecole libre des sciences politiques, Sorel was appointed to teach diplomatic history (1872), a duty which he performed with striking success. Some of his courses have formed books: Le Trait& de Paris du 20 novembre 1815 (1873); Histoire diplomatique de la guerre franco-allemande (1875); we may also add the Precis du droit des gens which he published (1877) in collaboration with his colleague Theodore Funck-Brentano. In 1875 Sorel left the Foreign Office and became general secretary to the newly-created office of the Presidence du senat. Here again, in a congenial position where, without heavy responsibilities, he could observe and review affairs, he performed valuable service, especially under the presidency of the due d'Audiffred Pasquier, who was glad to avail himself of his advice in the most serious crises of internal politics. His duties left him, however, sufficient leisure to enable him to accomplish the great work of his life, L' Europe et la revolution franfaise. His object was to do over again the work already done by Sybel, but from a less restricted point of view and with a clearer and more calm understanding of the chess- board of Europe. He spent almost thirty years in the prepara- tion and composition of the eight volumes of this history (vol. i., 1885; vol. viii., 1904). For he was not merely a conscientious scholar; the analysis of the documents, mostly unpublished, on French diplomacy during the first years of the Revolution, which he published in the Revue historique (vol. v.-vii., x.-xiii.), shows with what scrupulous care he read the innumerable des- patches which passed under his notice. He was also, and above all things, an artist. He drew men from the point of view of a psychologist as much as of a historian, observing them in their surroundings and being interested in showing how greatly they are slaves to the fatality of history. It was this fatality which led the rashest of the Conventionals to resume the tradition of the Ancien Regime, and caused the revolutionary propaganda to end in a system of alliances and annexations which carried on the work of Louis XIV. This view is certainly suggestive, but incomplete; it is largely true when applied to the men of the Revolution, inexperienced or mediocre as they were, and in- competent to develop the enormous enterprises of Napoleon I. In the earlier volumes we are readily dominated by the grandeur and relentless logic of the drama which the author unfolds before our eyes; in the later ones we begin to make some reser- vations; but on the whole the work is so complete and so power- fully constructed that it commands our admiration. Side by side with this great general work, Sorel undertook various detailed studies more or less directly bearing on his subject. In La Question d'Orient au XVIII" siecle, les origines de la triple alliance (1878), he shows how the partition of Poland on the one hand reversed the traditional policy of France in eastern Europe, and on the other hand contributed towards the salvation of re- publican France in 1793. In the Grands 6crivains series he was responsible for Montesquieu (1887) and Mme de Sta'el (1891) ; the portrait which he draws of Montesquieu is all the more vivid for the intellectual affinities which existed between him and the author of the Leltres persanes and the Esprit des lois. Later, in Bonaparte ei Hoche en 1797, he produced a critical comparison which is one of his most finished works (1896); and in the Recueil des instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs he prepared vol. i. dealing with Austria (1884). Most of the articles which he contributed to various reviews and to the Temps newspaper have been collected into volumes: Essais d'histoire et de critique (1883), Lectures historiques (1894), Nouveaux essais d'histoire et de critique (1898), Etudes de litterature et d'histoire (1901); in these are to be found a great deal of information and of ideas not only about political men of the last two centuries, but also about certain literary men and artists of Normandy. Honours came to him in abundance, as an eminent writer and not as a public official. He was elected a member of the Academic des sciences morales et politiques (December 18, 1889) on the death of Fustel de Coulanges, and of the Academic frangaise (1894) 433 on the death of Taine. His speeches on his two illustrious predecessors show how keenly sensible he was of beauty, and how unbiased was his judgment, even in the case of those whom he most esteemed and loved. He had just obtained the great Prix Osiris of a hundred thousand francs, conferred for the first time by the Institut de France, when he was stricken with his last illness and died at Paris on the agth of June 1906. (C. B«.) SOREL, CHARLES, SIEUR DE SOUVIGNY (1597-1674), French novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris about 1597. Very little is known of his life except that in 1635 he was historiographer of France. He wrote on science, history and religion, but is only remembered by his novels. He tried to destroy the vogue of the pastoral romance by writing a novel of adventure, the Histoire comique de Francion (1622). The episodical adventures of Francion found many readers, who nevertheless reserved their admiration for the Astr&e it was intended to ridicule. Sorel decided to make his intention un- mistakable, and in Le Berger extravagant (3 vols., 1627) he wrote a burlesque, in which a Parisian shop-boy, his head turned by sentiment, chooses an unprepossessing mistress and starts life as a shepherd with a dozen sheep on the banks of the Seine. Sorel did not succeed in founding the novel of character, and what he accomplished was more in the direction of farce, but he struck a shrewd blow at romance. Among his other works are Polyandre (1648) and La Connaissance des bans livres (1673). He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1674. SOREL, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, capital of Richelieu county, 42 m. N.E. of Montreal, at the confluence of the Richelieu and St Lawrence rivers. Pop. (1901), 7057. It is on the Grand Trunk and the Quebec Southern railways, and is a port of call for the Montreal and Quebec river steamers. It contains iron and leather manufactories, and shipbuilding is carried on. It occupies the site of a fort built in 1665 by A. de Tracy to guard the route by way of the Richelieu to Lake Champlain and the Hudson, and is named after the first com- mandant of the garrison. SORGHUM, a genus of grasses belonging to the tribe Andro- pogoneae, and including one of the most important tropical grains, Sorghum vulgare, great millet, Indian millet or Guinea corn. In India it is known as jawari (Hindustani), jowari (Bengali), cholum (Tamil), and jonna (Telugu), and in the West Indies as Negro or Guinea Corn. It is a strong grass, growing to a height of from 4 to 8 or even 16 ft.; the leaves are sheathing, solitary, and about 2 in. broad and 25 ft. in length; the panicles are contracted and dense, and the grains, which are enclosed in husks and protected by awns, are round, hard, smooth, shin- ing, brownish-red, and some- what larger than mustard seeds. The plant is cultivated in various parts of India and other countries of Asia, in the United States, and in the south of Europe. Its culms and leaves afford excellent fodder for cattle; and the grain, of which the yield in favourable situations is up- wards of a hundredfold, is used for the same purposes as maize, rice, corn and other cereals. Sorghum vulgare. Speaking of its cultivation, Eduard Hackel (in his article on " Grasses " in Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien) says the culture of Sorghum probably had its origin in Africa, where a variety 434 SORIA— SORRENTO known as durra is now cultivated over the entire continent, and has become the most important cereal; the natives also chew the stem, which contains sugar. In Europe it is raised less for bread than for mechanical purposes; the panicles are made into the so-called rice-brooms and into brushes. In Germany it is occasionally raised for green fodder. From the fruit the Kaffirs make an alcoholic drink, Tialva, and the negroes one known as Merisa. Allied species are S. tricolor, much valued in India as a forage-plant, and 5. saccharatum, commonly called sorghum or Chinese sugar-cane, which is extensively cultivated in China, North India and Africa. The latter species is grown in America chiefly for the manufacture of molasses from its juice, and in France as a source of alcohol. A full account of the cultivation and use of the species in India will be found in Sir G. Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1893). SORIA, a province of Spain, formed in 1833 of districts belonging to Old Castile, and bounded on the N. by Logrono, E. by Saragossa, S. by Guadalajara and W. by Segovia and Burgos. Pop. (1900), 150,462; area, 3983 sq. m. Soria is a bleak and lofty region, bounded on three sides by mountains. A range of sierras culminating in the peaks of Urbion (7389 ft.) and Cebollera (7139 ft.) on the north, and the great Sierra del Moncayo (7707 ft.) on the east, separate the valley of the Duero (Douro) from that of the Ebro, while on the south it is divided from the valley of the Tagus by a continuation of the Sierra Guadarrama. Almost the whole of the province belongs to the region watered by the Duero and its affluents. This river rises among the southern slopes of Urbion and traverses the province in a circuitous course, first to the south and then to the west. The other rivers are mostly affluents of the Duero, but a few of the tributaries of the Ebro have their sources within the limits of the province. The soil is not remarkable for fertility; a large proportion of the area being occupied with barren mountains, which are covered with snow for a great part of the year. There are, however, in some places extensive forests of pine, oak and beech; while in others there are large tracts of pasture land, on which numbers of cattle, sheep and swine are reared. Grain and vegetables are raised, but neither of very good quality nor in sufficient quantities to supply the wants of the population. The climate is cold and dry, and the scenery grand, but austere. Most of the people are employed in farming and rearing cattle; but the cutting and sawing of timber and the preparation of charcoal also occupy a considerable number. There is a great want of roads; and, although three railways traverse the pro- vince, commerce is consequently very limited. Fine wool was formerly produced; but the only important articles of trade at present are timber, salt, asphalt, leather and cheese, which are sent to Madrid and Aragon. Salt and asphalt are the only minerals worked, though others are known to exist. The capital, Soria, is described below. The only other town with more than 3500 inhabitants is El Burgo de Osma (3509), an episcopal see. Between 1887 and 1900 the population decreased by nearly 7000; its density in the last-named year was 37-7 per sq. m., or lower than that of any other Spanish province except Cuenca (37-6). The gradual depopulation of many districts is due to the stagnation of industry, and the attraction of emigrants to large towns outside the province. SORIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Soria; on the right bank of the river Duero (Douro), 155 m. N.E. of Madrid by the Madrid- Alcuneza-Soria railway. Pop. (1900), 7151. Soria has a provincial institute, schools for teachers of both sexes, many primary schools, savings banks, two hospitals, barracks, a theatre and a bull-ring. The churches of Santo Domingo and San Nicolas, the cloisters of the convent of San Juan, and several other ecclesiastical buildings are fine specimens of Romanesque work of the i2th and I3th centuries. Near the Duero are the ruins of the old citadel, and in many places the remains of the I3th century walls of the city are yet standing. The more modern streets are clean and well paved. The bridge across the Duero is a massive structure which formerly had a tower in the centre. The population is chiefly agricultural; but there are also flour mills, tanneries, potteries, &c. ; and some trade in timber, wool and fruit is carried on. The Iberian and Carthaginian city of Numantia, captured in 133 B.C. by the Romans, after a long and heroic resistance, was situated 3 m. N., on a hill overlooking the confluence of the small river Tera with the Duero. SOROKI, a town of south Russia, in the government of Bessarabia, 81 m. N.N.W. of Kishinev, in a narrow ravine on the right bank of the Dnieper. Pop. (1900), 25,523, half of whom were Jews. It is an important river port for the export of corn, wool, fruit, wine and cattle. Formerly it was the old Genoese colony of Olchionia, and has still the ruins of a 13th-century Genoese castle. In the i sth century the Moldavians erected here a fort, which the Poles took in the 1 7th century. Peter the Great captured the place in 1711, but it was returned to the Turks, and was only definitely annexed to Russia in 1812. (M. H. S.) SOROLLA Y BASTIDA, JOAQUIN (1863- ), Spanish painter, was born in Valencia, and received his art education first in his native town and under F. Pradilla, and then in Italy and Paris. His first striking success he achieved with " Another Margaret," which was awarded a gold medal in Madrid and was bought for the St Louis Gallery. He soon rose to general fame and became the acknowledged head of the modern Spanish school of painting. His picture of the " Fishermen's Return " was much admired at the Paris Salon and was acquired by the state for the Luxembourg Museum. His exhibit at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900 won him a medal of honour and his nomination as Knight of the Legion of Honour. A special exhibition of his works — figure subjects, landscapes and por- traits— at the Georges Petit Gallery in Paris in 1906 eclipsed all his earlier successes and led to his appointment as Officer of the Legion of Honour. He is represented at the Berlin National Gallery, at the Venice and Madrid Museums, and in many private collections in Europe and America, especially in Buenos Aires. He painted portraits of King Alphonso and Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain, and a magnificent portrait group of the family of Don Aureliano de Beruete. Three of his works were shown in London at the Spanish Exhibition, Guildhall, 1901. SORREL, Rumex Acetosa, a member of the natural order Polygonaceae, a hardy perennial, native to Britain and found throughout the north temperate zone. The leaves are used in soups, salads and sauces. Sorrel grows freely in any good garden soil, and is increased by dividing the roots during the early part of spring. They should be planted in rows 15 to 18 in. apart. The leaves, when fully grown, are gathered singly. The common garden sorrel is much superior to the wild plant; but the Belleville, which is the kind generally cultivated near Paris, is still better, its leaves being larger and not so acid. The Blistered-leaved, which has large leaves with a blistered surface, has the advantage of being slow in running to seed. French Sorrel (Rumex scutatus) is a hardy perennial, distributed through Europe but not native in Britain, with densely-branched trailing stems. The leaves are roundish, heart-shaped and glaucous; they are more acid than those of the common sorrel. SORRENTO (anc. Surrentum, q.v.), a city of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 10 m. by [electric tramway (along the highroad) S.W. from Castellammare di Stabia, and served also by steamer from Naples (16 m.). Pop. (1901), 6849 (town) ; 8832 (commune). It stands on cliffs about 160 ft. above sea-level on the north side of the peninsula that' separates the Bay of Naples from the Bay of Salerno. Sorrento contains only a few ancient remains, and its present prosperity depends mainly on its reputation as a place of resort both in winter and in summer, its northerly aspect rendering it comparatively cool. Its climate is delightful and healthy, and it is situated amid pictur- esque coast scenery. The chief local industries are the inlaying of wood, silk and lace-making and straw-plaiting,' and the growing of oranges and lemons. In ancient times the Surrentine wines had a great repute. In 1558 the corsair Pialy attacked the town and carried off two thousand prisoners. It was at Sorrento that Bernardo Tasso wrote his Amadigi; and Torquato Tasso, to whom a marble SOSIGENES— SOTO 435 statue has been erected in the Piazza, was born in the town in 1544- SOSIGENES, Greek astronomer and mathematician, probably of Alexandria, flourished in the ist century B.C. According to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xviii. 25), he was employed by Julius Caesar in the reform of the Roman calendar (46 B.C.), and wrote three treatises, which he conscientiously corrected. From another passage of Pliny (ii. 8) it is inferred that Sosigenes maintained the doctrine of the motion of Mercury round the sun, which is referred to by his contemporary Cicero, and was also held by the Egyptians. The astronomer is to be distinguished from the Peripatetic philosopher of the same name, who lived at the end of the 2nd century A.D. He was the tutor of Alexander of Aphrodisias, the most famous of the commentators on Aristotle. He wrote a work on Revolving Spheres, from which some important extracts have been preserved in Simplicius's commentary on Aristotle's De caelo (the subject is fully discussed by T. H. Martin, " Sur deux Sosigene," in Annales de lafac. des letlres de Bordeaux, i., 1879). SOSITHEUS (c. 280 B.C.), Greek tragic poet, of Alexandria Troas, a member of the Alexandrian " pleiad." He must have resided at some time in Athens, since Diogenes Laertius tells us (vii. 5, 4) that he attacked the Stoic Cleanthes on the stage, and was hissed off by the audience. As Suidas also calls him a Syracusan, it is conjectured that he belonged to the literary circle at the court of Hiero II. According to an epigram of Dioscorides in the Greek Anthology (Anth. Pal. vii. 707) he restored the satyric drama in its original form. A considerable fragment is extant of his pastoral play Daphnis or Lityerses, in which the Sicilian shepherd, in search of his love Pimplea, is brought into connexion with the Phrygian reaper, son of Midas, who slew all who unsuccessfully competed with him in reaping his corn. Heracles came to the aid of Daphnis and slew Lityerses. See O. Crusius s.v. Lityerses in Roscher's Lexikon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie. The fragment of twenty-one lines in Nauck's Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta apparently contains the beginning of the drama. Two lines from the Aethlius (probably the traditional first king of Elis, father of Endymion) are quoted by Stobaeus (Flor. li. 23). SOTADES, Greek satirist, of Maronea in Thrace (or of Crete), chief representative of the writers of coarse satirical poems, called KivcuSoi,1 composed in the Ionic dialect and in a metre named after him " sotadic." He lived in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). For a violent attack on the king, on the occasion of his marriage to his own sister Arsinoe, Sotades was imprisoned, but escaped to the island of Caunus, where he was afterwards captured by Patro- clus, Ptolemy's admiral, shut up in a leaden chest, and thrown into the sea (Athenaeus xiv. p. 620; Plutarch, De educatione puerorum, 14). Only a few genuine fragments of Sotades have been preserved (see J. G. Hermann, Elementa doctrinae metricae, 1816); those in Stobaeus are generally considered spurious. Ennius translated some poems of this kind, included in his book of satires, under the name of Sola. SOTER, pope from about 167 to 174. He wrote to the Church of Corinth and sent it aid. His letter is mentioned in the reply given by Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, and Harnack thinks it can be identified with the second so-called epistle of Clement to the Corinthians. SOTHEBY, WILLIAM (1737-1833), English author, was born in London on the gth of November 1757. He was educated at Harrow, and subsequently procured a commission in a cavalry regiment. In 1780 he retired from the army on his marriage and devoted himself to literature, becoming a prominent figure in London literary society. His ample means enabled him to play the part of patron to many struggling authors, and his friends included Scott, Byron, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Hallam and Tom Moore. He himself soon acquired a consider- able reputation as a translator, his verse translation of Virgil's 1 The word is also used of the dancers in indecent ballets, to which such poems were probably written as an accompaniment. In Greek and Latin authors nlvaibm (cinaedus) generally means " catamite." Georgics (1800) being specially praised by contemporary critics, while in later life he published translations of the Iliad and Odyssey. He also wrote several historical tragedies for the stage, of which one was acted, and some poems. He died on the 30th of December 1833. SOTHERN, EDWARD ASKEW (1826-1881), English actor, was born in Liverpool on the ist of April 1826, the son of a merchant. He began acting as an amateur, and in 1849 drifted into a professional engagement with a dramatic company at St Heliers in Jersey, where he appeared as Claude Melnotte in Bulwer Lytton's Lady of Lyons. Between then and 1858 he played in various companies without particular success, in Birmingham and in America, where he went in 1852. On the i2th of May 1858 Tom Taylor's Our American Cousin, a play of no special merit, was brought out in New York, with Southern in the small part of Lord Dundreary, a caricature of an English nobleman. He gradually worked up the humour of this part so that it became the central figure of the play. In 1861, when it was produced at the Haymarket Theatre, in London, he made such a hit that the piece ran for nearly five hundred nights: " Dundreary whiskers " became the fashion, and Dundreary this, that or the other made its appearance on every side. At various times Sothern revived the character, which retained its popu- larity in spite of all the extravagances to which he developed its amusing features; and his name will always be famous in con- nexion with this r61e. In T. W. Robertson's David Garrick (1864) he again had a great success, his acting in the title-part, which he created, being wonderfully effective. He won wide popularity also from his interpretation of Sam Slingsby in Oxenford's Brother Sam (1865). Sothern was a born comedian, and off the stage had a passion for practical joking that amounted almost to a mania. His house in Kensington was a resort for people of fashion, and he was as much a favourite in America as in the United Kingdom. He died in London on the 2 ist of January 1881. Sothern had three sons, all actors, the second of them, EDWARD H. SOTHERN (b. 1859), being prominent on the American stage. SOTHIC PERIOD, in ancient Egyptian chronology, the period in which the year of 365 days circled in succession through all the seasons. The tropical year, determined as it was in Egypt by the heliacal rising of Sirius (Sothis), was almost exactly the Julian year of precisely 3655 days (differing from the true solar year, which was n minutes less than this). The sothic period was thus 1461 years. See EGYPT, Ancient, § F. " Chronology." SOTO, FERDINANDO [FERNANDO, or HERNANDO] DE (1496?- 1542), Spanish captain and explorer, often, though wrongly, called the discoverer of the Mississippi (first sighted by Alonzo de Pineda in 1519), was born at Jerez de los Caballeros, in Estre- madura, of an impoverished family of good position, and was indebted to the favour of Pedrarias d'Avila for the means of pursuing his studies at the university. In 1519 he accompanied d'Avila on his second expedition to Darien. In 1528 he explored the coast of Guatemala and Yucatan, and in 1532 he led 300 volunteers to reinforce Pizarro in Peru. He played a prominent part in the conquest of the Incas' kingdom (helping to seize and guard the person of Atahualpa, discovering a pass through the mountains to Cuzco, &c.), and returned to Spain with a fortune of 180,000 ducats, which enabled him to marry the daughter of his old patron d'Avila, and to maintain the state of a nobleman. Excited by the reports of Alvaro Nunez (Cabeza de Vaca) and others as to the wealth of Florida (a term then commonly used in a much wider extension than subse- quently), he sold great part of his property, gathered a force of 620 foot and 1 23 horse, armed four ships, and obtained from Charles V. a commission as " adelantado of the Lands of Florida" and governor of Cuba. Sailing from San Lucar in April 1338, he first went to Havana, his advanced base of operations; starting thence on the i2th of May 1539 he landed in the same month in Espiritu Santo Bay, on the west coast of the present state of Florida. For nearly four years he led his men in fruitless search of gold hither and thither over the south-east of the North SOU— SOULT American continent. His exact route is often doubtful; but it seems to have passed north into Georgia as far as 35' N., then south to the neighbourhood of Mobile, and finally north-west towards the Mississippi. This river was reached early in 1541, and the following winter was spent on the Ouachita, in modern Arkansas and Louisiana, west of the Mississippi. As they were returning in 1542 along the Mississippi, De Soto died (either in May or June; the 2$th of June is perhaps the true date), and his body was sunk in its waters. Failing in an attempt to push westwards again, De Solo's men, under Luis Moscoso de Alvarado, descended the Mississippi to the sea in nineteen days from a point close to the junction of the Arkansas with the great river,and thence coasted along the Gulf of Mexico to Panuco. Of this unfortunate expedition three very different narratives are extant, of seemingly independent origin. The first was pub- lished in 1557 at Evora, and professes to be the work of a Portuguese gentleman of Elvas, who had accompanied the expedition : Relaxant verdadeira dos trabalhos q ho gouernador do Fernado d'Souto & certos fidalgos Portugueses passarom no d'scobrimeto da Provincia da Florida. Agora nouamete feita per hu fidalgo Deluas. An English translation was published by Hakluyt in 1609 (reprinted from the 1611 edition by the Hakluyt Society [London, 1851]), and another by an anonymous translator in 1686, the latter being based on a French version by Citri de la Guette (Paris, 1685). The second narrative is the famous history of Florida by the Inca, Garcitasso de la Vega, who obtained his information from a Spanish cavalier engaged in the enterprise; it was completed in 1591, first appeared at Lisbon in 1605 under the title of La Florida del Ynca, and has since passed through many editions in various languages. The third is a_ report presented to Charles V. of Spain in his Council of the Indies in 1544, by Luis Hernandez de Biedma, who had ac- companied De Soto as His Majesty's factor. It is to be found in Ternaux-Compans' " Recueil de pieces sur la Floride " in the Histo- rical Collections of Louisiana (Philadelphia, 1850) and in W. B. Rye's reprint for the Hakluyt Society of Hakluyt's translation of the Portuguese narrative (The Discovery and Conquest of Terra Florida, London, 1851). See also Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. i. ; J. H. M'Culloch, Researches . . . concerning the aboriginal history of America (Baltimore, 1829) ; Albert Gallatin, " Synopsis of the Indian Tribes," in Archaeologia americana, vol. ii. (Cambridge, Mass., 1836) ; E. G. Bourne (ed.), Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of Florida (2 v., New York, 1904); J. W. Monette, History of the Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi (New York, 1846, 2 vols.). SOU (0. Fr. sol, Lat, solidus, sc. nummus), the name of the bronze 5-centime French coin, corresponding to the English " halfpenny." It is still colloquially used in France in reckoning, and the franc, 2 and 5-franc pieces are known as piece de vingt, quarante and cent sous respectively. The solidus was originally a gold coin, first struck c. A.D. 312 by Constantine to take the place of the aureus. In the Eastern Empire this gold coin was the standard down to 1453, and, as the " bezant," circulated from Portugal to the Indies. In the West after Pippin gold coinage ceased and the solidus in silver became the standard, one pound of silver making 22 sols (solidi) and 264 denier 'S (denarii). Under Charlemagne one pound of silver =20 sols =240 deniers. The lime (libra), the sol and the denier formed the universal money of account throughout France until the Revolution; and they have left their mark on the English money symbols £ s. d., for pounds, shillings and pence. SOUBISE, BENJAMIN DE ROHAN, Due DE (? 1580-1642), Huguenot leader, younger brother of Henri de Rohan, inherited his title through his mother Catherine de Parthenay. He served his apprenticeship as a soldier under Prince Maurice of Orange- Nassau in the Low Countries. In the religious wars from 1621 onwards his elder brother chiefly commanded on land and in the south, Soubise in the west and along the sea-coast. His exploits in the conflict have been sympathetically related by his brother, who if he was not quite an impartial witness, was one of the best military critics of the time. Soubise's chief exploit was a singu- larly bold and well-conducted attack (in 1625) on the Royalist fleet in the river Blavet (which included the cutting of a boom in the face of superior numbers) and the occupation of Oleron. He commanded at Rochelle during the famous siege, and (if we may believe his brother) the failure of the defence and of the English attack on Rhe was mainly due to the alternate obstinacy of the townsfolk and the English commanders in refusing to listen to Soubise's advice. When surrender became inevitable he fled to England, which he had previously visited in quest of succour. He died in 1642 in London. The Soubise title after- wards served as the chief second designation (not for heirs apparent, but for the chief collateral branch lor the time being) of the house of Rohan-Chabot. The name Soubise appears again in the military history of France in the person of CHARLES DE ROHAN, PRINCE DE SOUBISE (1715-1787), peer and marshal of France, the grandson of the princesse de Soubise, who is known to history as one of the mistresses of Louis XIV. He accompanied Louis XV. in the campaign of 1744-48 and attained high military rank, which he owed more to his courtiership than to his generalship. Soon after the beginning of the Seven Years' War, through the influence of Mme de Pompadour, he was put in command of a corps of 24,000 men, and in November 1757 he sustained the crushing defeat of Rossbach. He was more fortunate, however, in his later military career, and continued in the service until the general peace of 1763, after which he lived the life of an ordinary courtier and man of fashion in Paris, dying on the 4th of July 1787. SOUHAM, JOSEPH, COUNT (1760-1837), French soldier, was born at Lubersac on the 30th of April 1760, and served in the French army as a private from 1782 to 1790. In 1792, having shown himself active in the cause of the Revolution, he was elected commandant of a volunteer battalion, and by 1793 he had risen to the rank of general of division. He served with credit under Pichegru in Holland (1795), but in 1799 fell into disgrace on suspicion of being concerned in Royalist intrigues. He was reinstated in 1800 and served under Moreau in the Danube campaign of that year. During the Consulate he appears to have been involved in conspiracies, and along with his old com- manders Moreau and Pichegru was disgraced for alleged par- ticipation in that of Georges Cadoudal. He regained his rank, however, in 1809, took a notable part in Gouvion St Cyr's opera- tions in Catalonia, and won the title of count by his conduct at the action of Vich, in which he was wounded. In 1812 Marshal Massena, in declining the command of Marmont's army which had just been defeated at Salamanca, recommended Souham for the post. The latter was thus pitted against Wellington, and by his skilful manoeuvres drove the English general back from Burgos and regained the ground lost at Salamanca. In 1813 he distinguished himself again at Liitzen and at Leipzig (when he was wounded). At the fall of the First Empire he deserted the emperor, and having suffered for the Royalist cause was well received by Louis XVIII., who gave him high commands. These Souham lost at the return of Napoleon and regained after the Second Restoration. He retired in 1832, and died on the 28th of April 1837. SOULARY, JOSEPHIN [JOSEPH MARIE] (1815-1891), French poet, son of a Lyons merchant of Genoese origin (Solan), was born on the 23rd of February 1815. He entered a line regiment when he was sixteen, serving for five years. He was chef de bureau in the prefecture of the Rh6ne from 1845 to 1867, and in 1868 he became librarian to the Palais des arts in his native town. He died at Lyons on the 28th of March 1891. His works include A trovers champs (1837); Les Cinq cord.es du luth (1838); Les Ephemeres (two series, 1846 and 1857); Sonnets humoristiques (1862); Les Figulines (1862); Pendant Vinvasion (1871); Les Rimes ironiques (1877); Jeux divins (1882), and two comedies. His (Euvres poetiques were collected in three volumes (1872-1883). 'His Sonnets humoristiques attracted great attention, and charmed their readers by the mixture of gaiety and tragedy. His mastery over the technical difficulties of his art, especially in the sonnet, won him the title of the " Benvenuto of rhyme." See also Paul Marieton, Soulary et la PUiade lyonnaise (1884). SOULT, NICOLAS JEAN DE DIEU, Duke of Dalmatia (1769- 1851), marshal of France, was born at Saint-Amans-la-Bastide (now in department of the Tarn) on the 29th of March 1769, and was the son of a country notary at that place. He was fairly well educated, and intended for the bar, but his father's death when SOUMET— SOUND 437 he was still a boy made it necessary for him to seek his fortune, and he enlisted as a private in the French infantry in 1785. His superior education ensured his promotion to the rank of sergeant after six years' service, and in July 1791 he became instructor to the first battalion of volunteers of the Bas-Rhin. He served with his' battalion in 1792. By 1794 he was adjutant-general (with the rank of chef de brigade). After the battle of Fleurus, in which he greatly distinguished himself for coolness, he was promoted general of brigade by the representatives on mission. For the next five years he was constantly employed in Germany under Jourdan, Moreau, Kleber and Lefebvre, and in 1799 he was promoted general of division and ordered to proceed to Switzerland. It was at this time that he laid the foundations of his military fame, and he particularly distinguished himself in Massena's great Swiss campaign, and especially at the battle of Zurich. He accompanied Massena to Genoa, and acted as his principal lieutenant throughout the protracted siege of that city, during which he operated with a detached force without the walls, and after many successful actions he was wounded and taken prisoner at Monte Cretto on the i3th of April 1800. The victory of Marengo restoring his freedom, he received the command of the southern part of the kingdom of Naples, and in 1802 he was appointed one of the four generals commanding the consular guard. Though he was one of those generals who had served under Moreau, and who therefore, as a rule, disliked and despised Napoleon, Soult had the wisdom to show his de- votion to the ruling power; in consequence he was in August 1803 appointed to the command-in-chief of the camp of Boulogne, and in May 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France. He commanded a corps in the advance on Ulm, and at Austerlitz (q.v.) he led the decisive attack on the allied centre. He played a great part in all the famous battles of the Grande Armee, except the battle of Friedland (on the day of which he forced his way into Konigsberg), and after the conclusion of the peace of Tilsit he returned to France and was created (1808) duke of Dalmatia. In the following year he was appointed to the com- mand of the II. corps of the army with which Napoleon intended to conquer Spain, and after winning the battle of Gamonal he was detailed by the emperor to pursue Sir John Moore, whom he only caught up at Corunna. For the next four years Soult remained in Spain, and his military history is that of the Peninsular War (q.v.). In 1809, after his defeat by Sir John Moore, he invaded Portugal and took Oporto, but, busying himself with the political settlement of his conquests in the French interests and, as he hoped, for his own ultimate benefit as a possible candidate for the throne, he neglected to advance upon Lisbon, and was eventually dis- lodged from Oporto by Sir Arthur Wellesley, making a painful and almost disastrous retreat over the mountains. After the battle of Talavera he was made chief of staff of the French troops in Spain with extended powers, and on the igth of No- vember 1809 won the great victory of Ocana. In 1810 he invaded Andalusia, which he speedily reduced, with the exception of Cadiz. In 1811 he marched north into Estremadura, and took Badajoz, and when the Anglo-Portuguese army laid siege to it he marched to its rescue, and fought the famous battle of Albuera (May 1 6). In 1812, however, he was obliged, after Welling- ton's great victory of Salamanca, to evacuate Andalusia, and was soon after recalled from Spain at the request of Joseph Bonaparte, with whom, as with the other marshals, he had always disagreed. In March 1813 he assumed the command of the IV. corps of the Grande Armee and commanded the centre at Liitzen and Bautzen, but he was soon sent, with unlimited powers, to the south of France to repair the damage done by the great defeat of Vittoria. His campaign there is the finest proof of his genius as a general, although he was repeatedly defeated by the English under Wellington, for his soldiers were but raw conscripts, while those of Wellington were the veterans of many campaigns. Such was the military career of Marshal Soult. His political career was by no means so creditable, and it has been said of him that he had character only in front of the enemy. After the first abdication of Napoleon he declared himself a Royalist, received the order of St Louis, and acted as minister for war from the 3rd of December 1814 to the nth of March 1815. When Napoleon returned from Elba Soult at once declared himself a Bonapartist, was made a peer of France and acted as major- general (chief of staff) to the emperor in the campaign of Water- loo, in which role he distinguished himself far less than he had done as commander of an over-matched army. At the Second Restoration he was exiled, but not for long, for in 1819 he was recalled and in 1820 again made a marshal of France. He once more tried to show himself a fervent Royalist and was made a peer in 1827. After the revolution of 1830 he made out that he was a partisan of Louis Philippe, who welcomed his adhesion and revived for him the title of marshal-general. He served as minister for war from 1830 to 1834, as ambassador extraordinary to London for the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838, and again as minister for war from 1840 to 1844. In 1848, when Louis Philippe was overthrown, Soult again declared himself a republican. He died at his castle of Soultberg, near his birthplace, on the 26th of November 1851. Soult himself wrote but little. He published a memoir justifying his adhesion to Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and his notes and journals were arranged by his son Napoleon Hector (1801-1857), who published the first part (Memoires du marechal-general Soult) in 1854. Le Noble's Memoires sur les operations des Francois en Galicie are supposed to have been written from Soult papers. See A. Salle, Vie politique du marechal Soult (Paris, 1834) I A. de Grozelier, Le Marechal Soult (Castres, 1851) ; A. Combes, Histoire anecdotigue du marechal Soult (Castres, 1869). SOUMET, ALEXANDRE (i 788-1845) , French poet, was born on the 8th of February 1788 at Castelnaudary, department of Aude. His father wished him to enter the army, but an early-developed love of poetry turned the boy's ambition in other directions. He was an admirer of Klopstock and Schiller, then little known in France, and reproached Mme de Stael with lack of enthusiasm for her subject in De I'Allemagne. Soumet came to Paris in 1810, and some poems in honour of Napoleon secured his nomi- nation as auditor of the Conseil d'Etat. His well-known elegy La Pauwe fille appeared in 1814, and two successful tragedies produced in 1822, Clytemnestre and Saul, secured his admission to the Academy in 1824. Jeanne a' Arc (1825) aroused great enthusiasm, and was the best of his plays. Among his other pieces Elisabeth de France (1828), a weak imitation of Schiller's Don Carlos, may be noted, but Soumet's real bent was towards epic poetry. His most considerable work is a poem inspired by Klopstock, La Divine epopee, which describes the descent of Christ into Hades. Under Louis XVIII. he became librarian of Saint-Cloud, and subsequently was transferred to Rambouillet and to Compiegne. He died on the 3Oth of March 1845, leaving an unfinished epic on Jeanne d'Arc. His daughter Gabrielle (Mme Beauvain d'Altenheim) had collaborated with him in some of his later works. SOUND,1 subjectively the sense impression of the organ of 1 " Sound " is an interesting example of the numerous homony- mous words in the English language. In the sense in which it is treated in this article it appears in Middle English as soun, and comes through Fr. son from Lat. sonus; the d is a mere addition, as in the nautical term " bound " (outward, homeward bound) for the earlier " boun," to make ready, prepare. In the adjectival meaning, healthy, perfect, complete, chiefly used of a deep undis- turbed sleep, or of a well-based argument or doctrine, or of a person well trained in his profession, the word is in O. Eng. sund, and appears also in Ger. gesund, Du. gezond. It is probably cognate with the Lat. sanus, hea'thy, whence the Eng. sane, insanity, sanitation, &c. Lastly, there is a group of words which etymologists are in- clined to treat as being all forms of the word which in O. Eng. is sund, meaning " swimming." These words are for (i) the swim-bladder of a fish; (2) a narrow stretch of water between an inland sea and the ocean, or between an island and the mainland, &c., cf. SOUND, THE, below; (3) to test or measure the depth of anything, particu- larly the depth of water in lakes or seas (see SOUNDING, below). As a substantive the term is used of a surgical instrument for the exploration of a wound, cavity, &c., a probe. In these senses the word has frequently been referred to Lat. sub undo, under the water; and Fr. sombre, gloomy, possibly from sub umbra, beneath the shade, is given as a parallel. 438 SOUND [INTRODUCTORY ' hearing, and objectively the vibratory motion which produces the sensation of sound. The physiological and psychica aspects of sound are treated in the article HEARING. In thi article, which covers the science of Acoustics, we shall consider only the physical aspect of sound, that is, the physical phenomen; outside ourselves which excite our sense of hearing. We shal discuss the disturbance which is propagated from the source to the ear, and which there produces sound, and the modes in which various sources vibrate and give rise to the disturbance. Sound is due to Vibrations. — We may easily satisfy ourselves that, in every instance in which the sensation of sound is excited the body whence the sound proceeds must have been thrown by a blow or other means, into a state of agitation or tremor implying the existence of a vibratory motion, or motion to anc fro, of the particles of which it consists. Thus, if a common glass-jar be struck so as to yield an audible sound, the existence of a motion of this kind may be felt by the finger lightly applied to the edge of the glass; and, on increasing the pressure so as to destroy this motion the sound forthwith ceases. Small pieces of cork put in the jar will be found to dance about during the continuance of the sound; water or spirits of wine poured into the glass will, under the same circum- stances, exhibit a ruffled surface. The experiment is usually performed, in a more striking manner, with a bell-jar and a number of small light wooden balls suspended by silk strings to a fixed frame above the jar, so as to be just in contact with the widest part of the glass. On drawing a violin bow across the edge, the pendulums are thrown off to a considerable dis- tance, and falling back are again repelled, and so on. It is also in many cases possible to follow with the eye the motions of the particles of the sounding body, as, for instance, in the case of a violin string or any string fixed at both ends, when the string will appear through the persistence of visual sensation to occupy at once all the positions which it successively assumes during its vibratory motion. Sound takes Time to Travel. — If we watch a man breaking stones by the roadside some distance away, we can see the hammer fall before we hear the blow. We see the steam issuing from the whistle of a distant engine long before we hear the sound. We see lightning before we hear the thunder which spreads out from the flash, and the more distant the flash the longer the interval between the two. The well-known rule of a mile for every five seconds between flash and peal gives a fair estimate of the distance of the lightning. Sound needs a Material Medium to Trawl Through. — In order that the ear may be affected by a sounding body there must be continuous matter reaching all the way from the body to the ear. This can be shown by suspending an electric bell in the receiver of an air-pump, the wires conveying the current passing through an air-tight cork closing the hole at the top of the receiver. These wires form a material channel from the bell to the outside air, but if they are fine the sound which they carry is hardly appreciable. If while the air within the receiver is at atmospheric pressure the bell is set ringing continuously, the sound is very audible. But as the air is withdrawn by the pump the sound decreases, and when the exhaustion is high the bell is almost inaudible. Usually air is the medium through which sound travels, but it can travel through solids or liquids. Thus in the air-pump experiment, before exhaustion it travels through the glass of the receiver and the base plate. We may easily realise its trans- mission through a solid by putting the ear against a table and scratching the wood at some distance, and through a liquid by keeping both ears under water in a bath and tapping the side of the bath. Sound is a Disturbance of the Wave Kind. — As sound arises in general from vibrating bodies, as it takes time to travel, and as the medium which carries it does not on the whole travel for- ward, but subsides into its original position when the sound has passed, we are forced to conclude that the disturbance is of the wave kind, We can at once gather some idea of the nature of sound waves in air by considering how they are produced by a bell. Let AB (fig. i) be a small portion of a bell which vibrates to and fro from CD to EF and back. As AB moves from CD to EF it pushes forward the layer of air in contact with it. That layer C presses against and pushes forward the next layer and so on. Thus a push or a compression of the air is transmitted onwards in the direction OX. As AB returns from EF towards CD the layer of air next to it follows it as if it 1 ' FIG. i. were pulled back by AB. Really, of course, it is pressed into the space made for it by the rest of the air, and flowing into this space it is extended. It makes room for the next layer of air to move back and to be extended and so on, and an extension of the air is transmitted onwards following the compression which has already gone out. As AB again moves from CD towards EF another compression or push is sent out, as it returns from EF towards CD another extension or pull, and so on. Thus waves are propagated along OX, each wave consisting of one push and one pull, one wave emanating from each complete vibration to and fro of the source AB. Crova's Disk. — We may obtain an excellent representation of the motion of the layers of air in a train of sound waves by means of a device due to Crova and known as " Crova's disk." A small circle, say 2 or 3 mm. radius, is drawn on a card as in fig. 2, and round this circle equidistant points, say 8 or 12, are FIG. 2. taken. From these points as centres, circles are drawn in succes- sion, each with radius greater than the last by a fixed amount, say 4 or 5 mm. In the figure the radius of the inner circle is 3 mm. and the radii of the circles drawn round it are 12, 16, 20, &c. [f the figure thus drawn is spun round its centre in the right direction in its own plane waves appear to travel out from the centre along any radius. If a second card with a narrow slit n it is held in front of the first, the slit running from the centre outwards,* the wave motion is still more evident. If the figure >e photographed as a lantern slide which is mounted so as to urn round, the wave motion is excellently shown on the screen, he compressions and extensions being represented by the crowding in and opening out of the lines. Another illustration is afforded by a long spiral of wire with coils, say 2 in. in diameter and J in. apart. It may be hung up by threads so as to lie horizontally. If one end is sharply pressed in, a com- )ression can be seen running along the spring. The Disturbance in Sound Waves is Longitudinal. — The motion )f a particle of air is, as represented in these illustrations, to ind fro in the direction of propagation, i.e. the disturbance SOUND WAVES] SOUND 439 is " longitudinal." There is no " transverse " disturbance, that is, there is in air no motion across the line of propagation, for such motion could only be propagated from one layer to the next by the " viscous " resistance to relative motion, and would die away at a very short distance from the source. But trans- verse disturbances may be propagated as waves in solids. For instance, if a rope is fixed at one end and held in the hand at the other end, a transverse jerk by the hand will travel as a trans- verse wave along the rope. In liquids sound waves are longi- tudinal as they are in air. But the waves on the surface of a liquid, which are not of the sound kind, are both longitudinal and transverse, the compound nature being easily seen in watching the motion of a floating particle. Displacement Diagram. — We can represent waves of longitudinal displacement by a curve, and this enables us to draw very important conclusions in a very simple way. Let a train of waves be passing from left to right in the direction ABCD (fig. 3). At every point N« FIG. 3. let a line be drawn perpendicular to AD and proportional to the displacement of the particle which was at the point before the disturbance began. Thus let the particle which was at L be at I, to the right or forwards, at a given instant. Draw LP upward and some convenient multiple of LI. Let the particle which was at M originally be at m at the given instant, being displaced to the left or backwards. Draw MQ downwards, the same multiple of Mm. Let N be displaced forward to n. Draw NR the same multiple of Nw and upwards. If this is done for every point we obtain a continuous curve APBQCRD, which represents the dis- placement at every point at the given instant, though by a length at right angles to the actual displacement and on an arbitrary scale. At the points ABCD there is no displacement, and the line AD through these points is called the axis. Forward dis- placement is represented by height above the axis, backward displacement by depth below it. In ordinary sound waves the dis- placement is very minute, perhaps of the order io-6 cm., so that we multiply it perhaps by 100,000 in forming the displacement curve. Wave Length and Frequency. — If the waves are continuous and each of the same shape they form a " train," and the displacement curve repeats itself. The shortest distance in which this repetition occurs is called the wave-length. It is usually denoted by X. In fig. 3, AC=X. If the source makes n vibrations in one second it is said to have " frequency " n. It sends out n waves in each second. If each wave travels out from the source with velocity U the n waves emitted in one second must occupy a length U and therefore U=nX. Distribution of Compression and Extension in a Wave. — Let fig. 4 be the displacement diagram of a wave travelling from left to right. At A the air occupies its original position, while at H it is displaced towards the right or away from A since HP is above the axis. Between A and H, then, and about H, it is extended. At J the dis- placement is forward, but since the curve at Q is parallel to the axis the displacement is approximately the same for all the points close to J, and the air is neither extended nor compressed, but merely displaced bodily a distance represented by JQ. At B there is no displacement, but at K there is displacement towards B represented by KR, i.e. there is compression. At L there is also displacement towards B and again compression. At M, as at J, there is neither extension nor compression. At N the displacement is away from C and there is extension. The dotted curve represents the distribution of compression by height above the axis, and of extension by depth below it. Or we may take it as representing the pressure— ^xcess over the normal pressure in compression, defect from it in extension. The figure shows that when the curve of displacement slopes down in the direction of propagation there is compression, and the pressure is above the normal, and that when it slopes up there is extension, and the pressure is below the normal. Distribution of Velocity in a Wave. — If a wave travels on without alteration the travelling may be represented by pushing on the displacement curve. Let the wave AQBTC (fig. 5) travel to A'QB'TC' in a very short time. In that short time the displace- ment at H decreases from HP to HP' or by PP'. The motion of the particle is therefore backwards towards A. At J the displace- ment remains the same, or the particle is not moving. At K it increases by RR' forwards, or the motion is forwards towards B. At L the displacement backward decreases, or the motion is forward FIG. 5. At M, as at J, there is no change, and at N it is easily seen that the motion . is backward. The distribution of velocity then is represented by the dotted curve and is forward when the curve is above the axis and backward when it is below. Comparing figs. 4 and 5 it is seen that the velocity is forward in compression and backward in extension. The Relations between Displacement, Compression and Velocity. — The relations shown by figs. 4 and 5 in a general manner may easily be put into exact form. Let OX (fig. 6) be the direction FIG. 6. of travel, and let x be the distance of any point M from a fixed point O. Let ON=x+dx. Let MP = ;y represent the forward dis- placement of the particle originally at M, and NQ=y+dy that of the particle originally at N. The layer of air originally of thick- ness dx now has thickness dx+dy, since N is displaced forwards dy more than M. The volume dx, then, has increased to dx+dy or volume I has increased to I +dy/dx and the increase of volume i is dy/dx. Let E be the bulk modulus of elasticity, defined as increase of pressure _-=- decrease of volume per unit volume where the pressure increase is so small that this ratio is constant, w the small increase of pressure, and — (dyldx) the volume decrease, then E = o>/( — dyldx) or a /E = — dy/dx (i ) This gives the relation between pressure excess and displacement. To find the relation of the velocity to displacement and pressure we shall express the fact that the wave travels on carrying all its conditions with it, so that the displacement now at M will arrive at N while the wave travels over MN. Let U be the velocity of the wave and let u be the velocity of the particle originally at N. Let MN=dx = Ud<. In the time at which the wave takes to travel over MN the particle displacement at N changes by QR, and QR=-w<&, so that QR/MN = -M/U. But QR/MN = ay \ax. Then u/V=-dyjdx (2) This gives the velocity of any particle in terms of the displacement. Equating (i) and (2) M/U=w/E (3) which gives the particle velocity in terms of the pressure excess. Generally, if any condition in the wave is carried forward unchanged with velocity U, the change of at a given point in time dt is equal to the change of as we go back along the curve a distance dx = \Jdt at the beginning of dt. Then dx The Characteristics of Sound Waves Corresponding to Loudness, Pilch and Quality. — Sounds differ from each other only in the three respects of loudness, pitch and quality. The loudness of the sound brought by a train of waves of given wave-length depends on the extent of the to and fro excursion of the air particles. This is obvious if we consider that the greater the Vibration of the source the greater is the excursion of the air in the issuing waves, and the louder is the sound heard. Half the total excursion is called the amplitude. Thus in fig. 4 QJ is the amplitude. Methods of measuring the amplitude in sound waves in air have been devised and will be described later. We may say here that the energy or the intensity of the sound of given wave-length is proportional to the square of the amplitude. The pitch of a sound, the note which we assign to it, depends on the number of waves received by the ear per second. This is generally equal to the number of waves issuing from the source per second, and therefore equal to its frequency of vibration. Experiments, which will be described most conveniently when 440 SOUND [VELOCITY we discuss methods of determining the frequencies of sources, prove conclusively that for a given note the frequency is the same whatever the source of that note, and that the ratio of the frequencies of two notes forming a given musical interval is the same in whatever part of the musical range the two notes are situated. Here it is sufficient to say that the frequencies of a note, its major third, its fifth and its octave, are in the ratios of 4 : s = 6 : 8. The quality or timbre of sound, i.e. that which differentiates a note sounded on one instrument from the same note on another instrument, depends neither on amplitude nor on frequency or wave-length. We can only conclude that it depends on wave form, a conclusion fully borne out by investigation. The dis- placement curve of the waves from a tuning-fork on its resonance box, or from the human voice sounding oo, are nearly smooth and symmetrical, as in fig. -ja. That for the air waves from a violin are probably nearly as in fig. jb. FIG. 7. Calculation of the Velocity of Sound Waves in Air. — The velocity with which waves of longitudinal disturbance travel in air or in any other fluid can be calculated from the resistance to com- pression and extension and the density of the fluid. It is con- venient to give this calculation before proceeding to describe the experimental determination of the velocity in air, in other gases and in water, since the calculation serves to some extent as a guide in conducting and interpreting the observations. The waves from a source surrounded by a uniform medium at rest spread out as spheres with the source as centre. If we take one of these spheres a distance from the source very great as compared with a single wave-length, and draw a radius to a point on the sphere, then for some little way round that point the sphere may be regarded as a plane perpendicular to the radius or the line of propagation. Every particle in the plane will have the same displacement and the same velocity, and these will be perpendicular to the plane and parallel to the line of propagation. • The waves for some little distance on each side of the plane will be practically of the same size. In fact, we may neglect the divergence, and may regard them as " plane waves." We shall investigate the velocity of such plane waves by a method which is only a slight modification of a method given by W. J. M. Rankine (Phil. Trans., 1870, p. 277). Whatever the form of a wave, we could always force it to travel on with that form unchanged, and with any velocity we chose, if we could apply any " external " force we liked to each particle, in addition to the " internal " force called into play by the com- pressions or extensions. For instance, if we have a wave with displacement curve of form ABC (fig. 8), and we require it to travel A' M on in time dt to A'B'C', where AA' = \Jdt, the displacement of the particle originally at M must change from PM to P'M or by PP'. This change can always be effected if we can apply whatever force may be needed to produce it. We shall investigate the external force needed to make a train of plane waves travel on unchanged in form with velocity U. We shall regard the external force as applied in the form of a pressure X per square centimetre parallel to the line of propagation and varied from point to point as required in order to make the dis- turbance travel on unchanged in form with the specified velocity U. In addition there will be the internal force due to the change in volume, and consequent change in pressure, from point to point. Suppose that the whole of the medium is moved backwards in space along the line of propagation so that the undisturbed portions travel with the velocity U. The disturbance, or the train of waves, is then fixed in space, though fresh matter continually enters the disturbed region at one end, undergoes the disturbance, and then leaves it at the other end. Let A (fig. 9) be a point fixed in space in the disturbed region, B a fixed point where the medium is not yet disturbed, the medium FIG. 9. moving through A and B from right to left. Since the condition of the medium between A and B remains constant, even though the matter is continually changing, the momentum possessed by the matter between A and B is constant. Therefore the momentum entering through a square centimetre at B per second is equal to the momentum leaving through a square centimetre at A. Now the transfer of momentum across a surface occurs in two ways, firstly by the carriage of moving matter through the surface, and secondly by the force acting between the matter on one side of the surface and the matter on the other side. U cubic centimetres move in per second at B, and if the density js po the mass moving in through a square centimetre is po U. But it has velocity U, and therefore momentum poll2 is carried in. In addition there is a pressure between the layers of the medium, and if this pressure in the undisturbed parts of the medium is P, momentum P per second is being transferred from right to left across each square centimetre. Hence the matter moving in is receiving on this account P per second from the matter to the right of it. The total momentum moving in at B is therefore P+poU2. Now consider the momentum leaving at A. If the velocity of a particle at A relative to the undisturbed parts is u from left to right, the velocity of the matter moving out at A is U— «, and the momentum carried out by the moving matter is p(U— «)2. But the matter to the right of A is also receiving momentum from the matter to the left of it at the rate indicated by the force across A. Let the excess of pressure due to change of volume be &, so that the total " internal " pressure is P-fw. There is also the " external " applied pressure X, and the total momentum flowing out per second is X-t-P+a+p(U-«)J. Equating this to the momentum entering at B and subtracting P from each If y is the displacement at A, and if E is the elasticity, substituting for w and u from (2) and (3) we get But since the volume dx with density po has become volume dx+dy with density p = po. X-Eg+p0U'(i+g)=poU., Then or X = (E— po\J*)dy/dx. (5) If then we apply a pressure X given by (5) at every point, and move the medium with any uniform velocity U, the disturbance remains fixed in space. Or if we now keep the undisturbed parts of the medium fixed, the disturbance travels on with velocity U if we apply the pressure X at every point of the disturbance. If the velocity U is so chosen that E— poU2=o, then X = o, or the wave travels on through the action of the internal forces only, unchanged in form and with velocity U-V(E/P). (6) The pressure X is introduced in order to show that a wave can be propagated unchanged in form. If we omitted it we should have to assume this, and equation (6) would give us the velocity of propagation if the assumption were justified. But a priori we are hardly justified in assuming that waves can be propagated at all, and certainly not justified in assuming that they go on unchanged by the action of the internal forces alone. If, however, we put on external forces of the required type X it is obvious that any wave can be propagated with any velocity, and our investigation shows that when U has the value in (6) then and only then X is zero everywhere, and the wave will be propagated with that velocity when once set going. It may be noted that the elasticity E is only constant for small volume changes or for small values of dy/dx. Since by definition E= —v(dp/dv) = p(dp/dp) equation (6) becomes The value U = V(E/p) was first virtually obtained by Newton (Principia, bk. ii., § 8, props. 48-49). He supposed that in air Boyle's law holds in the extensions and compressions, or that p-kp, whence dp/dp = k=p/p. His value of the velocity in air is therefore U = V (pip) (Newton's formula). At the standard pressure of 76 cm. of mercury or 1,014,000 dynes / sq. cm., the density of dry air at o° C. being taken as 0-001293, we 8et f°r the velocity in dry air at o° C. U0=28,ooocm.sec. (about 920 ft./sec.) VELOCITY] SOUND 44 approximately. Newton found 979 ft. /sec. But, as we shall see, all the determinations give a value of Uo in the neighbourhood of 33,000 cm. /sec., or about 1080 ft./sec. This discrepancy was not ex- plained till 1816, when Laplace (Ann.dechimie, 1816, vol. iii.) pointed out that the compressions and extensions in sound waves in air alternate so rapidly that there is no time for the temperature inequalities produced by them to spread. That is to say, instead of using Boyle's law, which supposes that the pressure changes so exceedingly slowly that conduction keeps the temperature constant, we must use the adiabatic relation p = kpy, whence and U = V(7£/p) [Laplace's formula]. (8) If we take y = I -4 we obtain approximately for the velocity in dry air at o° C. Uo = 33.I5° cm./sec., which is closely in accordance with observation. Indeed Sir G. G. Stokes (Math, and Phys. Papers, iii. 142) showed that a very small departure from the adiabatic condition would lead to a stifling of the sound quite out of accord with observation. If we put p = kp(i+at) in (8) we get the velocity in a gas at At o° C. we have Uo= V (vk~), and hence = Uo(i +0-00184*) (for small values of t). (9) The velocity then should be independent of the barometric pressure, a result confirmed by observation. For two different gases with the same value of y, but with densi- ties at the same pressure and temperature respectively pi and p2, we should have U,/U, = VWpi), (10) another result confirmed by observation. Alteration of Form of the Waves when Pressure Changes are Con- siderable. — When the value of dy/dx is not very small E is no longer constant, but is rather greater in compression and rather less in extension than yP. This can be seen by considering that the relation between p and p is given by a curve and not by a straight line. The consequence is that the compression travels rather faster, and the extension rather slower, than at the speed found above. We may get some idea of the effect by supposing that for a short time the change in form is negligible. In the momentum equation (4) we may now omit X and it becomes Let us seek a more exact value for o>. If when P changes to P+u volume V changes to V— v then (P+w)(V — »)* = PV*, t. n / » i 7(7+1) P2 \ Pi)/ , 7+It>\ whence u = P^-) yjj =">'VV1"1 — 2~W - We have U-M = U(i-w/U)=U(i-»/V), since «/U= -dy/dx=v[V. Also since p(V— f)=poV, or p = po/(l— r/V), then p(U — «)2 = Vp<,U2(i-f/V). Substituting in the momentum equation, we obtain whence U2=^ T+i u If U = V(7P/po) is the velocity for small disturbances, we may put Uo for U in the small term on the right, and we have T + i «\ — irJ or U = U0+4-(T+i)«. (Ji) This investigation is obviously not exact, for it assumes that the form is unchanged, i.e. that the momentum issuing from A (fig. 9) is equal to that entering at B, an assumption no longer tenable when the form changes. But for very small times the assumption may perhaps be made, and the result at least shows the way in which the velocity is affected by the addition of a small term depending on and changing sign with u. It implies that the different parts of a wave move on at different rates, so that its form must change. As we obtained the result on the supposition of unchanged form, we can of course only apply it for such short lengths and such short times that the part dealt with does not appreciably alter. We see at once that, where M=O, the velocity has its " normal " value, while where u is positive the velocity is in excess, and where u is negative the velocity is in defect of the normal value. If, then, a. (fig. 10) represents the displacement curve of a train of waves, b will represent the pressure excess and particle velocity, and from (n) we see that while the nodal conditions of 6, with w = o and « = o, travel with velocity V(E/p), the crests exceed that velocity by 4(7 + 1)", and the hollows fall short of it by $(y+i)u, with the result that the fronts of the pressure waves become steeper and steeper, and the train b changes into something like c. If the steepness gets very great our investigation ceases to apply, and neither experiment nor theory has yet shown what happens. Probably there is a breakdown of the wave somewhat like the breaking of a water-wave when the crest gains on the next trough. In ordinary sound-waves the effect of the particle velocity in affecting the velocity of transmission must be very small. G displacement find velocity FIG. 10. Experiments, referred to plater, have been made to find the amplitude of swing of the air particles in organ pipes. Thus Mach found an amplitude 0-2 cm. when the issuing waves were 250 cm. long. The amplitude in the pipe was certainly much greater than in the issuing waves. Let us take the latter as o-i mm. in the waves — a very extreme value. The maximum particle velocity is 2irna (where n is the frequency and a the amplitude), or 2iraU/X. This gives maximum u = about 8 cm./sec., which would not seriously change the form of the wave in a few wave- lengths. Meanwhile the waves are spreading out and the value of u is falling in inverse proportion to the distance from the source, so that very soon its effect must become negligible. In loud sounds, such as a peal of thunder from a near flash, or the report of a gun, the effect may be considerable, and the rumble of the thunder and the prolonged boom of the gun may perhaps be in part due to the breakdown of the wave when the crest of maximum pressure has moved up to the front, though it is probably due in part also to echo from the surfaces of heterogeneous masses of air. But there is no doubt that with very loud explosive sounds the normal velocity is quite considerably exceeded. Thus Regnault in his classical experiments (described below) found that the velocity of the report of a pistol carried through a pipe diminished with the intensity, and his results have been confirmed by J. Violle and T. Vautier (see below). W. W. Jacques (Phil. Mag., 1879, 7, p. 219) investigated the transmission of a report from a cannon in different directions; he found that it rose to a maximum of 1267 ft./sec. at 70, to 90 ft. in the rear and then fell off. A very curious observation is recorded by the Rev. G. Fisher in an appendix to Captain Parry's Journal of a Second Voyage to the Arctic Regions. In describing experiments on the velocity of sound he states that " on one day and one day only, February 9, 1822, the officer's word of command ' fire ' was several times heard distinctly both by Captain Parry and myself about one beat of the chronometer [nearly half a second] after the report of the gun." This is hardly to be explained by equation (i i), for at the very front of the disturbance «=o and the velocity should be normal. The Energy in a Wave Train. — The energy in a train of waves carried forward with the waves is partly strain or potential energy due to change of volume of the air, partly kinetic energy due to the motion of the air as the waves pass. We shall show that if we sum these up for a whole wave the potential energy is equal to the kinetic energy. The kinetic energy per cubic centimetre is ipM2, where p is the density and u is the velocity of disturbance due to the passage of the wave. If V is the undisturbed volume of a small portion of the air at the undisturbed pressure P, and if it becomes V— v when the pressure increases to P+<3, the average pressure during the change may be taken as P+JS, since the pressure excess for a small change is proportional to the change. Hence the work done on the air is (P+J = o, since on the whole the compression equals the extension. We have then only to con- sider the term juf/V. But n /V =«/U from equation (2) « and 3 =E«/U from equation (3) Then JSu/V = JEtt2/U2 = ipu2 from equation (6) Then in the whole wave the potential energy equals the kinetic energy and the total energy in a complete wave in a column i sq. cm. cross-section is W =J * pu'dx. 442 SOUND [VELOCITY We may find here the value of this when we have a train of waves in which the displacement is represented by a sine curve of amplitude 2ir a, viz. y = a sin -^-(x — U<). For a discussion of this type of wave, see below. We have and The energy per cubic centimetre on the average is (12) (13) and the energy passing per second through I sq. cm. perpendicular to the line of propagation is apiHUWA2 (14) The Pressure of Sound Waves. — Sound waves, like light waves, exercise a small pressure against any surface upon which they im- pinge. The existence of this pressure has been demonstrated experimentally by W. Altberg (Ann. der Physik, 1903, II, p. 405). A small circular disk at one end of a torsion arm formed part of a solid wall, but was free to move through a hole in the wall slightly larger than the disk. When intense sound waves impinged on the wall, the disk moved back through the hole, and by an amount showing a pressure of the order given by the following investigation : — Suppose that a train of waves is incident normally on the surface S (fig. u), and that they are absorbed there without reflection. Let ABCD be a column of air i sq. cm. cross-section. The pressure on CD is equal to the momentum which it receives per second. On the whole the air S within ABCD neither gains nor loses momentum, so that on the whole it receives as much through AB as it gives up to CD. If P is the undisturbed pressure and P+u the pressure at AB, the momentum entering through AB per second IsJ'^P+ia+pu^dt. But J0 Pdt = P is the normal pressure, and as we only wish to find the excess we may leave this out of account. The excess pressure on CD is therefore f*(£> + pu')dt. But the values of £>+pu? which occur successively during the second at AB exist simultaneously at the beginning of the second over the distance U behind AB. Or if the conditions along this distance U could be maintained constant, and we could travel back along it uniformly in one second, we should meet all the conditions actually arriving at AB and at the same intervals. If then d{ is an element of the path, putting dt=d£/U, we have the average excess of pressure P = Here d£ is an actual length in the disturbance. We have 5 and « expressed in terms of the original length dx and the displacement dy so that we must put d£ = dx+dy = (i+dyldx)dx, and FIG. II. We have already found that if V changes to V—v dy since »/V= —dy/dx. We also have pu? = pyU'i/(l+dy/dx). Substituting these values and neglecting powers of dy/dx above the second we get But l -r-dx = o since the sum of the displacements = o. Then putting (dy/dx)1 = («/U)2, we have = Jfa + i) average energy per cubic centimetre, (15) a result first published by Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag., 1905, 10, P- 364)- If the train of waves is reflected, the value of p at AB will be the sum of the values for the two trains, and will, on the average, be doubled. The pressure on CD will therefore be doubled. But the energy will also be doubled, so that (15) still gives the average excess of pressure. Experimental Determinations of the Velocity of Sound. An obvious method of determining the velocity of sound in air consists in starting some sound, say by firing a gun, and stationing an observer at some measured distance from the gun. The observer measures by a clock or chronometer the time elapsing between the receipt of the flash, which passes practically instantaneously, and the receipt of the report. The distance divided by the time gives the velocity of the sound. The velocity thus obtained will be affected by the wind. For instance, William Derham (Phil. Trans., 1708) made a series of observations, noting the time taken by the report of a cannon fired on Blackheath to travel across the Thames to Upminster Church in Essex, 12^ m. away. He found that the time varied between 55^ seconds when the wind was blowing most strongly with the sound, to 63 seconds when i.t was most strongly against the sound. The value for still air he estimated at 1142 ft. per second. He made no correction for temperature or humidity. But when the wind is steady its effect may be eliminated by " reciprocal " observations, that is, by observations of the time of passage of sound in each direction over the measured distance. Let D be the distance, U the velocity of sound in still air, and w the velocity of the wind, supposed for simplicity to blow directly from one station to the other. Let T: and Tz be the observed times of passage in the two directions. We have U+w=D/Ti and U — w = D/Tj. Adding and dividing by 2 If TI and Tj are nearly equal, and if T = 3 (Ti +T2) , this is very nearly U = D/T. The reciprocal method was adopted in 1738 by a commission of the French Academy (Mfmoires de I'acadtmie des sciences, (1738). Cannons were fired at half-hour intervals, alternately at Montmartre and Montlhery, 17 or 18 m. apart. There were also two intermediate stations at which observations were made. The times were measured by pendulum clocks. The result obtained at a temperature about 6° C. was, when converted to metres, U = 337 metres/second. The theoretical investigation given above shows that if U is the velocity in air at /° C. then the velocity U0 at o° C. in the same air is independent of the barometric pressure and that U0=U/(i+o-ooi840, whence U0 = 332 met./sec. In 1822 a commission of the Bureau des Longitudes made a series of experiments between Montlh6ry and Villejuif, n m. apart. Cannons were fired at the two stations at intervals of five minutes. Chronometers were used for timing, and the result at 15-9° C. was 11 = 340-9 met./sec., whence Uo=33o-6 met./sec. (F. J. D. Arago, Connaissance des temps, 1825). When the measurement of a time interval depends on an observer, his " personal equation " comes in to affect the estimation of the quantity. This is the interval between the arrival of an event and his perception that it has arrived, or it may be the interval between arrival and his record of the arrival. This personal equation is different for different observers. It may differ even by a considerable fraction of a second. It is different, too, for different senses with the same observer, and different even for the same sense when the external stimuli differ in intensity. When the interval between a flash and a report is measured, the personal equations for the two arrivals are, in all probability, different, that for the flash being most likely less than that for the sound. In a long series of experi- ments carried out by V. Regnault in the years 1862 to 1866 on the velocity of sound in open air, in air in pipes and in various other gases in pipes, he sought to eliminate personal equation by dispensing with the human element in the observations, using electric receivers as observers. A short account of these experiments is given in Phil. Mag., 1868, 35, p. 161, and the full account, which serves as an excellent example of the extra- ordinary care and ingenuity of Regnault's work, is given in the Memoir es de I'acadtmie des sciences, 1868, xxxvii. On page 459 of the Memoire will be found a list of previous careful experiments on the velocity of sound. In the open-air experiments the receiver consisted of a large REFLECTION] SOUND 443 cone having a thin india-rubber membrane stretched over its narrow end. A small metal disk was attached to the centre of the membrane and connected to earth by a fine wire. A metal contact-piece adjustable by a screw could be made to just touch a point at the centre of the disk. When contact was made it completed an electric circuit which passed to a recording station, and there, by means of an electro-magnet, actuated a style writing a record on a band of travelling smoked paper. On the same band a tuning-fork electrically maintained and a seconds clock actuating another style wrote parallel records. The circuit was continued to the gun which served as a source, and stretched across its muzzle. When the gun was fired, the circuit was broken, and the break was recorded on the paper. The circuit was at once remade. When the wave travelled to the receiver it pushed back the disk from the contact-piece, and this break, too, was recorded. The time between the breaks could be measured in seconds by the clock signals, and in fractions of a second by the tuning-fork record. The receiving apparatus had what we may term a personal equation, for the break of contact could only take place when the membrane travelled some finite distance, exceedingly small no doubt, from the contact-piece. But the apparatus was used in such a way that this could be neglected. In some experiments in which contact was made instead of broken, Regnault determined the personal equation of the apparatus. To eliminate wind as far as possible reciprocal firing was adopted, the interval between the two firings being only a few seconds. The temperature of the air traversed and its humidity were observed, and the result was finally corrected to the velocity in dry air at o° C. by means of equation (10). Regnault used two different distances, viz. 1280 metres and 2445 metres, obtaining from the first U0 = 33i-37 met./sec. ; but the number of experiments over the longer distance was greater, and he appears to have put more confidence in the result from them, viz. Uo = 33°-7i met./sec. In the Phil. Trans., 1872, 162, p. I, is given an interesting deter- mination made by E. J. Stone at the Cape of Good Hope. In this experiment the personal equations of the observers were deter- mined and allowed for. Velocity of Sound in Air and other Gases in Pipes. — In the memoir cited above Regnault gives an account of determinations of the velocity in air in pipes of great length and of diameters ranging from 0-108 metres to i-i metres. He used various sources and the method of electric registration. He found that in all cases the velocity decreased with a diameter. The sound travelled to and fro in the pipes several times before the signals died away, and he found that the velocity decreased with the intensity, tending to a limit for very feeble sounds, the limit being the same whatever the source. This limit for a diameter i-i m. was U0=33O-6 met./sec., while for a diameter 0-108 it was 110=324-25 met./sec. Regnault also set up a shorter length of pipes of diameter 0-108 m. in a court at the College de France, and with this length he could use dry air, vary the pressure, and fill with other gases. He found that within wide limits the velocity was inde- pendent of the pressure, thus confirming the theory. Com- paring the velocities of sound Ui and U2 in two different gases with densities pi and p2 at the same temperature and pressure, and with ratios of specific heats 7,, 72, theory gives Ui/U2 = V (7Wwi !• This formula was very nearly confirmed for hydrogen, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. J. Violle and T. Vautier (Ann. Mm. phys., 1890, vol. 19) made observations with a tube 0-7 m. in diameter, and, using Regnault's apparatus, found that the velocity could be represented by 33i'3(i+CVP), where P is the mean excess of pressure above the normal. According to von Helmholtz and Kirchhoff the velocity in a tube should be less than that in free air by a quantity depending on the diameter of the tube, the frequency of the note used, and the viscosity of the gas (Rayleigh, Sound, vol. ii. §§ 347~8)- Correcting the velocity obtained in the 0-7 m. tube by Kirch- hofi's formula, Violle and Vautier found for the velocity in open air at o° C. Uo=33i-io met./sec. with a probable error estimated at ± o- 10 metre. It is obvious from the various experiments that the velocity of sound in dry air at o° C. is not yet known with very great accuracy. At present we cannot assign a more exact value than U0 = 331 metres per second. Violle and Vautier made some later experiments on the propagation of musical sounds in a tunnel 3 metres in diameter (Ann. Mm. phys., 1905, vol. 5). They found that the velocity of propagation of different musical sounds was the same. Some curious effects were observed in the formation of har- monics in the rear of the primary tone used. These have yet to find an explanation. Velocity of Sound in Water. — The velocity in water was measured by J. D. Colladon and J. K. F. Sturm (Ann. Mm. phys., 1827 (2), 36, p. 236) in the water of Lake Geneva. A bell under water was struck, and at the same instant some gunpowder was flashed in air above the bell. At a station more than 13 kilometres away a sort of big ear-trumpet, closed by a mem- brane, was placed with the membrane under water, the tube rising above the surface. An observer with his ear to the tube noted the interval between the arrival of flash and sound. The velocity deduced at 8-1° C. was 11 = 1435 met./sec., agreeing very closely with the value calculated from the formula 2 = E/p. Experiments on the velocity of sound in iron have been made on lengths of iron piping by J. B. Biot, and on telegraph wires by Wertheim and Brequet. The experiments were not satis- factory, and it is sufficient to say that the results accorded roughly with the value given by theory. Reflection of Sound. When a wave of sound meets a surface separating two media it is in part reflected, travelling back from the surface into the first medium again with the velocity with which it approached. Echo is a familiar example of this. The laws of reflection of sound are identical with those of the reflection of light, viz. (i) the planes of incidence and reflection are coincident, and (2) the angles of incidence and reflection are equal. Experiments may be made with plane and curved mirrors to verify these laws, but it is necessary to use short waves, in order to diminish diffraction effects. For instance, a ticking watch may be put at the focus of a large concave metallic mirror, which sends a parallel " beam " of sound to a second concave mirror facing the first. If an ear-trumpet is placed at the focus of the second mirror the ticking may be heard easily, though it is quite inaud- ible by direct waves. Or it may be revealed by placing a sensitive flame of the kind described below with its nozzle at the focus. The flame jumps down at every tick. Examples of reflection of sound in buildings are only too frequent. In large halls the words of a speaker are echoed or reflected from flat walls or roof or floor; and these reflected sounds follow the direct sounds at such an interval that syllables and words overlap, to the confusion of the speech and the annoyance of the audience. Some curious examples of echo are given in Herschel's article on " Sound " in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, but it appears that he is in error in one case. He states that in the whispering gallery in St Paul's, London, " the faintest sound is faithfully conveyed from one side to the other of the dome but is not heard at any intermediate point." In some domes, for instance in a dome at the university of Birmingham, a sound from one end of a diameter is heard very much more loudly quite close to the other end of the diameter than elsewhere, but in St Paul's Lord Rayleigh found that " the abnormal loudness with which a whisper is heard is not confined to the position diametrically opposite to that occupied by the whisperer, and therefore, it would appear, does not depend materially upon the symmetry 444 SOUND [REFRACTION of the dome. The whisper seems to creep round the gallery horizontally, not necessarily along the shorter arc, but rather along that arc towards which the whisperer faces. This is a consequence of the very unequal audibility of a whisper in front and behind the speaker, a phenomenon which may easily be observed in the open air " (Sound, ii. § 287). Let fig. 12 represent a horizontal section of the dome through the source P. Let OPA be the radius through P. Let PQ represent a ray of sound making the angle 6 with the tangent at A. Let ON( = OP cos 6) be the perpendicular on PQ. Then the reflected ray OR and the ray reflected at R, and so on, will all touch the circle drawn with ON as radius. A ray making an angle less than 8 with the tangent will, with its reflections, touch a larger circle. Hence all rays between ±0 will be confined in the space between the outer dome and a circle of radius OP cos 0, and the weakening of in- tensity will be chiefly due to vertical spreading. Rayleigh points out that this clinging of the sound to the surface of a concave wall does not depend on the exactness of the spherical form. He suggests that the propagation of earthquake disturbances is probably affected by the curvature of the surface of the globe, which may act like a whispering gallery. In some cases of echo, when the original sound is a compound musical note, the octave of the fundamental tone is reflected much more strongly than that tone itself. This is explained by Rayleigh (Sound, ii. § 296) as a consequence of the irregu- larities of the reflecting surface. The irregularities send back a scattered reflection of the different incident trains, and this scattered reflection becomes more copious the shorter the wave- length. Hence the octave, though comparatively feeble in the incident train, may predominate in the scattered reflection constituting the echo. Refraction of Sound. When a wave of sound travelling through one medium meets a second medium of a different kind, the vibrations of its own particles are communicated to the particles of the new medium, so that a wave is excited in the latter, and is propagated through it with a velocity dependent on the density and elasticity of the second medium, and therefore differing in general from the previous velocity. The direction, too, in which the new wave travels is different from the previous one. This change of direction is termed refraction, and takes place, no doubt, accord- ing to the same laws as does the refraction of light, viz. (i) The new direction or refracted ray lies always in the plane of incidence, or plane which contains the incident ray (i.e. the direction of the wave in the first medium), and the normal to the surface separating the two media, at the point in which the incident ray meets it; (2) The sine of the angle between the normal and the incident ray bears to the sine of the angle between the normal and the refracted ray a ratio which is constant for the same pair of media. As with light the ratio involved in the second law is always equal to the ratio of the velocity of the wave in the first medium to the velocity in the second; in other words, the sines of the angles in question are directly proportional to the velocities. Hence sound rays, in passing from one medium into another, are bent in towards the normal, or the reverse, according as the velocity of propagation in the former exceeds or falls short of that in the latter. Thus, for instance, sound is refracted towards the per- pendicular when passing into air from water, or into carbonic acid gas from air; the converse is the case when the passage takes place the opposite way. It further follows, as in the analogous case of light, that there is a certain angle termed ff FIG. 13. the critical angle, whose sine is found by dividing the less by the greater velocity, such that all rays of sound meeting the surface separating two different bodies will not pass onward, but suffer total reflection back into the first body, if the velocity in that body is less than that in the other body, and if the angle of incidence exceeds the limiting angle. The velocities in air and water being respectively 1090 and 4700 ft. the limiting angle for these media may be easily shown to be slightly above 155°. Hence, rays of sound proceeding from a distant source, and therefore nearly parallel to each other, and to PO (fig. 13), the angle POM being greater than 155°, will not pass into the water at all, but suffer total reflection. Under such circumstances, the report of a gun, however powerful, should be inaudible by an ear placed in the water. Acoustic Lenses. — As light is concentrated into a focus by a convex glass lens (for which the velocity of light is less than for the air), so sound ought to be made to converge by passing through a convex lens formed of carbonic acid gas. On the other hand, to produce convergence with water or hydrogen gas, in both which the velocity of sound exceeds its rate in air, the lens ought to be concave. These results have been confirmed experimentally by K. F. J. Sondhauss (Pogg. Ann., 1852, 85. p. 378), who used a collodion lens filled with carbonic acid. He found its focal length and hence the refractive index of the gas, C. Hajech (Ann. chim. phys., 1858, (iii). vol. 54) also measured the refractive indices of various gases, using a prism containing the gas to be experimented on, and he found that the deviation by the prism agreed very closely with the theoretical values of sound in the gas and in air. Osborne Reynolds (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1874, 22, p. 531) first pointed out that refraction would result from a variation in the tempera- ture of the air at different heights. The velocity of sound in air is independent of the pressure, j but varies with the temperature, its value at t° C. being as we have seen U-Ui(i+ioO. where U0is the velocity at o° C., and a is the coefficient of expansion -00365. Now if the temperature is higher overhead than at the surface, the velocity overhead is greater. If a wave front is in a given position, as a i (fig. 14), at a given instant a 6 FIG. 14. the upper part, moving faster, gains on the lower, and the front tends to swing round as shown by the successive positions in a 2, 3 and 4; that is, the sound tends to come down to the surface. This is well illustrated by the remarkable horizontal carriage of sound on a still clear frosty morning, when the surface layers of air are decidedly colder than those above. At sunset, too, after a warm day, if the air is still, the cooling of the earth by radiation cools the lower layers, and sound carries excellently over a level surface. But usually the lower layers are warmer than the upper layers, and the velocity below is greater than the velocity above. Consequently a wave front such as b i tends to turn upwards, as shown in the successive positions b 2, 3 and 4. Sound is then not so well heard along the level, but may still reach an elevated observer. On a hot summer's day the temperature of the surface layers may be much higher than that of the higher layers, and the effect on the horizontal carriage of sound may be very marked. It is well known that sound travels far better with the wind than against it. Stokes showed that this effect is one of refraction, due to variation of velocity of the air Ketractloa from the surface upwards (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1857, P- by wind." 22). It is, of course, a matter of common observation that the wind increases in velocity from the surface upwards. An excellent illustration of this increase was pointed out by F. Osier in the shape of old clouds; their upper portions always appear dragged forward and they lean over, as it were, in the DIFFRACTION] SOUND 445 direction in which the wind is going. The same kind of thing happens with sound-wave fronts when travelling with the wind. The velocity of any part of a wave front relative to the ground will be the normal velocity of sound + the velocity of the wind at that point. Since the velocity increases as we go upwards the front tends to swing round and travel downwards, as shown in the successive positions a i, 2, 3 and 4, in fig. 14, where we must suppose the wind to be blowing from left to right. But if the wind is against the sound the velocity of a point of the wave front is the normal velocity — the wind velocity at the point, and so decreases as we rise. Then the front tends to swing round and travel upwards as shown in the successive positions 6 I, 2, 3, and 4, in fig. 14, where the wind is travelling from right to left. In the first case the waves are more likely to reach and be perceived by an observer level with the source, while in the second case they may go over his head and not be heard at all. Diffraction of Sound Waves. Many of the well-known phenomena of optical diffraction may be imitated with sound waves, especially if the waves be short. Lord Rayleigh (Scientific Papers, iii. 24) has given various examples, and we refer the reader to his account. We shall only consider one interesting case of sound diffraction which may be easily observed. When we are walking past a fence formed by equally-spaced vertical rails or overlapping boards, we may often note that each footstep is followed by a musical ring. A sharp clap of the hands may also produce the effect. A short impulsive wave travels towards the fence, and each rail as it is reached by the wave becomes the centre of a new secondary wave sent out all round, or at any rate on the front side of the fence. S' FIG. 15. Let S (fig. 15) be the source very nearly in the line of the rails ABCDEF. At the instant that the original wave reaches F the wave from E has travelled to a circle of radius very nearly equal to EF — not quite, as 5 is not quite in the plane of the rails. The wave from D has travelled to a circle of radius nearly equal to DF, that from C to a circle of radius nearly CF, and so on. As these " secondary waves " return to S their distance apart is nearly equal to twice the distance between the rails, and the observer then hears a note of wave-length nearly 2EF. But if an observer is stationed at S' the waves will be about half as far apart and will reach him with nearly twice the frequency, so that he hears a note about an octave higher. As he travels further round the frequency increases still more. The railings in fact do for sound what a diffraction grating does for light. Frequency and Pitch. Sounds may be divided into noises and musical notes. A mere noise is an irregular disturbance. If we study the source produc- ing it we find that there is no regularity of vibration. A musical note always arises from a source which has some regularity of vibration, and which sends equally-spaced waves into the air. A given note has always the same frequency, that is to say, the hearer receives the same number of waves per second what- ever the source by which the note is produced. Various instru- ments have been devised which produce any desired note, and which are provided with methods of counting the frequency of vibration. The results obtained fully confirm the general law that " pitch," or the position of the note in the musical scale, depends solely on its frequency. We shall now describe some of the methods of determining frequency. Savart's toothed wheel apparatus, named after Felix Savart (1791-1841), a French physicist and surgeon, consists of a brass wheel, whose edge is divided into a number of equal projecting teeth distributed uniformly over the circumference, and which is capable of rapid rotation about an axis perpendicular to its plane and passing through its centre, by means of a series of multiplying wheels, the last of which is turned round by the hand. The toothed wheel being set in motion, the edge of a card or of a funnel-shaped piece of common notepaper is held against the teeth, when a note will be heard arising from the rapidly succeeding displacements of the air in its vicinity. The pitch of this note will rise as the rate of rotation increases, .and becomes steady when that rotation is maintained uniform. It may thus be brought into unison with any sound of which it may be required to determine the correspond- ing number of vibrations per second, as for instance the note As, three octaves higher than the A which is indicated musically by a small circle placed between the second and third lines of the G clef, which A is the note of the tuning-fork usually employed for regulating concert-pitch. As may be given by a piano. Now, suppose that the note produced with Savart's apparatus is in unison with As, when the experimenter turns round the first wheel at the rate of 60 turns per minute or one per second, and that the cir- cumferences of the various multiplying wheels are such that the rate of revolution of the toothed wheel is thereby increased 44 times, then the latter wheel will perform 44 revolutions in a second, and hence, if the number of its teeth be 80, the number of taps imparted to the card every second will amount to 4^X80 or 3520. This, therefore, is the number of vibrations corresponding to the note A». If we divide this by 23 or 8, we obtain 440 as the number of vibrations answering to the note A. If, for the single toothed wheel, be substituted a set of four with a common axis, in which the teeth are in the ratios 4: 5: 6: 8, and if the card be rapidly passed along their edges, we shall hear distinctly produced the fundamental chord C, E, G, Ci and shall thus satisfy ourselves that the intervals C, E; C, G and C, Ci are |, | and 2 respectively. Neither this instrument nor the next to be described is now used for exact work; they merely serve as illustrations of the law of pitch. The siren of L. F. W. A. Seebeck (1805-1849) is the simplest form of apparatus thus designated, and consists of a large circular disk mounted on a central axis, about which it may be made _ *«*• to revolve with moderate rapidity. This disk is per- si^,n forated with small round holes arranged in circles about the centre of the disk. In the first series of circles, reckoning from the centre the openings are so made as to divide the respective circumferences, on which they are found, in aliquot parts bearing to each other the ratios of the numbers 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64. The second series consists of circles each of which is formed of two sets of perforations, in the first circle arranged as 4:5, in the next as 3:4, then as 2:3, 3:5, 4:7. In the outer series is a circle divided by perforations into four sets, the numbers of aliquot parts being as 3 : 4 : 5 : 6, followed by others which we need not further refer to. The disk being started, then by means of a tube held at one end between the lips, and applied near to the disk at the other, or more easily with a common bellows, a blast of air is made to fall on the part of the disk which contains any one of the above circles. The current being alternately transmitted and shut off, as a hole passes on and off the aperture of the tube or bellows, causes a vibratory motion of the air, whose frequency depends on the number of times per second that a perforation passes the mouth of the tube. Hence the note produced with any given circle of holes rises in pitch as the disk revolves more rapidly; and if, the revolution of the disk being kept as steady as possible, the tube be passed rapidly across the circles of the first series, a series of notes is heard, which, if the lowest be denoted by C, form the sequence C, Ci, EI, Gi, Cj, &c. In like manner, the first circle in which we have two sets of holes dividing the circumference, the one into say 8 parts, and the other into 10, or in ratio 4: 5, the note produced is a compound one, such as would be obtained by striking on the piano two notes separated by the interval of a major third (|). Similar results are obtainable by means of the remaining perforations. A still simpler form of siren may be constituted with a good spinning-top, a perforated card disk, and a tube for blowing with. The siren of C. Cagniard de la Tour is founded on the same principle as the preceding. It consists of a cylindrical chest of brass, the base of which is pierced at its centre with an opening in which is fixed a brass tube projecting outwards, and *J Tn. "*. . intended for supplying the cavity of the cylinder with *g° * compressed air or other gas, or even liquid. The top of the cylinder is formed of a plate perforated near its edge by holes distributed uniformly in a circle concentric with the plate, and which are cut obliquely through the thickness of the plate. Immediately above this fixed plate, and almost in contact with it, is another of the same dimensions, and furnished with the same number, n, of openings similarly placed, but passing obliquely through in an opposite direction from those in the fixed plate, the one set being inclined to the left, the other to the right. This second plate is capable of rotation about an axis per- pendicular to its plane and passing through its centre. Now, let the movable plate be at any time in a position such that its holes are immediately above those in the fixed plate, and let the bellows by which air is forced into the cylinder (air, for simplicity, being SOUND [FREQUENCY AND PITCH supposed to be the fluid employed) be put in action; then the air in its passage will strike the side of each opening in the movable plate in an oblique direction (as shown in fig. 16), and will therefore urge the latter to rotation round its centre. After I /nth of a revolution, the two sets of perforations will again coincide, the lateral impulse of the air repeated, and hence the rapidity . , r . , 'i-i • >ii of rotation increased. This will go on continually as long as air is supplied to the cylinder, and the velocity of rotation of the upper plate will be accelerated up to a certain maximum, at which it may be maintained by keeping the force of the current constant. Now, it is evident that each coincidence of the perforations in the two plates is followed by a non-coincidence, during which the air-current is shut off, and that consequently, during each revolution of the upper plate, there occur n alternate passages and interceptions of the current. Hence arises the same number /of successive im- pulses of the external air immediately in contact with the movable plate, which is thus thrown into a state of vibration at the rate of n for every revolution of the plate. The result is a note whose pitch rises as the velocity of rotation increases, and becomes steady when that velocity reaches its constant value. If, then, we can determine the number m of revolutions performed by the plate in every second, we shall at once have the number of vibrations per second corresponding to the audijple note by multiplying m by n. For this purpose the axis is furnished at its upper part with a screw working into a toothed wheel, and driving it round, during each revolution of the plate, through a space equal to the interval between two teeth. An index resembling the hand of a watch partakes of this motion, and points successively to the divisions of a graduated dial. On the completion of each revolution of this toothed wheel (which, if the number of its teeth be 100, will com- prise 100 revolutions of the movable plate), a projecting pin fixed to it catches a tooth of another toothed wheel and turns it round, and with it a corresponding index which thus records the number of turns of the first toothea wheel. As an example of the applica- tion of this siren, suppose that the number of revolutions of the plate, as shown by the indices, amounts to §400 in a minute, that is, to 90 per second, then the number of vibrations per second of the note heard amounts to gon, or (if number of holes in each plate = 8) to 720. H. N. Dove (1803-1879) produced a modification of the siren by which the relations of different musical notes may be more readily ascertained. In it the fixed and movable plates are gagj, furnished with four concentric series of per- forations, dividing the circumferences into different aliquot parts, as, for example, 8, 10, 12, 16. Beneath the lower or fixed plate are four metallic rings furnished with holes corre- sponding to those in the plates, and which may be pushed round by projecting pins, so as to admit the air-current through any one or more of the series of perforations in the fixed plate. Thus may be obtained, either separately or in various combinations, the four notes whose vibrations are in the ratios of the above numbers, and which therefore form the fundamental chord (CEGCi). The inventor has given to this instrument the name of the many-voiced siren. Helmholtz (Sensations of Tone, ch. yiii.) further adapted the siren for more extensive use, by the addition to Dove's instrument 0*. another chest con- taming its own fixed anc* movaDle perforated plates and perforated rings, both the movable platas being driven by the same current and revolving about a common axis. Annexed is a figure of this instru- ment (fig. 17). Graphic Methods. — The relation between the pitch of a note and the frequency of the corresponding vibrations has also been studied by graphic methods. Thus, if an elastic metal slip or a pig's bristle be at- tached to one prong of a tuning- EF- m fork, and if the fork, while in Jl\ \ vibration, is moved rapidly over a U\ r \ Uf| glass plate coated with lamp-black, 1 \ P \V V tne attached sty'e touching the %'tt-i .J _ '\^J\ plate lightly, a wavy line will be traced on the plate answering to * I the vibrations to and fro of the fork. The same result will be ob- tained with a stationary fork and a _ , ove s Double Slrea. FIG. 17. movable glass plate; and, if the time occupied by the plate in moving through a given distance can be ascertained and the number of complete undulations exhibited on the plate for that distance, which is evidently the number of vibrations of the fork in that time, is reckoned, we shall have determined the numerical vibration- value of the note yielded by the fork. Or, if the same plate • be moved in contact with two tuning-forks, we shall, by compar- ing the number of sinuosities in the one trace with that in the other, be enabled to assign the ratio of the corresponding numbers of vibrations per second. Thus, if the one note be an octave higher than the other, it will give double the number of waves in the same distance. The motion of the plate may be simply produced by dropping it between two vertical grooves, the tuning-forks being properly fixed to a frame above. Greater accuracy may be attained with a revolving-drum chrono- graph first devited by Tho'mas Young (Lect. on Nat. Phil., 1807, i. 190), consisting of a cylinder which may be coated with lamp-black, or, better still, a metallic cylinder round which a blackened sheet of paper is wrapped. The cylinder is mounted on an axis and turned round, while the style attached to the vibrating body is in light contact with it, and traces therefore a wavy circle, which, on taking off the paper and flattening it, becomes a wavy straight line. The superiority of this arrangement arises from the comparative facility with which the number of revolutions of the cylinder in a given time may be ascertained. In R. Koenig's arrangement (Quelques experiences d'acoustique, p. i) the axis of the cylinder is fashioned as a screw, which works in fixed nuts at the ends, causing a sliding as well as a rotatory motion of the cylinder. The lines traced out by the vibrating pointer are thus prevented from overlapping when more than one turn is given to the cylinder. • In the phonauto- graph of E. L. Scott (Comptes rendus, 1861, 53, p. 108) any sound whatever may be made to record its trace on the paper by means of a large parabolic cavity resembling a speaking-trumpet, which is freely open at the wider extremity, but is closed at the other end by a thin stretched membrane. To the centre of this membrane is attached a small feather-fibre, which, when the reflector is suit- ably placed, touches lightly the surface of the revolving cylinder. Any sound (such as that of the human voice) transmitting its rays into the reflector, and communicating vibratory motion to the membrane, will cause the feather to trace a sinuous line on the paper. If, at the same time, a tuning-fork of known number of vibrations per second be made to trace its own line close to the other, a comparison of the two lines gives the number corresponding to the sound under consideration. The phonograph (q.t.) may be regarded as an instrument of this class, in that it records vibrations on a revolving drum or disk. Lissajous Figures. — A mode of exhibiting the ratio of the fre- quencies of two forks was devised by Jules Antoine Lissajous (1822— 1880). On one prong of each fork is fixed a small plane mirror. The two forks are fixed so that one vibrates in a vertical, and the other in a horizontal, plane, and they are so placed that a converging beam of light received on one mirror is reflected to the other and then brought to a point on a screen. If the first fork alone vibrates, the point on the screen appears lengthened out into a vertical line through the changes in inclination of the first mirror, while if the second fork alone vibrates, the point appears lengthened out into a horizontal line. If both vibrate, the point describes a curve which appears continuous through the persistence of the retinal impression. Lissajous also obtained the figures by aid of the vibra- tion microscope, an instrument which he invented. Instead of a mirror, the objective of a microscope is attached to one prong of the first fork and the eyepiece of the microscope is fixed behind the fork. Instead of a mirror the second fork carries a bright point on one prong, and the microscope is focused on this. If both forks vibrate, an observer looking through the microscope sees the bright point describing Lissajous figures. If the two forks have the same frequency, it is easily seen that the figure will be an ellipse (including as limiting cases, depending on relative amplitude and phase, a circle and a straight line). If the forks are not of exactly the same frequency the ellipse will slowly revolve, and from its rate of revolution the ratio of the frequencies may be determined (Rayleigh, Sound, i. § 33). If one is the octave of the other a figure of 8 may be described, and so on. Fig. 18 shows curves given by intervals of the octave, the twelfth and the fifth. The kaleidophone devised by Charles Wheatstone in 1827 gives these figures in a simple way. It consists of a straight rod clamped in a vice and carrying a bead at its upper free end. The bead is illuminated and shows a bright point of light. If the rod is circular in section and perfectly uniform the end will describe a circle, ellipse or straight line; but, as the elasticity is usually not exactly the same in all directions, the figure usually changes and revolves. Various modifications of the kaleidophone have been made (Rayleigh, Sound, § 38). Koenig devised a clock in which a fork of frequency 64 takes the place of the pendulum (Wied. Ann., 1880, ix. 394). The motion of the fork is maintained by the clock acting through an escapement, and the dial registers both the number of vibrations of the fork and the seconds, minutes and hpurs. By comparison with a clock of known rate the total number of vibrations of the fork in any time may be accurately determined. One prong of the fork carries a micro- scope objective, part of a vibration microscope, of which the eyepiece is fixed at the back of the clock and the Lissajous figure FREQUENCY AND PITCH] SOUND 447 made by the clock fork and any other fork may be observed. With this apparatus Koenig studied the effect of temperature on a standard fork of 256 frequency, and found that the frequency decreased by 0-0286 of a vibration for a rise of 1°, the frequency being exactly 256 at 26-2° C. Hence the frequency may be put as 256)1—0-000113 (t — 26-2)). Clarke's Strobo- scopk Method. (From Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) FIG. 18. Koenig also used the apparatus to investigate the effect on the frequency of a fork of a resonating cavity placed near it. He found that when the pitch of the cavity was below that of the fork the pitch of the fork was raised, and vice versa. But when the pitch of the cavity was exactly that of the fork when vibrating alone, though it resounded most strongly, it did not affect the frequency of the fork. These effects have been explained by Lord Rayleigh (Sound, i. § 117). In the stroboscopic method of H. M'Leod and G. S. Clarke, the full details of which will be found in the original memoir (Phil. Trans., 1880, pt. i. p. l), a cylinder is ruled with equi- M'Lcodaad distant white lines parallel to the axis on a black ground. It is set so that it can be turned at any de- sired and determined speed about a horizontal axis, and when going fast enough it appears grey. Imagine now that a fork with black prongs is held near the cylinder with its prongs vertical and the plane of vibration parallel to the axis, and suppose that we watch the outer out- line of the right-hand prong. Let the cylinder be rotated so that each white line moves exactly into the place of the next while the prong moves once in and out. Hence when a white line is in a particular position on the cylinder, the prong will always be the same distance along it and cut off the same length from view. The most will be cut off in the position of the lines corresponding to the furthest swing out, then less and less till the furthest swing in, then more and more till the furthest swing out, when the appear- ance will be exactly as at first. The boundary between ,the grey cylinder and the black fork will therefore appear wavy with fixed undulations, the distance from crest to crest being the distance between the lines on the cylinder. If the fork has slightly greater frequency, then a white line will not quite reach the next place while the fork is making its swing in and out, and the waves will travel against the motion of the cylinder. If the fork has slightly less frequency the waves will travel in the opposite direction, and it is easily seen that the frequency of the fork is the number of white lines passing a point in a second ± the number of waves passing the point per second. This apparatus was used to find the temperature coefficient of the frequency of forks, the value ob- tained— -oooi i being the same as that found by Koenig. Another important result of the investigation was that the phase of vibra- tion of the fork was not altered by bowing it, the amplitude alone changing. The method is easily adapted for the converse deter- mination of speed of revolution when the frequency of a fork is known. The phonic wheel, invented independently by Paul La Cour and Lord Rayleigh (see Sound, i. § 68 c), consists of a wheel carrying several soft-iron armatures fixed at equal distances p? frf S round its circumference. The wheel rotates between W°L . the poles of an electro-magnet, which is fed by an intermittent current such as that which is working an electrically maintained tuning-fork (see infra). If the wheel be driven at such rate that the armatures move one place on in about the period of the current, then on putting on the current the electro- magnet controls the rate of the wheel so that the agreement of period is exact, and the wheel settles down to move so that the electric driving forces just supply the work taken out of the wheel. If the wheel has very little work to do it may not be necessary to apply driving power, and uniform rotation may be maintained by the electro-magnet. In an experiment described by Rayleigh such a wheel provided with four armatures was used to determine the exact frequency of a driving fork known to have a frequency near 32. Thus the wheel made about 8 revolutions per second. There was one opening in its disk, and through this was viewed the pendulum of a clock beating seconds. On the pendulum was fixed an illuminated silver bead which appeared as a bright point of light when seen for an instant. Suppose now an observer to be looking from a fixed point at the bead through the hole in the phonic wheel, he will see the bead as 8 bright points flashing out in each beat, and in succession at intervals of g second. Let us suppose that he notes the positions of two of these next to each other in the beat of the pendulum one way. If the fork makes exactly 32 vibrations and the wheel 8 revolutions in one pendulum beat, then the positions will be fixed, and every two seconds, the time of a complete pendulum vibration, he will see the two positions looked at flash out in succession at an interval of | second. But if the fork has, say, rather greater frequency, the hole in the wheel comes round at the end of the two seconds before the bead has quite come into position, and the two flashes appear gradually to move back in the opposite way to the pendulum. Suppose that in N beats of the clock the flashes have moved exactly one place back. Then the first flash in the new position is viewed by the 8Nth passage of the opening, and the second flash in the original position of the first is viewed when the pendulum h^s made exactly N beats and by the (8 N + i)th passage of the hole. Then the wheel makes 8 N + i revolutions in N clock beats, and the fork makes 32 N + 4 vibrations in the same time. If the clock is going exactly right, this gives a frequency for the fork of 32 + 4/N. If the fork has rather less frequency than 32 then the flashes appear to move forward and the frequency will be 32— 4/N. In Rayleigh's experiment the 32 fork was made to drive electrically one of fre- quency about 128, and somewhat as with the phonic wheel, the frequency was controlled so as to be exactly four times that of the 32 fork. A standard 128 ;fork could then be compared either optically or by beats with the electrically driven fork. Scheibler's Tonometer. — When two tones are sounded together with frequencies not very different, " beats " or swellings-out of the sound are heard of frequency equal to the difference of frequencies of the two tones (see below). Johann Heinrich Scheibler (1777- 1838) tuned two forks to an exact octave, and then prepared a number of. others dividing the octave into such small steps that the beats between each and the next could be counted easily. Let the forks be numbered o, I, 2, . . . N. If the frequency of o is n, that of N is 2n. Suppose that No. i makes mi beats with No. o, that No. 2 makes mt beats with No. I, and so on, then the frequencies are n, n+m\, n+mi+m?, . . ., n+mt+m^+ . . . + mu- Since n+mi+>»2+ . . . + m^=2n, n = mi-\-mi-\- . . . -\-m-^, and it follows that when n is known, the frequency of every fork in the range may be determined. Any other fork within this octave can then have its frequency determined by finding the two between which it lies. Suppose, for instance, it makes 3 beats with No. 10, it might have frequency either 3 above or below that of No. 10. But if it lies above No. 10 it will beat less often with No. II than with No. 9; if below No. 10 less often with No. 9 than with No. n. Suppose it lies between No. 10 and No. II its frequency is that of No. 10+3. Manometric Flames. — This is a device due to Koenig (Phil. Mag., J873, 45) and represented diagrammatically in fig. 19. / is a flame FIG. 19. from a pinhole burner, fed through a cavity C, one side of which is closed by a membrane m; on the other side of the membrane is another cavity C', which is put into connexion with a source of sound, as, for instance, a Helmholtz resonator excited by a fork of the same frequency. The membrane vibrates, and alternately checks and increases the gas supply, and the flame jumps up and down with the frequency of the source. It then appears elongated. To show its intermittent character its reflection is viewed in a re- volving mirror. For this purpose four vertical mirrors are arranged round the vertical sides of a cube which is rapidly revolved about a vertical axis. The flame then appears toothed as shown. If several notes are present the flame is jagged by each. Interesting results are obtained by singing the different vowels into a funnel substituted for the resonator in the figure. SOUND [DIATONIC SCALE If two such flames are placed one under the other they may be excited by different sources, and the ratio of the frequencies may be approximately determined by counting the number of teeth in each in the same space. The Diatonic Scale. It is not necessary here to deal generally with the various musical scales. We shall treat only of the diatonic scale, which is the basis of European music, and is approximated to as closely as is consistent with convenience of construction in key-board instruments, such as the piano, where the eight white notes beginning with C and ending with C an octave higher may be taken as representing the scale with C as the key-note. All experiments in frequency show that two notes, forming a definite musical interval, have their frequencies always in the same ratio wherever in the musical scale the two notes are situated. In the scale of C|the intervals from the key-note, the frequency ratios with the key-note, the successive frequency ratios and the successive intervals are as follows: — Note . . . C D E F G A B C Interval with C second major fourth fifth major seventh octave third sixth Frequency *. i 1 I 1 » i V 2 Successive fre- I V II 1 10 1 I tl quency ratios. Successive in- major minor major major minor major major tervals tone tone semi- tone tone tone semi- tone tone If we pass through two intervals in succession, as, for instance, if we ascend through a fourth from C to F and then through a third from F to A, the frequency ratio of A to C is f , which is the product of the ratios for a fourth f , and a third f. That is, if we add intervals we must multiply frequency ratios to obtain the frequency ratio for the interval which is the sum of the two. The frequency ratios in the diatonic scale are all expressible either as fractions, with i, 2, 3 or 5 as numerator and denomina- tor, or as products of such fractions; and it may be shown that for a given note the numerator and denominator are smaller than any other numbers which would give us a note in the immediate neighbourhood. Thus the second f=$XfXj, and we may regard it as an ascent through two fifths in succession and then a descent through an octave. The third i= 5X5X5 or ascent through an interval f, which has no special name, and a descent through two octaves, and so on. Now suppose we take G as the key-note and form its diatonic scale. If we write down the eight notes from G to g in the key of C, their frequency ratios to C, the frequency ratios required by the diatonic scale for G, we get the frequency ratios required in the last line: — Notes on scale of C G A B c d ' e f t Frequency ratios with C = i . Frequency ratios of diatonic scale * i V 2 I " 8 3 with G = i i ^ \ g 8 I V 2 Frequency ratios with C = I, G = J . f H V 2 f 5 1 3 We see that all but two notes coincide with notes on the scale of C. But instead of A = jj we have H, and instead of /= f we have 4$. The interval between i and f$ - H + f = f J- is termed a " comma," and is so small that the same note on an instrument may serve for both. But the interval between f and f| = ^-f -i- f = ^ff is quite perceptible, and on the piano, for instance, a separate string must be provided above /. This note is /sharp, and the interval }-f£ is termed a sharp. Taking the successive key-notes D, A, E, B, it is found that besides small and negligible differences, each introduces a new sharf), and so we get the five sharps, C, D, F, G, A, represented nearly by the black keys. If we start with F as key-note, besides a small difference at d, we have as the fourth from it f X f = V, making with B = V an interval •}•$£, and requiring a new note, B flat. This does not coincide with A sharp which is the octave below the seventh from BoxVXVXf- Hf It makes with it an interval = V + ?if = fM&, rather less than a comma; so that the same string in the piano may serve for both. If we take the new note B flat as key-note, another note, E flat, is required. E flat as key-note introduces another flat, and so on, 'each flat not quite coinciding with a sharp but at a very small interval from it. It is evident that for exact diatonic scales for even a limited number of key-notes, key-board instruments would have to be provided with a great number of separate strings or pipes, and the corresponding keys would be required. The construc- tion would be complicated and the playing exceedingly difficult. The same string or pipe and the same key have therefore to serve for what should be slightly different notes. A compromise has to be made, and the note has to be tuned so as to make the compromise as little unsatisfactory as possible. At present twelve notes are used in the octave, and these are arranged at equal intervals 2^. This is termed the equal temperament scale, and it is obviously only an approach to the diatonic scale. Helmholtz's Notation. — In works on sound it is usual to adopt Helmholtz's notation, in which the octave from bass to mic}dle_ C is written c d e f e a b c'. The octave above is c' d' e' j' g' a' V c . The next octave above has two accents, and each succeeding octave another accent. The octave below bass C is written CDEFGABc. The next octave below is Ci Di EI FI Gi Ai Bi C, and each preceding octave has another accent as suffix. The standard frequency for laboratory work is £ = 128, so that middle £'=256 and treble c* = 512. The standard for musical instruments has varied (see PITCH, MUSICAL). Here it is sufficient to say that the French standard is a' =435 with c" practically 522, and that in England the pitch is somewhat higher. The French notation is as under : — CDEFGABc Uti Rei Mi Fai Soli Lai Su Utj. The next higher octave has the suffix 2, the next higher the suffix 3, and so on. French forks are marked with double the true frequency, so that Utj is marked 512. Limiting Frequencies for Musical Sounds. — Until the vibrations of a source have a frequency in the neighbourhood of 30 per second the ear can hear the separate impulses, if strong enough, but does not hear a note. It is not easy to determine the exact point at which the impulses fuse into a continuous tone, for higher tones are usually present with the deepest of which the frequency is being counted, and these may be mistaken for it. Helmholtz (Sensations of Tone, ch. ix.) used a string loaded at the middle point so that the higher tones were several octaves above the fundamental, and so not likely to be mistaken for it; he found that with 37 vibrations per second a very weak sensation of tone was heard, but with 34 there was scarcely anything audible left. A determinate musical pitch is not perceived, he says, till about 40 vibrations per second. At the other end of the scale with increasing frequency there is another limiting frequency somewhere about 20,000 per second, beyond which no sound is heard. But this limit varies greatly with different individuals and with age for the same individual. Persons who when young could hear the squeaks of bats may be quite deaf to them when older. Koenig constructed a series of bars forming a harmonicon, the frequency of each bar being calculable, and he found the limit to be between 16,000 and 24,000. The Number of Vibrations needed to give the Perception of Pitch. — Experiments have been made on this subject by various workers, the most extensive by W. Kohlrausch (Wied. Ann., 1880, x. i). He allowed a limited number of teeth on the arc of a circle to strike against a card. With sixteen teeth the pitch was well defined; with nine teeth it was fairly determinate; and even with two teeth it could be assigned with no great error. His remarkable result that two waves give some sense of pitch, in fact a tone with wave- length equal to the interval between the waves, has been confirmed by other observers. Alteration of Pitch with Motion of Source or Hearer: Doppler's Principle. — A very noticeable illustration of the alteration of pitch by motion occurs when a whistling locomotive moves rapidly past an observer. As it passes, the pitch of the whistle falls quite appreciably. The explanation is simple. The engine follows up any wave that it has sent forward, and so crowds up the succeeding waves into a less distance than if it remained at rest. It draws off from any wave it has sent backward and so spreads the succeeding waves over a longer distance than if it had remained at rest. Hence the forward waves are shorter and the backward waves are longer. Since U = n X where U is the velocity of sound, X the wave-length, and n the frequency, it follows that the forward frequency is greater than the backward frequency. The more general case of motion of source, medium and receiver MUSICAL QUALITY] SOUND 449 may be treated very easily if the motions are all in the line joining source and receiver. Let S (fig. 20) be the source at a given instant, and let its frequency of vibration, or the number of waves it sends out per second, be n. Let S' be its position one second later, its velocity being «. Let R be the. receiver at a given instant, R' its position a second later, its velocity being v. Let the velocity of the air from S to R be w, and let U be the velocity of sound in still air. FIG. 20. If all were still, the n waves emitted by S in one second would spread over a length U. But through the wind velocity the first wave is carried to a distance U + vi from S, while through the motion of the source the last wave is a distance u from S. Then the n waves occupy a space U -f- w — u. Now turning to the receiver, let us consider what length is occupied by the waves which pass him in one second. If he were at rest, it would be the waves in length U + w, for the wave passing him at the beginning of a second would be so tar distant at the end of the second. But through his motion » in the second, he receives only the waves in distance U + w— v. Since there are n waves in distance U + w — u the number he actu- ally receives is n(U -\-w — f)/(U -\-iti — u). If the velocities of source and receiver are equal then the frequency is not affected by their motion or by the wind. But if their velocities are different, the frequency of the waves received is affected both by these velocities and by that of the wind. The change in pitch through motion of the source may be illustrated by putting a pitch-pipe in one end of a few feet of rubber tubing and blowing through the other end while the tubing is whirled round the head. An observer in the plane of the motion can easily hear a change in the pitch as the pitch-pipe moves to and from him. Musical Quality or Timbre. — Though a musical note has definite pitch or frequency, notes of the same pitch emitted by different instruments have quite different quality or timbre. The three characteristics of a longitudinal periodic disturbance are its ampli- tude, the length after which it repeats itself, and its form, which may be represented by the shape of the displacement curve. Now the amplitude evidently corresponds to the loudness, and the length of period corresponds to the pitch or frequency. Hence we must put down the quality or timbre as depending on the form. The simplest form of wave, so far as our sensation goes — that is, the one giving rise to a pure tone-^is, we have every reason to suppose, one in which the displacement is represented by a harmonic curve or a curve of sines, y=a sin m(x— e). If we put this in the form y=a sin y (x—e), we see that y=o, for x=e, e+%\, e+|X, e+IX, and so on, that y is + from x = e to *=e+JX, —from e + %\ to e+iX, and so on, and that it alternates between the values+a and— a. The form of the curve is evidently as represented in fig. 21, and it may easily be drawn to exact scale from a table of sines. H I A/ M K FIG. 21. In this curve ABCD are nodes. OA = e is termed the epoch, being the distance from O of the first ascending node. AC is the shortest distance after which the curve begins to repeat itself; this length X is termed the wave-length. The maximum height of the curve HM=a is the amplitude. If we transfer O to A, e = o, and the curve may be represented by y=a sin ^x. If now the curve moves along unchanged in form in the direction ABC with uniform velocity U, the epoch e = OA at any time t will be \Jt, so that the value of y may be represented as y = a sin -£(x — Vf). (16) The velocity perpendicular to the axis of any pbint on the curve at a fixed distance x from O is The acceleration perpendicular to the axis is (18) which is an equation characteristic of simple harmonic motion. The maximum velocity of a particle in the wave-train is the amplitude of dyjdt. It is, therefore, xxv. 15 The maximum pressure excess is the amplitude of S> = Eu/U = (ElU)dyldt. It is therefore um = (E / U) 27rUa/X = 2ir«pUo. (20) We have already found the energy density in the train and the energy stream in equations (13) and (14). The chief experimental basis for supposing that a train of longi- tudinal waves with displacement curve of this kind arouses the sensation of a pure tone is that the more nearly a source is made to vibrate with a single simple harmonic motion, and therefore, presumably, the more nearly it sends out such a harmonic train, the more nearly does the note heard approximate to a single pure tone. Any periodic curve may be resolved into sine or harmonic curves by Fourier's theorem. Suppose that any periodic sound disturbance, consist- ~°. ing of plane waves, is being propagated in the Theorem- direction ABCD (fig. 22). Let it be represented by a displacement curve AHBKC. Its periodicity implies that after a certain distance the displacement curve exactly repeats itself. Let AC be the L FIG. 22. shortest distance after which the repetition occurs, so that CLDME is merely AHBKC moved on a distance AC. Then AC = X is the wave-length or period of the curve. Let ABCD be drawn at such level that the areas above and below it are equal; then ABCD is the axis of the curve. Since the curve represents a longitudinal disturbance in air it is always continuous, at a finite distance from the axis, and with only one ordinate for each abscissa. Fourier's theorem asserts that such a curve may be built up by the superposition, or addition of ordinates, of a series of sine curves of wave-lengths X, \\, \\, JX. . . if the amplitudes a, 6, c. . .and the epochs e, f, g. . . . are suitably adjusted, and the proof of the theorem gives rules for finding these quantities when the original curve is known. We may therefore put y = a sin (x-e)+b sin ^(x-f)+c sin -^(x-g)+&c. (21) where the terms may be infinite in number, but always have wave- lengths submultiples of the original or fundamental wave-length X. Only one such resolution of a given periodic curve is possible, and each of the constituents repeats itself not only after a distance equal to its own wave-length \/n, but evidently also after a distance equal to the fundamental wave-length X. The successive terms of (21) are called the harmonics of the first term. It follows from this that any periodic disturbance in air can be resolved into a definite series of simple harmonic disturbances of wave-lengths equal to the original wave-length and its successive submultiples, and each of these would separately give the sensa- tion of a pure tone. If the series were complete we should have terms which separately would correspond to the fundamental, its octave, its twelfth, its double octave, and so on. Now we can see that two notes of the same pitch, but of different quality, or different form of displacement curve, will, when thus analysed, break up into a series having the same harmonic wave-lengths; but they may differ as regards the members of the series present and their ampli- tudes and epochs. We may regard quality, then, as determined by the members of the harmonic series present and their amplitudes and epochs. It may, however, be stated here that certain experiments of Helmholtz appear to show that the epoch of the harmonics has not much effect on the quality. Fourier's theorem can also be usefully applied to the disturbance of a source of sound under certain conditions. The nature of these conditions will be best realized by considering the case of a stretched string. It is shown below how the vibrations of a string may be deduced from stationary waves. Let us here suppose that the string AB is displaced into the form AHB (fig. 23) and is then let go. Let FIG. 23. us imagine it to form half a wave-length of the extended train ZGAHBKC, on an indefinitely extended stretched string, the values of y at equal distances from A (or from B) being equal and opposite. Then, as we shall prove later, the vibrations of the string may be represented by the travelling of two trains in opposite directions each with velocity V tension -r mass per unit length each half the height of the train represented in fig. 23. For the superposition of these trains will give a stationary wave between A 5 450 SOUND [INTENSITY OR LOUDNESS and B. Now we may resolve these trains by Fourier's theorem into harmonics of wave-lengths X, JX, iX, &c., where X = 2AB and the conditions as to the values of y can be shown to require that the harmonics shall all have nodes, coinciding with the nodes of the fundamental curve. Since the velocity is the same for all disturb- ances they all travel at the same speed, and the two trains will always remain of the same form. If then we resolve AHBKC into harmonics by Fourier's theorem, we may follow the motion of the separate harmonics, and their superposition will give the form of the string at any instant. Further, the same harmonics with the same amplitude will always be present. We see, then, that the conditions for the application of Fourier's theorem are equivalent to saying that all disturbances will travel along the system with the same velocity. In many vibrating systems this does not hold, and then Fourier's theorem is no longer an appropriate resolution. But where it is appropriate, the disturb- ance sent out into the air contains the same harmonic series as the source. The question now arises whether the sensation produced by a periodic disturbance can be analysed in correspondence with this „ .._,/n_ geometrical analysis. Using the term " note" for the sound produced by a periodic disturbance, there is no doubt that a well-trained ear can resolve a note into pure tones of frequencies equal to those of the fundamental and its harmonics. If, for instance, a note is struck and held down on a piano, a little practice enables us to hear both the octave and the twelfth with the fundamental, especially if we have previously directed our attention to these tones by sounding them. But the har- monics are most readily heard if we fortify the ear by an air cavity with a natural period equal to that of the harmonic to be sought. The form used by Helmholtz is a glove of thin brass (fig. 24) with a large hole at one end of a diameter, at the other end of which the brass is drawn out into a short, narrow tube that can be put close to the ear. But a card- board tube closed at one end, with the open end near the ear, will often suffice, and it may be tuned by more or less covering up the open end. If the harmonic corresponding to the resonator is present its tone swells out loudly. This resonance is a particular example of the general principle that a vibrating system will be set in vibration by any periodic P a VI- ^orce applied to it, and ultimately in the period of the ",, force, its own natural vibrations gradually dying down. brut ton sito , -, • < «» _i.r j -t i • „ Vibrations thus excited are termed forced vibrations, ' and their amplitude is greater the more nearly the period of the applied force approaches that of the system when vibrating freely. The mathematical investigation of forced vibra- tions (Rayleigh.Sottmi, i. § 46) shows that, if there were nodissipation of energy, the vibration would increase indefinitely when the periods coincided. But there is always leakage of energy either through friction or through wave-emission, so that the vibration only increases up to the point at which the leakage of energy balances the energy put in by the applied force. Further, the greater the dissipation of energy the less is the prominence of the amplitude of vibration for exact coincidence over the amplitude when the periods are not quite the same, though it is still the greatest for coincidence. The principle of forced vibration may be illustrated by a simple case. Suppose that a mass M is controlled by some sort of spring, so that moving freely it executes harmonic vibrations given by Mi= — \ix, where fix is the restoring force to the centre of vibration. Putting tt/M=n? the equation becomes x+ri>x = o, whence x = A sin nt, and the period is 2ir/n. Now suppose that in addition to the internal force represented by — iix, an external harmonic force of period 2v/p is applied. Repre- senting it by — P sin pt, the equation of motion is now •^-.sinpt=O. (22) FIG. 24. — Helmholtz Resonator. Let us assume that the body makes vibrations in the new period 2-rp, and let us put x = B sin pt; substituting in (22) we have -p*B+n*B + P/M =o, whence and the " forced " oscillation due to — P sin pt is P sin pt ' ' (23) If p> n the motion agrees in phase with that which the applied force alone would produce, obtained by putting n=o. If pm = 2irnap\J , for in the stationary wave system the pressure change and the amplitude are both double those in either train, so that the same relation holds. Determinations of the pressure changes, or extent of excursion of the air, in sounding organ pipes have been made by A. Kundt (Pogg. Ann., 1868, 134, p. 163), A. J. I. Topler and L. Boltzmann (Pogg. Ann., vol. 141, or Rayleigh,^™'"".'"'60' Sound, ii. § 4220), and E. 'Mach (Optisch-akustischen"'rat'oa- Versuche, 1873). Mach's method is perhaps the most direct. The pipe was fixed in a horizontal position, and along the top wall ran a platinum wire wetted with sulphuric acid. When the wire was heated by an electric current a fine line of vapour descended from each drop. The pipe was closed at the centre by a membrane which prevented a through draught, yet permitted the vibrations, as it was at a node. The vapour line, therefore, merely vibrated to and fro when the pipe was sounded. The extent of vibration at different parts of the pipe was studied through a glass side wall, a stroboscopic method being used to get the position of the vapour line at a definite part of the vibration. Mach found an excursion of 0-4 cm. at the end of an open pipe 123 cm. long. The amplitude found by the other observers was of the same order. For the vibration of air in other cavities than long cylindrical pipes we refer to Rayleigh's Sound, vol. ii. chs. 12 and 16. Propagation of Waves in Pipes of Circular Section. — Helmholtz investigated the velocity of propagation of sound in pipes, taking into account the viscosity of the air (Rayleigh, Sound, ii. § 347), and Kirchhoff investigated it, taking into account both the viscosity and the heat communication between the air and the walls of the pipe (loc. cit. ii. § 350). Both obtained the value for the velocity U I~ where U is the velocity in free air, R is the radius of the pipe, N the frequency, and p the air density. C is a constant, equal to the coefficient of viscosity in Helmholtz's theory, but less simple in Kirchhoff's theory. Experiments on the velocity in pipes were carried out by H. Schneebeli (Pogg. Ann., 1869, 136, p. 296) and by T. J. Seebeck (Pogg. Ann., 1870, 139, p. 104) which accorded with this result as far as R is concerned, but the diminution of velocity was found to be more nearly proportional to N"3. Kundt also obtained results in general agreement with the formula (Rayleigh, Sound, ii. § 260). He used his dust-tube method. Elementary Theory of the Transverse Vibration of Musical Strings. . We shall first investigate the velocity with which a disturbance travels along a string of mass m per unit length when it is stretched with a constant tension T, the same at all points. We shall then show that on certain limitations two trains of disturbance may be superposed so that stationary waves may be formed, and thence we shall deduce the modes of vibration as with pipes. FIG. 33. Let AB (fig. 33) represent the string with the ends AB fixed. Let a disturbance once set going travel along unchanged in form from A to B with velocity U. Then move AB from right to left with this velocity, and the disturbance remains fixed in space. Take a point P in the disturbed part, and a point Q which the disturbance has not yet reached. Since the conditions in the region PQ remain always the same, the momentum perpendicular to AB entering the region at Q is equal to the momentum perpendicular to AB leaving the region at P. But, since the motion at Q is along AB, there is no momentum there perpendicular to AB. So also there is on the whole none in that direction leaving at P. Let the tangent at P make angle with AB. The velocity of the string at P parallel to PM is U sin $, and the mass of string passing P is m\J per second, so that m.U2 sin is carried out per second. But the tension at P is T, parallel to the tangent, and T sin parallel to PM, and through this — T sin <£ is the momentum passing out at P per second. Since the resultant is zero, mil* sin — T sin <£=o, or U2 = T/m. Now keep AB fixed, and the disturbance travels with velocity U. We might make this investigation more general by introducing a force X as in the investigation for air, but it nardly appears necessary. To form stationary waves two equal trains must be able to travel in opposite directions with equal velocities, and to be superposed. We must show then that the force called out by the sum of the dis- turbances is equal to the sum of the forces called out by each train separately. In order that the velocity shall remain unchanged the tension T must remain the same. This implies that the disturbance is so small that the length is not appreciably altered. The component of T 454 SOUND [WIRES AND RODS acting parallel to the axis or straight string is Tdx/ds, and when the disturbance is sufficiently small the curve of displacement is so nearly parallel to the axis that dx/ds= I, and this component is T. The component of T perpendicular to the axis is Tdylds = fdy/dx. Now if y\ and yj are the displacements due to the two trains separately, and y = y\-\-yi, the two separate forces are Tdyi/dx and Tdyijdx, while that due to y is Tdy/dx. But since y = yi+y2, Tdy/dx = Tdyi/dx+Tdyl/dx, or the condition for superposition holds when the displacement is so small that we may put dx/ds=i. Evidently this comes to neglecting 3. Let two trains of equal waves moving in opposite directions along such a string of indefi- nite length form the stationary system of fig. 27. Since the nodes are always at rest we may represent the vibration of a given string by the length between any two nodes. The fundamental mode is that in which A and B represent the ends of the string. In this case AB = i\i=/ the length, and the frequency n\ = U/Xi = U/2/ = (l/2/)V(T/w). The middle of the string is a loop. In the next mode A and C represent the ends and AC = \i = l and n2 = U/X2 = 2U/2/ = (2/2/)V(T/m). In the third mode A and D represent the ends and S = / and FIG. 34. (3/2/)V(T/m) and so on. In fig. 34 the stationary wave systems of the first four modes are represented. The complete series of harmonics are possible modes. The experimental demonstration of these results is easily made by the sonometer or monochord (fig- 35)- A string is fixed at C on the top of a hollow box, and C ± FIG. 35- passes over two edges AB, which serve as the fixed ends, and then over a pulley P, being stretched by a weight W. Between A and B a " bridge " D, i.e. another edge slightly higher than A or B, can be inserted in any position, which is determined by a graduated scale. The effective length of the string is then AD. Keeping the same tension, it may be shown that nl is constant by finding n for various lengths. Keeping AD constant and varying W it may be shown that n ooVW. Lastly, by using different strings, it may be shown that, with the same T and I, n x ^(i/m). The various modes of vibration may also be exhibited. If D is removed and the string is bowed in the middle, the fundamental is brought out. If it is touched in the middle with a feather, the edge of a card, or the finger nail, and bowed a quarter of the way along the octave, the first overtone comes out. Each of the first few harmonics may be easily obtained by touching the string at the first node of the harmonic required, and bowing at the first loop, and the presence of the nodes and loops may be verified by putting light paper riders of shape A on the string at the nodes and loops. When the harmonic is sounded the riders at the loops are thrown off, while those at the nodes remain seated. Not only may the fundamental and its harmonics be obtained separately, but they are also to be heard simultaneously, particularly the earlier ones, which are usually more prominent than those higher in the series. A practised ear easily discerns the coexistence of these various tones when a pianoforte or violin string is thrown into vibration. It is evident that, in such case, the string, while vibrating as a whole between its fixed extremities, is at the same time executing subsidiary oscillations about its middle point, its points FIG. 36. of trisection, &c., as shown in fig. 36, for the fundamental and the first harmonic. When a string is struck or bowed at a point, any harmonic with a node at that point is absent. Since the quality of the note sounded depends on the mixture of harmonics, the quality therefore is to some extent dependent on the point of excitation. A highly ingenious and instructive method for illustrating the laws of musical strings was contrived by F. E. Melde. It consists in attaching to the loop or ventral segment of a vibrating body, e.g. a tuning-fork or a bell-glass, a silk or cotton thread, the other extremity being either fixed or passing over a pulley and supporting weights by which the thread may be stretched to any degree required. The vibrations of the larger mass are communicated to the thread, which by proper adjustment of its length and tension vibrates in unison and divides itself into one or more loops or ventral segments easily discernible by a spectator. If the length of the thread be kept invariable, a certain tension will give but one ventral segment; the fundamental note of the thread is then of the same pitch as the note of the body to which it is attached. By reducing the tension to one quarter of its previous amount, the number of ventral segments will be seen to be increased to two, indicating that the first harmonic of the thread is now in unison with the solid, and consequently that its fundamental is an octave lower than it was with the former tension ; thus confirming the law that n varies as VT. In like manner, on further lowering the tension to one ninth, three ventral segments will be formed, and so on. The law that, caeteris paribus, n varies inversely as the thickness may be tested by forming a string of four lengths of the single thread used before, and consequently of double the thickness of the latter, when, for the same length and tension, the compound thread will exhibit double the number of ventral segments presented by the single thread. The other laws admit of similar illustration. Longitudinal Vibrations of Wires and Rods. Subject to a limitation which we shall examine later, the velocity of a longitudinal disturbance along a wire or rod depends only on the material of the rod, and not upon the cross-section. Since the forces called into play by an extension or compression of the material are proportional to the cross-section, it follows that if we consider any case and then another case in which, with the same longitudinal disturbance, the cross-section is doubled, the force in the second case is doubled as well as the mass to be moved. The acceleration therefore remains the same, and the velocity is unaltered. We shall find the velocity of propagation, just as in previous cases, from the consideration of transfer of momentum. Suppose that a disturbance is travelling with velocity U unchanged in form along a rod from left to right. Let us move the rod from right to left, so that the undisturbed parts move with velocity U. Then the disturbance remains fixed in space. Let A be a point in FIG. 37. the disturbance, and B a point in the undisturbed part. The material between A and B, though continually changing, is always in the same condition, and therefore the momentum within AB is constant. Hence the amount carried out at A is equal to that carried in at B. Now momentum is transferred in two ways, viz. by the force acting between contiguous portions of a body and by the transfer of moving matter. At B there is only the latter kind, and since the transfer of matter is pooioU, where po is the undisturbed density and coo is the undisturbed cross-section, since its velocity is U the passage of momentum per second is pocooW. At A, if the velocity of the disturbance relative to undisturbed parts of the rod is u from left to right, the velocity relative to A is U — u. If p is the density at A, and S> the cross-section, then the momentum carried past A is pco(U — uf. But if y is the displacement at A, dy/dx is the extension at A, and the force acting is a pull across A equal to Yuody/dx, where Y is Young's modulus of elasticity. Then we have YSod:y/adx or p£>(l+dy/dx)= patio. (29) Substituting from (28) in (27) YoSo-^ + pcoU' (i + 3!) » = Po-SoU1, (30) and substituting from (29) in (30) (30 whence Ycoo = poioU2, or U' =Y/p, (32) where now p is the normal density of the rod. The velocity with which the rod must travel in order that the disturbance may be fixed in space is therefore U = V(Y/p), or, if the rod is kept fixed, this is the velocity with which the disturbance travels. This investigation is subject to the limitation that the diameter of the cross-section must be small compared with the wave-length. When the rod extends or contracts longitudinally it contracts or PLATES] SOUND 455 extends radially and in the ratio a, known as Poisson's ratio, which in metals is not far from \. Let us suppose that the rod is circular, of radius r, and that the radial displacement of the surface is TJ. The longitudinal extension is dy/dx, and therefore the radial contraction is itlr = c" gives nearly twice as many beats and is not nearly so dissonant. The minor third a'c" with 88 beats per second shows scarcely any roughness, and when the beats rise to 132 per second the result is no longer unpleasant. We are then led to conclude that beats are the physical founda- tion for dissonance. The frequency of beats giving maximum dissonance rises as we rise higher in the musical scale, and falls as we descend. Thus b"c'" and b'\>c" have each 66 beats per second, yet the former is more dissonant than the latter. Again b'c" and CG have each 33 beats per second, yet the latter interval is practi- cally smooth and consonant. This beat theory of dissonance was first put forward by Joseph Sauveur (1653-1716) in 1700. Robert Smith (Harmonics, 2nd ed., 1759, p. 95) states that Sauveur " in- ferred that octaves and other simple concords, whose vibrations coincide very often, are agreeable and pleasant because their beats are too quick to be distinguished, be the pitch of the sounds ever so low; and on the contrary, that the more complex consonances whose vibrations coincide seldom are disagreeable because we can distinguish their slow beats; which displease the ear, says he, by reason of the inequality of the sound. And in pursuing this thought he found that those consonances which beat faster than six times in a second are the very same that musicians treat as concords; and that others which beat slower are the discords; and he adds that when a consonance is a discord at a low pitch and a concord at a high one, it beats sensibly at the former pitch but not at the latter." But Sauveur fixed the limiting number of beats for the discord far too low, and again he gave no account of dissonances such as the seventh, where the frequency of the beats between the funda- mentals is far beyond the number which is unpleasant. Smith, though recognizing the unpleasantness of beats, could not accept Sauveur's theory, and, indeed, it received no acceptance till it was rediscovered by Helmholtz, to whose investigations, recorded in his Sensations of Tone, we owe its satisfactory establishment. Suppose that we start with two simple tones in unison; there is perfect consonance. If one is gradually raised in pitch beating begins, at first easily countable. But as the pitch of the one rises the beats become a jar too frequent to count, and only perhaps to a trained ear recognizable as beats. The two tones are now dissonant, and, as we have seen, about the middle of the scale the maximum dissonance is when there are between 30 and 40 beats per second. If the pitch is raised still further the dissonance lessens, and when there are about 130 beats per second the interval is con- sonant. If all tones were pure, dissonance at this part of the scale would not occur if the interval were more than a third. But we have to remember that with strings, pipes and instruments gener- ally the fundamental tone is accompanied by overtones, called also " upper partials," and beating within the dissonance range may occur between these overtones. Thus, suppose a fundamental 256 has present with it overtone harmonics 512, 768, 1024, 1280, &c., and that we sound with it the major seventh with fundamental 480, and having harmonics 960, 1440, &c. The two sets may be arranged thus c 256 512 768 1024 1280 b 480 960 1440, and we see that the fundamental of the second will beat 32 times per second with the first overtone of the first, giving dissonance. The first overtone of the second will beat 64 times per second with the third of the first, and at such height in the scale this frequency will be unpleasant. The very marked dissonance of the major seventh is thus explained. We can see, too, at once how the octave is such a smooth consonance. Let the two tones with their harmonic overtones be 256 512 768 1024 1280 1536 512 1024 1536. The fundamental and overtones of the second all coincide with overtones of the first. Take as a further example the fifth with harmonic overtones as under 1024 1280 1536 256 512 768 384 768 1152 1536. BEATS] SOUND 459 The fundamental and overtones of the second either coincide with or fall midway between overtones in the first, and there is no approach to a dissonant frequency of beats, and the concord is perfect. But obviously in either the octave or the fifth, if the tuning is imperfect, beats occur all along the line wherever the tones should coincide with perfect tuning. Thus it is easy to detect a want ol tuning in these intervals. The harshness of deep notes on instruments rich in overtones may be explained as arising from beats between successive over- tones. Thus, if a note of frequency 64 is sounded, and if all the successive overtones are present, the difference of frequency will be 64, and this is an unpleasant interval when we get to the middle of the scale, say to overtones 256 and 320 or to 512 and 576. Thu Helmholtz explains the jarring and braying which are sometimes heard in bass voices. These cases must serve to illustrate the theory. For a full discussion see his Sensations of Tone, ch. 10. Dissonance between Pure Tones. — When two sources emit only pure tones we might expect that we should have no dissonance when, as in the major seventh, the beat frequency is greater than the range of harshness. But the interval is still dissonant, and this is to be explained by the fact that the two tones unite to give a third tone of the frequency of the beats, easily heard when the two primary tones are loud. This tone may be within dissonance range of one of the primaries. Thus, take the major seventh with frequencies 256 and 480. There will be a tone frequency 480—256 = 224, and this will be very dissonant with 256. The tone of the frequency of the beats was discovered by Georg Andreas Sorge in 1740, and independently a few years later by Giuseppe Tartini, after whom it is named. It may easily be heard when a double whistle with notes of different pitch is blown strongly, or when two gongs are loudly sounded close to the hearer. It is heard, too, when two notes on the harmonium are loudly sounded. For- merly it was generally supposed that the Tartini tone was due to the beats themselves, that the mere variation in the amplitude was equivalent, as far as the ear is concerned, to a superposition on the two original tones of a smooth sine displacement of the same periodicity as that variation. This view has still some supporters, and among its recent advocates are Koenig and Hermann. But it is very difficult to suppose that the same sensation would be aroused by a truly periodic displacement represented by a smooth curve, and a displacement in which the period is only in the amplitude of the to-and-fro motion, and which is represented by a jagged curve. No explanation is given by the supposition; it is merely a statement which can hardly be accepted unless all other explana- tions fail. Combination Tones. — Helmholtz has given a theory which certainly accounts for the production of a tone of the frequency of the beats and for other tones all grouped under the name of " combination tones "; and in his Sensations of Tone (ch. n) he examines the beats due to these combination tones and their effects in producing dissonance. The example we have given above of the major seventh must serve here. The reader is referred to the full discussion by Helmholtz. We shall conclude by a brief account of the ways in which combination tones may be produced. There appears to be no doubt that they are produced, and the only question is whether the theory accounts sufficiently for the intensity of the tones actually heard. Combination tones may be produced in three ways: (i) In the neighbourhood of the source; (2) in the receiving mechanism of the ear; (3) in the medium conveying the waves. I. We may illustrate the first method by taking a case dis- cussed by Helmholtz (Sensations of Tone, app. xvi.) where the two sources are reeds or pipes blown from the same wind-chest. Let us suppose that with constant excess of pressure, p, in the wind-chest, the amplitude produced is proportional to the pressure, so that the two tones issuing may be represented by pa sin 2-irnit and pb sin 2irnd. Now as each source lets out the wind periodi- cally it affects the pressure in the chest so that we cannot re- gard this as constant, but may take it as better represented by p+Xa sin (2irnit+e)+nb sin (2Trn2t+f). Then the issuing dis- turbance will be jp + Xa sin (2irntt+e}+iJ> sin (2irn2< +/) | (a sin 2irn,t+b sin 2«i2<| = pa sin 2irnit+pb sin 2irntt . a*X a'X + — cos e — — cos (4irn,t+e) + --J- cos/ — j^ cos (4)rw2<+/) ^j- cos J2ir(«,-n2)<-|-ej-2j- cos \2*(ni-\-nl)t+e\ abn , . ., abu — cos \2ir(ni-n,)t-f\ —cos |2jr(ni+n2)<+/) (35) Thus, accompanying the two original pure tones there are (i) the octave of each; (2) a tone of frequency (HI — n2); (3) a tone of frequency (ni+n2). The second is termed by Helmholtz the difference tone, and the third the summation tone. The amplitudes of these tones are proportional to the products of a and b multiplied by X or /». These combination tones will in turn react on the pressure and produce new combination tones with the original tones, or with each other, and such tones may be termed of the second, third, &c., order. It is evident that we may have tones of frequency A»i kn-t hni — ktH h where h and k are any integers. But inasmuch as the successive orders are proportional to X X2 X3, or ^ if jt3, and X and M are small, they are of rapidly decreasing importance, and it is not certain that any beyond those in equation (35) correspond to our actual sensations. The combination tones thus produced in the source should have a physical existence in the air, and the amplitudes of those represented in (35) should be of the same order. The conditions assumed in this investigation are probably nearly realized in a harmonium and in a double siren of the form used'by Helmholtz, and in these cases there can be no doubt that actual objective tones are produced, for they may be detected by the aid of resonators of the frequency of the tone sought for. If the tones had no existence outside the ear then resonators would not increase their loudness. There is not much difficulty in detecting the difference tone by a resonator if it is held, say, close to the reeds of a harmonium, and Helmholtz succeeded in detecting the summation tone by the aid of a resonator. Further, Riicker and Edser, using a siren as source, have succeeded in making a fork of the appropriate pitch respond to both difference and summation tones (Phil. Mag., l^95< 39, P- 341- But there is no doubt that it is very difficult to detect the summation tone by the ear, and many workers have doubted the possibility, notwithstanding the evidence of such an observer as Helmholtz. Probably the fact noted by Mayer (Phil. Mag., 1878, 2, p. 500, or Rayleigh, Sound, § 386) that sounds of considerable intensity when heard by themselves are liable to be completely obliterated by graver sounds of sufficient force goes far to explain this, for the summation tones are of course always accompanied by such graver sounds. 2. The second mode of production of combination tones, by the mechanism of the receiver, is discussed by Helmholtz (Sensa- tions of Tone, App. xii.) and Rayleigh (Sound, i. § 68). It depends on the restoring force due to the displacement of the receiver not being accurately proportional to the displacement. This want of proportionality will have a periodicity, that of the impinging waves, and so will produce vibrations just as does the variation of pressure in the case last investigated. We may see how this occurs by- supposing that the restoring force of the receiving mechanism is represented by Xx+^x2, where x is the displacement and to? is very small. Let an external force F act on the system, and for simplicity suppose its period is so great compared with that of the mechanism that we may take it as practically in equilibrium with the restoring force. Then F = \x+nx2. Now /a? is very small compared with \x, so that x is nearly equal to F/X, and as an approx- imation, F = Xx+MF2/X2, or x = F/X-AiF2/X3. Suppose now that F = a sin 2irnit+b sin 2iw2<, the second term will evidently produce a series of combination tones of periodicities 2n\, 2n?, ni — n2, and ni+n2, as in the first method. There can be no doubt that the ear is an unsymmetrical vibrator, and that it makes combination tones, in some such way as is here indicated, out of two pure tones. Probably in most cases the combination tones which we hear are thus made, and possibly, too, the tones detected by Koenig, and by him named " beat-tones." He found that if two tones of frequencies p and q are sounded, and if q lies between N/> and (N + i)p, then a tone of frequency either (N + i)p — q, or of frequency q-Np, is heard. The difficulty in Helmholtz s theory- is to account for the audibility of such beat tones when they are of a higher order than the first. Riicker and Edser quite failed to detect their external existence, so that apparently they are not produced in the source. If we are to assume that the tones received by the ear are pure and free from partials, the loudness ot the beat- tones would appear to show that Helmholtz's theory is not a complete account. 3- The third mode of production of combination tones, the pro- duction in the medium itself, follows from the varying velocity of different parts of the wave, as investigated at the beginning of this article. It is easily shown that after a time we shall have to superpose on the original displacement a displacement propor- tional to the square of the particle velocity, and this will intro- duce just the same set of combination tones. But probably in practice there is not a sufficient interval between source and hearer For these tones to grow into any importance, and they can at most be only a small addition to those formed in the source or the ear. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the history of experimental and theoretical acoustics see F. Rosenberger, Geschichte der Physik (1882-1890); J. C. Poggendorff, Geschichte der Physik (1879) ; and E. Gerland and F. Traumuller, Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst (1899). The standard treatise on the mathematical theory is Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound (2nd ed., 1894); this work also contains an account of experimental verifications. The same author's Scientific Papers contains many experimental and mathematical contributions to the science. H. von Helmholtz treats the theoretical aspects of sound in his Vorlesungen iiber die mathematischtn 460 SOUND, THE— SOUNDING Principien der Akustik (1898), and the physiological and psychical aspects in his Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen (ist ed., 1863; 5th ed., 1896), English translation by A. J. Ellis, On the Sensations of Tone (1885). Sedley Taylor, Sound and Music (1882), contains a simple and excellent account of Helmholtz's theory of consonance and dissonance. R. Koenig, Quelques experiences d'acoustique (1882) describes apparatus and experiments, intended to show, in op- position to Helmholtz, that beats coalesce into tones, and also that the quality of a note is affected by alteration of phase of one of its component overtones relative to the phase of the fundamental. Lamb, The Dynamical Theory of Sound (1910), is intended as a stepping-stone to the study of the writings of Helmholtz and Rayleigh. Barton, A Text-Book on Sound (1908), aims to provide students with a text-book on sound, embracing both its experimental and theore- tical aspects. J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson, Sound (sth ed., 1909), contains a descriptive account of the chief phenomena, and an elementary mathematical treatment. John Tyndall, Sound (5th ed., 1893), originally delivered as lectures, treats the subject descrip- tively, and is illustrated by a large number of excellent experiments. Good general accounts are given in J. L. G. Violle, Cours de physique, tome ii., " Acoustique " ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, Band ii., "Akustik1'; Miiller-Pouillet, Lehrbuch der Physik (1907), ii. i; L. A. Zellner, Vortrage uber Akustik (1892), pt. I, physical; pt. 2, physiological; R. Klimpert, Lehrbuch der Akustik (1904- 1907) ; A. Wiillner, Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik (1907), 6th ed., vol. i.; and C. L. Barnes, Practical Acoustics (1898), treats the subject experimentally. (J. H. P.) SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund), the easternmost of the straits giving entrance to the Baltic Sea from the Cattegat, between the Danish island of Zealand and Sweden. Its extreme length reckoned from the promontory of Kullen to that of Falsterbo, both on the Swedish shore, is 70 m. Its narrowest point is between Helsingor in Denmark and Helsingborg in Sweden, which are 3 m. apart. Its extreme width, 30 m.,is towards the south, where Kjoge Bay indents the coast of Zealand. Three islands lie in it — Hven, belonging to Sweden, and Saltholm and Amager (which is separated from Zealand by a narrow channel at Copenhagen), belonging to Denmark. The strait between Amager and Saltholm is called Drogden, and is followed by the larger vessels passing through the Sound. The extreme depth of the Sound is about 14 fathoms. Navigation is open in winter, though three instances are recorded of the Sound being frozen completely over: in 1306, 1830 and 1836. From the i Sth century Denmark levied " Sound dues " on foreign vessels passing through the strait, the Hanse traders and certain others being exempt. In the I7th century quarrels arose on this matter between Denmark and the Netherlands and Sweden, while in modern times the powers found the dues irksome, and in 1843 and 1853 protests were made by the representatives of the United States of America, but Denmark based her right on immemorial cus- tom, and adhered to it. In 1856 the matter came up in connexion with the renewal of the treaty of 1826 between the two countries; considerable tension resulted, and the possibility of reprisals by the United States against the Danish possessions in the West Indies was discussed. But the treaty was provisionally extended to the following year, and a conference in Copenhagen, at which most of the affected powers were represented, resulted in the remission of the dues from the ist of April 1857, Denmark receiving a united compensation of 30,476,325 rix-dollars (equalling about £4,000,000), out of which the amount paid by the British government was £1,125,000. The annual income accruing to Denmark from the dues during the ten previous years had been about 2, 500,000 rix-dollars. SOUNDING (for derivation see SOUND above), the term used for measuring .the depth of water (From Wharton's nongraphic Sumy.) The operation of sounding is readily performed in shallow water by letting down a weight or " lead " attached to a cord, which is marked off into fathoms by pieces of leather, rag and twine. The bottom of the weight usually presents' a hollow, which is filled with tallow, so that a portion of the material from the bottom may be brought up and give an indication of its nature as well as an assurance that it has really been touched. For depths over 20 fathoms sounding machines are often employed, and for deep soundings they are practically indispen- sable. In them wire, the use of which for this purpose was introduced by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), has entirely superseded hemp gear. Its smooth surface and minute section, reducing friction to a minimum, give a rapidity of descent of about 100 fathoms per minute, and this velocity is not materially diminished even at great depths. Reeling in may be accom- plished at nearly the same rate. Soundings are thus obtained with a degree of accuracy not formerly possible. The apparatus is light, compact and automatic in its action. Soundings with wire can be carried out at night with the same facility as in daytime, and in almost any circumstances of wind and -weather short of a strong gale, against which the ship could not steam or face the sea. A sounding of 1000 fathoms may be obtained in twenty-five minutes from the time the weight is lowered to the time the order is given to put the ship on her course, or in half that time if sounding from astern and going ahead on getting bottom; 2000 fathoms will require forty-five minutes and 3000 fathoms seventy-five minutes. Beyond that depth, much greater caution being required, the time occupied is correspon- dingly increased, and reeling in must then be done very deliber- ately. A sounding of 5269 fathoms was obtained near the island of Guam by the U.S. cable-surveying ship "Nero." Soundings at such depths may occupy as long as five or six hours. Among the sounding machines in general use the Lucas carries nearly 6000 fathoms of 2o-gauge wire, and is fitted with two brakes — one a screw brake for holding the reel when required, the other an automatic brake for stopping the reel when the weights strike the bottom. A gvtider for the purpose of winding the wire uniformly on to the reel is also attached, and is worked by a small handle. After leaving the reel the wire passes over a registering wheel, the dial of which indicates the amount of wire run out. Similar machines of smaller size are supplied for use in boats. The large machine is represented in fig. i. Lucas Machine. (and so, figuratively, of anything). Tbe process of ascertaining the depth of the sea has been practised from very early times for purposes of navigation, but it is only since the introduction of submarine telegraphy that extensive efforts have been made to obtain a complete knowledge of the contour of the ocean-bed (see OCEAN). FIG. I. — Lucas Machine. A, Reel or drum. H, Measuring wheel. B, Brake. J. Indicator. C, Brake lever. K, Stop. D, Springs. L, Wire guiding roller. E, Regulating screw. M, Handle for working roller. F, Hand wheel. N, Bolt. G, Swivelling frame. O, Screw Brake. SOUNDING 461 Heaving in is accomplished by means of a hemp " swifter " or driving belt, which conveys the motion of the drum of a donkey engine to the drum carrying the wire of the sounding machine. It being impracticable to regulate the speed of the engine by hand according to the heave of the ship, in order to obviate the sudden and excessive strains on the wire so caused, an ingenious mechanical arrangement has been fitted by which frictional disks, geared by cog-wheels and capable of adjustment are interposed on the axle connecting the grooved wheel actuated by the nemp swifter and the revolving drum carrying the wire. By this arrangement the latter can be controlled as desired, both in speed and direction of motion, by means of a lever regulating the strap on the frictional disks, which may be set by experiment to act at any given tension of the wire. As the tension approaches this limit, the velocity of revolution of the drum is automatically checked ; and if the tension further increases, the motion of the drum is actually reversed, thus causing the wire to run out, until the tension is. relieved sufficiently to allow the frictional disks again to act in the direction of heaving in. The drum may be stopped instantly by moving the lever in the proper direction to throw the apparatus out of gear. Galvanized-steel wire of 2O-gauge and 21 -gauge is supplied on drums in lengths of 5000 fathoms. The 2O-gauge wire when new has a breaking strain of 240 Ib, and the smaller wire 190 Ib. The large machines will hold sufficient quantity of the larger wire for the deepest soundings; there is therefore no longer any necessity for the smaller wire, and its use is not recommended. The zinc wears off to a considerable extent with constant use ; it is necessary do pass the wire through an oily wad whenever soundings are suspended for a time, and the surface layers on the drum should be kept well coated with oil and covered over with oily waste. A fortnight's continuous use is about the limit to the trustworthiness of any piece of wire ; no amount of care will prevent it from becoming brittle ; and directly it can be snapped by twisting in the hand, it should be condemned and passed on to the boats' machines. A magnifying glass will assist in examining its condition. Taut and even winding on the reel from the drum is most important ; otherwise, when heaving up after a sounding, the strain forces each layer as it comes in to sink down amongst the previous layers loosely reeled on, with the result that at the next sounding slack turns will sud- denly develop on running out, to the great risk of the wire. The wire is liable to cut grooves in the interior of the swivelling frame; a file must constantly be applied to smooth these down, or they will rip the splices. A roller of hard steel, underneath which wire passes, and which placed in rear of the swivelling frame, obviates this to a great extent. Splices are made about 5 ft. in length, one wire being laid round the other in a long spiral of about one turn per inch. _ A seizing of fine wire is laid over each end and for 2 or 3 in. up the splice, no end being allowed to project, and solder is then applied the whole length of the splice. Three more seizings should be placed at intervals. Splices are the weakest parts of the wire, and their multiplication is to be avoided. They should be frequently examined and their position noted, so that in heaving in they may be eased round the wheel with the guider nearly in the centre, to avoid tearing. Under 1000 fathoms a lead of 30 to 40 Ib weight can be recovered, and no detaching rod is necessary. At a little risk Sounding to the wire, when sounding from astern up to that Rods and depth, the ship may go ahead directly bottom is sinkers. struck, increasing speed as the wire comes in; the great saving in time thus effected will often justify the increased risk of parting the wire. For greater depths the " Driver rod" is the best detaching apparatus for slipping the sinkers; its construction is easier than that of the " Baillie rod," and with a piece of gas piping cut to the proper length the ship's blacksmith can make one in a day. Both rods are fitted with tubes to bring up a specimen of the bottom, and the same sinkers fit them both. The " Driver rod " is shown in fig. 2. ABC is a tube about 2 ft. in length, fitted at the top with a flap valve D, working on a hinge at E. The lower part of the tube C screws on and off, and contains a double flap valve to retain the bottom specimen. The sinkers WW, each 25 Ib in weight, conical in form, and pierced with a cylindrical hole through which the Driver rod passes loosely, are slung by wire or cod line secured to a flat ring or grummet shown at L and passing over the stud G. A stud K on each side of the tube fits loosely into the slot H in the lower part of the slipping lever MH. The weight of the apparatus being taken by the sounding wire, the sinkers remain suspended; but on striking the bottom, the wire slackens, and the weight of the sinkers drags the slip- ping lever down till the stud K bears against the upper part of the slot H. By this action the point M of the slipping lever is brought to bear against the upper end of the standard EF, being thereby forced outward sufficiently to ensure that the weight acting at the point G will tilt the slipping lever right over, and thus disengage the sling. The tube being then drawn up, the sinkers are left behind. In descending, the valves at top and bottom, opening upwards, allow the water to pass through freely ; but on drawing up they are closed, thus retaining the plug of mud with which the tube is filled. For water under 2000 fathoms two conical weights are sufficient. In deeper water a third cylindrical weight of 20 Ib should be put between them. It is important to interpose a piece of hemp line, some 10 fathoms long, between the end of the wire (into which a thimble is seized) and the lead or rod. This tends to prevent the wire from kinking on the lead striking the bottom. A piece of sheet lead, about 2 Ib in weight, wrapped round the hemp just below the junction, keeps the wire taut while the hemp slacks. Small brass screw stoppers, fitted with a hempen tail to secure to a cleat, hold the wire during the sounding if necessary to repair splices or clear slack turns. In heaving in the springs are replaced with a spring balance, by which the amount of strain is seen and the deck engine worked accordingly. A system of signals is required by day and by night, by which the officer superin- tending the sounding can control the helm, main engines and deck engine. Method of Sounding. — The machine is placed on a projecting platform on the forecastle. An endless hemp swifter, led through blocks with large sheaves, connects the sounding ma- chine and deck engine, and when heaving in is kept taut by a snatch block set up with a jigger. As the wire runs out, the regulating screw of the brake must be gradually screwed up, so as to increase the power of the brake in proportion to the amount of wire out. The regulating screw is marked for each 500 fathoms. In fairly smooth water the brake FIG. 2. — Driver Rod. will at once act when the weight strikes the bottom and the reel stops. Under 3000 fathoms one spring only is sufficient, but beyond that depth two springs are required. If the ship is pitching heavily, the automatic brake must be assisted by the screw brake to ensure the reel not overrunning. The marks on the regulating screw are only intended as a guide; the real test is that the brake is just on the balance, so as to act when the strain lessens, which may be known by the swivelling frame being just lifted off the stop. As the wire weighs 1\ ft for each 500 fathoms, the 500- fathoms mark on the screw should be at the position in which the screw has to be to sustain a weight of 7j Ib; the looo-fathoms mark, 15 ft; and so on. This can be tested and the marks verified. Handling the Ship. — Sounding from forward enables the ship to be handled with greater ease to keep the wire up and down, and especially so in a tide- way; but in very heavy weather soundings may be obtained from a machine mounted over the stern, when it would be quite impossible to work on the forecastle. The spanker must be set with the sheet to windward, unless a strong weather tide renders it undesirable ; the ship's head must be kept in a direction which is the resultant of the direction and force of the wind and current; and this is arrived at by altering the course while sounding, point by point, until the wire can be kept up and down by moving the engines slowly ahead as necessary. It should seldom, or never, be necessary to move the engines astern. The temperature of the water is usually taken at intervals of loo fathoms down to a depth of 1000 fathoms, and at closer intervals in the first 100 fathoms. If a second wire machine is available,- the observations may be made from aft whilst the sounding is being taken forward. A 3O-ft sinker is attached to the end of the wire, and the registering thermometers are secured to the wire by the metal clips at the back of the cases, at the required intervals. To avoid heavy loss, not more than four thermometers should be on the wire at one time. When sounding a thermometer is usually attached to the line a short distance above the lead. The primary object of the machine called the " submarine sentry " is to supply an automatic warning of the approach of a ship to shallow water: it has been instrumental in discovering many un- suspected banks in imperfectly surveyed waters. . By means of a Observa- tions of Tempera- ture. 462 SOUSA single stout wire the sinker, an inverted kite, called the "sentry," can be towed steadily for any length of time, at any required . . vertical depth down to 40 fathoms with the red kite and 30 fathoms with the black kite; should it strike the bottom, through the water shallowing to less than the set depth, it will at once free itself and rise to the surface, simul- taneously sounding an alarm on board, and thus giving instant FIG. 3. — The Submarine Sentry. warning. The vertical depth at which the sentry sets itself when a given length of wire is paid out is not changed by any variation of speed between 5 and 13 knots, and is read off on the graduated dial- plate on the winch. One set of graduations on the dial indicates the amount of wire out; the other two sets refer to the red and black kites respectively, and show the depth at which the sentry is towing. By this machine single soundings down to 40 fathoms can be taken at any time while the ship is under way. The sentry being let down slowly, the gong will indicate when the bottom is touched, and the dial corresponding to the kite used will show at once the vertical depth at the place where the sentry struck. By removing the kite and substituting a lead, with atmospheric sounder or other automatic depth gauge, flying single soundings up to 100 fathoms can be obtained in the ordinary manner without stopping the ship. The winch is secured to the deck a short distance from the stern; the towing wire passes from the drum under a roller fairlead at the foot of the winch, thence through an iron block with sheave of large diameter, suspended from a short davit on the stern rail and secured to the sling of the sentry. The dial being set to zero with the sentry at the water's edge, the ship's speed is reduced to 8 or 9 knots, and the wire paid out freely until the kite is fairly in the water, when the brake should be applied steadily and without jerking, veering slowly until the required depth is attained, when the pawl is put on the rachet wheel and the speed increased to 12 knots if desired when using the black kite or 10 knots with the red kite. The kite in its position when being towed is indicated in fig. 3. The point of the catch C, passing through a thimble M in the short leg of the sling, is slipped into the hole at the top of trigger T, which is hinged at K and kept in its place by the spring S attached to the hook H. On the trigger striking the bottom the catch is released, the short leg of the sling slips off, and the sentry, which then rises to the surface, is left towing by the long leg. The winch is fitted with two handles for heaving in the wire; one gives great power and slow speed, and the other, acting on the drum spindle direct, winds in quickly. The wire supplied with the machine has a steady breaking strain of about 1000 ft. Using the black kite at a speed of 7 knots, the strain on the wire is about 150 Ib, and at 10 knots about 300 ft. The red kite increases the strain largely. (A. M. F.*) SOUSA, LUIZ DE [MANGEL DE SOUSA COUTINHO] (1555-1632), Portuguese monk and prose-writer, was born at Santarem, a mem- ber of the noble family of Sousa Coutinho. In 1576 he broke off his studies at Coimbra University to join the order of Malta, and shortly afterwards was captured at sea by Moorish pirates and taken prisoner to Argel, where he met Cervantes. A year later Manoel de Sousa Coutinho was ransomed, and landing on the coast of Aragon passed through Valencia, where he made the acquaintance of the poet Jaime Falcao, who seems to have inspired him with a taste for study and a quiet life. The national disasters and family troubles increased this desire, which was confirmed when he returned to Portugal after the battle of Alcacer and had the sorrow of witnessing the Spanish invasion and the loss of his country's independence Between 1584 and 1586 he married a noble lady, D. Magdalena de Vilhena, widow of D. John of Portugal, the son of the poet D. Manoel of Portugal, to whom Camoens had dedicated his seventh ode. Settling at Almada, on the Tagus opposite Lisbon, he divided his time between domestic affairs, literary studies and his military duties as colonel of a regiment. His patriotic dislike of an alien rule grew stronger as he saw Portugal exploited by her powerful partner, and it was ultimately brought to a head in 1599. In that year, to escape the pest that devastated Lisbon, the governors of the kingdom for Philip II. decided to move their quarters to his residence; thereupon, finding his protest against this arbitrary resolution unheeded, he set fire to his house, and to escape the consequences of his courageous act had to leave Portugal. Going to Madrid, he not only escaped any penalty, owing no doubt to his position and influence at the Spanish court, but was able to pursue his literary studies in peace and to publish the works of his friend Jaime Falcao (Madrid, 1600). Nothing is known of how he passed the next thirteen years, though there is a tradition that, at the instance of a brother resident in Panama, who held out the prospect of large commercial gains, he spent some time in America. It is said that fortune was unpropitious, and that this, together with the news of the death of his only child, D. Anna de Noronha, caused his return home about 1604. In 1613 he and his wife agreed to a separation, and he took the Dominican habit in the convent of Bemfica, while D. Magdalena entered the convent of the Sacramento at Alcantara. According to an old writer, the motive for their act was the news, brought by a pilgrim from Palestine that D. Magdalena's first husband had survived the battle of Alcacer, in which he was supposed to have fallen, and still lived; Garrett has immortalized the legend in his play Frei Luiz de Sousa. The story, however, deserves no credit, and a more natural explanation is that the pair took their resolution to leave the world for the cloister from motives of piety, though in the case of Manoel the captivity of his country and the loss of his daughter may have been contributory causes. He made his profession on the 8th of September 1614, and took the name by which he is known as a writer, Frei Luiz de Sousa. In 1616, on the death of Frei Luiz Cacegas, another notable Dominican who had collected materials for a history of the order and for a life of the famous archbishop of Braga, D. Frei Bartho- lomew of the Martyrs, the task of writing these books was confided to Frei Luiz. The Life of the Archbishop appeared in 1619, and the first part of the Chronicle of St Dominic in 1623, while the second and third parts appeared posthumously in 1662 and 1678; in addition he wrote, by order of the government, the Annals of D. John III., which were published by Herculano in 1846. After a life of about nineteen years spent in religion, he died in 1632, leaving behind him a memory of strict observance and personal holiness. The Chronicle of St Dominic and the Life of the Archbishop have the defect of most monastic writings — they relate for the most part only the good, and exaggerate it without scruple, and they admit all sorts of prodigies, so long as these tend to increase devotion. Briefly, these books are panegyrics, written for edification, and are not histories at all in the critical sense of the word. Their order and arrangement, however, are admirable, and the lucid, polished style, purity of diction, and simple, vivid descriptions, entitle Frei Luiz de Sousa to rank as a great prose-writer. His metaphors are well chosen, and he employs on appropriate occasions familiar terms and locutions, and makes full use of those charming diminutives in which the Portuguese language is rich. His prose is characterized by elegance, sweetness and strength, and is remarkably free from the affectations and false rhetoric that characterized the age. In addition to his other gifts, Frei Luiz de Sousa was a good Latin poet. There are many editions of the Life of the Archbishop, and it appeared in French (Paris, 1663, 1679 and 1825). in Italian (Rome, 1727-1728), in Spanish (Madrid, 1645 and 1727) and in English SOUSLIK— SOUTH AFRICA 463 (London, 1890). The Historia de S. Domingos may ba read in a modern edition (6 vols., Lisbon, 1866). AUTHORITIES. — Obras de D. Francisco Alexandre Lobo, ii. 61- 171; Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez, v. 327, xvi. 72; Dr Sousa Viterbo, Manoel de Sousa Coutinho (Lisbon, 1902). (E. PR.) SOUSLIK, or SUSLIK, the vernacular name of a European bur- rowing rodent mammal, nearly allied to the marmots, but of much smaller size and of more slender and squirrel-like build (see RODENTIA). The species, Spermophilus (or Citillus) citillus, is rather smaller than an ordinary squirrel, with minute ears, and the tail reduced to a stump of less than an inch in length. The general colour of the upper parts is yellowish grey, with or without a rusty tinge, which is, however, always notice- able on the head; while the underparts are lighter. The range of this species embraces south-east Europe, from southern Germany, Austria and Hungary to the south of Russia. Farther east it is replaced by more or less nearly allied species; while other species extend the range - of the genus across central and northern Asia, and thence, on the other side of Bering Strait, all through North America, where these rodents are commonly known as gophers. Many of the species have medium or even long tails, while some are nearly double the size of the typical representative of the group. All, however, have large cheek-pouches, whence the name of pouched marmots, by which they are sometimes called; and they have the first front- toe rudimentary, as in marmots. They are divided into several subgeneric groups. One of the most striking American species is the striped gopher, S. (Ictidomys) Iridecemlineatus, which is marked on each side with seven yellow stripes, between which are rows of yellow spots on a dark ground. The common souslik lives in dry, treeless plains, especially on sandy or clayey soil, and is never found either in forests or on swampy ground. It forms burrows, often 6 or 8 ft. deep, in which food is stored up and the winter sleep takes place. Each burrow has but one entrance, which is closed up when winter approaches; a second hole, however, being previously driven from the sleeping place to within a short distance of the surface of the ground. This second hole is opened the next year, and used as the ordinary entrance, so that the number of closed up holes round a burrow gives an indication of the length of time that it has been occupied. Sousliks feed on roots, seeds and berries, and occasionally on animal food, preying on eggs, small birds and mice. They bring forth in the spring from four to eight young ones, which, if taken early, may be easily tamed. Sousliks are eaten by the inhabitants of the Russian steppes, who consider their flesh an especial delicacy. (R. L.*) SOUTANE, the French term adopted into English for a cassock especially used for the general daily dress worn by the secular Roman clergy in France, Italy, Spain and Portugal. The Med. Lat. subtaneus, adapted in O. Fr. as sotane, in Span, and Ital. as solatia, and Port, as sotaina, meant an under-skirt, and is formed from subtus, beneath, sub, under. (See CASSOCK.) SOUTH, ROBERT (1634-1716), English divine, was born at Hackney, Middlesex, in September 1634. He was educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford. Before taking orders in 1658 he was in the habit of preaching as the champion of Calvinism against Socinianism and Arminianism. He also at this time showed a leaning to Presbyterianism, but on the approach of the Restoration his views on church govern- ment underwent a change; indeed, he was always regarded as a time-server, though by no means a self-seeker. On the xoth of August 1660 he was chosen public orator of the university, and in 1661 domestic chaplain to Lord Clarendon. In March 1663 he was made prebendary of Westminster, and shortly afterwards he received from his university the degree of D.D. In 1667 he became chaplain to the duke of York. He was a zealous advocate of the doctrine of passive obedience, and strongly opposed the Toleration Act, declaiming in unmeasured terms against the various Nonconformist sects. In 1676 he was appointed chaplain to Lawrence Hyde (afterwards earl of Rochester), ambassador-extraordinary to the king of Poland, and of his visit he sent an interesting account to Edward Pococke in a letter, dated Dantzic, i6th December, 1677, which was printed along with South's Posthumous Works in 1717. In 1678 he was presented to the rectory of Islip, Oxfordshire. Owing, it is said, to a personal grudge, South in 1693 published with transparent anonymity Animadversions on Dr Sherlock's Book, entitled a Vindication of the Holy and Ever Blessed Trinity, in which the views of William Sherlock (q.v.) were attacked with much sarcastic bitterness. Sherlock, in answer, published a Defence in 1694, to which South replied in Trilheism Charged upon Dr Sherlock's New Notion of the Trinity, and the Charge Made Good. The controversy was carried by the rival parties into the pulpit, and occasioned such keen feeling that the king interposed to stop it. During the greater part of the reign of Anne South remained comparatively quiet, but in 1710 he ranked himself among the partisans of Sacheverell. He declined the see of Rochester and the deanery of Westminster in 1713. He died on the 8th of July 1716, and was buried in West- minster Abbey. South had a vigorous style and his sermons were marked by homely and humorous appeal. His wit generally inclines towards sarcasm, and it was probably the knowledge of his quarrelsome temperament that prevented his promotion to a bishopric. He was noted for the extent of his charities. He published a large number of single sermons, and they appeared in a collected form in 1692 in six volumes, reaching a second edition in his lifetime in 1715. There have been several later issues; one in two volumes, with a memoir (Bohn, 1845). His Opera posthuma latina, including his will, his Latin poems, and his orations while public orator, with memoirs of his life, appeared in 1717. An edition of his works in 7 vols. was published at Oxford in 1823, another in 5 vols. in 1842. See also W. C. Lake, Classic Preachers of the English Church ( 1st series, 1877). The contemporary notice of South by Anthony Wood in his Athenae is strongly hostile, said to be due to a jest made by South at Wood's expense. SOUTH AFRICA. As a geographical unit South Africa is usually held to be that part of the continent south of the middle course of the Zambezi. The present article (i) deals with that part of Africa as a whole, (2) outlines the constitution of the British possessions forming the Union of South Africa, and (3) summarizes the history of the country from the time of its discovery by Europeans. I. — GENERAL FEATURES In the geographical sense stated South Africa lies between 16° and 35° S. and 12° and 36° E., narrows from 1600 m. from west to east along its northern border to some 600 m. of coast facing south. Its greatest length south-west to north-east is also about 1600 m. It has an area of about 1,333,000 sq. m. It comprises the Union of South Africa (i.e. the provinces of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, with Zululand, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal); Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Swazi- land and Southern Rhodesia, all British possessions; German South-West Africa, and the southern part of Portuguese East Africa. By some writers Northern Rhodesia is included in South Africa, but that district belongs more accurately to the central portion of the continent. Other writers confine the term to the British possessions south of the Zambezi, but in this case British South Africa is the proper designation. South African standard time, adopted in 1903, is that of 30° E., or two hours in advance of Greenwich. Physical Features. — There is a marked uniformity in physical features throughout South Africa. The coast line, from the mouth of the Kunene on the west to the delta of the Zambezi on the east, is little indented and contains only two sheltered natural harbours of any size — Saldanha Bay on the west and Delagoa Bay on the east. At Port Natal, however, the removal of the sand bar at its entrance has made available a third magnificent harbour, while at Table Bay (Cape Town) and at other places ports have been constructed. South Africa presents, however, a solid land mass without peninsulas of any size or any large islands off its coasts. Moreover, behind the low-lying coast- lands, which extend in general from 50 to 250 m. inland, rise ramparts of hills shutting off the interior. This conforma- tion of the country has been a powerful influence in determining its history and development. Here and there the mountains, SOUTH AFRICA [GENERAL FEATURES which run in lines parallel to the coast, approach close to. the sea, as at Table Bay. In the south-east, in the Drakensberg, they attain heights of 10,000 to 11,000 ft., elsewhere the highest points are between 8000 and 9000 ft. They form terrace-like steps leading to a vast tableland (covering about 900,000 sq. m.) with a mean elevation of 4000 ft., the highest part of the plateau — the High Veld of the Transvaal — being fully 6000 ft. above the sea. In its southern part the plateau has a general tilt to the west, in the north it tilts eastward. This tilt determines the hydrographical system. In the south the drainage is to the Atlantic, chiefly through the Orange River, in the north to the Indian Ocean through the Zambezi, Limpopo and other streams. A large number of smaller rivers rise on the outer slopes of the mounta;n ramparts and flow direct to the sea. In consequence of their great slope and the intermittent supply of water the rivers — except the Zambezi — are unnavigable save for a few miles from their mouths. The central part of the interior plateau, covering some 120,000 sq. m., is arid and is known as the Kalahari Desert. The western region, both plateau and coastlands, specially that part north of the Orange, is largely semi or wholly desert, while in the Cape province the terrace lands below the interior plateau are likewise arid, as is signified by their Hottentot name karusa (Karroo). The southern and eastern coastlands, owing to different climatic conditions (see infra) are very fertile. The geological structure is remarkably uniform, the plateau consisting mainly of sedimentary deposits resting on crystalline rocks. The Karroo system (sandstones and marls) covers immense areas (see AFRICA, § Geology). Intrusive dikes — locally known as ironstone — by preventing erosion are often the cause of the flat-topped hills which are a common feature of the landscape. The Witwatersrand series of the Transvaal includes auriferous conglomerates which have been worked since 1886 and constitute the richest gold-mines in the world. The diamondiferous areas at Kimberley and in the Pretoria district are likewise the richest known. Coal beds are widely distributed in the eastern districts while there are large copper deposits in the west, both at the Cape and in German territory. Climate. — The general characteristics of the climate are determined more by the physical conformation of the land than its proximity to the equator. The eastern escarpments (the Drakensberg, &c.) of the plateau intercept the rain-bearing winds from the Indian Ocean, so that over the greater part of the interior the rainfall is slight (5 to 24 in.). This, added to the elevation of the land, makes the climate in general dry, bracing and suitable for Europeans, not- withstanding that the northern part is within the tropics. Tem- perature is high, the mean yearly average lying between 60° and 70° F. Only along the south-eastern coast and in some of the river valleys is the climate of a markedly tropical character; here the rainfall rises to 50 in. a year and the coast is washed by the warm Mozambique current. The Cape peninsula and the western coast receive the cold currents from the Antarctic regions. Except in southern and western Cape Colony and along the Atlantic coast, summer is the rainy season. Flora and Fauna. — In consequence of the deficient rainfall over the greater part of the country the flora is not luxuriant and there are no large forests. Coarse grasses are the characteristic vegetation of the tableland. On the plains where grasses cannot find sufficient moisture their place is taken by " bush," composed mainly of stunted mimosas, acacias, euphorbia, wild pomegranate, bitter aloes and herbaceous plants. Forest patches are found in the kloofs and seaward sides of the mountains; willows often border the water- courses; heaths and bulbous plants are common in some areas. In the semi-tropical regions south-east of the Drakensberg, i.e. the coastlands of Natal and Portuguese East Africa, the vegetation is abundant, and mangroves, palms, baobab and bombax trees flourish. Here, and also in the upper Limpopo valley, cotton, tobacco, and rubber vines are found. Among the timber trees are species of pine, cedar, ebony, ironwood, stinkwood and sneezewood. Flower- ing plants include numerous species of terrestrial orchids, the so- called arum lily (Richardia Ajricana), common in low-lying moist land, and the white everlasting flower, found abundantly in some regions of Cape Colony. Of non-indigenous flora are the oak, poplar, bluegum, the Australian wattle, the vine, and almost every variety of fruit tree and European vegetables. In suitable regions tea, coffee, sugar and rice, as well as tobacco and cotton, are cultivated. In the western districts of the Cape viticulture is largely followed. The cereal most grown is maize (known in South Africa as mealies) ; kaffir corn, wheat, barley and oats are also largely cultivated. The soil is everywhere rich, but the lack of perennial water and the absence of irrigation works on a large scale retards agriculture. Most of the veld is divided into huge farms devoted to the rearing of cattle, sheep, goats and horses. On the Karroo are numerous ostrich farms. Lucerne is very largely grown as fodder for the cattle. The native fauna was formerly very rich in big game, a fact sufficiently testified by the names given by the early European settlers to mountains and streams. The lion, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, buffalo, quagga, zebra and other large animals were, however, during the i8th and igth centuries driven out of the more southern regions (though a few elephants and buffaloes, now carefully preserved, are still found at the Cape), the quagga being totally exterminated. In the Kalahari and in the eastern lowlands (from Zululand to the Zambezi delta) most of these animals are still found, as well as the eland, wildebeest and gemsbok. The leopard (called a tiger in South Africa) is still fairly common in all mountainous regions. Spotted hyenas and jackals are also numerous. The kudu is now the most common of the larger ante- lopes, the duiker and klipspringer are among the smaller antelopes still existing in large numbers. Baboons are common in some districts. Birds include the ostrich, great kori bustard, the eagle, vulture, hawk and crane, francolin, golden cuckoo, loorie, scarlet and yellow finches, kingfishers, parrots (in the eastern regions), pelicans and flamingoes. There are thirty varieties of snakes. Locusts are conspicuous among the common plagues of the country. In Rhodesia and on the east coast the tsetse fly is found and termites are widely distributed. Inhabitants. — The aborigines of South Africa are represented by the Bushmen and Hottentots, now found in any racial purity only in the Kalahari and in the southern part of German South-West Africa. All the other natives, popularly called Kaffirs, are members of the Bantu-negroid family, of whom they here form three distinct branches: (i) the Zulu-Xosas, origin- ally confined to the south-east seaboard between Delagoa Bay and the Great Fish River, but later (ipth century) spread by conquest over Gazaland, parts of the Transvaal, and Rhodesia (Matabeleland), (2) the Bechuanas, with the kindred Basutos, on the continental plateau from the Orange to the Zambezi, and ranging westwards over the Kalahari desert and the Lake Ngami region; (3) the Ova-Herero and Ova-Mpo, confined to German South-West Africa between Walfish Bay and the Kunene River. All these mixed Bantu peoples are immigrants at various periods from beyond the Zambezi. The Bechuanas, who occupy by far the largest domain, and preserve the totemic tribal system, were probably the first arrivals from the north or the north-sea coastlands. As early, probably, as the 8th century A.D. Arabs had formed a settlement on the coast at Sofala, 130 m. south of the mouth of the Zambezi, but they got no further south nor do they appear to have penetrated inland, though they traded for gold and other articles with the inhabitants of the northern part of the plateau — the builders of the zimbabwes and other ruins in what is now Rhodesia (q.v.) The Asiatic inhabitants of South Africa of the present day are mainly Indian Population (1(104). Area in White. Coloured. Total. sq. m. British South Africa: 'Cape of Good •vjj Hope. . . 276,995 579,741 1,830,063 2,409,804 o *C Natal (with g< Zululand) 35-371 97,109 1,011,645 1,108,754 1-fl Orange Free p§ State . 50,392 142,679 244,636 387,315 & Transvaal . 111,196 297,277 972,674 1,269,951 Southern Rhodesia . 148,575 12,623 600,000' 612,623 Basutoland 10,293 895 347-95? 348,848 Bechuanaland Pro- tectorate. . 225.0001 1,004 119,772 120,776 Swaziland. 6,536 898 84,586 85,484 Total British . . 864,358 1,132,226 5,211,329 6,343,555 German S.W. Africa . 322,450 7,1 io2 200, ooo1 207,110 Portuguese East Africa (southern part of) I45.0001 I0.0001 I^OO.OOO1 1,710,000 Total South Africa 1,331,808 1,149-336 7,111,329 8,260,665 1 Estimates. * 1907. GENERAL FEATURES] SOUTH AFRICA 465 coolies brought to Natal since 1860. The white races represented are mainly Dutch and British; colonization by European races dating from the i;th century. There are a few thousand Germans and Portuguese, chiefly in the territories belonging to their respective countries. The table on p. 464 shows the inhabitants, white and coloured, in the different territories into which South Africa is divided, and also the area of these territories. It will be seen that the population is sparse, less than 6\ persons per square mile. (Excluding the Bechuanaland Protectorate and German South-West Africa, which contain very large desert areas, the population is slightly over 7 per square mile.) In British South Africa the coloured races are nearly five times as numerous as the whites. . The great majority of the coloured inhabitants are Bantus of pure blood, but the total coloured population includes in the Cape province 298,334 persons of mixed blood (chiefly white and Hot- tentot) and in Natal 100,918 Asiatics. Save in the German colony the official returns do not discriminate between the nationality of the white inhabitants. Those of British and Dutch origin are probably about equal in numbers, but a very large proportion of the British inhabitants live in the towns, the country population being in most districts predominantly Dutch. The chief cities are Cape Town (pop. 1904, 77,668), Port Elizabeth (32,959). East London (25,220) and Kimberley (34,331) in the Cape province; Durban (67,847) in Natal; Johannesburg (155,642) and Pretoria (36,839) in the Transvaal; and Bloemfontein (33,883) in the Orange Free State. Salisbury and Buluwayo are the chief towns in Southern Rhodesia. The only town of any size outside the British possession is Lourencp Marques (Pop. 1907, 9849) in Delagoa Bay. Economic Condition. — Originally regarded by Europeans merely as a convenient dep6t for ships on their way to India, the wealth of South Africa for long consisted in its agricultural and pastoral resources. Mealies and wheat were the principal crops. Wool, mohair and ostrich feathers were the chief exports, the only mineral exported being copper (from the Namaqualand mines). The open- ing up of the diamond mines at Kimberley (1870) followed (1886) by the discovery of the Witwatersrand goldfields completely revolutionized the economic situation and profoundly modified the history of the country. They led, among other things, to the improvement of ports and the building of railways, so that by the close of the first decade of the 2oth century the reproach of in- accessibility from which South Africa had suffered was no longer true. From the seaports of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban, Lourenco Marques and Beira railway lines run to Kimberley, Bloemfontein, Johannesburg and Pretoria, while a trunk line extends north from Kimberley through Rhodesia (in which gold mining began on an extensive scale in 1898) and across the Zambezi below the Victoria Falls into the Congo basin, where it serves the Katanga mineral area. The distance from Cape Town to Katanga is over 2100 miles. The German territory is also pro- vided with railways, intended eventually to link with the British systems. The standard gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. and in 1910 some 12,000 m. of railway were open. In nearly every instance the railways are state owned. While gold and diamond mining continue the greatest of South African industries other sources of wealth have been added. In the Cape, Natal and the Transvaal coal mining is largely developed ; in the Transvaal and the Cape tobacco is grown extensively; sugar, tea and other tropical and sub-tropical produce are largely cultivated in Natal and the Portuguese territory, and, since 1905, mealies have become an important article of export. There are few manufactures; among the chief are the making of wine and brandy in the Cape province, and flour-milling. Cattle and mealies constitute the most valuable possessions of the natives. The imports are of a general nature, textiles and food-stuffs being the most important. Irrigation. — The scanty rainfall in many parts of South Africa and its unequal distribution necessitates a system of artificial irrigation unless much of the land be allowed to remain uncultivated. But in many regions the soil is deficient in phosphates and nitrates, and large irrigation works can be profitable only in districts where the soil is exceptionally fertile. Before 1877 little was done to make use of the water resources of the country. In that year the Cape legislature provided for the constitution of irrigation boards. Later boring operations were undertaken by the government, and the advice of engineers acquainted with Egyptian and Indian irriga- tion works sought. A report was drawn up by Sir (then Mr) Wm. Willcocks in 1901 in which he estimated that there were in the Cape, Orange Free State and the Transvaal, 3,000,000 acres which could be brought under irrigation at a cost of about £30,000,000. The value of the land, in its arid condition almost nil, when irrigated he placed at some £100,000,000. None of the South African govern- ments was, however, then in a position to undertake large works. At the Cape the census of 1904 gave 415,688 acres as the area under irrigation, an increase of 105,827 acres since 1891. In the Robertson district a canal (completed in 1904) 21 m. long took off from the Breede River and fertilized a large area, with the result that Robert- son ranks as the second richest district in the province. Over the Karroo and other arid regions some 10,000 boreholes had been sunk to depths varying from 50 to 500 ft., their yield being 60,000,000 gallons a year. The value of land under artesian well irrigation (e.g. in the Graaff Reinet district) has increased from 2Os. to £200 per morgen. More important, however, are the supplies to be derived from the control of flood water, millions of cubic feet of the best soil being annually washed into the sea. The Boer govern- ments had done little to promote irrigation, but during 1905-1907 a strong intercolonial commission investigated the subject as it affected the Transvaal and Orange Free State, and their final report, issued at Pretoria in 1908, contains full particulars as to the irrigation possibilities in those provinces. At least 350,000 acres in the Trans- vaal could be remuneratively irrigated, and a proportionally large area in the Orange province. In Natal an act of 1904 gave power to the government to forward irrigation schemes. Under that act the Winterton Irrigation Settlement (18,000 acres) was formed on the upper Tugela. In 1909 an irrigation congress representative of all the governments of British South Africa was held at Robertson, in the Cape province. Commerce. — All the British states and territories are members of postal, telegraphic and customs unions. The customs are of a protective character, while there is a rebate on goods from Great Britain and British possessions1 (see below, History). There is internal free trade throughout the Union of South Africa. The customs tariff in the Portuguese possessions is of a highly protective nature; goods coming from Portugal pay one-tenth of the dues levied on foreign goods. In German South-West Africa no discrimination is made as to the country of origin of imports. A South African Customs Statistical Bureau, which deals with the external trade of British South Africa,2 was established in July 1905. The statistics issued by the bureau showed a total volume of trade in 1905 of £72,910,000 made up as follows: Imports £29,859,000 (including £4,208,000 received through Portuguese ports) ; exports £43,050,000. Of this amount £25,644,000 was put as the value of raw gold exported, and £9,257,000 as the value of the diamonds shipped. Only £414,000 worth of goods was exported via Portuguese ports. For 1907 the figures were: Value of total trade £74,153,000; imports £25,920,000, exports £48,233,000. Goods valued at £4,036,377 received through Portuguese ports are included in the imports, and goods valued at £507,000 shipped at Portuguese ports in the exports. The value of raw gold exported in 1907 was £29,510,000, of diamonds £8,973,000. In 1908 the figures were: Total trade £70,093,000; imports £24,438,000 (including £4,641,000 via Portuguese ports); exports £45,655,000 (including £513,000 from Portuguese ports). The raw gold exported was worth £32,047,000 but the export of diamonds fell to £4,796,000. In 1909 the value of the imports into British South Africa was returned at £29,842,000; the value of the exports at £51,151,000.* Of the imports over £16,850,000 came from the United Kingdom, over £2,240,000 from Australia, £2,450,000 from Germany, and £2,195,000 from the United States. Of the exports raw gold was valued at £33,303,000, diamonds at £6,370,000, wool at £3,728,000 and ostrich feathers at £2,091,000. The value of the imports through Delagoa Bay and other Portuguese ports was £6,795,000, the exports from Portuguese ports were valued at slightly over £500,000. In the four years the imports from the United Kingdom were about 58%, from other parts of the empire 13%. Of the exports the United Kingdom took some 95%; a considerable quantity of South African produce, especially wool, shipped to England ultimately however finds its way to other countries. Next to Great Britain the countries doing most trade with South Africa are Australia and New Zealand, Germany, the United States, Canada, Brazil, India, Belgium, Holland and France. Religion. — The great majority of the white inhabitants are Protestants. Most of those of Dutch descent are members of the Dutch Reformed Church (Nederduitsch Heruormde Kerk), the state church of the early Cape colonists, or of churches formed by dis- sentient members of the original church such as the Gereformeerde Kerk (the " Dopper " Church), a branch (introduced in 1858) of the Separatist Reformed Church of Holland. These churches are Calvimstic in doctrine and Presbyterian in organization. _ Until 1843 the Cape synod was controlled by government commissioners; it was then given power to regulate its own internal affairs. There are separate synods with independent authority for the congrega- tions of the Dutch Reformed Churches in the Cape, Orange Free State and Transvaal provinces. The Doppers (" roundheads ") and other dissentient bodies have also separate synods. Besides these churches there are a number of Lutheran congregations among the Dutch speaking population. The South Africans of British descent are divided, mainly, into Anglicans, Wesleyans and Presbyterians. The Baptists and Con- gregationalists are smaller bodies. All form independent churches in communion with the mother churches in Great Britain. The oldest established is that of the Presbyterians. The Anglican 1 The total amount rebated in 1908 was £430,017. 2 Including North- West Rhodesia. ' For the six months January to June 1910 the figures were: imports £14,770,000; exports £24,442,000. 466 SOUTH AFRICA [GENERAL FEATURES organization dates from 1847. Being declared by judicial decision in 1863 a voluntary body, the Anglicans formed " The Church of the Province of South Africa." It is divided into the dioceses of Cape Town, Graham's Town, Maritzburg (Natal), Kaffraria, Bloem- fontein, Pretoria, Zululand, Mashonaland and Lebombo. The last-named diocese is that part of Portuguese East Africa south of the Sabi river ; the Mashonaland diocese includes the Portuguese territory between the Sabi and the Zambezi. German South-West Africa is not included in the Anglican organization. The metropoli- tan is the archbishop of Cape Town. The constitution of the church was drawn up at a provincial synod in 1870. It accepts the doctrines of the Church of England, but acknowledges none save its own ecclesiastical tribunals, or such other tribunal as may be accepted by the provincial synod — in other words it rejects the authority of the English privy council. Bishop Colenso of Natal and other Anglicans did not accept the authority of the provincial synod, regarding themselves as in all respects members of the Church of England. This was, especially in Natal, the cause of prolonged controversy among the members of the Anglican community. By 1901, however, the majority of the " Church of England party were represented in the provincial synod. Nevertheless the tempor- alities of this party remained in the hands of curators and not in the possession of the provincial church. In 1910 the practical amalgamation of the two bodies was effected (see further NATAL). The Roman Catholics area comparatively small body ; the majority of their adherents are found in the Cape and Natal. At the head of their organizations are vicars-apostolic for the Cape (eastern district), the Cape (western district), Natal, Orange River, Kimberley and the Transvaal, and prefects-apostolic for Basutoland and Zambezi (or Rhodesia). All the churches maintain missions to the natives. The first to enter the field were the Jesuits and Dominicans, who laboured on the south-east coast and among the subjects of the monomotapa (see PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA). Their work lasted from about MI i l$(*> to I'r.6o> kut ** ^as '5't 'it:t'e trace- Tne ear'v Nttlve' m°dern missions were all Protestant. A Moravian mission to the Hottentots was begun in 1737, continued to 1744 and was re-established — against the wishes of the colonists — in 1792. Before the close of the century the London Missionary Society entered the field. The work of this society's agents has had a greater influence on the history of South Africa than that of any other religious body save the Dutch Reformed Church. Next in order came the Wesleyans and the Glasgow Missionary Society (Presbyterian), the last-named society founding in 1824 the station of Lovedale — now the most important institution in South Africa in connexion with native missions. In 1829 the Paris Evangelical Society (whose agents have laboured chiefly in Basuto and Barotse lands) sent out their first missionaries, who were closely followed by the agents of other societies (see MISSIONS). The Roman Catholics entered the field later on. By the end of the igth century fully 5 % of the total native population professed Christianity. The Jews form a small but influential community. There are some thousands of Mahommedans in the Cape (chiefly Malays) and larger numbers in Natal, where there is also a large Hindu popula- tion. At Lourenco Marques the Chinese colony has its own temple and religious services. Law.1 — The basis of the common law of British South Africa is the Roman-Dutch law as it existed in Holland at the end of the 1 8th century. This was simply the old Roman jurisprudence embodied in the legislation of Justinian, modified by custom and legislative decrees during the course of the centuries which witnessed the growth of civilization in Europe; and it is to all intents and purposes the jurisprudence which was the foundation of the Code Napoleon. It was in part closely akin to the " modern Roman law " which is practised widely over the con- tinent of Europe, and even in Scotland, at the present day. The authorities upon the common law in South Africa are: the Dutch commentators upon the civil law, the statute law of Holland, the decisions of the Dutch courts, and, failing these, the corpus juris civilis itself. In the period which has elapsed since the establishment of British rule at the Cape the law has been considerably modified and altered, both by legislation and by judicial decisions, and it is not too much to say that at the present time there exists hardly any material difference in principle over the greater part of the field of jurisprudence between the law of England and the law of South Africa. The law of contracts, the law of torts, the mercantile law, the law relating to shipping and insurance, not to mention other subjects, are practically identical with those of England; and even the criminal law is virtually the 1 For the sections here incorporated on South African law and language we are indebted to the late J. W. Leonard, K.C. (d. 1909), twice attorney-general of Cape Colony. same, though the greater elasticity of the civil jurisprudence allows fewer opportunities for the escape of malefactors, notably in cases of fraud or falsity in any form, than exist under the law of England. The constitution of the courts is based on the example of the English judiciary, and the rules of evidence and procedure are practically the same in both criminal and civil cases as in England. Ah1 serious cases of crime are tried before a judge and jury, with the same formalities and safeguards as in England, while minor offences are dealt with by stipendiary magistrates possessing a limited statutory jurisdiction. In criminal cases it is necessary for the jury to find a unanimous verdict. In civil cases either party may demand a jury, a privilege which is seldom exercised; but in a civil case the verdict of the majority of jurors prevails. The most marked difference between the English and South African systems of law is, as might be expected, to be found in the law relating to real property. In South Africa there is a rigid and universal application of the principle of registration. The title to land is registered, in all cases; and so, with a few exceptions, is every servitude or easement, mortgage or charge, upon land. With regard to the devolution of property upon death, it may be remarked that the law of intestate succession applies equally to real and personal estate, there being no law of primogeniture. The rules of distribution in intestacy differ, however, very considerably from those established in England. There is absolute freedom of testamentary disposition in the Cape province and in some other parts of South Africa. The effect of marriage upon the property of the spouses is, by the Roman-Dutch law and in the absence of any ante-nuptial contract to the contrary, to bring about a complete community of property, virtually a universal partnership between husband and wife, subject to the sole and absolute control of the husband while the marriage lasts. The courts have, however, the right to interfere for the protection of the wife in case of any flagrant abuse of the power thus vested in the husband. Ante-nuptial agreements may be of any nature the parties may choose. Such agreements must in all cases be publicly registered. Upon the dissolution of a marriage in community of property, or in the event of a judicial separation a communione bonorum, the property of the spouses is divided as upon the liquidation of a partnership. It is not necessary here to refer particularly to certain exceptions to this general rule in cases of divorce. By the common law gifts between husband and wife during marriage are void as against creditors. This rule cannot be evaded even by ante-nuptial agreement. By the statute law of Natal post-nuptial agreements between spouses are permitted under certain conditions, to which it is not possible now to refer at length. Divorce is granted to either spouse for either adultery or malicious desertion, the distinctions established by the English law between husband and wife in respect of divorce being disregarded. Language. — The languages spoken in South Africa by the inhabitants of European descent are English and Dutch, the latter chiefly in the form of a patois colloquially known as the Taal. (German and Portuguese are spoken in the possessions of those countries, but a knowledge of English or Dutch is frequent even in those territories.) The history of the Dutch language in South Africa is intimately bound up with the history of the South African Dutch people. The basis of the language as spoken to-day is that 17th-century Dutch of Holland which the first settlers brought to the country; and although the Dutch of Holland and the Dutch of South Africa differ very widely to-day, Cape Dutch differs less widely from the Dutch language of the 1 7th century than from the modern Dutch of Holland. The tongue of the vast majority of the Dutch-speaking inhabitants may thus be said to be a degenerate dialect of the 17th-century Dutch of Holland, with a very limited vocabulary. The limiting of the vocabulary is due to two reasons. In the first place, the early settlers were drawn principally from the peasant class, being chiefly discharged soldiers and sailors; and, further, when once settled, the necessity for making the language in- telligible to the natives by whom the settlers were surrounded led ''^y9^^^^ •x \ by The Encyclopaedia. Britannic*. Co. CONSTITUTION] SOUTH AFRICA to a still further simplification of speech structure and curtail- ment of the vocabulary. There thus grew up an ungrammatica dialect of Dutch, suited only to the most ordinary requirements of the everyday life of a rural population. It became a lan- guage with neither a syntax nor a literature. At the same time it remained in character almost entirely Dutch, no French — in spite of the incorporation into the population of the Hugue- not emigrants — and only a few Malay words finding a place in the Taal. But side by side with this language of everyday life a purer form of Dutch has continued to exist and find its uses under certain conditions. It must be borne in mind that the Boers of every grade have always been more or less sedulously instructed in religious subjects, at all events to the extent required to fit them for formal membership of their church, and in all their wanderings they have usually been attended by their pastors. The Dutch Bible and Catechism are written in pure Dutch. The language of the Dutch Bible is as majestic as that of the English version. Moreover, the services of the Church have always been conducted in grammatical though simple Dutch; and the clergy, in their intercourse with the people, have as a general rule abstained from conversing in the ordinary dialect. The Boer thus has but slight difficulty in reading and understanding pure Dutch. Under the influence of Africander nationalism strenuous efforts have been made to teach the language in the schools throughout the greater part of South Africa. In the Transvaal and Orange Free State education was imparted almost exclusively in Dutch. All public business in the government offices and law courts was conducted in the language, and the Transvaal at the time of its annexation by Great Britain was being gradually inundated by officials, railway servants and others introduced from Holland, who spoke modern Dutch. Officially throughout the Union of South Africa both languages are now on a footing of equality. Throughout South Africa a number of words, mainly Dutch, are in general use by the English-speaking inhabitants and also, to a considerable extent, among the natives. The most common of these words, with their English meanings, are here set forth. When not otherwise stated the words are of Dutch origin: — Assegai . Boschveld . Bywoners . Daal . . . Dorp Dritt . . . Ervan (sing, erf) Fontein . Hoek . . . Inspan . Kaffir . . . Karroo . Kloof . . . Kop ... Kopje Kraal . . . Krantz (or Kranz) Nek Poort Rand . Ruggens Slim . Sluit a spear used by the Kaffir tribes; a word adopted from the Portuguese, but of Berber origin. a plain or open stretch of country covered with thin wood or bush. Often written bushveld. (literally witnesses) " poor whites," the name given by the Boers to the landless whites, hangers-on at farms, &c. valley, village. ford (a " Taal " word). plots of land, fountain, spring. corner, angle, hook. Common in place-names, to harness. (Arabic for unbeliever [in Islam]) a native of Bantu stock ; more loosely any native, any arid district; now the name of definite regions (from the Hottentot), fissure or crevice, hence a ravine or narrow valley. (literally head) a hill, generally rounded. Flat-topped hills are usually called tafel (table) or plat (flat) bergs, a little hill; the name given to the isolated pointed hills which are a characteristic feature of the plains of South Africa, an enclosure, hence a native village. Prob- ably from the Portuguese, an overhanging wall of rock, hence a steep cliff, a precipice. A " Taal " word derived from the Dutch krans, a wreath, chaplet or cornice. literally neck ) mountain passes or passes literally gate $ between mountains, border, edge, hence a low and usually round range of hills. ridges, applied to undulating slopes or un- irrigated hilly country, cunning, clever, adroit. (Dutch shot) ditch, gutter, small stream. 467 Spruit .... (literally shoot, spruiten, to spring up), stream, small river. The name given to intermittent streams liable to sudden freshets. Stoep .... (literally a step), the name given to the plat- form or veranda of a house. The stoep is shaded by a roof and is a favourite rendez- vous for the household and for visitors. Formerly all South African houses had stoeps, but in the central parts of the larger towns the buildings are now without verandas. Trek .... (literally, pull, tug, trekken, to draw or pull), to leave a place, to take a journey ; also the distance covered in a journey. Veld .... field. The name given to open plains and to the grass-covered plateaus of the interior. Vlei a hollow filled with water during rainy weather. Uitspan .... to unharness. Uitlander . . . outlander, i.e. a foreigner. Among other Dutch words frequently used in place-names may be instanced: rhenoster (rhinoceros) olifant (elephant), mooi (pretty), modder (mud), klip (cliff), berg (mountain), burg or stad (town), zwart (black), klein (little), groote (great), breede (broad), nieuw (new), zuur (sour), bokke (buck). A number of Dutch weights and measures are also in general use. They include: muid =3 bushels; morgen =2-11654 acres. A Cape rood equals 12-396 English feet, and a Cape ton contains 2000 ft. II. — CONSTITUTION OF THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA In accordance with the provisions of an act of the British Parliament (South Africa Act 1909) Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal and Orange River colonies were united under one government in a legislative union under the British crown. The Union of South Africa, as the new state is named, was established on the 3ist of May 1910. Upon its formation the colonies named became provinces of the Union. In the case of the Orange River colony its title was changed to Orange Free State province. The colonial legislatures were abolished, provincial councils, with strictly subordinate and delegated powers, were set up, and provincial administrators (local men) replaced the various governors. The history of the movement which led to unification is given in the following section. The main provisions of the constitution J are as follows:— The executive government of the Union is vested in the king and may be exercised by the sovereign in person. It is, however, administered by a governor-general, who holds office _. during the king's pleasure. The governor-general E can dismiss ministers and dissolve parliament. He is tixecutlve- empowered to dissolve both houses of the legislature simultaneously or the House of Assembly alone. He can perform no official act when beyond the territorial limits of the Union, but he can appoint a deputy to act for him during temporary absences. The governor- general is paid £10,000 a year out of the consolidated funds of the Union. He is advised by an executive council, whose members he nominates. The council must include the ministers of state; ministers administering departments of state may not exceed ten in number. Ministers cannot hold office for a longer period than three months unless they are or become members of either house of parliament. The control and administration of native affairs (which Defore the Union was, except at the Cape, largely in the hands of :he colonial governors personally) is vested exclusively in the governor in council and to the same authority is entrusted all matters specially or differentially affecting Asiatics throughout the Union. The legislative power is vested in a parliament consisting of the Sovereign, a Senate, and a House of Assembly. The Senate consists of 40 members, 8 representatives from each province, and 8 members nominated by the governor-general in council. Four of the nominated members are selected on the ground mainly of their thorough acquaintance with " the reasonable wants and wishes " of the coloured races in South Africa. The presence of both nominated and elected members in the Senate is a novel provision in the con- stitution of the upper chambers of British colonial legislatures. The senators chosen in 1910 hold office for ten years. After 1920 .he Union parliament may make any alteration it sees rfte it in the constitution of the senate. A senator must Legislature. >e_ a British subject of European descent, must be hirty years old. be a parliamentary voter in one of the provinces, lave lived for five years in the Union, and if an elected member be >ossessed of immovable property within the Union of the clear alue of £500. 1 For a detailed examination of the constitution and a comparison of it with the federal constitutions of Canada and Australia see ' South African Union," by A. Berriedale Keith, in the Journ. Soc. Comp. Legislation for October 1909. SOUTH AFRICA [HISTORY The House of Assembly consists (as originally constituted) of 121 members, elected by single-membered constituencies, each con- stituency containing as nearly as possible the same number of voters. Of these members the Cape Province returns 51, the Transvaal 36, and Natal and Orange Free State 17 each. As population increases the total number of members may be raised to 150. The seats allotted to each province are determined by its number of European male adults as ascertained by a quinquennial census, the quota for a constituency being obtained by dividing the total number of such adults in the Union as ascertained at the 1904^ census by the number of members at the establishment of the Union. The commission charged with the delimitation of constituencies is permitted to vary the quota as much as 15% either way. Members of the House of Assembly must, like senators, be British subjects of European descent, they must be qualified to be registered as voters and have lived for five years within the Union. A general election must take place every five years, and all polls must be taken on the same day. There must be a session of parliament every year, so arranged that twelve months shall not elapse between the last day of one session and the first sitting of the next session. The qualifications of parliamentary voters are those which existed in the several colonies at the establishment of the Union, save that "no member of His Majesty's regular forces on full pay" can be registered as a voter. As the franchise laws in the several colonies differed the qualifications of voters in the provinces differ also. In the Transvaal and Orange Free State provinces the franchise is restricted to white adult male British subjects. In neither province is there any property qualification, but a six months' residence before registration is required. In Natal (q.v.) there is a low property qualification. In that province coloured persons are not by name debarred from the franchise, but they are in practice excluded. In the Cape province, where there is also a low property qualification, no colour bar exists and there are a large number of Kaffir voters (see CAPE COLONY: Constitution). Parliament may alter the qualifica- tions for the vote, but no law which would deprive coloured persons in the Cape province of the franchise can be effective " unless the bill be passed by both houses of parliament sitting together and at the third reading be agreed to by not less than two-thirds oi the total number of members of both houses." Save as subject, ultimately, to the British parliament the Union parliament is a sovereign body. The provinces have no original authority, possessing only such powers as are delegated to them by the parliament. In certain cases the governor-general must reserve the royal assent to bills, e.g. any bill abolishing the coloured vote in the Cape province. The king is given the power to disallow any law within a year of it having received the assent of the governor- general. With regard to bills the two houses are not in a position of equality. Bills appropriating revenue or moneys, or imposing taxation, must originate in the House of Assembly and may not be amended by the Senate. If a bill passed by the Assembly has been twice rejected by the Senate, provision, is made for a joint sitting of both houses, when members vote and decide upon the measure concerned as one body. In the case of a money bill rejected by the Senate a joint sitting to decide its fate may be held in the same session in which the Senate has failed to pass the bill. Every minister of state may sit and speak in either house, but can vote only in the house of which he is a member. Re-election is not necessary on the appointment of a member as a minister of state. Members of parliament are paid £400 a year, £3 being deducted from this allowance for every day's absence during the session. A Supreme Court of Judicature for South Africa was created at the establishment of the Union. The former Supreme, High and j.^e Circuit Courts of the several colonies then became ii.dk-aiiirr provincial and local divisions of the Supreme Court JUOKalUrVt re r, L AC • t_ • I • f j- • • of South Africa, which consists of two divisions, namely the Supreme Court and the Appellate Division. Appeals from the decisions of the provincial and local divisions of the court and from those of the High Court of southern Rhodesia, must be made to the appellate division of the Supreme Court. Unless special leave of the privy council be obtained there can be no appeal from the deci- sions of the Appellate Division, save in admiralty cases. This restriction of the power of appeal to the privy council is much greater than are the restrictions upon appeals from the Commonwealth of Australia, where appeals to the privy council lie by right from the several state Supreme Courts. The difference arises from the fact that the Commonwealth is a federation of states; whereas the Union of South Africa is but one state with but one Supreme Court. One result of this unification of the courts of South Africa is that any provincial or local division of the Supreme Court in which an action is begun can order its transference to another division if that course be deemed more convenient. Moreover the judgments of each provincial division can be registered and enforced in any other division. The administration of justice throughout the Union is vested in a minister of state who has all the powers of the attorney- generals of the several colonies at the time of the Union, save that power as to the prosecution of crimes is vested in each province in an official appointed by the governor-general in council and styled the attorney-general of the province. Among the general provisions of the constitution the most im- portant is that both the English and Dutch languages are official languages of the Union and are treated on a footing of equality ; all records of parliament, and all notices of general public neaerai importance or interest issued by the government of provisfoas the Union must be in both languages. (Persons in the public service at the establishment of the Union cannot, however, be dispensed with because of lack of knowledge of either English or Dutch.) Other general provisions enact free trade throughout the Union, but the customs and excise leviable under the laws existing in any of the colonies at the establishment of Union remain in force unless parliament otherwise provides. All persons who had been naturalized in any of the colonies are naturalized throughout the Union. All rights and obligations under conventions and agreements which were binding on any of the colonies have devolved upon the Union. The harbours of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban are state owned, as are also nearly all the railways in the Union. All revenues derived from these services are paid into a separate fund. The administration of the railways, ports and har- bours is entrusted to a board of not more than three commissioners (appointed by the governor-general in council) presided over by a minister of state. Each commissioner holds office for five years and may be reappointed. The board is directed to administer its service on business principles, due regard being had to agricultural and industrial development, &c., within the Union. So far as may be the total earnings are not to be more than are sufficient to meet necessary outlays. Provincial Administration. — While the Union parliament has full power to make laws for the whole of the Union, to provincial councils have been delegated the immediate control of affairs relating solely to the provinces. The subjects delegated to the councils include direct taxation within the provinces for local revenue purposes, the borrowing of money (on the sole credit of the provinces) with the consent of the ministry; agri- culture (within the limits denned by parliament) and municipal institutions, divisional councils, and other local institutions. The control of elementary education was also guaranteed to the provincial councils up to 1915, and thereafter until parliament otherwise provides. The councils consist of not fewer than 25 members and not more than the number of members returned by the province to the House of Assembly. Each councillor represents a separate constituency, these constituencies, as far as possible, to be the same as the parlia- mentary constituencies. (In the Cape and Transvaal provinces they were the same in 1910; Natal and Orange Free State returning only 17 members to the House of Assembly, the parliamentary constituencies have been rearranged.) The qualifications for electors are the same as for parliament, and any person qualified to vote is qualified to be a member of the council. As in the Cape province coloured persons are qualified to vote, they are thus also qualified to_ be members of the provincial council. Any member of the provincial council who becomes a member of either House of Parliament thereupon ceases to be a member of such provincial council. Each provincial council continues for three years from the date of its first meeting and is not subject to dissolution save by effluxion of time. The executive power in each province is invested in an officer appointed by the government and styled provincial administrator. He holds office for five years. The administrator is assisted by an executive committee of four persons elected from among its own members, or otherwise, by the provincial council on the proportional representation principle. The administrator and any other member of the executive committee, not being a member of the council, has the right to take part in the proceedings of the council, but has not the right to vote. The provincial councils have not the right to make laws, but ordinances, which must receive the assent of the governor-general in council before becoming valid. (F. R. C.) III. — HISTORY The history of South Africa is, almost entirely, that of its colonization by European races, of their conflicts with, and influence over, its native inhabitants, and of the struggle for supremacy between the British and Dutch settlers. The little that is known concerning the doings of the natives before the appearance of the white man belongs to the domain of ethnology rather than of history. When the Portuguese first reached the southern part of Africa there was but one place in it where a civilized race held sway. This was at Sofala, the most southerly post of the East African Arabs. From that port the Arabs traded for ivory, slaves and (principally) gold with Bantu peoples of the far interior — the Rhodesia of to-day. These natives, whose earliest existing buildings may go back to the time of the Norman Conquest, were in a higheV state of HISTORY] SOUTH AFRICA 469 development than the Bushmen and Hottentots living farther south. The part played by the various native races in modifying the character of the European colonization will be best considered as they successively came into contact with the white settlers. At this point it is only necessary to state that at the same time as the Europeans were slowly extending northward from the south-western point of the continent, a conquering race of Bantu negro stock, originating from somewhere beyond the Zambezi, was spreading southward along the western side of the country. A. From the Discovery of the Cape to the Great Trek. — What led to the discovery of America led also to the discovery, exploita- tion and colonization of South Africa.- In the isth century the great Eastern trade with Europe was carried on by the Venetian Republic — Venice was the gate from West to East, and her fleets, richly laden with goods brought down to the shores of the Mediterranean in caravans, supplied Europe with the luxuries of the Orient. It was in that century that Portugal rose to prominence as a maritime power; and being anxious to enjoy at first hand some of the commerce which had brought such prosperity to Venice, Portugal determined to seek out an ocean pathway to the Indies. It was with this intention that Bar- tholomew Diaz, sailing southwards, discovered the Cape of Good Hope in I488.1 Nine years after the discovery of the Cape by Diaz another Portuguese expedition was fitted out under Vasco da Gama. Da Gama entered Table Bay, but did not land. Thence he pushed on round the coast, landed in Mossel Bay, then sailing up the south-east coast he sighted land again on the zsth of December 1497, and named it in honour of the day, Natal. Still proceeding northwards he entered the Quilimane River and eventually reached India. For many years subsequent to this date South Africa repre- sented merely an inconvenient promontory to be rounded on the voyage to the Indies. Ships stopped at different ports, or rather at such few natural harbours as the inhospitable coast offered, from time to time, but no attempt was made by the Portuguese to colonize the southern end of the continent. On the west coast their southernmost settlement for a long period was Benguella, and the history of Angola (q.v.) had not until the last quarter of the igth century any close connexion with that of South Africa. On the east coast the Portuguese were masters of Sofala by 1506, and a trading-post was first established in Delagoa Bay in 1545. Here alone Portugal obtained an impor- tant foothold in South Africa. But between Benguella on the west and Lourengo Marques on the east the Portuguese made no attempt to form permanent settlements or trading stations along the coast. It was too barren a shore to prove attractive when the riches of East Africa and India were available. The first Europeans to follow in the wake of the Portuguese voyagers were the English. In 1601 the English East India English Company fitted out a fleet of five vessels, which East India sailed from Torbay. After four months at sea they Company. dropped their anchors in Table Bay, where they remained for seven weeks before proceeding eastwards. From that time forward Table Bay was used as an occasional port of call for British ships, and in 1620 two English captains formally took possession of the Cape in the name of James I. This patriotic act was not, however, sufficiently appreciated by either King James I. or the English East India Company to evoke any official confirmation on their part. Meanwhile the Dutch East India Company had been formed in Holland, and the Dutch had entered keenly into the competition for the glittering prizes of Eastern commerce. In 1648 one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay, and the shipwrecked crew were left to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so pleased with the resources of the country that on their return to Holland they represented to the directors of the company the great advantages that would accrue to the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station of call at the Cape. The result was that in 1652 a fort and vegetable 1 The date usually assigned (1486), on the authority of De Barros, has been snown to be incorrect (see DIAZ). gardens were laid out at Table Bay by a Dutch expedition sent for the purpose under a surgeon named Jan van Riebeek. In 1657 a few soldiers and sailors, discharged by the Dutch East India Company, had farms allotted them, and these men constituted the first so-called " free burghers." Dutch East By this step the station became a plantation or lad/a settlement. More settlers were landed from time to Cotopaoy. time, including a number of orphan girls from Amsterdam, and during 1688-1689 the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of some three hundred Huguenots (men, women and children), who were located at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Frenchhoek and Paarl. In process of time the French settlers were absorbed in the Dutch population, but they have had an enduring influence on the character of the people. The little settlement gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 the country as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony. At this time the white colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it an article of export, and were famed for the good quality of their wines. But their chief wealth was in cattle. Such prosperity as they enjoyed was in despite of the system of government prevailing. All through the latter half of the i7th and the whole of the i8th century troubles arose from time to time between the colonists and the government. The adminis- tration of the Dutch East India Company was of an extremely despotic character. The most complete account of the com- pany's tenure and government of the Cape was written in 1857 by E. B. Watermeyer, a Cape colonist of Dutch descent resid- ing in Cape- Town. He points out that it was after failing to find a route by the north-east to China and Japan that the Dutch turned their eyes to the Cape route. The Cape of Good Hope subsequently " became not a colony of the Republic of the United Provinces, but a dependency of the ' Nether- lands Chartered General East India Company ' for mercantile purposes; and to this fact principally can be traced the slow progress, in all but extension of territory, of a country which was settled by Europeans within thirty years of the time when the Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of a mighty empire, landed at Plymouth to plant democratic institutions and European civilization in the West." On the settlement under van Riebeek, and the position in it which the so-called " free burghers " enjoyed, this candid Dutch writer throws an interesting light. " The people," he says, " who came here with Riebeek himself were not colonists intending permanently to settle at the Cape. . . . The proposition that any freemen or burghers not in the pay of the company should be encouraged to cultivate the ground was first made about three years after Riebeek's arrival. Accordingly, some discharged sailors and soldiers, who received on certain condi- tions plots of ground extending from the Fresh River to the Liesbeek, were the first free burghers of the colony. . . . Here it is sufficient to say that, generally, the term ' free burgher ' was a complete misnomer. The first burghers were, in truth, a mere change from paid to unpaid servants of the company. They thought, in obtaining their discharge, that they had much improved their condition, but they soon discovered the reverse to be the fact. And henceforward, to the end of the last [iSth] century we fird the constantly repeated and well-founded complaint, that the company and its officers possessed every advantage, while the freemen were not allowed even the fruit of their own toil. . . . The natural effect of this narrow and tyrannous rule was discontent, amounting often to disaffection. After a time every endeavour was made to escape beyond the immediate control of the authorities. Thus the ' trek- king ' system, with its attendant evils, the bane of South Africa, was born. By their illiberal spirit, which sought but temporary commercial advantage in connexion with the Eastern trade, the Dutch authorities themselves, although generally humanely disposed towards the natives, created the system which caused their oppres- sion and extermination." When it is borne in mind that the Dutch at the Cape were for one hundred and forty-three years under the rule of the Dutch East India Company, the importance of a correct appre- ciation of the nature of that rule to any student of South African history is obvious. No modern writer approaches Watermeyer either in the completeness of his facts or the severity of his indictment. Referring to the policy of the company, Watermeyer says: — 470 SOUTH AFRICA [HISTORY The Dutch colonial system as exemplified at the Cape of Good Hope, or rather the system of the Dutch East India Company (for the nation should not wholly suffer under the condemnation justly incurred by a trading association that sought only pecuniary profit), was almost without one redeeming feature, and was a dis- honour to the Netherlands' national name. In all things political it was purely despotic; in all things commercial, it was purely monopolist. The Dutch East India Company cared nought for the progress of the colony — provided only that they had a refresh- ment station for their richly laden fleets, and that the English, French, Danes and Portuguese had not. Whatever tended to infringe in the slightest degree on their darling monopoly was visited with the severest penalties, whether the culprit chanced to be high in rank or low. An instance of this, ludicrous while grossly tyrannical, is preserved in the records. Commander van Quaelbergen, the third of the Dutch governors of the colony, was dismissed from the government in 1667, and expelled the service of the company, because he had interchanged civilities with a French governor bound eastwards, the United Provinces being then at peace with France.1 Of this nature was the foreign policy of the Dutch company at the Cape of Good Hope ; modified, indeed, in some degree from time to time, but governed by principles of jealous, stringent monopoly until the surrender of the colony by Commissioner Sluysken in 1795. The internal government of the colonists for the entire duration of the East India Company's rule was always tyrannical, often oppressive in the extreme. With proclamations, placaats and statutes abundantly filling huge tomes, the caprice of the governor was in truth the law. A mockery of popular institutions, under the name of a burgher council, indeed existed; but this was a mere delusion, and must not be confounded with the system of local government by means of district burgher councils which that most able man, Commissioner de Mist, sought to establish during the brief government of the Batavian Republic from 1803 to 1806, when the Dutch nation, convinced and ashamed of the false policy by which they had permitted a mere money-making association to disgrace the Batavian name, and to entail degradation on what might have been a free and prosperous colony, sought to redeem their error by making this country a national colonial possession, instead of a slavish property, to be neglected, oppressed or ruined, as the caprice or avarice of its merchant owners might dictate. From time to time servants in the direct employment of the company were endowed with the right of " freeburghers," but the company retained the power to compel them Boers *o return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to enforce into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves who had received this conditional freedom; it was, adds Watermeyer, claimed by the government to be ap- plicable likewise to the children of all such. The effect of this tyranny was inevitable: it drove men to desperation. They fled from oppression; and thus trekking began, not in 1835, as is gen- erally stated, but before 1700. From 1720 to 1780 trekking had gone steadily forwards. In 1780 van Plettenberg, the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuwbergen the northern boundary of the colony, expressing " the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond." In 1789 so strong had feeling amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam. After this deputation some nominal reforms were granted; but in 1795 a number of burghers settled in the Swellendam and Graaf Reinet districts drove out the officials of the company and established independent governments. The rebellion was accompanied by an assertion of rights on the part of the burghers or freemen, which contained the following clause, the spirit of which animated many of the Trek Boers: — That every Bushman or Hottentot, male or female, whether made prisoner by commanders or caught by individuals, as well in time past as in future, shall for life be the lawful property of such burghers as may possess them, and serve in bondage from generation to generation. And if such Hottentots should escape, the owner shall be entitled to foljow them up and to punish them, according to their merits in his discretion. 1 It was not until the time of Ryk Tulbagh (governor of the colony, I75l~177l) that the Chamber ot Seventeen permitted foreign ships to provision at Table Bay. Tulbagh was the most popular of the governors under the East India Company. During his governorship no new taxes were levied on the burghers. He was succeeded by van Plettenberg. And as to the ordinary Hottentot, already in service, brought up at the places of Christians, the children of these shall be compelled to serve until their twenty-fifth year, and may not go into the service of any other save with their master's consent ; that no Hottentot, in future deserting his service shall be entitled to refuge or protection in any part of the colony, but that the authorities throughout the country shall immediately, whatever be the alleged cause of desertion, send back the fugitive to his master. After one hundred and forty-three years the rule of the Dutch East India Company came to an end at the Cape. What its principles were we already have seen. Watermeyer recapitulates its effects as follows: — The effects of this pseudo-colonization were that the Dutch, as a commercial nation, destroyed commerce. The most industrious race of Europe, they repressed industry. One of the freest states in the world, they encouraged a despotic misrule in which falsely-called free citizens were enslaved. These men, in their turn, became tyrants. Utter anarchy was the result. Some national feeling may have lingered, but, substantially, every man in the country, of every hue, was benefited when the incubus of the tyranny of the Dutch East India Company was removed. To this one further note must be added. The Trek Boers of the i gth century were the lineal descendants of the Trek Boers of the 1 8th. What they had learnt of government from the Dutch East India Company they carried into the wilderness with them. The end of the igth century saw a revival of this same tyrannical monopolist policy in the Transvaal. If Water- meyer's formula, " In all things political, purely despotic; in all things ccmmercial, purely monopolist," was true of the govern- ment of the Dutch East India Company in the i8th century. it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part of the igth. The rule of the Dutch East India Company was extinguished (September 1795) by the occupation of the colony by the British, who acted on behalf of the prince of Orange, Holland having fallen under the control of the revolutionary government of France. Following the peace of Amiens the colony was handed over (February 1803) by Great Britain to a commissioner of the Batavian Republic. During the eight years the British held the Cape notable reforms in the government were effected, but the country remained essentially Dutch, and few British settlers were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £16,000,000. The Batavian Republic enter- tained very liberal views as to the administration of the country. but they had little opportunity for giving them effect. In less than three years (January 1806) the Cape was reconquered by the British, who were at war both with France and Holland. The occupation was at first of a provisional character, but by the third additional article to the convention with the Nether- lands of the I3th of August 1814 the country was definitely ceded to Great Britain. In consideration of retaining the Cape and the Dutch settlements now constituting British Guiana, Great Britain paid £6,000,000. The British title to Cape Colony is thus based upon conquest, treaty and purchase. The wishes of the inhabitants were not consulted, and among them resentment was felt at the way in which their future was thus disposed of. The Europeans at the Cape at that time numbered about 27,000. Before tracing the history of South Africa during the igth century, the early relations of the white settlers with the natives maybe briefly reviewed. The natives first encoun- ^f/y Rtia. tered at the Cape were the Hottentots (q.v.). They tioaswHh at that time occupied the Cape peninsula and sur- rounding country, and in the early days of the settlement caused the colonists a considerable amount of trouble. An extract from the diary of van Riebeek in 1659 will best illustrate the nature of the relations existing between colonists and natives at that time: — yd June. — Wet weather as before, to the prevention of our operations. Our people who are out against the plundering Hotten- tots, can effect nothing, neither can they effect anything against us; thus during the whole week they have been vainly trying to get at our cattle, and we have been trying vainly to get at their persons; but we will hope that we may once fall in with them in fine weather, and that the Lord God will be with us. HISTORY] SOUTH AFRICA 47 Next to the Hottentots the white settlers encountered the Bushmen (q.v.). When first known to the early colonists they were inveterate stock thieves, and were treated as wild animals, to be shot whenever an opportunity occurred.1 Such opposition as Hottentots and Bushmen were able to offer to European colonization was not difficult to overcome (see CAPE COLONY: History). The expansion of the colony was little retarded by native opposition until the Dutch encountered the Bantu negro tribes. As already stated, the Bantus, like the Europeans, were invaders of South Africa, and the meeting of these rival invaders was the cause of many bloody conflicts. At first the Cape government endeavoured to come to an amicable arrangement with the new power threatening its eastern border, and in 1780 it was agreed that the Great Fish River should be the permanent boundary between the colonial and Bantu territories. The Bantus or Kaffirs (t>°**l. have been effected. But the golden opportunity was lost. When Grey attempted to persevere with his scheme he was recalled. He left Cape Town in August 1859, but on his arrival in England he found that there had been a change of ministry. The new colonial secretary, the duke of Newcastle, reinstated liim, but with instructions not again to raise the federation issue. The first project for reunion thus came to naught, but from that time forward it was recognized in South Africa that federation would afford the best solution of most of the difficulties that beset the country. The Transvaal was perhaps the greatest sufferer through Grey's failure, that country continuing for years in a distracted condition. The Free State, under the guidance of Sir John Brand, who became president in 1864, attained a considerable measure of prosperity. Its difficulties with the Basutos were at last composed, and Moshesh and his people were in 1868 definitely taken under British protection. The policy of non-interference proclaimed in 1854 had proved impracticable, and the annexation of Basutoland was an open confession of the fact. In 1871 thecountry was annexed to Cape Colony, but its pacification proved a task of great difficulty. Up to the year 1870 the Dutch considerably outnumbered the British inhabitants; indeed, save in Natal, in the eastern province and in Cape Town, the British inhabitants were com- Economic paratively few. The industries were almost entirely Develop- pastoral, and remained chiefly in the hands of the weat' Dutch. The continual feuds with the Kaffirs, and also the con- tinual desire to trek into new countries, all tended to keep back farming, and the country in the years 1867 to 1870 was in a gener- ally very depressed condition. But in 1870 the era of commer- cial expansion began. In that year, following smaller finds of diamonds on the banks of the Vaal and Orange rivers, the diamond mines of Du Toils Pan and Bultfontein were opened up. In 1869 gold had been found in the Lydenburg and Zoutpansberg districts in the Transvaal, and diggers had resorted there from different parts of the world; moreover, in the far interior, in the territories of Mashonaland, Thomas Baines had reported dis- coveries of gold. Among the purely pastoral population ostrich- farming became a new industry and added a considerable asset to the wealth of Cape Colony. The revenue derived from the export of ostrich feathers in 1899 was recorded at half a million. It was, however, the discoveries of diamonds and gold that chiefly determined the development of the country. A large population grew up, first at Kimberley, afterwards at Barberton, and finally at Johannesburg — a population modern in its ideas, energetic, educated, cosmopolitan, appreciating all the resources that modern civilization had to offer them, and with a strong partiality for the life of the town or the camp rather than that of the farm and the veld. The majority of the Boers remained very much what they had been in the I7th century. Their life of continual strife with natives, continual trekking to fresh pastures, had not been conducive to education or the enlarge- ment of intellectual outlook. In religion they were Calvinistic, fanatic, and their old traditions of Dutch East India government, together with their relation to the natives, developed a spirit of caste and even tyranny. It was at this stage of affairs that responsible government was granted to Cape Colony (1872). From that time down to the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, to quote neCarnar- once more the homely phrase of Paul Botha, Great von Con- Britain "blew hot " in South Africa. A great change federation in public sentiment towards the colonies generally Scbeme' began to make itself felt in Great Britain in the late sixties and early seventies of the igth century. The constitution of the Dominion of Canada (1867-1873) was an evidence of that feeling. »Sir E. Bulwer Lytton wrote (Feb. n, 1859): " H.M. Govern- ment are not prepared to depart from the settled policy of their predecessors by advising the resumption of British sovereignty in any shape over the Orange Free State." HISTORY] SOUTH AFRICA 475 With the advent to power of the Disraeli ministry in 1874 the nascent Imperial spirit grew in strength. Lord Carnarvon (the 4th earl), when under-secretary for the colonies in 1858-1859, had regarded Grey's federation proposal with disfavour, but later, as secretary of state, he had introduced the bill for the federation of the Canadian provinces. He now returned to the Colonial Office filled with the idea of doing for South Africa what had been done in British North America.1 Recent events in South Africa had appeared for a brief period to favour a union of its various colonies and states. The intimation of the impending grant of self-government to Cape Colony was regarded by both Boer republics as bringing nearer the prospect of their union with the British colonies. But just at that time differences arose between Great Britain and the republics as to the ownership of the Kimberley diamond fields which estranged the Boers (see GRIQUALAND and TRANSVAAL). In the Transvaal Pretorius was succeeded by T. F. Burgers, a man totally unfitted to govern a country distracted by factions, harassed by wars with natives, and with an almost depleted exchequer. Yet in the condition of the Transvaal Lord Carnarvon found another argument in favour of federation. Union with the neighbouring states would, he thought, cure its ills and promote the general welfare of South Africa. As a preliminary step he accepted an offer from J. A. Froude to visit South Africa unofficially, and by travelling through its different states find out what were the obstacles to confederation and the means by which such obstacles could be removed. Froude landed at Cape Town on the 2ist of September 1874, and having visited Natal, the Free State and Pretoria as well as Cape Colony, sailed for England on the icth of January 1875. In the three and a half months he had spent in the country he had reached the conclusion expressed by the duke of Newcastle nearly twenty years previously, namely, that all England needed there was Table Bay — or the Cape peninsula — as a naval and military station. The South African states, he believed, might be left in internal affairs to work out their own future. These views coincided with those of Lord Carnarvon, who looked to federation as a means of relieving the Imperial government of some of the heavy responsibilities pressing upon it in South Africa, and he asked Froude to return to the Cape to take part in a conference in South Africa on the federation scheme. The offer was accepted, and Froude reached Cape Town again in June 1875. Lord Carnarvon's despatch (May 4, 1875), indicating his views, had preceded the arrival of Froude, and had incensed J. C. Molteno, the Cape premier, by its disregard of the colony's self-governing powers. A motion was carried in the Cape parliament affirming that any movement for federation should originate in South Africa and not in England. Froude on his arrival was much chagrined at the attitude taken by the Cape parliament, and conducted an oratorical campaign throughout the country in favour of federation. His speeches were lacking in judgment and tact, and created an unfavourable impression, The conference was not held, and Froude returned to England in the autumn.2 Lord Carnarvon was far from abandoning his plan. The Transvaal was now in a condition bordering on anarchy, and numbers of its inhabitants were supposed to be looking to Great Britain for help. Another party in the Transvaal was seeking alliances with Germany and Portugal, and this danger of foreign interference was a further cause for action. In August 1876 the colonial secretary assembled a conference on South African affairs in London, nominating Froude as representative of Griqualand West. President Brand represented the Free State. Another member of the conference was Sir Theophilus Shepstone, (q.v.) Neither Cape Colony nor the Transvaal was represented, 1 At Sir Henry Barkly's request Lord Carnarvon's predecessor, Lord Kimberley, had in November 1871 given him (Sir Henry) authority to summon a meeting of representatives of the states and colonies to consider the " conditions of union," but the annexation of the diamond fields had occurred meantime and Sir Henry thought the occasion inopportune for such a conference. 2 For Froude's views and actions, see especially the blue book C- 1399 (I876), containing his report to Lord Carnarvon. and the conference was abortive, President Brand having no permission from his state to consider federation. That subject was, in fact, not discussed by the delegates. In view of the troubles in the Transvaal, and in furtherance of Carnarvon's federation scheme, Shepstone was, on the sth of October fol- lowing, given a dormant commission to annex the republic " if it was desired by the inhabitants and in his judgment necessary." The secretary of state sought the aid of Sir Bartle Frere as his chief agent in carrying through confederation, the then governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner for South Africa, Sir Henry Barkly, sharing the views of the Cape ministry that the time was inopportune to force such a step upon South Africa. In a letter dated the i3th of October, offering Frere the post Barkly was about to vacate, Lord Carnarvon wrote: — . . . The war between the Transvaal republic and the natives has had this further effect, it rapidly ripened all South African policy. ... It brings us near to the object and end for which I have now for two years been steadily labouring— the union of the South African colonies and states. I am indeed now considering the details of a bill for their confederation, which I desire to introduce next session, and I propose to press, by all means in my power, my confederation policy in South Africa. The time required for the work of confederating and of con- solidating the confederated states Lord Carnarvon estimated at not more than two years, and he was sanguine enough /:/„< to hope that Frere would stay on at the Cape tot Annexation two or three years "as the first governor-general0"*6 of the South African dominion. " Frere accepted Tr'"sraal- the offer, but did not leave England until March 1877. Shep- stone preceded him, and in January 1877 had gone to Pretoria. His conferences with the leading men in the Transvaal and a consideration of the dangers which threatened it and the grave disorders within its borders satisfied Shepstone that he had no choice except to act upon his commission, and on the izth of April he issued a proclamation annexing the country to the British Crown. During the interval between Shepstone's arrival in the country and the annexation the Volksraad had rejected the proposals for confederation laid before them in accordance with Lord Carnarvon's permissive bill, and had made no real attempt at reform. The annexation was acquiesced in by a considerable number of the white inhabitants. Shep- stone was convinced that it was the only step which could save the country from ruin. The subject is discussed at greater length under TRANSVAAL. Frere, who had reached Cape Town on the 3ist of March, learnt on the i6th of April that the annexation had taken place. He was inclined to regard Shepstone's act as premature, and he realized that it stirred very deeply Dutch national feeling throughout South Africa. Though anxious to promote Carnarvon's policy, Frere found that native affairs called for immediate attention. The Basuto and Kaffir tribes were giving trouble, and the 40,000 trained Zulu warriors under Cetywayo threatened the peace both of Natal and the Trans- vaal. In the same month (Aug. 1877) in which the British parliament passed the act, foreshadowed by the secretary of state, " for the union under one government of such of the South African colonies and states as may agree thereto, " another war with the Kaffirs broke out. This conflict lasted until May 1878, and largely absorbed the energies of Sir Bartle Frere.3 In the meantime a scheme of unification, as opposed to federation, put forward by the Molteno ministry — a scheme which in its essence anticipated the form of government established in 1910 — had met with no support from Frere or the home ministry. In January 1878 Lord Carnarvon resigned, and the driving force of the federation scheme thus disappeared. It was not, however, finally dropped until 1880. In July of that year proposals for a confederation conference were submitted to the Cape parliament. At that time Paul Kruger and Piet Joubert, delegates from the Transvaal Boers, were in Cape Town, and they used their influence to prevent the acceptance of the proposals, which were shelved by the ministry accepting " the 3 Serious troubles with the Basutos which began in 1879 reacted on the situation in the Transvaal and Natal. These troubles were finally ended in 1884, when the country was given up by the Cape and became a crown colony (see BASUTOLAND). 476 SOUTH AFRICA [HISTORY previous question " (June 29). Thus ended an attempt which lacked the element essential to success — spontaneity. Confederation had, for the time being, ceased to be a living issue some time before its formal shelving by the Cape par- liament. The Kaffir War of 1878 was followed by war with the Zulus. Frere, believing that the Zulu power was a standing menace to the peace of South Africa, and that delay in dealing with Cetywayo would only increase the danger, sent an ulti- matum to the chief in November 1878. The invasion of Zulu- land began in January 1879, and was speedily followed by the disaster at Isandhlwana and by the defence of Rorke's Drift and of Eshowe. But at the battle of Ulundi in July the Zulu power was crushed, and a little later Cetywayo was taken prisoner (see ZULULAND: History). The removal of the Zulu danger did not, however, restore harmony between the British and the Boers in the Transvaal. The mal- content Boers became a powerful element in the country. They were largely influenced by an important section of the Dutch community in western Cape Colony, which carried on a campaign against annexation, seeing in it a blow to the ideal they had begun to entertain of a united South Africa of a Dutch republican type. Sir Garnet Wolseley, at this period (June i87o-May 1880) high commissioner of South- East Africa, gave the Transvaal a legislative council, but the members were all nominated. This could not be regarded as a redemption of the promise of a liberal constitution, and it had an injurious, though limited, effect on the Boer community.1 After the receipt in December 1879 of the reports of Mr Gladstone's speeches during his Midlothian campaign — in which he denounced annexation as obtained by means dishonourable to Great Britain — the Boers expected nothing less than the retrocession of the country. There was one strong reason against retrocession, concerning which the Boers — if they gave it thought — would naturally be silent. To the British mind in general it was apparently non-existent. It had, however, been seen and its strength recognized by Sir Garnet Wolseley during his brief governor- ship of the Transvaal. Wolseley, in a despatch dated the I3th of November 1879 said: — The Transvaal is rich in minerals; gold has already been found in quantities, and there can be little doubt that larger and still more valuable goldfields will sooner or later be discovered. Any such discovery would soon bring a large British population here. The time must eventually arrive when the Boers will be in a small minority, as the country is very sparsely peopled ; and would it not therefore be a very near-sighted policy to recede now from the position we have taken up here, simply because for some years to come the retention of 2000 or 3000 troops may be necessary to reconsolidate our power. As Lord Morley in his Life of Gladstone says, " this pregnant and far-sighted warning seems to have been little considered by English statesmen of either party at this critical time or afterwards, though it proved a vital element in any far-sighted decision. " The result of the general election of 1880 was to place Mr Gladstone in power. The new administration, notwithstanding Mr Gladstone's public utterances, declared their intention of retaining British sovereignty in the Transvaal, coupling with that decision a pious hope for the speedy accomplishment of confederation so as to allow of free institutions being given to Natal and the Transvaal.2 The disillusionment occasioned by this decision caused the Boer delegates then at the Cape to help to wreck the federation proposals (see supra). But if unwilling at the time to undo the work of Sir T. Shepstone, the Liberal cabinet were prepared to get rid of the chief British representative in South Africa — partly to please the extreme Radicals among their followers. Accordingly on the 2nd of August 1880 Frere received a telegraphic despatch from Lord 1 Had Shepstone's promise been redeemed at an early date, it might well have extinguished the agitation for independence. 2 It is remarkable that the Liberal government, despite this aspiration, and despite stronger language used by Mr Gladstone, did nothing to give the Boers any real self-government. Sir Bartle Frere pressed the new administration, as he had the Conservative government, on this point without effect. Majuba. Kimberley (the new secretary of state for the colonies) announcing his recall.3 Frere's task was one of extreme delicacy; he chose to face difficulties rather than Recall of evade them, and had he been unfettered in his sir Bartle action might have accomplished much more than Fren- he was able to do; in its main lines his policy was sound. (See FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE.) Finding that the Gladstone administration would not give up the Transvaal voluntarily, the Boers now determined on rebellion. Hostilities began in December 1880, and eventually a series of engagements ended in the rout (Feb. 27, 1881) of a small British force which had occupied Majuba Hill the previous evening. The killed included the general in command, Sir George Colley. Meanwhile the resolution of Mr Gladstone and his colleagues to keep the Transvaal had been shaken by the Boer declaration of independence. After the first engage- ments this resolution was further weakened; and when, after a British reverse at Ingogo (Feb. 8), overtures were made by Mr Kruger on behalf of the Boers, the cabinet was strongly inclined to come to terms. The news of Majuba did not turn it from its purpose. Opinions will always differ as to the course adopted by the Liberal government. " We could not, " wrote Mr Gladstone, " because we had failed on Sunday last, insist on shedding more blood." It is at all events abundantly clear that had the Boers not resorted to arms they would not have gained the support of the cabinet.4 Sir Evelyn Wood, who had succeeded Colley as general in command and governor of Natal, under instructions from home, concluded a treaty of peace on the 22nd of March. The terms agreed upon were elaborated in a convention signed at Pretoria in August following. By this instrument the Transvaal was granted self-government subject to British suzerainty and the control of the foreign relations of the state. In 1884 the Glad- stone administration made further concessions by the London convention of that year. This last document still, however, reserved for Great Britain certain rights, including the power of veto over treaties concluded by the Transvaal with any power other than the Orange Free State. But the success of the Transvaal Boers both in war and diplomacy had quickened the sense of racial unity among the Dutch throughout the country, and there arose a spirit of antagonism between the Dutch and the British which affected the whole future of South Africa. Before, however, dealing with the relations between the British and the Boers subsequent to 1881 brief reference may be made to affairs in which other powers were concerned ; affairs which were the prelude to the era of expansion associated with the career of Cecil Rhodes. In 1868 the Europeans in Great Namaqualand and Damaraland petitioned for annexation to Great Britain. Eventually (1878) only Walfish Bay Oermany and a small strip of adjacent territory were annexed. I" South In 1883 Germany entered the field and during Atrka* 1884-1885, owing to the procrastinating policy of the Cape and British governments, all the coast between Jhe Orange and the Portuguese frontier, save Walfish Bay, was placed under German protection (see AFRICA, §5). The eastern boundary of German South- West Africa was fixed in 1890, the frontier run- ning through the Kalahari Desert. Bechuanaland, the region between the German colony and the Transvaal, was secured for Great Britain. It was not on the west coast only that Germany made efforts to secure a footing in South Africa. In September 1884 an attempt was made to secure St Lucia Bay, on the coast of Zululand. Here, however, Great Britain stood firm. St Lucia Bay had been ceded to the British by the Zulu king Panda in 1843, and this cession has always been regarded as valid. Eventually Germany agreed to make no annexation on the east coast of Africa south of Delagoa Bay. With the proclamation of a British protectorate over the coast of Pondoland in January 1885 the coast-line from the 3 Frere sailed for England on the isth of September. His successor, Sir Hercules Robinson, reached the Cape at the end of January 1 88 1. 4 Morley's Life of Gladstone, bk. viii. ch. 3, " Majuba." HISTORY] SOUTH AFRICA 477 mouth of the Orange to Delagoa Bay (save for the small stretch of Amatonga shore-line) became definitely British. To Delagoa Bay, or rather to the southern part of the bay, Great Britain had laid unsuccessful claim. On the northern bank of the chief estuary of the bay the Portuguese na<^ from the i6th century onward maintained a precarious foothold; it was their most southerly station on the east coast of Africa. In 1823 treaties had been concluded by the British with tribes inhabiting the southern shores of the bay. Neither the Portuguese nor the British claims seemed of much importance until the rise of the South African republic. Anxious for a seaport, the Transvaal Boers in turn laid claim to Delagoa Bay. This brought the dispute between Great Britain and Portugal to a head, the matter being referred in 1872 to the president of the French republic for arbitration. In 1875 an award was given by Marshal MacMahon entirely in favour of the Portuguese (see DELAGOA BAY). As a port outside British control Delagoa Bay was a source of strength to the Boers, especially as the railway1 was under their control. In the war which began in 1899 munitions of war and recruits for the Boers were freely passed through Delagoa Bay. C. The Struggle for Supremacy between British and Dutch. — Bechuanaland, through which territory runs the route to the Bechaaaa- far interior — the countries now known as Rhodesia land — was acquired, despite the strong desire of the Annexed. Gladstone administration to avoid further annexa- tions in South Africa. At first the encroachments on Bechuana territory by Boers from the Transvaal were looked upon with comparative indifference. The Boers respected neither tlie frontier laid down by the Pretoria convention nor that (modified in their favour) drawn in the London convention. But missionary influence was strong; it was reinforced by the growing strength of the imperialistic spirit and by the fears excited by Germany's intrusion on the south-west coast. An expedition was sent out in October 1884 under Sir Charles Warren; the Boers, who had set up the " republics " of Goshen and Stellaland, were obliged to give way, and the country was annexed (see BECHUANALAND). It was in connexion with this affair that Cecil Rhodes first came into prominence as a poli- tician. As a member of the Cape parliament he undertook a mission, before the arrival of Warren, to the Goshen and Stellaland Boers, endeavouring, unsuccessfully, to obtain from them a recognition of British sovereignty. The acquisition of Bechuanaland by Great Britain was the essential preliminary to the development of the schemes which Rhodes entertained for the extension of British rule into Central Africa. In his endeavours to realize this aim he had to contend with the new spirit of national consciousness animating the Boers, which found expression in the formation of the Afrikander Bond. In its external, as in most of its internal policy, the Trans- vaal was controlled from 1881 onward by Paul Kruger, who The AM- was elected president of the state in 1883. Yet kander Kruger was scarcely the real leader in the nationalist Bond. movement to which the successful revolt of 1 880-8 1 gave strength. The support given by the Cape Colony Dutch to the malcontent Transvaal Boers has already been mentioned. During the 1880-81 revolt many Free State burghers, despite the moderating influence of President Brand, joined the Transvaal commandoes. Now a definite effort was made to build up a united South Africa on anti- British lines. In the latter part of 1881 a Dutch pastor at the Paarl, a town in western Cape Colony named Du Toit, in a paper called De Patriot, suggested the organization of an Afri- kander Bond; in the same year Carl Borckenhagen, a German resident in the Free State, advocated such a bond in his paper, the Bloemfonlein Express. The Bond was formed, its work being almost confined to Cape Colony. It held its first congress at Graaf Reinet in 1882. In the " programme of principles " upon which its constitution was modelled it was set forth that: 1 For the international difficulties connected with the building of the railway from Delagoa Bay to Pretoria see LouRENjo-M ARQUES. While in itself acknowledging no single form of government as the only suitable form, and whilst acknowledging the form of govern- ment existing at present [the Bond] means that the aim of our national development must be a united South Africa under its own flag. In the following year the Farmers' Protection Association was amalgamated with the Bond, and the joint organization fell under the control of J. H. Hofmeyr, the leader of the Dutch party in Cape Colony. Under Hofmeyr's politic control all declarations inconsistent with allegiance to the British Crown were omitted from the Bond's constitution. It remained, how- ever, a strong nationalist organization, which in practice was inimical not so much to the British connexion as to the British section of the population and to the development of the country on enlightened lines. (For the Afrikander Bond see further CAPE COLONY: History, and HOFMEYR.) Not long after the Warren expedition the valuable gold fields which Sir Garnet Wolseley had foreseen would be discovered in the Transvaal were actually found. By 1886, the year in which Johannesburg was founded, the wealth of the Witwaters- rand fields was demonstrated. The revenue which these dis- coveries brought into the Transvaal treasury increased the im- portance of that state. The new industrial situation created had its effect on all parties in South Africa, and in some measure drew together the British and Dutch sections outside the Transvaal. A customs union between Cape Colony and the Free State was concluded in 1889, to which later on all the other South African states, save the Transvaal, became parties. But Kruger remained implacable, bigoted, avaricious, deter- mined on a policy of isolation. In 1887 he made proposals for an alliance with the Free State. Brand refused to be ensnared in Kruger's policy, and the negotiations led to no agreement. (For details of this episode see ORANGE FREE STATE: History.) Not many months afterwards (July 1888) the Free State lost by death the wise, moderating guidance of Sir John Brand. The new president, F. W. Reitz, one of the founders of the Bond, in 1889 committed the Free State to an offensive and defensive alliance with the Transvaal. Kruger thus achieved one of the objects of his policy. Within the Transvaal a great change was coming over the population. There flocked to the Rand many thousands of British and other Europeans, together with a considerable number of Americans. This influx was looked upon with disfavour by Kruger and his supporters, and, while the new comers were heavily taxed, steps were speedily taken to revise the franchise laws Kruger's so that the immigrants should have little chance of Host/My to becoming burghers of the republic. This exclusion the Ult- policy was even applied to immigrants from the * other South African countries. A system of oppressive trade monopolies was also introduced. The situation with which the Boers were called upon to deal was one of great difficulty. They could not keep back the waves of the new civilization, they feared being swamped, and they sought vainly to maintain intact their old organization while reaping the financial benefit resulting from the working of the gold mines. The wider outlook which would have sought to win the Uitlanders (as they were called) to the side of the republic was entirely lacking. The policy actually followed was not even stationary; it was retrogressive. Meanwhile, and partly through distrust of the Kruger policy, there was growing up in Cape Colony a party of South African Imperialists, or, as they have been called, Afrik- ander Imperialists, who came to a large extent under the influence of Cecil Rhodes. Among these were W. P. Schreiner (afterwards premier of the colony) and J. W. Leonard (sometime attorney-general) and, to some extent, Hofmeyr. From the time of his entrance into politics Rhodes endeavoured 'to induce the leading men in the country to realize • that a development of the whole country could and should be accomplished by South Africans for South Africans. He fully admitted that the cry which had become so popular since 1881 of " Africa for the Afrikanders " expressed a reasonable aspiration, but he constantly pointed out that its fulfilment could most SOUTH AFRICA [HISTORY advantageously be sought, not, as the Kruger party and ex- tremists of the Bond believed, by working for an independent South Africa, but by working for the development of South Africa as a whole on democratic, self-reliant, self-governing lines, under the shelter of the British flag. Hofmeyr was among those whom Kruger's attitude drove into a loose alliance with Rhodes. In 1884, having the power in his hands when the Scanlen ministry fell, Hofmeyr had put into office a ministry dependent upon the Bond, and had talked of a possible Dutch rebellion in Cape Colony if the Boer freebooters in Bechuanaland were ejected; in 1890 Rhodes became premier with Hofmeyr's approval and support. Rhodes remained in office as prime min- ister until January 1896. During these six years the part he played in the development and public life of South Africa was greater than that of any other man. He used his period of power to put into execution his plans for the extension of British dominion over the country up to the Zambezi. In 1888 Rhodes had succeeded in inducing Sir Hercules Robinson, the high commissioner, to allow J. S. Moffat, the British British resident at Bulawayo, to enter into a treaty south Africa with Lobengula, the Matabele chief. Under this Company, treaty Lobengula bound himself not to make a treaty with any other foreign power, nor to sell or in any other way dispose of any portion of his country without the sanction of the high commissioner. This step prevented the country from falling into the hands of Germany, Portugal or the Boers. The treaty was followed by the formation of the British South Africa Company, which obtained a royal charter in 1889, and by the occupation of Mashonaland in 1890. Difficulties with the Portuguese followed, but the Salisbury administration firmly upheld British claims, with the result that the British sphere of influence was extended not only to the Zambezi but beyond to the shores of Lake Tanganyika (see AFRICA: § 5). In 1893 a war was fought with the Matabele by Dr L. S. Jameson, then administrator of Mashonaland, and Bulawayo was occupied. The name Rhodesia was conferred upon the country in 1894 (see RHODESIA). Living in Cape Town and at the head of the government, Rhodes used every effort to demonstrate to the Cape Colonists that the work he was doing in the north must eventually be to the advantage of Cape Colonists and their descendants. On the whole, Hofmeyr and his friends were well pleased at having secured the co-operation of the " big Englander " Rhodes, or, as he was at one time called by Mr J. X. Merriman,1 an old parliamentary hand and treasurer-general during part of Rhodes's premiership, the " young burgher." In 1891 the Bond Congress was held at Kimberley, and harmony appeared to reign supreme. During his term of office Mr Rhodes addressed himself to bringing 1 together all interests, as far as it was practicable to do so. He showed that his views of the situation were broad and statesmanlike. His handling of the native ques- tion in Cape Colony gave general satisfaction. Rhodes was also a firm believer in the federation of the South African states and colonies, and he sought to promote this end by the develop- ment of inter-state and inter-colonial railway systems, and the establishment of common customs, tariffs, and inter-colonial free trade under a customs union.2 The persistent opponent to both these measures was the Transvaal. In matters of domestic legislation, such as taxation and excise, Rhodes fell in to a considerable extent with Dutch prejudices. While in the rest of South Africa there was a growing feeling of trust between the Dutch and British, accompanied by in- Plni creasing trade and the development of agriculture, Transvaal the condition of the Transvaal was becoming serious. Reform At first the new-comers to the Rand had submitted Movement. tQ ^ econom{c an(j political burdens to which they were subjected, but as they grew in numbers and found their 1 Mr Merriman (b. 1841) was ason of N. J. Merriman (1810-1882), bishop of Graham's Town. He was a member of various Cape ministries from 1875 onwards. 2 For Rhodes's scheme of commercial federation see further CAPE COLONY j History. burdens increased they began to agitate for reforms. In 1892 (the year in which the railway from Cape Town reached the Rand) , the National Union was founded at Johannesburg by ex-Cape Colonists of the Imperial progressive party. For three years petitions and deputations, public meetings and news- paper articles, the efforts of the enlightened South African party at Johannesburg and Pretoria, were all addressed to the endeavour to induce President Kruger and his government to give some measure of recognition to the steadily increasing Uitlander population. Urgent representations were also made by the British government. President Kruger remained as impenetrable as adamant. Nine-tenths of the state revenue was contributed by the Uitlanders, yet they had not even any municipal power. By a law of 1882 aliens could be naturalized and enfranchised after a residence in the country of five years, but between 1890 and 1894 the franchise laws were so altered as to render it practically impossible for any foreigner to become a burgher. By the law of 1894 the immigrant must have been at least 14 years in the country and be 40 years old before in the most favourable circumstances he could be admitted to the franchise. The Uitlanders once more petitioned, over 34,000 persons signing a memorial to the Raad for the extension of the franchise. The appeal was refused (August 1895). Up to this period a section of the Uitlanders had believed that Kruger and his following would listen to reason; now all realized that such an expectation was vain. Rhodes, who had large interests in the Rand mines, had consistently endeavoured to conciliate the extreme Boer section in the Transvaal and win it over (as had happened in the case of the Cape Dutch) to a policy which should benefit the whole of South Africa. He was even willing to see the Transvaal obtain a seaport (at Kosi Bay, in Amatongaland) if in return it would join the customs union. This opportunity Kruger let slip; and in May 1895, on the representation of Sir H. Loch, the Rose- bery administration annexed Amatongaland, thus making the British and Portuguese frontier conterminous. This action, finally blocking the Boer road to the sea, taken by a Liberal government, was clear indication that Great Britain was de- termined to maintain her supremacy in South Africa. The situation in August 1895 was thus one of extreme tension. There had been a change of ministry in Great Britain and Joseph Chamberlain had become colonial secretary. Sir Hercules Robinson, who was regarded sympathetically by the Dutch population of South Africa, had succeeded Loch as high commissioner. Both high commissioner and the imperial government were hopeful that Kruger might even yet be induced to modify his policy; the Uitlanders now entertained no such hope and they prepared to appeal to arms to obtain redress of their grievances. The first proposals for an armed rising came from Rhodes in June, but it was not until November that the Uitlander leaders came to a definite understanding with the Cape premier as to the course to be pursued. To lay before South Africa the true position of affairs in the Transvaal Charles Leonard issued a manifesto as chairman of the National Union. It concluded with a list of demands (see TRANSVAAL), their gist being " the establishment of this republic as a true republic " with equitable franchise laws, an independent judi- cature and free trade in South African products. This manifesto, issued on the 26th of December, called a public meeting for the night of Monday the 6th of January 1896, " not with the intention of holding the meeting, but as a blind to cover the simultaneous rising in Johannesburg and seizing of the arsenal in Pretoria on the night of Saturday the 4th of January " (Fitzpatrick, The Transvaal from Within, ch. iii.). Had the Transvaal government given way, even at the last hour, the reformers would have been satisfied. Of this, however, there was no expectation. The arrangement with Rhodes included the use of an armed force belonging to the Chartered Company, and led by Dr Jameson. soa Accordingly some troops were brought from Rhodesia and stationed near Mafeking, a few miles from the Transvaal frontier. For some weeks the plot appeared to progress HISTORY] SOUTH AFRICA 479 favourably. It might have succeeded but for a vital difference which arose between the Uitlanders in Johannesburg and Rhodes. As Charles Leonard's manifesto stated, the reformers as a body, desired to maintain the autonomy of the Transvaal and the republican form of government; Rhodes wished the revolution to be accomplished under the British flag.1 " I was not going to risk my position," he stated subsequently, " to change President Kruger for President J. B. Robinson " (the only prominent Uitlander who stood aloof from the reform movement). This divergence of views manifested itself on Christmas Day 1895, and although, under pressure, Rhodes did not insist on the British flag, it was determined to postpone the rising. Jameson was so informed, nevertheless he precipitated the crisis by invading the Transvaal on the evening of December the 29th. The Transvaal government, meantime, had obtained some knowledge of what was being projected, and the Raid ended in a forced surrender (January 2, 1896) to a superior force of Boers. The Reform Committee, i.e. the Uitlander leaders, after holding Johannesburg for over a week, also sur- rendered, and by the gth of January the plot had ended in complete failure. Mr Chamberlain still desired Kruger to grant immediate reforms and propounded a scheme of " Home Rule " for the Rand. The time was inopportune, however, for press- ing the Transvaal on the subject, and nothing was done.2 The Jameson raid had a profound effect on the history of South Africa. It greatly embittered racial feeling throughout the country; it threw the Free State Boers completely on to the side of the Transvaal; it destroyed the alliance between the Dutch in Cape Colony and the Imperialists led by Rhodes. It did more, it divided British opinion, sympathy for the Boer republics leading in some cases to a disregard for the real griev- ances of the Uitlanders. It also gave a much desired oppor- tunity for the intrusion of other powers in the affairs of the Transvaal;3 and it led Kruger to revive the scheme for a united South Africa under a Dutch republican flag. This scheme found many supporters in Cape Colony. A suspicion that the Colonial Office in London was cognizant of Rhodes's plans further excited Dutch national feeling, and the Bond once more became actively anti-British. Rhodes had resigned the premiership of the Cape a few days after the Raid, and during the greater part of 1896 was in Rhodesia, where he was able to bring to an end, in Sep- tember, a formidable rebellion of the Matabele which had broken out six months previously. A section of the Dutch population was not however disposed to sacrifice the development of industries and commerce for racial considerations; while sharing the political aspirations of Kruger and Steyn the wiser among them wished for such a measure of reform in the Transvaal as would remove all justification for outside interference. Nevertheless the cleavage at the Cape between the Dutch and British grew. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who had become Premier of Cape Colony in succession to Rhodes, found his position untenable, and in October 1898 he was suc- ceeded by a Bond ministry under Mr W. P. Schreiner. The term " Progressive " was now formally adopted by the British mercantile communities in the large towns and among the sturdy farmers of British descent in the eastern province. On returning to South Africa after the Raid inquiry at Westminster in 1897, 1 In his evidence before the House of Commons Select Committee which inquired into the Raid, Rhodes did not object to the continued existence of the republic " for local matters," but desired a federal South Africa under the British flag; see Blue Book (165) 1897 p. 21; also Sir Lewis Michell's Life of Rhodes, vol. ii. ch. xxx. 2 Jameson and the other raiders were handed over to the British government for punishment. Four of the Reform leaders were condemned to death on the 27th of April, but the sentence was commuted to a fine of £25,000 each. For details of the Reform movement and Jameson Raid see TRANSVAAL: History. 3 Rhodes informed the House of Commons Select Committee that the belief that the Boers intended to introduce the influence of another foreign power in the already complicated system of South Africa " greatly influenced " him in promoting the revolt. Germany at the time of the Raid was prepared to intervene, and on the 3rd of January 1896 the German Emperor, by telegram, congratulated Kruger that " without appealing to the help of friendly powers " the Boers had overcome Jameson. Rhodes had intended to withdraw from Cape politics and devote his energies for a time entirely to Rhodesia, but the pressure put upon him by a section of the British colonists was so strong that he determined to throw in his lot with them. In the Transvaal, meantime, the situation of the Uitlanders grew worse. The monopoly and concessions regime continued unchecked, the naturalization laws were not amended, while the judicature was rendered subservient to the executive (see TRANSVAAL: History). The gold mining industry was fostered only so far as it served to provide revenue for the state, and large sums from that revenue were used in fortifying Pretoria and in the purchase of arms and ammunition. This process of arming the republic had begun before the Raid; after that event it was carried on with great energy and was directed against Great Britain. Kruger also sought (unsuccessfully) to have the London Convention of 1884 annulled, and he entered into a closer union with the Free State. Great Britain watched the development of Kruger's plans with misgiving, but except on points of detail it was felt for some time to be impossible to bring pressure upon the Transvaal. The retirement of Lord Rosemead (Sir Hercules Robinson) from the post of high commissioner was, however, taken advantage of by the British government to appoint an administrator who should at the fitting opportunity insist on the redress of the Uitlanders' grievances. Sir Alfred Milner (see MILNER, VISCOUNT), the new high commissioner, took up his duties at the Cape in May 1897. He realized that one of the most potent factors in the Miiaer situation was the attitude of the Cape Dutch, and appointed in March 1898 at Graaff Reinet Milner called upon HighCom- the Dutch citizens of the Cape, " especially those m'ssloaer- who had gone so far in the expression of their sympathy for the Transvaal as to expose themselves to charges of dis- loyalty to their own flag " to use all their influence, not in confirming the Transvaal in unjustified suspicions, not in en- couraging its government in obstinate resistance to all reform, but in inducing it gradually to assimilate its institutions, and the temper and spirit of its administration, to those of the free communities of South Africa, such as Cape Colony or the Orange Free State. Moreover the Graaff Reinet speech showed that Milner was aware of the dangerous policy being followed by the Bond. The Dutch party at the Cape was shown to be incurring a heavy responsibility, especially as its leaders were aware, in the words of Mr J. X. Merriman, of " the inherent rottenness " of the Kruger regime. That party soon afterwards had it in its power to bring pressure officially upon President Kruger, for it was a few months after the delivery of the speech that Mr Schreiner became premier. To some extent this was done — but in a manner which led the Transvaal Boers to count in any event on the support of the Cape Dutchmen. In the Transvaal, as has been said, affairs were steadily going from bad to worse. An Industrial Commission, appointed (under pressure) by Pre- sident Kruger in 1897 to inquire into a number of grievances affecting the gold industry, had reported in favour of reforms. The recommendations of the commission, if adopted, would have done something towards relieving the tension, but Presi- dent Kruger and his executive refused to be guided seconrf by them. Once more the Uitlanders determined Transvaal to make a further attempt to obtain redress by constitutional means, and the second organized movement for reform began by the formation in 1897 of a branch of the South African League. At the end of 1898 the feelings of the Uitlanders were wrought up to fever pitch. The police service, which was violent where it should have been reasonable, and blind where it should have been vigilant, had long been a source of great irritation. On the i8th of December a Boer policeman, in pursuit of an Eng- lishman named Edgar, whom he wished to arrest for an alleged assault on another man, entered his house and shot him dead. The deepest indignation was aroused by this incident, and was still further increased by the trivial way in which the case was dealt with by the court. The killing of Edgar was followed by Movemeni- 480 SOUTH AFRICA [HISTORY the breaking up of a public meeting at Johannesburg, and in March the Uitlanders handed to the high commissioner a petition for intervention with 21,684 signatures attached to it (see TRANSVAAL: History). On the 4th of May 1899 Sir Alfred Milner felt it his duty to The Case rePort at some length by cable to Mr Chamberlain. lor British The concluding passages of this message, which lotervea- summed up the whole South African situation in a tioa' masterly manner, were as follows: — The case for intervention is overwhelming. The only attempted answer is that things will right themselves if left alone. But, in fact, the policy of leaving things alone has been tried for years, and it has led to their going from bad to worse. It is not true that this is owing to the Raid. They were going from bad to worse before the Raid. We were on the verge of war before the Raid, and the Transvaal was on the verge of revolution. The effect of the Raid has been to give the policy of leaving things alone a new lease of life, and with the old consequences. The spectacle of thousands of British subjects kept permanently in the position of helots, constantly chafing under undoubted griev- ances, and calling vainly to Her Majesty's government for redress, does steadily undermine the influence and reputation of Great Britain, and the respect for British government within the queen's dominions. A certain section of the press, not in the Transvaal only, preaches openly and constantly the doctrine of a republic embracing all South Africa, and supports it by menacing references to the armaments of the Transvaal, its alliance with the Orange Free State, and the active sympathy which, in case of war, it would receive from a section of Her Majesty's subjects. I regret to say that this doctrine, supported as it is by a ceaseless stream of malig- nant lies about the intentions of the British government, is produc- ing a great effect upon a large number of our Dutch fellow-colonists. Language is frequently used which seems to imply that the Dutch have some superior right even in this colony to their fellow-citizens of British birth. Thousands of men peaceably disposed and, if left alone, perfectly satisfied with their position as British subjects, are being drawn into disaffection, and there is a corresponding exasperation on the side of the British. I can see nothing which will put a stop to this mischievous propaganda but some striking proof of the intention of Her Majesty's government not to be ousted from its position in South Africa. And the best proofs alike of its power and its justice would be to obtain for the Uitlanders in the Transvaal a fair share in the govern- ment of the country which owes everything to their exertions. It could be made perfectly clear that our action was not directed against the existence of the republic. We should only be demand- ing the re-establishment of rights which now exist in the Orange Free State, and which existed in the Transvaal itself at the time of, and long after, the withdrawal of British sovereignty. It would be no selfish demand, as other Uitlanders besides those of British birth would benefit by it. It is asking for nothing from others which we do not give ourselves. And it would certainly go to the root of the political unrest in South Africa; and though temporarily it might aggravate, it would ultimately extinguish the race feud, which is the great bane of the country. In view of the critical situation Milner and Kruger met in conference at Bloemfontein on the 3ist of May. Milner practically confined his demands to a five years' franchise, which he hoped would enable the Uitlanders to work out their own salvation. On his side Kruger put forward inadmissible demands (see TRANSVAAL), and the conference broke up on the 5th of June without any result. A new franchise law, on a seven years' naturalization basis, was passed in July by the Transvaal volksraad, but the law was hedged about with many restrictions. Messrs Hofmeyr and Herholdt, the one the leader of the Bond and the other the Cape minister of agri- culture, visited Pretoria to reason with Kruger. They found him deaf to all arguments. The fact is that the Boers had made up their minds to a trial of strength with Great Britain for supremacy in South Africa. At the time which from a military standpoint they thought most opportune (October 9) an ultimatum was handed to the British agent at Pretoria, and a war was at once precipitated, which was not to close for over two and a half years. (A.P.H.; F.R.C.) D. From the Annexation of the Dutch Republics to the Union. — An account of the Anglo-Boer War of 1890-1902 will be found under TRANSVAAL. After the surrender of Cronje at Paarde- berg (February 1900) to Lord Roberts, Presidents Kruger and Steyn offered to make peace, but on terms which should include the acknowledgment of " the incontestable independence of both republics as sovereign international states "; the Boers also sought, unavailingly, the intervention of foreign powers. The British government had decided that the con- Last EHorta tinued existence of either republic was inadmissible; to Preserve on the 28th of May 1900 the annexation of the**eBoer Free State was formally proclaimed, and on the RepuWfcs< ist of September the Transvaal was also annexed to the British Empire. A few days later ex-President Kruger sailed from Lourenco Marques for Europe. The refusal of the German Emperor to receive him extinguished alike his political influence and all hopes that the Boers might still have entertained of help from foreign governments. At that time all the chief towns in both of the late republics were held by the British, and the Boers still in the field were reduced to guerilla warfare. Most of the men on their side who had come to the front in the war, such as General Louis Botha in the Transvaal, had been opponents of the Kruger regime; they now decided to continue the struggle, largely because they trusted that the Cape Dutch, and their sympathizers in Great Britain, would be able to obtain for them a re-grant of inde- pendence. The Cape Dutch all through 1901 and the first part of 1902 conducted a strong agitation in favour of the former republics, the border line between constitutional action and treason being in many cases scarcely distinguishable. The Cape Afrikanders also formed what was styled a " conciliation com- mittee " to help the party in Great Britain which still supported the Boer side. Messrs Merriman and Sauer went to England as delegates to plead the cause, but it was noted that Hofmeyr refused to join, and the appeal to the British public was a com- plete failure. The war had indeed stirred every part of the empire in support of the policy of the government, and from Australia, Canada, New Zealand and India, contingents were sent to the front. No terms could be granted which did not include the explicit recognition of British sovereignty. At last the Boer commandos gave up the struggle and on the 3ist of May 1902 their leaders signed articles of peace at Pretoria. Henceforth, save for the German and Portuguese possessions, on the west and east coasts respectively, there was but one flag and one allegiance throughout South Africa. With the elimination of the republics one great obstacle to federation was removed; while the establishment of self-government in the new colonies, promised (after a probationary period of " representa- tive institutions") in No. VII. of the peace articles, would give them an opportunity to enter into federal union on equal terms. The task of founding new and better administrative machinery in the new colonies was left to Lord Milner, and was begun even before the war had ended. The two new colonies The Work of were for the time governed on crown colony lines. Recoastruc- But the co-operation of the people was at once sought tjon- by nominating non-official members to the leglislative councils, and seats on the Transvaal council were offered to Louis Botha, C. J. Smuts and J. H. Delarey. The Boer leaders declined the offer — they preferred the position of untrammelled critics, and the opportunity to work to regain power on constitutional lines when the grant of self-government should be made. Milner had thus an additional difficulty in his reconstruction work. The first necessity was to restart the gold mining industry on the Rand. The Uitlanders, who had fled from Johannesburg just before the war opened, began to return in May 1901, and by the time the war ended most of the refugees were back on the Rand and mining was resumed. A tax of 10% on their annual net produce, imposed in 1902, was the main available source of revenue. The repatriation of some 200,000 Boers followed, and the departments of justice, education and agriculture were remodelled.1 In all that he did Milner had endeavoured to promote closer union. Thus the railway and constabulary of both the ex-republics were under a single management. In this 1 To aid him Milner had the services of some of the best men in the British service, e.g. Sir Godfrey Lagden, Sir Arthur Lawley, Sir J. Rose-Innes, Sir Richard Solomon. He also secured the help of a considerable number of young Oxford men who became known as " the Milner Kindergarten." HISTORY] SOUTH AFRICA 481 work the high commissioner had the support of Mr Chamberlain, \vho paid a visit to South Africa which extended from Christmas 1902 to the end of February 1903. He sanctioned the calling of an inter-colonial conference, which led to a customs convention including all the British possessions in South Africa, and to united action regarding railway rates and native questions.1 The great expenditure incurred during the war had led to much deception as to the growth of trade, while the large sums spent on repatriation and other temporary work main-