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HISTORY

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A HISTORY

OF

THE PHILIPPINES

BY

DAVID P. BARROWS

. INDIANAPOLIS

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY PUBLISHERS

COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY DAVID P. BABBOWS

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London

Barrows, Philippines

PREFACE

THIS book has been prepared at the suggestion of the educational authorities for pupils in the public high schools of the Philippines, as an introduction to the history of their country. Its preparation occupied about two years, while the author was busily engaged in other duties, — much of it being written while he was traveling or ex- ploring in different parts of the Archipelago. No pre- tensions are made to an exhaustive character for the book. For the writer, as well as for the pupil for whom it is intended, it is an introduction to the study of the history of Malaysia.

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in securing the necessary historical sources, but it is believed that -the principal ones have been read. The author is greatly indebted to the Honorable Dr. Pardo de Tavera for the use of rare volumes from his library, and he wishes to acknowledge also the kindness of -Mr. Manuel Yriarte, Chief of the Bureau of Archives, for permission to exam- ine public documents. The occasional reprints of the old Philippine histories have, however, been used more fre- quently than the original editions. The splendid series of reprinted works on the Philippines, promised by Miss Blair and Mr. Robertson, was not begun in time to be used in the preparation of this book. The appearance of this series will make easy a path which the present writer

(1)

2 PREFACE

has found comparatively difficult, and will open the way for an incomparably better history of the Philippines than has ever yet been made.

The drawings of ethnographic subjects, which partly illustrate this book, were made from objects in the Philip- pine Museum by Mr. Anselmo Espiritu, a teacher in the public schools of Manila. They are very accurate.

Above every one else, in writing this book, the author is under obligations to his wife, without whose constant help and encouragement it could not have been written.

DAVID P. BARROWS. MANILA, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, MARCH IST, 1903.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

THE first edition of this book, which appeared in the summer of 1905, has been exhausted for some time, and another issue seems called for. The book has received some severe criticism, especially for its treatment of the work of the Roman Catholic Church and the policy pur- sued at times by the Spanish Government. I have care- fully reviewed all of these criticisms that came to my attention and have concluded that, almost without excep- tion, the statements should remain as first presented. The book, therefore, appears again practically without alteration, except for the correction of typographical errors and the occasional modification of a paragraph.

On the other hand, several friends, who have been good enough to read the volume, have urged that it be rewritten on a more extended plan, allowing larger treatment to cer- tain topics. I have not done this, for two reasons : first,

PREFACE 3

because of a lack of requisite leisure ; second, because some further time must yet elapse before certain indispen- sable material is available. This includes the completion of the source publications by Miss Blair and Mr. Robert- son, The Philippine Islands, now issued up to Volume XLIX ; the publication of the Insurgent War Records ; and especially the bringing to light or better ordering of material, both private and official, bearing on the last decades of Spanish rule.

The period of 1860 to 1898 is one of consummate in- terest. It covers the period when the Spanish Govern- ment was trying to reform its administration in keeping with the progress of the islands ; when the forces of reaction were persistently triumphing; and when the rapidly expanding development of the people itself con- stantly resulted in larger aspirations. Some of the most salutary lessons of colonial history are contained in this epoch. What the Spanish Government then faced, other colonial powers will shortly be facing ; and the history of this period of unrest and transition can hardly be written too large. This is the portion of the present volume for which I feel apology is most due. However, I will say again, this book is only an introduction to the history of the Philippines under Spanish and American rule.

It may be added further, that some few -years more must elapse before the work of America in the Philippines can be properly presented. The view given in Chapter XIII is of the American Government at the time of its organiza- tion and first efforts. Five years have since elapsed, and in that brief period remarkable results have been attained, which must, however, be carried still further before their full consequence will be disclosed. There has been estab*

4 PREFACE

lished between the races a new standard of relationship of far more importance than any tangible results. The spirit of the effort has been aptly characterized by a most competent French critic as " the substitution of the prin- ciple of partnership for that of domination." It marks an advance in the intercourse of races for which the world is most in need. The successful establishment of this principle in the government of the Philippines, will be sufficient to set the achievements of the first American civil governor beside the greatest results of adminis- trators of foreign colonies.

By the time these pages appear the Filipino people will have chosen a representative legislative assembly with the legal capacity, for the first time in the history of the islands, to express the general desire and will. It goes without saying that its voice will have great weight with the American nation. What will it demand ? The pro- gram of an independent Philippines under the disin- terested protection of the United States would seem to be an impossibility. No nation, least of all America, with her traditional aversion to foreign complications, would undertake to guarantee the integrity or the internal peace of the Philippines without an adequate control of the administration. As long as America bears any responsi- bility for the Philippines, the ultimate administrative authority must be with those of her own choosing.

Complete independence, freeing America definitely from all burden and further interest, is on the other hand an intelligible program and admissible among practical policies ; but the greatest peril of the Archi- pelago lies in the possibility of the Philippine Assembly seeking this separation and in the disposition of the

PREFACE 5

American people to welcome such a solution. Separation too early realized would lead to disaster.

There is no short cut to Philippine Nationality. Its attainment is a long task, calling for infinite patience and self-control. The population' must greatly increase and must effectively occupy the entire archipelago, satisfac-f tory relations with the Pagan and Mohammedan peoples'^ must be established, education must do its work, and the social order be entirely transformed, before the basis of national life is laid. Yet the aspiration for national exist- ence cannot justly be discouraged. It is the motive power under which the greatest of popular triumphs have been achieved. The situation is one peculiarly deli- cate and yet full of the greatest promise. There is every reason why both Americans and Filipinos should hold to their tasks with constant devotion and watchfulness over self. There could be no better motto for all who are engaged in this undertaking than the words of the present Secretary of War, on whom, more than on any other man, rests the immediate future of the Philippines, "In my view, a duty is an entirety, and it is not fulfilled until it is entirely fulfilled."

DAVID P. BAEROWS. THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, MAY, 1907.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

I. The Philippines as a Subject for Historical Study ... 9

II. The Peoples of the Philippines 25

III. Europe and the Far East about 1400 A.D 42

IV. The Great Geographical Discoveries 61

V. Filipino People Before the Arrival of the Spaniards . . 88

VI. The Spanish Soldier and the Spanish Missionary . . . 108

VII. Period of Conquest and Settlement, 1565-1600 . ... 125

VIII. The Philippines Three Hundred Years Ago 156

IX. The Dutch and Moro Wars, 1600-1663 187

X. A Century of Obscurity and Decline, 1663-1762 ... 212 XI. The Philippines During the Period of European Revolu- tion, 1762-1837 231

XII. Progress and Revolution, 1837-1897 259

XIII. America and the Philippines 287

Appendix 321

Index . 325

LIST OF MAPS.

Philippine Islands .... 6,7 The New World and the Indies

Countries and Peoples of as divided between Spain and

Malaysia 26, 27 Portugal 85

Races and Peoples of the Conquest and Settlement by the

Philippines 30 Spaniards in the Philippines,

The Spread of Mohammedanism 39 1565-1590 124

Europe about 1400 A.D. ... 44 Straits of Manila .... 133

Routes of Trade to the Far East 50 The City of Manila .... 134

The Countries of the Far East Luzon 158, 159

in the 16th Century .... 58 Mindanao, Bisayas, and

Restoration of Toscanelli's Map 69 Palawan (Paragua) . . 288, 289

Early Spanish Discoveries in the American Campaigns in

Philippines . 77 Northern Luzon .... 302

, (8)

HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES.

CHAPTER I.

THE PHILIPPINES AS A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL

STUDY.

Purpose of this Book. — This book has been written for the young men and young women of the Philippines, It is intended to introduce them to the history of their own island country. The subject of Philippine history is much broader and more splendid than the size and char- acter of this little book reveal. Many subjects have only been briefly touched upon, and there are many sources of information, old histories, letters and official documents, which the writer had not time and opportunity to study hi the preparation of this work. It is not too soon, how- ever, to present a history of the Philippines, even though imperfectly written, to the Philippine people themselves; and if this book serves to direct young men and young women to a study of the history of their own island coun- try, it will have fulfilled its purpose.

The Development of the Philippines and of Japan. — In many ways the next decade of the history of the Philip- pine Islands may resemble the splendid development of the neighboring country of Japan. Both countries have in past times been isolated more or less from the life and thought of the modern world. Both are now open to the full current of human affairs. Both countries promise to play an important part hi the politics and commerce of

9

10 THE PHILIPPINES.

the Far East. Geographically, the Philippines occupy the more central and influential position, and the success of the institutions of the Philippines may react upon the countries of southeastern Asia and Malaysia to an extent that we cannot appreciate or foresee. Japan, by reason of her larger population, the greater industry of her people, a more orderly social life, and devoted public spirit, is at the present time far in the lead.

The Philippines. — But the Philippines possess certain advantages which, in the course of some years, may tell strongly in her favor. There are greater natural resources, a richer soil, and more tillable ground. The population, while not large, is increasing rapidly, as rapidly, in fact, as the population of Japan or of Java. And in the char- acter of her institutions the Philippines have certain advantages. The position of woman, while unfortunate in Japan, as in China and nearly all eastern countries, in the Philippines is most fortunate, and is certain to tell effectually upon the advancement of the race in competi- tion with other eastern civilizations. The fact that Chris- tianity is the established religion of the people makes possible a sympathy and understanding between the Phil- ippines and western countries.

Japan. — Yet there are many lessons which Japan can teach the Philippines, and one of these is of the advantages and rewards of fearless and thorough study. Fifty years ago, Japan, which had rigorously excluded all intercourse with foreign nations, was induced to open its doors by an American fleet under Commodore Perry. At that time the Japanese knew little of western history, and had no knowledge of modern science. Their contact with the Americans and other foreigners revealed to them the in- feriority of their knowledge. The leaders of the country

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. H

awoke to the necessity of a study of western countries and their achievements, especially in government and in the sciences.

Japan had at her service a special class of people known as the samurai, who, in the life of Old Japan, were the free soldiers of the feudal nobility, and who were not only the fighters of Japan, but the students and scholars as well. The young men of this samurai class threw them- selves earnestly and devotedly Into the study of the great fields of knowledge, which had previously been unknown to the Japanese. At great sacrifice many of them went abroad to other lands, in order to study hi foreign uni- versities. Numbers of them went to the United States, frequently working as servants in college towns in order to procure the means for the pursuit of their education.

The Japanese Government in every way began to adopt measures for the transformation of the knowledge of the people. Schools were opened, latoratories established, and great numbers of scientific and historical books were trans- lated into Japanese. A public school system was organized, and finally a university was established. The Government sent abroad many young men to study in almost every branch of knowledge and to return to the service of the people. The manufacturers of Japan studied and adopted western machinery and modern methods of production. The government itself underwent revolution and reorgani- zation upon lines more liberal to the people and more favorable to the national spirit of the country. The result has been the transformation, in less than fifty years, of what was formerly an isolated and ignorant country.

The Lesson for the Filipinos. — This is the great lesson which Japan teaches the Philippines. If there is to be transformation here, with a constant growth of

12 THE PHILIPPINES.

knowledge and advancement, and an elevation of the character of the people as a whole, there must be a cour- ageous and unfaltering search for the truth: and the young men and young women of the Philippines must seek the advantages of education, not for themselves, but for the benefit of their people and their land; not to gain for themselves a selfish position of social and economic ad- vantage over the poor and less educated Filipinos, but in order that, having gained these advantages for themselves, they may in turn give them to their less fortunate coun- trymen. The young Filipino, man or woman, must learn the lessons of truthfulness, courage, and unselfishness, and in all of his gaining of knowledge, and in his use of it as well, he must practice these virtues, or his learning will be an evil to his land and not a blessing.

The aim of this book is to help him to understand, first of all, the place that the Philippines occupy in the modern history of nations, so that he may understand how far and from what beginnings the Filipino people have pro- gressed, toward what things the outside world itself has moved during this time, and what place and opportunities the Filipinos, as a people, may seek for in the future.

The Meaning of History. — History, as it is written and understood, comprises many centuries of human life and achievement, and we must begin our study by discussing a little what history means. Men may live for thousands of years without having a life that may be called his- torical; for history is formed only where there are credible written records of events. Until we have these records, we have no ground for historical study, but leave the field to another study, which we call Archeology, or Pre- historic Culture.

Historical Races. — Thus there are great races which

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 13

have no history, for they have left no records. Either the people could not write, or their writings have been de- stroyed, or they told nothing about the life of the people. The history of these races began only with the coming of a historical, or more advanced race among them.

Thus, the history of the black, or negro, race begins only with the exploration of Africa by the white race, and the history of the American Indians, except perhaps of those of Peru and Mexico, begins only with the white man's conquest of America. The white, or European, race is, above all others, the great historical race; but the yel- low race, represented by the Chinese, has also a historical life and development, beginning many centuries before the birth of Christ.

For thousands of years the history of the white race was confined to countries bordering or adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea. There was little contact with other races of men and almost no knowledge of countries beyond the Mediterranean shores. The great continents of Amer- ica and Australia and the beautiful island-world of the Pacific and Indian oceans were scarcely dreamed of. This was the status of the white race in Europe a little more than five hundred years ago. How different is the posi- tion of this race to-day! It has now explored nearly the entire globe. The white people have crossed every con- tinent and every sea. On every continent they, have estab- lished colonies and over many countries their power.

During these last five centuries, besides this spread of geographical discovery, the mingling of all the races, and the founding of great colonies, have come also the develop- ment of scientific knowledge, great discoveries and inven- tions, the utilization of steam and electricity, which give to man such tremendous powor over the material world.

14 THE PHILIPPINES.

Very important changes also have marked the religious and political life of the race. Within these years came the Protestant revolt from the Roman Catholic Church, destroying in some degree the unity of Christendom; and the great revolutions of Europe and America, establish- ing democratic and representative governments.

This expansion and widening of the life of the Euro- pean race, beginning about five hundred years ago, brought it into contact with the Filipino people, and the historical life of the Philippines dates from this meeting of the two races. Thus the history of the Philippines has become a part of the history of nations. During these centuries the people of these islands, subjects of a Euro- pean nation, have progressed in social life and govern- ment, in education and industries, in numbers, and in wealth. They have often been stirred by wars and revo- lutions, by centuries of piratical invasion, and fear of con- quest by foreign nations. But these dangers have now passed away.

There is no longer fear of piratical ravage nor of foreign invasion, nor is there longer great danger of internal re- volt; for the Philippines are at the present time under a government strong enough to defend them against other powers, to put down plunder and ravage, and one anxious and disposed to afford to the people such freedom of op- portunity, such advantages of government and life, that the incentive to internal revolution will no longer exist. Secure.from external attack and rapidly progressing toward internal peace, the Philippines occupy a position most for- tunate among the peoples of the Far East. They have representative government, freedom of religion, and pub- lic education, and, what is more than all else to the aspir- ing or ambitious race or individual, freedom of opportunity.

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 15

How History is Written. — One other thing should be explained here. Every child who reads this book should understand a little how history is written. A most nat- ural inquiry to be made regarding any historical state- ment is, "How is this known?" And this is as proper a question for the school boy as for the statesman. The answer is, that history rests for its facts largely upon the written records made by people who either lived at the time these things took place, or so near to them that, by careful inquiry, they could learn accurately of these mat- ters and write them down in some form, so that we to-day can read their accounts, and at least know how these events appeared to men of the time.

But not all that a man writes, or even puts hi a book, of things he has seen and known, is infallibly accurate and free from error, partiality, and untruthfulness. So the task of the historian is not merely to read and accept all the contemporary records, but he must also compare one account with another, weighing all that he can find, making due allowance for prejudice, and on his own part try to reach a conclusion that shall be true. Of course, where records are few the task is difficult indeed, and, on the other hand, material may be so voluminous as to occupy a writer a lifetime, and make it impossible for any one man completely to exhaust a subject.

Historical Accounts of the Philippines. — For the Philip- pines we are so fortunate as to have many adequate sources of a reliable and attractive kind. In a few words some of these will be described. Nearly all exist in at least a few libraries in the Philippines, where they may sometime be consulted by the Filipino student, and many of them, at least in later editions, may be purchased by the student for his own possession and study.

16 , THE PHILIPPINES.

The Voyages of Discovery. — European discovery of the Philippines began with the great voyage of Magellan; and recounting this discovery of the islands, there is the priceless narrative of one of Magellan's company, Antonio Pigafetta. His book was written hi Italian, but was first published hi a French translation. The original copies made by Pigafetta have disappeared, but in 1800 a text was discovered in the Ambrosian Library of Milan, Italy, and published. Translations into English and other languages exist. It may be found in several collections of Voyages, and there is a good Spanish translation and edition of recent date.1 There are several other accounts of Magellan's voyage; but Pigafetta's was the best one written by an eye-witness, and his descriptions of the Bisaya Islands, Cebu, Borneo, and the Moluccas are won- derfully interesting and accurate.

There were several voyages of discovery between Magellan's time (1521) and Legazpi's time (1565). These include the expeditions of Loaisa, Saavedra, and Villalo- bos. Accounts of them are to be found in volume five of the series of publications made by the Spanish Govern- ment, Colecdon de Documentos Ineditos del Archivo de Indias. In another series, Colecdon de los Viajes y Des- cubrimientos, are the documents of Magellan's voyage.

Spanish Occupation and Conquest. — As we come to the history of Spanish occupation and conquest of the Philippines, we find many interesting letters and reports sent by both soldiers and priests to the king, or to persons in Spain. The first complete book on the Philippines was written by a missionary about 1602, Father Pedro Chiri- no's Relation de las Islas Filipinas, printed in Rome

1 El Primer Viaje alrededor del Mundo, por Antonio Pigafetta, traducido por Dr. Carlos Amoretti y anotado por Manuel Walls y Merino, Madrid, 1899.

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 17

in 1604. This important and curious narrative is exceed- ingly rare, but a reprint, although rude and poor, was made in Manila in 1890, which is readily obtainable. The Relacidn de las Islas Filipinos was followed in 1609 by the work of Judge Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. This very rare work was printed hi Mexico. In 1890 a new edition was brought out by Dr. Jose Rizal, from the copy hi the British Museum. There is also an English translation.

These two works abound hi curious and valuable infor- mation upon the Filipino people as they were at the tune of the arrival of the Spaniards, as does also a later work, the Oonquistas de las Islas Filipinas, by Friar Gaspar de San Augustfn, printed in Madrid in 1698. This latter is perhaps the most interesting and most important early work on the Philippine Islands.

As we shall see, the history of the Philippines is closely connected with that of the East Indian Spice Islands. When the Spanish forces took the rich island of Ternate in 1606, the triumph was commemorated by a volume, finely written, though not free from mistakes, the Con- quista de las Islas Moluccas, by Leonardo de Argensola, Madrid, 1609. There is an old English translation, and also French and Dutch translations.

To no other religious order do we owe so much historical information as to the Jesuits. The scholarship and liter- ary ability of the Company have always been high. Chi- rino was a Jesuit, as was also Father Francisco Colin, who wrote the Labor Evangelica, a narrative of the Jesuit mis- sions hi the Philippines, China, and Japan, which was printed hi Madrid hi 1663. This history was continued years later by Father Murillo Velarde, who wrote what he called the Segunda Parte, the Historia de la Provincia de Filipinas de la Compania de Jesus, Manila, 1749.

18 THE PHILIPPINES.

There is another notable Jesuit work to which we owe much of the early history of the great island of Mindanao : this is the Historia de Mindanao y Jolo, by Father Fran- cisco Combes. The year 1663 marked, as we shall see, an epoch in the relations between the Spaniards and the Mohammedan Malays. In that year the Spaniards aban- doned the fortress of Zamboanga, and retired from south- ern Mindanao. The Jesuits had been the missionaries in those parts of the southern archipelago, and they made vigorous protests against the abandonment of Moro terri- tory. One result of their efforts to secure the reoccupancy of these fortresses was the notable work mentioned above. It is the oldest and most important writing about the island and the inhabitants of Mindanao. It was printed in Madrid in 1667. A beautiful and exact edition was brought out a few years ago, by Retana.

A Dominican missionary, Father Diego Aduarte, wrote a very important work, the Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores en Filipinas, Japdn y China, wThich was printed in Manila at the Col- lege of Santo Tomas in 1640.

We may also mention as containing a most interesting account of the Philippines about the middle of the seven- teenth century, the famous work on China, by the Domini- can, Father Fernandez Navarrete, Tratados historicos, politi- cos, ethnicos, y religiosos de la Monarchia de China, Madrid, 1767. Navarrete arrived in these islands in 1648, and was for a time a cura on the island of Mindoro. Later he was a missionary in China, and then Professor of Divinity in the University of Santo Tomas. His work is translated into English in Churchill's Collection of Voyages and Trav- els, London, 1744, second volume.

The eighteenth century is rather barren of interesting

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 19

historical matter. There was considerable activity in the production of grammars and dictionaries of the native languages, and more histories of the religious orders were also produced. These latter, while frequently filled with sectarian matter, should not be overlooked.

Between the years 1788 and 1792 was published the voluminous Historia General de Filipinas, in fourteen vol- umes, by the Recollect friar, Father Juan de la Concep- cion. The work abounds in superfluous matter and trivial details, yet it is a copious source of information, a veritable mine of historical data, and is perhaps the best known and most frequently used work upon the Philip- pine Islands. There are a number of sets in the Philip- pines which can be consulted by the student.

Some years after, and as a sort of protest against so extensive a treatment of history, the sane and admirable Augustinian, Father Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga, wrote his Historia de las Islas Filipinas, a volume of about seven hundred pages. It was printed in Sampaloc, Manila, in 1803. This writer is exceptional for his fairmindedness and freedom from the narrow prejudices which have char- acterized most of the writers on the Philippines. His language is terse and spirited, and his volume is the most readable and, in many ways, the most valuable attempt at a history of the Philippines. His narrative closes with the English occupation of Manila in 1763.

Recent Histories and Other Historical Materials. - The sources for the conditions and history of the islands during the last century differ somewhat from the preced- ing. The documentary sources in the form of public papers and reports are available, and there is a consider- able mass of pamphlets dealing with special questions in the Philippines. The publication of the official journal of

20 THE PHILIPPINES.

the Government, the Gazeta de Manila, commenced in 1861. It contains all acts of legislation, orders of the Governors, pastoral letters, and other official matters, down to the end of Spanish rule.

A vast amount of material for the recent civil history of the islands exists hi the Archives of the Philippines, at Manila, but these documents have been very little ex- amined. Notable among these original documents is the series of Royal Ce"dulas, each bearing the signature of the King of Spain, " Yo, el Rey." They run back from the last years of sovereignty to the commencement of the seven- teenth century. The early ce"dulas, on the establishment of Spanish rule, are said to have been carried away by the British army in 1763, and to be now in the British Museum.

Of the archives of the Royal Audiencia at Manila, the series of judgments begins with one of 1603, which is signed by Antonio de Morga. From this date they ap- pear to be complete. The earliest records of the cases which came before this court that can be found, date from the beginning of the eighteenth century.

Of modern historical writings mention must be made of the Historia de Filipinas, three volumes, 1887, by Montero y Vidal, and the publications of W. E. Retana. To the scholarship and enthusiasm of this last author much is owed. His work has been the republication of rare and important sources. His edition of Combes has already been mentioned, and there should also be mentioned, and if possible procured, his Archivo del Biblitifilo Filipino, four volumes, a collection of rare papers on the islands, of differ- ent dates; and his edition, the first ever published, of Zuniga's Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas, an incomparable survey of the islands made about 1800, by the priest and historian whose history was mentioned above.

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 21

Accounts of Voyagers Who Visited the Philippines. — These references give some idea of the historical liter- ature of the Philippines. They comprise those works which should be chiefly consulted. There should not be omitted the numerous accounts of voyagers who have visited these islands from time to time, and who frequently give us very valuable information. The first of these are perhaps the English and Dutch freebooters, who prowled about these waters to waylay the richly laden galleons. One of these was Dampier, who, about 1690, visited the Ladrones and the Philippines. His New Voyage Around the World was published hi 1697. There was also Anson, who in 1743 took the Spanish galleon off the coast of Samar, and whose voyage is described in a volume pub- lished in 1745. There was an Italian physician, Carreri, who visited the islands in 1697, in the course of a voyage around the world, and who wrote an excellent description of the Philippines, which is printed in English translation in Churchill's Collection of Voyages.

A French expedition visited the East between 1774 and 1781, and the Commissioner, M. Sonnerat, has left a brief account of the Spanish settlements in the islands as they then appeared. (Voyage aux Indes Orientates et a la Chine, Paris, 1782, Vol. 3.)

There are a number of travellers' accounts written in the last century, of which may be mentioned Sir John Bowring's Visit to the Philippine Islands, 1859, and Jagor's Reisen in der Philippinen, travels in the year 1859 and 1860, which has received translation into both English and Spanish.

Bibliographies. — For the historical student a biblio- graphical guide is necessary. Such a volume was brought out hi 1898, by Retana, Catdlogo abreviado de la Biblioteca

22 THE PHILIPPINES.

Filipino,. It contains a catalogue of five thousand seven hundred and eighty works, published in or upon the Philippines. A still more exact and useful bibliography has been prepared by the Honorable T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Biblioteca Filipino,, and is published by the United States Government.

It is lamentable that the Philippines Government pos- sesses no library of works on the Archipelago.1 The foun- dation of such an institution seems to have been quite neglected by the Spanish Government, and works on the Philippines are scarcely to be found, except as they exist in private collections. The largest of these is said to be that of the Compania General de Tabacos, at Barcelona, which has also recently possessed itself of the splendid library of Retana. In Manila the Honorable Dr. Pardo de Tavera possesses the only notable library in the islands.

The publication of a very extensive series of sources of Philippine history has also been begun by the Arthur H. Clark Company in the United States, under the editorship of Miss E. H. Blair and Mr. J. A. Robertson. The series will embrace fifty-five volumes, and will contain in English translations all available historical material on the Philip- pines, from the age of discovery to the nineteenth century. This notable collection will place within the reach of the student all the important sources of his country's history, and will make possible a more extensive and accurate writing of the history of the islands than has ever before been possible.

1 Since the above was written the Philippines Government has commenced the collection of historic works in the Philippines, and a talented young Filipino scholar, Mr. Zulueta, has gone to Spain for extensive search, both of archives and libraries, in order to enrich the public collection in the Philippines.

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 23

In addition to the published works, there repose nu- merous unstudied documents of Philippine history in the the Archives of the Indies at Seville.

Historical -Work for the Filipino Student. — After read- ing this book, or a similar introductory history, the stu- dent should procure, one by one, as many as he can of the volumes which have been briefly described above, and, by careful reading and patient thought, try to round out the story of his country and learn the lessons of the history of his people. He will find it a study that will stimulate his thought and strengthen his judgment; but always he must search for the truth, even though the truth is sometimes humiliating and sad. If there are re- regrettable passages in our own lives, we cannot find either happiness or improvement in trying to deny to ourselves that we have done wrong, and so conceal and minimize our error. So if there are dark places in the history of our land and people, we must not obscure the truth in the mistaken belief that we are defending our people's honor, for, by trying to conceal the fact and ex- cuse the fault, we only add to the shame. It is by frank acknowledgment and clear depiction of previous errors that the country's honor will be protected now and in the future.

Very interesting and important historical work can be done by the Filipino student in his own town or province. The public and parish records have in many towns suf- fered neglect or destruction. In all possible cases these documents should be gathered up and cared for. For many things, they are worthy of study. They may show the growth of population, the dates of erection of the public buildings, the former system of government, and social conditions.

This is a work in which the patriotism of every young

24 THE PHILIPPINES.

man and woman can find an expression. Many sites throughout the islands are notable for the historic occur- rences which they witnessed. These should be suitably marked with tablets or monuments, and the exact facts of the events that took place should be carefully collected, and put in writing. Towns and provinces should form public libraries containing, among other works, books on the Philippines; and it should be a matter of pride to the young Filipino scholar to build up such local institutions, and to educate his townsmen in their use and appreciation. But throughout such studies the student should remem- ber that his town or locality is of less importance, from a patriotic standpoint, than his country as a whole; that the interests of one section should never be placed above those of the Archipelago; and that, while his first and fore- most duty is to his town and to his people, among whom he was born and nurtured, he owes a greater obligation to his whole country and people, embracing many different islands and different tongues, and to the great Govern- ment which holds and protects the Philippine Islands, and which is making possible the free development of its inhabitants.

CHAPTER II. THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES.

The Study of Ethnology. — The study of races and peoples forms a separate science from history, and is known as ethnology, or the science of races. Ethnology treats of how and where the different races of mankind originated. It explains the relationships between the races as well as the differences of mind, of body, and of mode of living which different peoples exhibit.

All such knowledge is of great assistance to the states- man as he deals with the affairs of his own people and of other peoples, and it helps private individuals of different races to understand one another and to treat each other with due respect, kindness, and sympathy. Inasmuch, too, as the modern history which we are studying deals with many different peoples of different origin and race, and as much of our history turns upon these differences, we must look for a little at the ethnology of the Philip- pines.

The Negritos. — Physical Characteristics. — The great majority of the natives of our islands belong to what is usually called the Malayan race, or the Oceanic Mongols. There is, however, one interesting little race scattered over the Philippines, which certainly has no relationship at all with Malayans. These little people are called by the Tagalog, "Aeta" or "Ita." The Spaniards, when they arrived, called them "Negritos," or "little negroes," the name by which they are best known. Since they

25

110 Longitude East 120

26

COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES

OF

MALAYSIA

SCALE OF MILES ON THE EQUATOR

KM

600 800

1000

Mohammedan Malays (.Javanese. Bugia, Sulus, etc. Filipinos (Christian) Primitive Malayans (Pagan) Melanesians or Papuans ,

Xegritos f

0

from Greenwich 130

28 THE PHILIPPINES.

were without question the first inhabitants of these islands of whom we have any knowledge, we shall speak of them at once.

They are among the very smallest peoples in the world, the average height of the men being about 145 centi- meters, or the height of an American boy of twelve years ; the women are correspondingly smaller. They have such dark-brown skins that many people suppose them to be quite black ; their hair is very woolly or kinky, and forms thick mats upon their heads. In spite of these peculiarities, they are not unattractive in appearance. Their eyes are large and of a fine brown color, their fea- tures are quite regular, and their little bodies often beau- tifully shaped.

The appearance of these little savages excited the attention of the first Spaniards, and there are many early accounts of them. Padre Chirino, who went as a mis- sionary in 1592 to Panay, begins the narrative of his labors in that island as follows : " Among the Bisayas, there are also some Negroes. They are less black and ugly than those of Guinea, and they are much smaller and weaker, but their hair and beard are just the same. They are much more barbarous and wild than the Bisayas and other Filipinos, for they have neither houses nor any fixed sites for dwelling. They neither plant nor reap, but live like wild beasts, wandering with their wives and children through the mountains, almost naked. They hunt the deer and wild boar, and when they kill one they stop right there until all the flesh is consumed. Of property they have nothing except the bow and arrow." l

Manners and Customs. — The Negritos still have this wild, timid character, and few have ever been truly civ-

1 Relation de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 38.

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 29

ilized in spite of the efforts of some of the Spanish mis- sionaries. They still roam through the mountains, seldom building houses, but making simply a little wall and roof of brush to keep off the wind and rain. They kill deer, wild pigs, monkeys, and birds, and in hunting they are very expert; but their principal food is wild roots and tubers, which they roast in ashes. Frequently in travel- ing through the mountains, although one may see nothing of these timid little folk, he will see many large, freshly dug holes from each of which they have taken out a root.

The Negritos ornament their bodies by making little rows of cuts on the breast, back, and arms, and leaving the scars in ornamental patterns; and some of them also cut their front teeth to points. In their hair they wear bamboo combs with long plumes of hair or of the feathers of the mountain cock. They have curious dances, and ceremonies for marriage and for death.

Distribution. — The Negritos have retired from many places where they lived when the Spaniards first arrived, but there are still several thousand in Luzon, especially in the Cordillera Zambales, and in the Sierra Madre range on the Pacific coast, and in the interior of Panay and Negros, and in Surigao of Mindanao.

Relation of the Negritos to Other Dwarfs of the World. — Although the Negritos have had very little ef- fect on the history of the Philippines, they are of much interest as a race to scientists, and we can not help asking, Whence came these curious little people, and what does their presence here signify? While science can not at present fully answer these questions, what we do actually know about these pygmies is full of interest.

The Aetas of the Philippines are not the only black dwarfs in the world. A similar little people, who must

RACES AND PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES

H Filipinos (Christianized Peoples) Primitive Malayan Tribei(Pagani)

Longitude 120 East from 121 Greenwich

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 31

belong to the same race, live in the mountains and jungles of the Malay peninsula and are called " Semangs." On the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, all the aborig- inal inhabitants are similar pygmies. Some traces of their former existence are reported from many other places in the East Indies.

Thus it may be that there was a time when these little men and women had much of this island-world quite to tlu'inselves, and their race stretched unbrokenly from the Philippines across Malaysia to the Indian Ocean. As it would have been impossible for so feeble a people to force their way from one island to another after the arrival of the stronger races, who have now confined them to the mountainous interiors, we are obliged to believe that the Negritos were on the ground first, and that at one time they were more numerous. The Indian archipelago was then a world of black pygmies. It may be that they were even more extensive than this, for one of the most curious discoveries of modern times has been the finding of similar little blacks in the equa- torial forests of Africa.

The Negritos must not be confused with the black or negro race of New Guinea or Melanesia, who are com- monly called Papuans; for those Negroes are of tall stature and belong with the true Negroes of Africa, though how the Negro race thus came to be formed of several widely separated branches we do not know.

The Malayan Race. — Origin of the Race. — It is thought that the Malayan race originated in southeastern Asia. From the mainland it spread down into the pen- insula and so scattered southward and eastward over the rich neighboring islands. Probably these early Ma- layans found the little Negritos in possession and slowly

32 THE PHILIPPINES.

drove them backward, destroying them from many islands until they no longer exist except in the places we have already named.

With the beginning of this migratory movement which carried them from one island to another of the great East Indian Archipelago, these early Malayans must have in- vented the boats or praus for which they are famed and have become skillful sailors living much upon the sea.

Effect of the Migration. — Life for many generations, upon these islands, so warm, tropical, and fruitful, gradu- ually modified these emigrants from Asia, until they be- came in mind and body quite a different race from the Mongol inhabitants of the mainland.

Characteristics. — The Malayan peoples are of a light- brown color, with a light yellowish undertone on some parts of the skin, with straight black hair, dark-brown eyes, and, though they are a small race in stature, they are finely formed, muscular, and active. The physical type is nearly the same throughout all Malaysia, but the different peoples making up the race differ markedly from one another in culture. They are divided also by differ- ences of religion. There are many tribes which are pagan. On . Bali and Lombok, little islands east of Java, the people are still Brahmin, like most inhabitants of India. In other parts of Malaysia they are Mohammedans, while in the Philippines alone they are mostly Christians.

The Wild Malayan Tribes. — Considering first the pagan or the wild Malayan peoples, we find that in the interior of the Malay Peninsula and of many of the islands, such as Sumatra, Borneo and Celebes, there are wild Malayan tribes, who have come very little in contact with the successive civilizing changes that have passed over this archipelago. The true Malays call these folk " Orang

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 33

benua," or "men of the country." Many are almost savages, some are cannibals, and others are headhunters like some of the Dyaks of Borneo.

In the Philippines, too, we find what is probably this same class of wild people living in the mountains. They are warlike, savage, and resist approach. Sometimes they eat human flesh as a ceremonial act, and some prize above all other trophies the heads of their enemies, which they cut from the body and preserve in then* homes. It is probable that these tribes represent the earliest and rudest epoch of Malayan culture, and that these were the first of this race to arrive in the Philippines and dispute with the Ne- gritos for the mastery of the soil. In such wild state of life, some of them, like the Mangyans of Mindoro, have continued to the present day.

The Tribes in Northern Luzon. — In northern Luzon, in the great Cordillera Central, there are many of these primi- tive tribes. These people are preeminently mountaineers. They prefer the high, cold, and semi-arid crests and val- leys of the loftiest ranges. Here, with great industry, they have made gardens by the building of stone-walled ter- races on the slopes of the hills. Sometimes hundreds of these terraces can be counted in one valley, and they rise one above the other from the bottom of a canon for several miles almost to the summit of a ridge. These terraced gardens are all under most careful irrigation. Water is carried for many miles by log flumes and ditches, to be dis- tributed over these little fields. The soil is carefully fer- tilized with the refuse of the villages. Two and frequently three crops are produced each year. Here we find un- doubtedly the most developed and most nearly scientific agriculture in the Philippines. They raise rice, cotton, tobacco, the taro, maize, and especially the camote, or

34 THE PHILIPPINES.

sweet potato, which is their principal food. These people live in compact, well-built villages, frequently of several hundred houses. Some of these tribes, like the Igorots of Benguet and the Tingians of Abra, are peaceable as well as industrious. In Benguet there are fine herds of cattle, much excellent coffee, and from time immemorial the Igorots here have mined gold.

Besides these peaceful tribes there are in Bontok, and in the northern parts of the Cordillera, many large tribes, with splendid mountain villages, who are nevertheless in a constant and dreadful state of war. Nearly every town is in feud with its neighbors, and the practice of taking heads leads to frequent murder and combat. A most curious tribe of persistent headhunters are the Ibilao, or Ilungots, who live in the Caraballo Sur Mountains between Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya.

On other islands of the Philippines there are similar wild tribes. On the island of Palawan there are the Tag- banwas and other savage folk.

Characteristics of the Tribes of Mindanao. — In Mindanao, there are many more tribes. Three of these tribes, the Bagobo, Mandaya, and Manobo, are on the east- ern coast and around Mount Apo. In Western Mindanao, there is quite a large but scattered tribe called the Sub- anon. These people make clearings on the hillsides and support themselves by raising maize and mountain rice. They also raise hemp, and from the fiber they weave truly beautiful blankets and garments, artistically dyed in very curious patterns. These peoples are nearly all pagans, though a few are being gradually converted to Moham- medanism, and some to Christianity. The pagans occa- sionally practice the revolting rites of human sacrifice and ceremonial cannibalism.

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 35

The Civilized Malayan Peoples. — Their Later Arrival. — At a later date than the arrival of these primitive Malayan tribes, there came to the Philippines others of a more developed culture and a higher order of intel- ligence. These peoples mastered the low country and the coasts of nearly all the islands, driving into the interior the earlier comers and the aboriginal Negritos. These later arrivals, though all of one stock, differed considerably, and spoke different dialects belonging to one language family. They were the ancestors of the present civilized Filipino people.

Distribution of These Peoples.— All through the cen- tral islands, Cebu, Panay, Negros, Leyte, Samar, Bohol and northern Min- danao, are the Bi- sayas, the largest of these peoples. At the southern extremity of Luzon, in the provinces of Sorso- gon and the Cama- Beit of Rattan,

rines, are the Bikols.

North of these, holding central Luzon, Batangas, Cavite, Manila, Laguna, Bataan, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija, are the Tagalogs, while the great plain of northern Luzon is occupied by the Pampangos and Pangasinans. All the northwest coast is inhabited by the Ilokanos, and the valley of the Cagayan by a people commonly called Caga- yanes, but whose dialect is Ibanag. In Nueva Vizcaya province, on the Batanes Islands and the Calamianes, there are other distinct branches of the Filipino people, but they are much smaller in numbers and less important than the tribes mentioned above.

36

THE PHILIPPINES.

Importance of These Peoples. — They form politically and historically the Filipino people. They are the Filipinos whom the Spaniards ruled for more than three hundred years. All are converts to Christianity, and all have attained a somewhat similar stage of civilization.

Early Contact of the Malays and Hindus. — These peo- ple at the time of their arrival in the Philippines were probably not only of a higher plane of intelligence than any

Mindanao Brass Vessels.

who had preceded them in the occupation of the islands, but they appear to have had the advantages of contact with a highly developed culture that had appeared in the eastern archipelago some centuries earlier.

Early Civilization in India. — More than two thou- sand years ago, India produced a remarkable civili- zation. There were great cities of stone, magnificent palaces, a life of splendid luxury, and a highly organized social and political system. Writing, known as the San- skrit, had been developed, and a great literature of poetry

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 37

and philosophy produced. Two great religions, Brahmin- ism and Buddhism, arose, the latter still the dominant religion of Tibet, China, and Japan. The people who pro- duced this civilization are known as the Hindus. Fourteen or fifteen hundred years ago Hinduism spread over Burma, Siam, and Java. Great cities were erected with splendid temples and huge idols, the ruins of which still remain, though their magnificence has gone and they are covered to-day with the growth of the jungle.

Influence of Hindu Culture on the Malayan Peoples. — This powerful civilization of the Hindus, established thus in Malaysia, greatly affected the Malayan people on these islands, as well as those who came to the Philip- pines. Many words in the Tagalog have been shown to have a Sanskrit origin, and the systems of writing which the Spaniards found in use among several of the Filipino peoples had certainly been developed from the alphabet then in use among these Hindu peoples of Java.

The Rise of Mohammedanism. — Mohammed. — A few hundred years later another great change, due to religious faith, came over the Malayan race, — a change which has had a great effect upon the history of the Philippines, and is still destined to modify events far into the future. This was the conversion to Mohammedanism. Of all the great religions of the world, Mohammedanism was the last to arise, and its career has in some ways been the most re- markable. Mohammed, its founder, was an Arab, born about 572 A.D. At that time Christianity was established entirely around the Mediterranean and throughout most of Europe, but Arabia was idolatrous. Mohammed was one of those great, prophetic souls which arise from time to time in the world's history. All he could learn from

38 THE PHILIPPINES.

Hebraism and Christianity, together with the result of his own thought and prayers, led him to the belief in one God, the Almighty, the Compassionate, the Merciful, who as he believed would win all men to His knowledge through the teachings of Mohammed himself. Thus inspired, Mo- hammed became a teacher or prophet, and by the end of his life he had won his people to his faith and inaugurated one of the greatest eras of conquest the world has seen.

Spread of Mohammedanism to Africa and Europe. — The armies of Arabian horsemen, full of fanatical enthusiasm to convert the world to their faith, in a century's time wrested from Christendom all Judea, Syria, and Asia Minor, the sacred land where Jesus lived and taught, and the countries where Paul and the other apostles had first established Christianity. Thence they swept along the north coast of Africa, bringing to an end all that survived of Roman power and religion, and by 720 they had crossed into Europe and were in possession of Spain. For the nearly eight hundred years that followed, the Christian Spaniards fought to drive Mohammedanism from the peninsula, before they were successful.

The Conversion of the Malayans to Mohammed- anism.— Not only did Mohammedanism move west- ward over Africa and Europe, it was carried eastward as well. Animated by their faith, the Arabs became the greatest sailors, explorers, merchants, and geographers of the age. They sailed from the Red Sea down the coast of Africa as far as Madagascar, and eastward to India, where they had settlements on both the Malabar and Coro- mandel coasts. Thence Arab missionaries brought their faith to Malaysia.

At that time the true Malays, the tribe from which the common term "Malayan" has been derived, were a

40 THE PHILIPPINES.

small people of Sumatra. At least as early as 1250 they were converted to Mohammedanism, brought to them by these Arabian missionaries, and under the impulse of this mighty faith they broke from their obscurity and commenced that great conquest and expansion that has diffused their power, language, and religion throughout the East Indies.

Mohammedan Settlement in Borneo. — A powerful Mohammedan Malay settlement was established on the western coasts of Borneo probably as early as 1400. The more primitive inhabitants, like the Dyaks, who were a tribe of the primitive Malayans, were defeated, and the possession of parts of the coast taken from them. From this coast of Borneo came many of the adventurers who were traversing the seas of the Philippines when the Spaniards arrived.

The Mohammedan Population of Mindanao and Jolo owes something certainly to this same Malay migra- tion which founded the colony of Borneo. But the Ma- gindanao and Illanon Moros seem to be largely descendants of primitive tribes, such as the Manobo and Tiruray, who were converted to Mohammedanism by Malay and Arab proselyters. The traditions of the Magindanao Moros ascribe their conversion to Kabunsuan, a native of Johore, the son of an Arab father and Malay mother. He came to Magindanao with a band of followers, and from him the datos of Magindanao trace their lineage. Kabun- suan, through his Arab father, is supposed to be descended from Mohammed, and so the datos of Magindanao to the present day proudly believe that in their veins flows the blood of the Prophet.

The Coming of the Spaniards. — Mohammedanism was still increasing in the Philippines when the Spaniards ar-

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 41

rived. The Mohammedans already had a foothold on Manila Bay, and their gradual conquest of the archipelago was interrupted only by the coming of the Europeans. It is a strange historical occurrence that the Spaniards, having fought with the Mohammedans for nearly eight centuries for the possession of Spain, should have come westward around the globe to the Philippine Islands and there resumed the ancient conflict with them. Thus the Spaniards were the most determined opponents of Mohammedanism on both its western and eastern frontiers. Their ancient foes who crossed into Spain from Morocco had been always known as "Moros" or "Moors," and quite naturally they gave to these new Mohammedan enemies the same title, and Moros they are called to the present day.

Summary. — Such, then, are the elements which form the population of these islands, — a few thousands of the little Negritos; many wild mountain tribes of the primi- tive Malayans; a later immigration of Malayans of higher cultivation and possibilities than any that preceded them, who had been influenced by the Hinduism of Java and who have had in recent centuries an astonishing growth both in numbers and in culture; and last, the fierce Mohammedan sea-rovers, the true Malays.

Copy of the Koran from Mindanao.

CHAPTER III. EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D.

The Mediaeval Period in Europe. — Length of the Middle Age. — By the Middle Ages we mean the cen- turies between 500 and 1300 A.D. This period begins with the fall of the Roman Empire and the looting of the Imperial City by the rude German tribes, and ends with the rise of a new literature, a new way of looking at the world in general, and a passion for discovery of every kind.

These eight hundred years had been centuries of cruel struggle, intellectual darkness, and social depression, but also of great religious devotion. Edward Gibbon, one of the greatest historians, speaks of this period as " the triumph of barbarism and religion."

The population of Europe was largely changed, during the first few centuries of the Christian Era, as the Roman Empire, that greatest political institution of all history, slowly decayed. New peoples of German or Teutonic origin came, fighting their way into western Europe and settling wherever the land attracted them. Thus Spain and Italy received the Goths; France, the Burgundians and Franks; England, the Saxons and Angles or English.

These peoples were all fierce, warlike, free, unlettered barbarians. Fortunately, they were all converted to Christianity by Roman priests and missionaries. They embraced this faith with ardor, at the same time that ' other peoples and lands were being lost to Christendom. Thus it has resulted that the countries where Christianity

42

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 43

arose and first established itself, are now no longer Chris- tian, and this religion, which had an Asiatic and Semitic origin, has become the distinguishing faith of the people of western Europe. For centuries the countries of Europe were fiercely raided and disturbed by pillaging and mur- dering hordes; by the Huns, who followed in the Germans from the East ; by the Northmen, cruel pirating seamen from Scandinavia; and, as we have already seen, by the Mohammedans, or Saracens as they were called, who came into central Europe by way of Spain.

Character of the Life during this Period. — Feudalism. — Life was so beset with peril that independence or free- dom became impossible, and there was developed a so- ciety which has lasted almost down to the present time, and which we call Feudalism. The free but weak man gave up his freedom and his lands to some stronger man, who became his lord. He swore obedience to this lord, while the lord engaged to furnish him protection and gave him back his lands to hold as a "fief," both sharing hi the product. This lord swore allegiance to some still more powerful man, or "overlord," and became his "vas- sal," pledged to follow him to war with a certain number of armed men; and this overlord, on his part, owed allegi- ance to the prince, who was, perhaps, a duke or bishop (bishops at this time were also feudal lords), or to the king or emperor. Thus were men united into large groups or nations for help or protection. There was little under- standing of love of country. Patriotism, as we feel it, was replaced by the passion of fidelity or allegiance to one's feudal superior.

Disadvantages of Feudalism. — The great curse of this system was that the feudal lords possessed the power to make war upon one another, and so continuous were

44

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 45

their jealousies and quarrelings that the land was never free from armed bands, who laid waste an opponent's coun- try, killing the miserable serfs who tilled the soil, and de- stroying their homes and cattle.

There was little joy in We and no popular learning. If a man did not enjoy warfare, but one other life was open to him, and that was in the Church. War and religion were the pursuits of life, and it is no wonder that many of the noblest and best turned their backs upon a life that promised only fighting and bloodshed and, renouncing the world, became monks. Monasticism developed in Europe under such conditions as these, and so strong were the religious feelings of the age that at one time a third of the land of France was owned by the re- ligious orders.

The Town. — The two typical institutions of the early Middle Age were the feudal castle, with its high stone walls and gloomy towers, with its fierce bands of warriors armed in mail and fighting on horseback with lance and sword, and the monastery, which represented inn, hospi- tal, and school. Gradually, however, a third factor appeared. This was the town. And it is to these media> val cities, with their busy trading life, their free citizen- ship, and their useful occupations, that the modern world owes much of its liberty and its intellectual light.

The Renaissance. — Changes in Political Affairs. — By 1400, however, the Middle Age had nearly passed and a new life had appeared, a new epoch was in progress, which is called the Renaissance, which means " rebirth." In political affairs the spirit of nationality had arisen, and feudalism was already declining. Men began to feel attach- ment to country, to king, and to fellow-citizens; and the national states, as we now know them, each with its

46 THE PHILIPPINES.

naturally bounded territory, its common language, and its approximately common race, were appearing.

France and England were, of these states, the two most advanced politically just previous to the fifteenth century. At this distant time they were still engaged in a struggle which lasted quite a century and is known as the Hundred Years' War. In the end, England was forced to give up all her claims to territory on the continent, and the power of France was correspondingly increased. In France the mpnarchy (king and court) was becoming the supreme power in the land. The feudal nobles lost what power they had, while the common people gained nothing. In England, however, the foundations for a representa- tive government had been laid. The powers of legislation and government were divided between the English king ,•' and a Parliament. The Parliament was first called in 1265 and consisted of two parts, — the Lords, represent- ing the nobility; and the Commons, composed of persons chosen by the common people.

Germany was divided into a number of small princi- palities, — Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, Bohemia, Austria, the Rhine principalities, and many others, — which united in a great assembly, or Diet, the head of which was some prince, chosen to be emperor.

Italy was also divided. In the north, in the valley of the Po, or Lombardy, were the duchy of Milan and the Repub- lic of Venice; south, on the western coast, were the Tuscan states, including the splendid city of Florence. Thence, stretching north and south across the peninsula, were states of the church, whose ruler was the pope, for until less than fifty years ago the pope was not only the head of the church but also a temporal ruler. Embracing the south- ern part of the peninsula was the principality of Naples.

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT UOO A.D. 47

In, the Spanish peninsula Christian states had arisen, — in the west, Portugal, hi the center and east, Castile, Aragon, and Leon, from all of which the Mohammedans had been expelled. But the Moors still held the southern parts of Spain, including the beautiful plains of Andalusia and Grenada.

The Mohammedans, in the centuries of their life in Spain, had developed an elegant and prosperous civiliza- tion. By means of irrigation and skillful planting, they had converted southern Spain into a garden. They were the most skillful agriculturists and breeders of horses and sheep in Europe, and they carried to perfection many fine arts, while knowledge and learning were nowhere further advanced than here. Through contact with this remark- able people the Christian Spaniards gained much. Un- fortunately, however, the spirit of religious intolerance was so strong, and the hatred engendered by the centuries of religious war was so violent, that in the end the Spaniard became imbued with so fierce a fanaticism that he there- after appeared unable properly to appreciate or justly to treat those who differed from him in religious belief.

The Conquests of the Mohammedans. — In the fif- teenth century, religious toleration was but little known in the world, and the people of the great Mohammedan faith still threatened to overwhelm Christian Europe. Since the first great conquests of Islam in the eighth cen- tury had been repulsed from central Europe, that faith had shown a wonderful power of winning its way. In the tenth century Asia Minor was invaded by hordes of Sel- juks, or Turks, who poured down from central Asia hi conquering bands. These tribes had overthrown the Arab's power in Mesopotamia and Asia Minor only to become converts to his faith. With freshened zeal they

48 THE PHILIPPINES.

hurled themselves upon the old Christian empire, which at Constantinople had survived the fall of the rest of the Roman world.

The Crusades. — The Seljuk Turks had conquered most of Asia Minor, Syria, and the Holy Land. A great fear came over the people of Europe that the city of Constan- tinople would be captured and they, too, be overwhelmed by these new Mohammedan enemies. The passionate religious zeal of the Middle Age also roused the princes and knights of Europe to try to wrest from the infidel the Holy Land of Palestine, where were the birthplace of Chris- tianity and the site of the Sepulcher of Christ. Palestine was recovered and Christian states were established there, which lasted for over a hundred and eighty years. Then the Arab power revived and, operating from Egypt, finally retook Jerusalem and expelled the Christian from the Holy Land, to which he has never yet returned as a con- queror.

Effects of the Crusades. — These long, holy wars, or "Crusades," had a profound effect upon Europe. The rude Christian warrior from the west was astonished and delighted with the splendid and luxurious life which he met at Constantinople and the Arabian East. Even though he was a prince, his life at home was barren of comforts and beauty. Glass, linen, rugs, tapestries, silk, cotton, spices, and sugar were some of the things which the Franks and the Englishmen took home with them from the Holy Land. Demand for these treasures of the East became irresistible, and trade between western Europe and the East grew rapidly.

The Commercial Cities of Italy. — The cities of Italy de- veloped this commerce. They placed fleets upon the Medi- terranean. They carried the crusaders out and brought

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 AJ>. 49

back the wares that Europe desired. In this way these cities grew and became very wealthy. On the west coast, where this trade began, were Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and Florence, and on the east, at the head of the Adriatic, was Venice. The rivalry between these cities of Italy was very fierce. They fought and plundered one another, each striving to win a monopoly for itself of this invaluable trade.

Venice, finally, was victorious. Her location was very favorable. From her docks the wares could be carried easily and by the shortest routes up the Po River and thence into France or northward over the Alps to the Danube. In Bavaria grew up in this trade the splendid German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, which passed these goods on to the cities of the Rhine, and so down this most beautiful river to the coast. Here the towns of Flanders and of the Low Countries, or Holland, received them and passed them on again to England and eastward to the countries of the Baltic.

Development of Modern Language. — Thus commerce and trade grew up in Europe, and, with trade and city life, greater intelligence, learning, and independence. Education became more common, and the universities of Europe were thronged. Latin in the Middle Age had been the only language that was written by the learned class. Now the modern languages of Europe took their form and began to be used for literary purposes. Italian was the first to be so used by the great Dante, and in the same half-century the English poet Chaucer sang in the homely English tongue, and soon in France, Germany, and Spain national literatures appeared. With this went greater free- dom of expression. Authority began to have less weight. Men began to inquire into causes and effects, to doubt

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 51

certain things, to seek themselves for the truth, and so the Renaissance came. With it came a greater love for the beautiful, a greater joy hi life, a fresh zest for the good of this world, a new passion for discovery, a thirst for adventure, and, it must also be confessed a new laxity of living and a new greed for gold. Christian Europe was about to burst its narrow bounds. It could not be re- pressed nor confined to its old limitations. It could never turn backward. Of all the great changes which have come over life and thought, probably none are greater than those which saw the transition from the mediaeval to the modern world.

Trade with the East. — Articles of Trade. — Now we must go back for a moment and pursue an old inquiry further. Whence came all these beautiful and inviting wares that had produced new tastes and passions in Europe? The Italian traders drew them from the Levant, but the Levant had not produced them. Neither pepper, spices, sugarcane, costly gems, nor rich silks, were pro- duced on the shores of the Mediterranean.

Only the rich tropical countries of the East were capable of growing these rare plants, and up to that tune of delivering to the delver many precious stones. India, the rich Malaysian archipelago, the kingdom of China, — these are the lands and islands which from tune imme- morial have given up their treasures to be forwarded far and wide to amaze and delight the native of colder and less productive lands.

Routes of Trade to the Far East. — Three old sail- ing and caravan routes connect the Mediterranean with the Far East. They are so old that we can not guess when men first used them. They were old in the days of Solomon and indeed very ancient when Alexander the

52 THE PHILIPPINES.

Great conquered the East. One of these routes passed through the Black Sea, and around the Caspian Sea, to Turkestan to those strange and romantic ancient cities, Bokhara and Samarkand. Thence it ran easterly across Asia, entering China from the north. Another crossed Syria and went down through Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean. A third began in Egypt and went through the Red Sea, passing along the coast of Arabia to India.

All of these had been in use for centuries, but by the year 1400 two had been closed. A fresh immigration of Turks, the Ottomans, in the fourteenth century came down upon the scourged country of the Euphrates and Syria, and although these Turks also embraced Moham- medanism, their hostility closed the first two routes and commerce over them has never been fully resumed.

Venetian Monopoly of Trade. — Thus all interest centered upon the southern route. By treaty with the sultan or ruler of Egypt, Venice secured a monopoly of the products which came over this route. Goods from the East now came in fleets up the Red Sea, went through the hands of the sultan of Egypt, who collected a duty for them, and then were passed on to the ships of the wealthy Venetian merchant princes, who carried them throughout Europe. Although the object of intense jeal- ousy, it seemed impossible to wrest this monopoly from Venice. Her fleet was the strongest on the Mediterranean, and her rule extended along the Adriatic to the Grecian islands. All eager minds were bent upon the trade with the East, but no way was known, save that which now Venice had gained.

Extent of Geographical Knowledge. — The Maps of this Period. — To realize Kow the problem looked to the sailor of Genoa or the merchant of Flanders at that time,

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 53

we must understand how scanty and erroneous was the geographical knowledge of even the fifteenth century. It was believed that Jerusalem was the center of the world, a belief founded upon a biblical passage. The maps of this and earlier dates represent the earth in this way: In the center, Palestine, and beneath it the Mediterranean Sea, the only body of water which was well known; on the left side is Europe; on the right, Africa; and at the top, Asia — the last two continents very indefinitely mapped. Around the whole was supposed to flow an ocean, beyond the first few miles of which it was perilous to proceed lest the ship be carried over the edge of the earth or encounter other perils.

Ideas about Hie Earth. — The Greek philosophers be- fore the time of Christ had discovered that the world is a globe, or ball, and had even computed rudely its circum- ference. But in the Middle Ages this knowledge had been disputed and contradicted by a geographer named Cosmas, who held that the world was a vast plane, twice as long as it was broad and surrounded by an ocean. This belief was generally adopted by churchmen, who were the only scholars of the Middle Ages, and came to be the uni- versal belief of Christian Europe.

The Renaissance revived the knowledge of the writ- ings of the old Greek geographers who had demonstrated the earth's shape to be round and had roughly calculated its size; but these writings did not have sufficient circula- tion in Europe to gain much acceptance among the Chris- tian cosmographers. The Arabs, however, after conquer- ing Egypt, Syria and northern Africa, translated into their own tongue the wisdom of the Greeks and became the best informed and most scientific geographers of the Middle Age, so that intercourse with the Arabs which

54 THE PHILIPPINES.

began with the Crusades helped to acquaint Europe some- what with India and China.

The Far East. — The Tartar Mongols. — Then in the thirteenth century all northern Asia and China fell under the power of the Tartar Mongols. Russia was overrun by them and western Europe threatened. At the Danube, however, this tide of Asiatic conquest stopped, and then followed a long period when Europe came into diplomatic and commercial relations with these Mongols and through them learned something of China.

Marco Polo Visits the Great Kaan. — Several Euro- peans visited the court of the Great Kaan, or Mongol king, and of one of them, Marco Polo, we must speak in particular. He was a Venetian, and when a young man started in 1271 with his father and uncle on a visit to the Great Kaan. They passed from Italy to Syria, across to Bagdad, -and down to Ormuz, whence they journeyed northward through upper Persia and thence across the Pamirs along the caravan route to Kaipingfu, where the Kaan had his court. Here in the service of this prince Marco Polo spent over seventeen years. So valuable in- deed were his services that the Kaan would not permit him to return. Year after year he remained in the East. He traversed most of China, and was for a time "taotai," or magistrate, of the city of Yang Chan near the Yangtze River. He saw the amazing wonders of the East. He heard of "Zipangu," or Japan. He probably heard of the Philippines.

Finally the opportunity came for the three Venetians to return. The Great Kaan had a relative who was a ruler of Persia, and ambassadors came from this ruler to secure a Mongol princess for him to marry. The dangers and hardships of the travel overland were considered too

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 55

difficult for the delicate princess, and it was decided to send her by water. Marco Polo and his father and uncle were commissioned to accompany the expedition to Persia.

History of Marco Polo's Travels. — They sailed from the port of Chin Cheu, probably near Amoy,1 in the year 1292. They skirted the coasts of Cambodia and Siam and reached the eastern coasts of Sumatra, where they waited five months for the changing of the monsoon. Of the Malay people of Sumatra, as well as of these islands, their animals and productions, Marco Polo has left us most interesting and quite accurate accounts. The Malays on Sumatra were beginning to be converted to Mohammedanism, for Marco Polo says that many of them were "Saracens." He gamed a good knowledge of the rich and mysterious Indian Isles, where the spices and flavorings grew. It was two years before the party, having crossed the Indian Ocean, reached Persia and the court of the Persian king. . When they arrived they found that while they were making this long voyage the Persian king had died ; but they married the Mongol princess to his son, the young prince, who had succeeded him, and that did just as well.

From Persia the Venetians crossed to the Black Sea, sailed for Italy, and at last reached home after an absence of twenty-four years. But Marco Polo's adventures did not end with his return to Venice. In a fierce sea fight between the Venetians and Genoese, he was made

1 See Yule's Marco Polo for a discussion of this point and for the entire history of this great explorer, as well as a translation of his narrative. The book of Ser Marco Polo* has been most critically edited with introduction and voluminous notes by this English scholar, Sir Henry Yule. In this edition the accounts of Marco Polo, covering so many countries and peoples of the Far East, can be studied.

56 THE PHILIPPINES.

a prisoner and confined in Genoa. Here a fellow captive wrote down from Marco's own words the story of his eastern adventures, and this book we have to-day. It is a record of adventure, travel, and description, so wonder- ful that for years it was doubted and its accuracy disbelieved. But since, in our own time, men have been able to traverse again the routes over which Marco Polo passed, fact after fact has been established, quite as he truthfully stated them centuries ago. To have been the first European to make this mighty circuit of travel is certainly a strong title to enduring fame.

Countries of the Far East. — India. — Let us now briefly look at the countries of the Far East, which by the year 1400 had come to exercise over the mind of the European so irresistible a fascination. First of all, India, as we have seen, had for centuries been the prin- cipal source of the western commerce. But long before the date we are considering, the scepter of India had fallen from the hand of the Hindu. From the seventh century, India was a prey to Mohammedan conquerors, who entered from the northwest into the valley of the Indus. At first these were Saracens or Arabs; later they were the same Mongol converts to Mohammedanism, whose attacks upon Europe we have already noticed.

In 1398 came the furious and bloody warrior, the greatest of all Mongols, — Timour, or Tamerlane. He founded, with capital at Delhi, the empire of the Great Mogul, whose rule over India was only broken by the white man. Eastward across the Ganges and in the Dekkan, or southern part of India, were states ruled over by Indian princes.

China. — We have seen how, at the time of Marco Polo, China also was ruled by the Tartar Mongols. The

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 57

Chinese have ever been subject to attack from the wan- dering horse-riding tribes of Siberia. Two hundred years before Christ one of the Chinese kings built the Great Wall that stretches across the northern frontier for one thousand three hundred miles, for a defense against north- ern foes. Through much of their history the Chinese have been ruled by aliens, as they are to-day. About 1368, however, the Chinese overthrew the Mongol rulers and established the Ming dynasty, the last Chinese house of emperors, who ruled China until 1644, when the Man- chus, the present rulers, conquered the country.

China was great and prosperous under the Mings. Com- merce flourished and the fleets of Chinese junks sailed to India, the Malay Islands, and to the Philippines for trade. The Grand Canal, which connects Peking with the Yangtze River basin and Hangchau, was completed. It was an age of fine productions of literature.

The Chinese seem to have been much less exclusive then than they are at the present time; much less a peculiar, isolated people than now. They did not then shave their heads nor wear a queue. These customs, as well as that hostility to foreign intercourse which they have to-day, were forced upon China by the Manchus. China appeared at that time ready to assume a position of enormous influence among the peoples of the earth, — a position for which she was well fitted by the great industry of all classes and the high intellectual power of her learned men.

Japan. — Compared with China or India, or even some minor states, the development of Japan at this time was very backward. Her people were divided and there was constant civil war. The Japanese borrowed their civiliza- tion from the Chinese. From them they learned writing

THE COUNTRIES OF THE FAR EAST

IN THE 16TH CENTURY

SCALE OF MILES

0 200 MO 600 800 1000 1200

Longitude 110 East from 120 Greenwich

58

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 59

and literature, and the Buddhist religion, which was in- troduced about 550 A.D. But in temperament they are a very different people, being spirited, warlike, and, until recent years, have despised trading and commerce.

Since the beginning of her history, Japan has been monarchical. The ruler, the Mikado, is believed to be of heavenly descent; but in the centuries we are discussing the government was controlled by powerful nobles, known as the Shoguns, who kept the emperors in retirement in the palaces of Kyoto, and themselves directed the State. The greatest of these shoguns was lyeyasu, who ruled Japan about 1600, soon after Manila was founded. They developed in Japan a species of feudalism, the great lords, or "daimios," owning allegiance to the shoguns, and about the daimios, as feudal retainers, bodies of samurai, who formed a partly noble class of their own. The samurai carried arms, fought at their lords' command, were stu- dents and literati, and among them developed that proud, loyal, and elevated code of morality known as " Bushido," which has done so much for the Japanese people. It is this samurai class who in modern tunes have effected the immense revolution in the condition and power of Japan.

The Malay Archipelego . — If now we look at the Ma- lay Islands, we find, as we have already seen, that changes had been effected there. Hinduism had first elevated and civilized at least a portion of the race, and Mohamme- danism and the daring seamanship of the Malay had united these islands under a common language and reli- gion. There was, however, no political union. The Malay peninsula was divided. Java formed a central Malay power. Eastward among the beautiful Celebes and Moluccas, the true Spice Islands, were a multitude of small native rulers, rajas or datos, who surrounded themselves with retain-

60 THE PHILIPPINES.

ers, kept rude courts, and gathered wealthy tributes of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves. The sultans of Ternate, Tidor, and Amboina were especially powerful, and the islands they ruled the most rich and productive.

Between all these islands there was a busy commerce. The Malay is an intrepid sailor, and an eager trader. Fleets of praus, laden with goods, passed with the chang- ing monsoons from part to part, risking the perils of piracy, which have always troubled this archipelago. Borneo, while the largest of all these islands, was the least devel- oped, and down to the present day has been hardly ex- plored. The Philippines were also outside of most of this busy intercourse and had at that date few products to offer for trade. Their main connection with the rest of the Malay race was through the Mohammedan Malays of Jolo and Borneo. The fame of the Spice Islands had long filled Europe, but the existence of the Philippines was unknown.

Summary. — We have now reviewed the condition of Europe and of farther Asia as they were before the period of modern discovery and colonization opened. The East had reached a condition of quiet stability. Mohamme- danism, though still spreading, did not promise to effect great social changes. The institutions of the East had become fixed in custom and her peoples neither made changes nor desired them. On the other hand western Europe had become aroused to an excess of ambition. New ideas, new discoveries and inventions were moving the nations to activity and change. That era of modern discovery and progress, of which we cannot yet perceive the end, had begun.

CHAPTER IV. THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.

An Eastern Passage to India. — The Portuguese. — TVe have seen in the last chapter how Venice held a monopoly of the only trading-route with the Far East. Some new way of reaching India must be sought, that would permit the traders of other Christian powers to reach the marts of the Orient without passing through Mohammedan lands. This surpassing achievement was accomplished by the Portuguese. So low at the present day has the power of Portugal fallen that few realize the daring and courage once displayed by her seamen and soldiers and the enor- mous colonial empire that she established.

Portugal freed her territory of the Mohammedan Moors nearly a century earlier than Spain; and the vigor and intelligence of a great king, John I., brought Portugal, about the year 1400, to an important place among the states of Europe. This king captured from the Moors the city of Ceuta, in Morocco; and this was the beginning of modern European colonial possessions, and almost the first land outside of Europe to be held by a European power since the times of the Crusades. King John's youngest son was Prince Henry, famous in history under the title of "the Navigator." This young prince, with something of the same adventurous spirit that filled the Crusaders, was ardent to extend the power of his father's kingdom and to widen the sway of the religion which he devotedly professed. The power of the Mohammedans in the Mediterranean was too great for him hopefully to oppose and so he planned the conquest of the west coast

61

62 THE PHILIPPINES.

of Africa, and its conversion to Christianity. With these ends in view, he established at Point Sagres, on the south- western coast of Portugal, a naval academy and obser- vatory. Here he brought together skilled navigators, charts, and geographies, and all scientific knowledge that would assist in his undertaking.1

He began to construct ships larger and better than any in use. To us they would doubtless seem very clumsy and small, but this was the beginning of ocean ship-build- ing. The compass and the astrolabe, or sextant, the little instrument with which, by calculating the height of the sun above the horizon, we can tell distance from the equa- tor, were just coming into use. These, as well as every other practicable device for navigation known at that time, were supplied to these ships.

Exploration of the African Coast. — Thus equipped and ably manned, the little fleets began the exploration of the African coast, cautiously feeling their way southward and ever returning with reports of progress made. Year after year this work went on. In 1419 the Madeira Islands were rediscovered and colonized by Portuguese settlers. The growing of sugarcane was begun, and vines were brought from Burgundy and planted there. The

1 See the noted work The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator, and its Results, by Richard Henry Major, London, 1868. Many of the views of Mr. Major upon the importance of Prince Henry's work and especially its early aims, have been contradicted in more re- cent writings. The importance of the Sagres Observatory is belittled. Doubts are expressed as to the farsightedness of Prince Henry's plans, and the best opinion of to-day holds that he did not hope to discover a new route to India by way of Africa, but sought simply the conquest of the " Guinea," which was known to the Europeans through the Arab Geographers, who called it " Bilad Ghana " or " Land of Wealth." The students, if possible, should read the essay of Mr. E. J. Payne, The Age of Discovery, in the Cambridge Modern History, Vol I.

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 63

wine of the Madeiras has been famous to this day. Then were rediscovered the Canaries and in 1444 the Azores. The southward exploration of the coast of the mainland steadily continued until in 1445 the Portuguese reached the mouth of the Senegal River. Up to this point the Afri- can shore had not yielded much of interest to the Portu- guese explorer or trader. Below Morocco the great Sahara Desert reaches to the sea and renders barren the coast for hundreds of miles.

South of the mouth of the Senegal and comprising the whole Guinea coast, Africa is tropical, well watered, and populous. This is the home of the true African Negro. Here, for almost the first time, since the be- ginning of the Middle Ages, Christian Europe came in contact with a race of ruder culture and different color than its own. This coast was found to be worth exploit- ing; for it yielded, besides various desirable resinous gums, three articles which have distinguished the exploitation of Africa, namely, gold, ivory, and slaves.

Beginning of Negro Slavery in Europe. — At this point begins the horrible and revolting story of European Negro slavery. The ancient world had practiced this owner- ship of human chattels, and the Roman Empire had de- clined under a burden of half the population sunk in bondage. To the enormous detriment and suffering of mankind, Mohammed had tolerated the institution, and slavery- is permitted by the Koran. But it is the glory of the medieval church that it abolished human slavery from Christian Europe. However dreary and unjust feu- dalism may have been, it knew nothing of that institution which degrades men and women to the level of cattle and remorselessly sells the husband from his family, the mother from her child.

64 THE PHILIPPINES.

Slaves in Portugal. — The arrival of the Portuguese upon the coast of Guinea now revived not the bondage of one white man to another, but that of the black to the white. The first slaves carried to Portugal were regarded simply as objects of peculiar interest, captives to repre- sent to the court the population of those shores which had been added to the Portuguese dominion. But southern Portugal, from which the Moors had been expelled, had suffered from a lack of laborers, and it was found profit- able to introduce Negroes to work these fields.

Arguments to Justify Slavery. — So arose the insti- tution of Negro slavery, which a century later upon the shores of the New World was to develop into so tremen- dous and terrible a thing. Curiously enough, religion was evoked to justify this enslavement of the Africans. The Church taught that these people, being heathen, were fortunate to be captured by Christians, that they might thereby be brought to baptism and conversion; for it is better for the body to perish than for the soul to be cast into hell. At a later age, when the falsity of this teach- ing had been realized, men still sought to justify the institution by arguing that the Almighty had created the African of a lower state especially that he might serve the superior race.

The coast of Guinea continued to be the resort of slavers down to the middle of the last century, and such scenes of cruelty, wickedness, and debauchery have occurred along its shores as can scarcely be paralleled in brutality in the history of any people.

The Portuguese can hardly be said to have colonized the coast in the sense of raising up there a Portuguese population. As he approached the equator the white man found that, in spite of his superior strength, he could not

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 65

permanently people the tropics. Diseases new to his experience attacked him. His energy declined. If he brought his family with him, his children were few or feeble and shortly his race had died out.

The settlements of the Portuguese were largely for the purposes of trade. At Sierra Leone, Kamerun, or Loango, they built forts and established garrisons, mounting pieces of artillery that gave them advantage over the attacks of the natives, and erecting warehouses and the loathsome "barracoon," where the slaves were confined to await shipment. Such decadent little settlements still linger along the African coast, although the ocean slave-trade happily has ended.

The Succ ssful Voyage of Vasco da Gama. — Through- out the century Prince Henry's policy of exploration was continued. Slowly the middle coast of Africa became known. At last in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the extremity of the continent. He. named it the Cape of Storms; but the Portuguese king, with more prophetic vision, renamed it the Cape of Good Hope. It was ten years, however, before the Portuguese could send another expedition. Then Vasco da Gama rounded the cape again, followed up the eastern coast until the Arab trad- ing-stations were reached. Then he struck across the sea, landed at the Malabar coast of India, and in 1498 arrived at Calicut. The end droamed of by all of Europe had been achieved. A sea-route to the Far East had been discovered.

Results of Da Gama's Voyage. — The importance of this performance was instantly recognized in Europe. Venice was ruined. "It was a terrible day," said a con- temporary writer, "when the word reached Venice. Bells were rung, men wept in the streets, and even the bravest

66 THE PHILIPPINES.

were silent." The Arabs and the native rulers made a desperate effort to expel the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean, but their opponents were too powerful. In the course of twenty years Portugal had founded an empire that had its forts and trading-marts from the coast of Arabia to Malaysia. Zanzibar, Aden, Oman, Goa, Calicut, .and Madras were all Portuguese stations, fortified and se- cured. In the Malay peninsula was captured the city of Malacca, which retained its commercial importance until the last century, when it dwindled before the competition of Singapore.

The work of building up this great domain was largely that of one man, the intrepid Albuquerque. Think what his task was! He was thousands of miles from home and supplies, he had only such forces and munitions as he could bring with him in his little ships, and opposed to him were millions of inhabitants and a multitude of Mo- hammedan princes. Yet this great captain built up an Indian empire. Portugal at one bound became the great- est trading and colonizing power in the world. Her sources of wealth appeared fabulous, and, like Venice, she made every effort to secure her monopoly. The fleets of other nations were warned that they could not make use of the Cape of Good Hope route, on penalty of being captured or destroyed.

Reaching India by Sailing West. — The Earth as a Sphere, f— Meanwhile, just as Portugal was carrying to completion her project of reaching India by sailing east, Europe was electrified by the supposed successful attempt of reaching India by sailing directly west, across the At- lantic. This was the plan daringly attempted in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. Columbus was an Italian sailor and cosm'ographer of Genoa. The idea of sailing west to

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 67

India did not originate with him, but his is the immortal glory of having persistently sought the means and put the idea into execution.

The Portuguese discoveries along the African coast gradually revealed the extension of this continent and the presence of people beyond the equator, and the pos- sibility of passing safely through the tropics. This knowl- edge was a great stimulus to the peoples of Europe. The geographical theory of the Greeks, that the world is round, was revived. The geographers, however, in mak- ing their calculations of the earth's circumference, had fallen into an error of some thousands of miles; that is, instead of finding that it is fully twelve thousand miles from Europe around to the East Indies, they had sup- posed it about four thousand, or even less. Marco Polo too had exaggerated the distance he had traveled and from his accounts men had been led to believe that China, Japan, and the Spice Islands lay much further to the east than they actually do.

By sailing west across one wide, ocean, with no interven- ing lands, it was thought that one could arrive at the island-world off the continent of Asia. This was the theory that was revived in Italy and which clung in men's minds for years and years, even after America was discovered.

An Italian, named Toscanelli, drew a map showing how this voyage could be made, and sent Columbus a copy. By sailing first to the Azores, a considerable por- tion of the journey would be passed, with a convenient resting-stage. Then about thirty-five days' favorable sail- ing would bring one to the islands of "Cipango," or Japan, which Marco Polo had said lay off the continent of Asia. From here the passage could readily be pur- sued to Cathay and India.

68 THE PHILIPPINES,

The Voyage of Christopher Columbus . — The roman- tic and inspiring story of Columbus is told in many books, — his poverty) his genius, his long and discouraging pur- suit of the means to carry out his plan. He first applied to Portugal; but, as we have seen, this country had been pursuing another plan steadily for a century, and, now that success appeared almost achieved, naturally the Portuguese king would not turn aside to favor Columbus's plan.

For years Columbus labored to interest the Spanish court. A great event had happened in Spanish history. Ferdinand, king of Aragon, had wedded Isabella of Castile, and this marriage united these two kingdoms into the modern country of Spain. Soon the smaller states except Portugal were added, and the war for the expulsion of the Moors was prosecuted with new vigor. In 1492, Grenada, the last splendid stronghold of the Mohammedans in the peninsula, surrendered, and in the same year Isabella fur- nished Columbus with the ships for his voyage of . dis- covery.

Columbus sailed from Palos, August 3, 1492, reached the Canaries August 24, and sailed westward on September 6. Day after day, pushed by the strong winds, called the "trades/' they went forward. Many doubts and fears beset the crews, but Columbus was stout-hearted. At the end of thirty-four days from the Canaries, on October 12, they sighted land. It was one of the groups of beautiful islands lying between the two continents of America. But Columbus thought that he had reached the East Indies that really lay many thousands of miles farther west. Colum- bus sailed among the islands of the archipelago, discov- ered Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti), and then returned to convulse Europe with excitement over the new-found way

70 THE PHILIPPINES.

to the East. He had not found the rich Spice Islands, the peninsula of India, Cathay or Japan, but every one be- lieved that these must be close to the islands on which Columbus had landed.

The tall, straight-haired, copper-colored natives, whom Columbus met on the islands, he naturally called "In- dians";' and this name they still bear. Afterwards the islands were called the "West Indies." Columbus made three more voyages for Spain. On the fourth, in 1498, he touched on the coast of South America. Here he dis- covered the great Orinoco River. Because of its large size, he must have realized that a large body of land opposed the passage to the Orient.. He died in 1506, dis- appointed at his failure to find India, but never knowing what he had found, nor that the history of a new hemi- sphere had begun with him.

The Voyage of the Cabots. — In the same year that Columbus discovered the Orinoco, Sebastian Cabot, of Italian parentage, like Columbus, secured ships from the king of England, hoping to reach China and Japan by sailing west on a northern route. What he did discover was a rugged and uninviting coast, with stormy head- lands, cold climate, and gloomy forests of pine reaching down to the sandy shores. For nine hundred miles he sailed southward, but everywhere this unprofitable coast closed the passage to China. It was the coast of Labra- dor and the United States. Yet for years and years it was not known that a continent three thousand miles wide and the greatest of all oceans lay between Cathay and the shore visited by Cabot's ships. This land was thought to be a long peninsula, an island, or series of islands, belonging to Asia. No one supposed or could sup- pose that there was a continent here.

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 71

Naming the New World. — But in a few years Europe did realize that a new continent had been discovered in South America. If you will look at your maps, you will see that South America lies far to the eastward of North America and in Brazil approaches very close to Africa. This Brazilian coast was visited by a Portuguese fleet on the African route in 1500, and two years later another fleet traversed the coast from the Orinoco to the harbor of Rio Janeiro. Their voyage was a veritable revelation. They entered the mighty current of the Amazon, the great- est river of the earth. They saw the wondrous tropical forests, full of monkeys, great snakes, and stranger ani- mals. They dealt and fought with the wild and ferocious inhabitants, whose ways startled and appalled the Euro- pean. All that they saw filled them with greatest wonder. This evidently was not Asia, nor was it the Indies. Here, in fact, was a new continent, a veritable " Mundus Novus."

The pilot of this expedition was an Italian, named Amerigo Vespucci. On the return this man wrote a very interesting letter or little pamphlet, describing this new world, which was widely read, and brought the writer fame. A few years later a German cosmographer, in pre- paring a new edition of Ptolemy's geography, proposed to give to this new continent the name of the man who had made known its wonders in Europe. So it was called "America." Long after, when the northern shores were also proved to be those of a continent/this great land was named "North America." No injustice was intended to Columbus when America was so named. It was not then supposed that Columbus had discovered a continent. The people then believed that Columbus had found a new route to India and had discovered some new islands that lay off the coast of Asia.

72 THE PHILIPPINES.

Spain Takes Possession of the New Lands. — Of these newly found islands and whatever wealth they might be found to contain, Spain claimed the possession by right of discovery. And of the European nations, it was Spain which first began the exploration and colonization of America. Spain was now free from her long Mohamme- dan wars, and the nation was being united under Ferdi- nand and Isabella. The Spaniards were brave, adventurous, and too proud to engage in commerce or agriculture, but ready enough to risk life and treasure in quest of riches abroad. The Spaniards were devotedly religious, and the Church encouraged conquest, that missionary work might be extended. So Spain began her career that was soon to make her the foremost power of Europe and one of the greatest colonial empires the world has seen. It is amaz- ing what the Spaniards accomplished in the fifty years following Columbus's first voyage.

Hispaniola was made the center from which the Span- iards extended their explorations to the continents of both North and South America. On these islands of the West Indies they found a great tribe of Indians, — the Caribs. They were fierce and cruel. The Spaniards waged a war-' fare of extermination against them, killing many, and en- slaving others for work in the mines. The Indian proved unable to exist as a slave. And his sufferings drew the' attention of a Spanish priest, Las Casas, who by vigorous efforts at the court succeeded in having Indian slavery abolished and African slavery introduced to take its place. This remedy was in the end worse than the disease, for it gave an immense impetus to the African slave-trade and peopled America with a race of Africans in bondage.

Other Spanish Explorations and Discoveries. — Mean- while, the Spanish soldier, with incredible energy, courage.

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 73

and daring, pushed his conquests. In 1513, Florida was discovered, and in the same year Balboa crossed the nar- row isthmus of Panama and saw the Pacific Ocean. Con- trary to what is often supposed, he did not dream of its vast extent, but supposed it to be a narrow body of water lying between Panama and the Asian islands. He named it the "South Sea," a name that survived after its true character was revealed by Magellan. Then followed the two most romantic and surprising conquests of colonial history, — that of Mexico by Cortes in 1521, and of Peru by Pizarro in 1533-34. These great countries were in- habited by Indians, the most advanced and cultured on the American continents. And here the Spaniards found enormous treasures of gold and silver. Then, the dis- covery of the mines of Potosi opened the greatest source of the precious metal that Europe had ever known. Span- iards flocked to the New World, and in New Spain, as Mexico was called, was established a great vice-royalty. Year after year enormous wealth was poured into Spain from these American possessions.

Emperor Charles V. — Meanwhile great political power had been added to Spain in Europe. In 1520 the throne of Spain fell to a young man, Charles, the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. His mother was Juana, the Spanish princess, and his father was Philip the Hand- some, of Burgundy. Philip the Handsome was the son of Maximilian, the Archduke of Austria. Now it curiously happened that the thrones of each of these three coun- tries was left without other heirs than Charles, and in 1520 he was King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and Duke of Burgundy and the Low Countries, including the rich commercial cities of Holland and Belgium. In addi- tion to all this, the German princes elected him German

74 THE PHILIPPINES.

emperor, and although he was King Charles the First of Spain, he is better known in history as Emperor Charles the Fifth.1

He was then an untried boy of twenty years, and no one expected to find in him a man of resolute energy, cold persistence, and great executive ability. But so it proved, and this was the man that made of Spain the greatest power of the time. He was in constant warfare. He fought four wars with King Francis I. of France, five wars with the Turks, both in the Danube valley and in Africa, and an unending succession of contests with the Protestant princes of Germany. For Charles saw, besides many other important changes, the rise of Protestantism, and the revolt of Germany, Switzerland, and England from Catholicism. The first event in his emperorship was the assembling of the famous German Diet at Worms, where was tried and condemned the real founder of the Protestant religion, Martin Luther.

The Voyage of Ferdinand Magellan. — In the mean time a way had at last been found to reach the Orient from Europe by sailing west. This discovery, the greatest voy- age ever made by man, was accomplished, in 1521, by the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan. Magellan was a Portuguese, who had been in the East with Albuquerque. He had fought with the Malays in Malacca, and had helped to establish the Portuguese power in India.

On his return to Portugal, the injustice of the court drove him from his native country, and he entered the service of Spain. Charles the Fifth commissioned him to attempt a voyage of discovery down the coast of South

1 The classical work on this famous ruler is Robertson's Life of Charles the Fifth, but the student should consult if possible more recent works.

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 75

America, with the hope of finding a passage to the East. This was Magellan's great hope and faith, — that south of the new continent of America must lie a passage west- ward, by which ships could sail to China. As long as Portugal was able to keep closed the African route to all other ships than her own, the discovery of some other way was imperative.

On the 20th of September, 1519, Magellan's fleet of five ships sailed from Sanlucar, the seaport of the city of Seville, where were equipped the Spanish colonial fleets. On November 29th they reached the coast of Brazil and then coasted southward. They traded with the natives, and at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata stayed some days to fish.

The weather grew rapidly colder and more stormy as they went farther south, and Magellan decided to stop and winter in the Bay of San Julian. Here the cold of the winter, the storms, and the lack of food caused a con- spiracy among his captains to mutiny and return to Spain. Magellan acted with swift and terrible energy. He cap- tured one of the mutinous vessels, and the chief conspirator was stabbed by the constable, Espinosa. The rest sur- rendered; one leader was executed and two others were " marooned," or left to their fate on the shore.

The Straits of Magellan. — The fleet sailed south- ward again in August but it was not until November 1, 1520, that Magellan entered the long and tortuous straits that bear his name and which connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. South of them were great bleak islands, cold and desolate. They were inhabited by In- dians, who are probably the lowest and most wretched savages on the earth. They live on fish and mussels. As they go at all times naked, they carry with them in their

76 THE PHILIPPINES.

boats brands and coals of fire. Seeing the numerous lights on the shore, Magellan named these islands Tierra del Fuego (the Land of Fire). For thirty days the ships struggled with the currents and shifting winds that pre- vail in this channel ,, during which time one ship deserted and returned to Spain; another had been lost, and only three passed out onto the boundless waters of the Pacific.

Westward on the Pacific Ocean. — But we must not make the mistake of supposing that Magellan and his fol- lowers imagined that a great ocean confronted them. They expected that simply sailing northward to the lati- tude of the Spice Islands would bring them to these de- sired places. This they did, and then turned westward, expecting each day to find the Indies; but no land ap- peared. The days lengthened into weeks, the weeks into months, and still they went forward, carried by the trade winds over a sea so smooth and free from tempests that Magellan named it the "Pacific."

But they suffered horribly from lack of food, even eating in their starvation the leather slings on the masts. It was a terrible trial of their courage. Twenty of their number died. The South Pacific is studded with islands, but curiously their route lay just too far north to behold them. From November 28, when they emerged from the Straits of Magellan, until March 7, when they reached the Ladrones, they encountered only two islands, and these were small uninhabited rocks, without water or food, which in their bitter disappointment they named the Unfortu- nate Islands.

The Ladrone Islands. — Their relief must have been inexpressible when, on coming up to land on March the 7th, they found inhabitants and food, yams, cocoanuts, and rice. At these islands the Spaniards first saw the

78 THE PHILIPPINES.

prau, with its light outrigger, and pointed sail. So numerous were these craft that they named the group Las Islas de las Velas (the Islands of Sails) ; but the loss' of a ship's boat and other annoying thefts led the sailors to designate the islands Los Ladrones (the Thieves), a name which they still retain.

The Philippine Islands. — Samar. — Leaving the La- drones Magellan sailed on westward looking for the Moluc- cas, and the first land that he sighted was the eastern coast of Samar. Pigafetta says: "Saturday, the 16th of March, we sighted an island which has very lofty moun- tains. Soon after we learned that it was Zamal, distant three hundred leagues from the islands of the Ladrones." *

Homonhon. — On the following day the sea-worn ex- pedition landed on a little uninhabited island south of Samar which Pigafetta called Humunu, and which is still known as Homonhon or Jomonjol.

It was while staying at this little island that the Span- iards first saw the natives of the Philippines. A prau which contained nine men approached their ship. They saw other boats fishing near and learned that all of these people came from the island of Suluan, which lies off to the eastward from Jomonjol about twenty kilometres. In their life and appearance these fishing people were much like the present Samal laut of southern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago.

Limasaua. — Pigafetta says that they stayed on the island of Jomonjol eight days but had great difficulty in securing food. The natives brought them a few cocoa- nuts and oranges, palm wine, and a chicken or two, but this was all that could be spared, so, on the 25th, the

1 Primer Viaje alrededor del Mundo, Spanish translation by Amoretti, Madrid, 1899, page 27.

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 79

Spaniards sailed again, and near the south end of Leyte landed on the little island of Limasaua. Here there was a village, where they met two chieftains, whom Pigafetta calls " kings," and whose names were Raja Calambu and Raja Ciagu. These two chieftains were visiting Limasaua and had their residences one at Butuan and one at Cagayan on the island of Mindanao. Some histories have stated that the Spaniards accompanied one of these chieftains to Butuan, but this does not appear to have been the case.

On the island of Limasaua -the natives had dogs, cats, hogs, goats, and fowls. They were cultivating rice, maize, breadfruit, and had also cocoanuts, oranges, bananas, citron, and ginger. Pigafetta tells how he visited one of the chieftains at his home on the shore. The house was built as Filipino houses are today, raised on posts and thatched. Pigafetta thought it looked " like a haystack."

It had been the day of Saint Lazarus when the Spaniards first reached these islands, so that Magellan gave to the group the name of the Archipelago of Saint Lazarus, the name under which the Philippines were frequently described in the early writings, although another title, Islas del Poniente or Islands of the West, was more common up to the time when the title Filipinas became fixed.

Cebu. — Magellan's people were now getting desper- ately in need of food, and the population on Limasaua had very inadequate supplies; consequently the natives directed him to the island of Cebu, and provided him with guides.

Leaving Limasaua the fleet sailed for Cebu, passing several large islands, among them Bohol, and reaching Cebu harbor on Sunday, the 7th of April. A junk from Siam was anchored at Cebu when Magellan's ships arrived

80 THE PHILIPPINES.

there; and this, together with the knowledge that the Filipinos showed of the surrounding countries, including China on the one side and the Moluccas on the other, is additional evidence of the extensive trade relations at the time of the discovery.

Cebu seems to have been a large town and it is reported that more than two thousand warriors with their lances appeared to resist the landing of the Spaniards, but assur- ances of friendliness finally won the Filipinos, and Magellan formed a compact with the dato of Cebu, whose name was Humabon.

The Blood Compact. — The dato invited Magellan to seal this compact in accordance with a curious custom of the Filipinos. Each chief wounded himself in the breast and from the wound each sucked and drank the other's blood. It is not certain whether Magellan participated in this "blood compact," as it has been called; but later it was observed many times in the Spanish settlement of the islands, especially by Legazpi.

The natives were much struck by the service of the mass, which the Spaniards celebrated on their landing, and after some encouragement desired to be admitted to the Spaniards' religion. More than eight hundred were baptized, including Humabon. The Spaniards established a kind of " factory " or trading-post on Cebu, and for some time a profitable trade was engaged in. The Filipinos well understood trading, had scales, weights, and measures, and were fair dealers.

Death of Magellan. — And now follows the great trag- edy of the expedition. The dato of Cebu, or the " Chris- tian king," as Pigafetta called their new ally, was at war with the islanders of Mactan. Magellan, eager to assist one who had adopted the Christian faith, landed on Mac-

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.

81

tan with fifty men and in the battle that ensued was killed by a wound in the arm and spear-thrusts through the breast. So died the one who was unquestionably the greatest explorer and most daring adventurer of all time. "Thus," says Pigafetta, "perished our guide, our light, and our support." It was the crowning disaster of the expedition.

The Fleet Visits Other Islands. — After Magellan's death, the natives of Cebu rose and killed the newly

Magellan Monument, Manila.

elected leader, Serrano, and the fleet in fear lifted its an- chors and sailed southward from the Bisayas. They had lost thirty-five men and their numbers were reduced to one hundred and fifteen. One of the ships was burned, there being too few men surviving to handle three vessels. After touching at Western Mindanao, they sailed west- ward, and saw the small group of Cagayan Sulu. The

82 THE PHILIPPINES.

few inhabitants they learned were Moros, exiled from Borneo. They landed on an island called Puluan (hence Palawan), where they observed the sport of cock-fighting, indulged in by the natives.

From here, still searching for the Moluccas, they were guided to Borneo, the present city of Brunei. Here was the powerful Mohammedan colony, whose adventurers were already in communication with Luzon and had es- tablished a colony on the site of Manila. The city was divided into two sections, that of the Mohammedan Ma- lays, the conquerors, and that of the Dyaks, the primi- tive population of the island. Pigafetta exclaims over the riches and power of this Mohammedan city. It contained twenty-five thousand families, the houses built for most part on piles over the water. The king's house was of stone, and beside it was a great brick fort, with over sixty brass and iron cannon. Here the Spaniards saw elephants and camels, and there was a rich trade in ginger, camphor, gums, and in pearls from Sulu.

Hostilities cut short their stay here and they sailed eastward along the north coast of Borneo through the Sulu Archipelago, where their cupidity was excited by the pearl fisheries, and on to Mindanao. Here they took some prisoners, who piloted them south to the Mo- luccas, and finally, on November 8, they anchored at Tidor. These Molucca islands, at this time, were at the height of the Malayan power. The ruler or raja of Tidor was Almanzar, of Ternate, Corala; the "king" of Gilolo was Yusef . With all these rulers the Spaniards exchanged presents, and the rajas are said by the Spaniards to have sworn perpetual amnesty to the Spaniards and ac- knowledged themselves vassals of the king. In ex- change for cloths, the Spaniards laid in a rich cargo of

THE GEE AT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 83

cloves, sandalwood, ginger, cinnamon, and gold. They established here a trading-post and hoped to hold these islands against the Portuguese.

The Return to Spain. — It was decided to send one ship, the "Victoria," to Spain by way of the Portuguese route and the Cape of Good Hope, while the other would return to America. Accordingly the "Victoria," with a little crew of sixty men, thirteen of them natives, under the command of Juan Sebastian Elcano, set sail. The passage was unknown to the Spaniards and full of perils. They sailed to Timor and thence out into the Indian Ocean. They rounded Africa, sailing as far south as 42 degrees. Then they went northward, in constant peril of capture by some Portuguese fleet, encountering storms and with scarcity of food. Their distress must have been extreme, for on this final passage twenty-one of their small number died.

At Cape Verde Islands they entered the port for sup- plies, trusting that at so northern a point their real voy- age would not be suspected. But some one of the party, who went ashore for food, in an hour of intoxication boasted of the wonderful journey they had performed and showed some of the products of the Spice Islands. Immediately the Portuguese governor gave orders for the seizure of the Spanish vessel and Elcano, learning of his danger, left his men who had gone on shore, raised sail, and put out for Spain.

On the 6th of September, 1522, they arrived at San- lucar, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River, on which is situated Seville, one ship out of the five, and eighteen men out of the company of 234 who had set sail almost three full years before. Spain welcomed her worn and tired seamen with splendid acclaim. To Elcano was

84 THE PHILIPPINES.

given a title of nobility and the famous coat-of-arms, showing the sprays of clove, cinnamon, and nutmeg, and the effigy of the globe with the motto, the proudest and worthiest ever displayed on any adventurer's shield, Primus circumdedisti me.

The First Circumnavigation of the Earth. — Thus with enormous suffering and loss of life was accomplished the first circumnavigation of the earth. It proved that Asia could be reached, although by a long and circuitous route, by sailing westward from Europe. It made known to Europe that the greatest of all oceans lies between the New World and Asia, and it showed that the earth is in- comparably larger than had been believed and supposed. It was the greatest voyage of discovery that has ever been accomplished, and greater than can ever be per- formed again.

New Lands Divided between Spain and Portugal. — By this discovery of the Philippines and a new way to the Spice Islands, Spain became engaged in a long dispute with Portugal. At the beginning of the modern age, there was in Europe no system of rules by which to regulate conduct between states. That system of regulations and customs which we call International Law, and by which states at the present time are guided in their dealings, had not arisen. During the middle age, disputes between sovereigns were frequently settled by reference to the em- peror or to the pope, and the latter had frequently asserted his right to determine all such questions as might arise. The pope had also claimed to have the right of disposing of all heathen and newly discovered lands and peoples.

So, after the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus, on request of the Court of Spain, Pope Alexander VI. divided the new lands between them. He declared that

s -•

85

86 THE PHILIPPINES.

all newly discovered countries to the west of a meridian 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands should be Spanish possessions. A year later Spain agreed with Portugal to shift this line to the meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands. This division, carried on the same meridian around the globe, resulted in giving India and Malaysia to Portugal and all the New World, except Brazil, to Spain.

As a matter of fact, 180 degrees west of the meridian finally agreed upon extended to the western part of New Guinea, and not quite to the Moluccas; but in the absence of exact geographical knowledge both parties claimed the Spice Islands. Portugal denied to Spain all right to the Philippines as well, and, as we shall see, a conflict in the Far East began, which lasted nearly through the century. Portugal captured the traders whom Elcano had left at Tidor, and broke up the Spanish station in the Spice Islands. The " Trinidad," the other ship, which was intended to return to America, was unable to sail against the strong winds, and had to put back to Tidor, after cruising through the waters about New Guinea.

Effect of the Century of Discoveries. — This circumnav- igation of the globe completed a period of discovery, which had begun a hundred years before with the timid, slow attempts of the Portuguese along the coast of Africa. In these years a new era had opened. At its beginning the European knew little of any peoples outside of his own countries, and he held scarcely any land outside the continent of Europe. At the end of a hundred years the earth had become fairly well known, the African race, the Malay peoples, the American Indians, and the Pacific islanders had been seen and described, and from now on the history of the white race was to be connected

T8E GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 87

with that of these other races. The age of colonization, of world- wide trade and intercourse, had begun. The white man, who had heretofore been narrowly pressed in upon Europe, threatened again and again with conquest by the Mohammedan, was now to cover the seas with his fleets and all lands with his power.

CHAPTER V.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF THE SPANIARDS.

Position of Tribes. — On the arrival of the Spaniards, the population of the Philippines seems to have been dis- tributed by tribes in much the same manner as at present. Then, as now, the Bisayas occupied the central islands of the archipelago and some of the northern coast of Mindanao. The Bikols, Tagalogs, and Pampangos were in the same parts of Luzon as we find them to-day. The Ilokanos occupied the coastal plain facing the China Sea, but since the arrival of the Spaniards they .have expanded considerably and their settlements are now numerous in Parigasinan, Nueva Vizcaya, and the valley of the Cagayan.

The Number of People. — These tribes which to-day number nearly 7,000,000 souls, at the time 'of Magellan's discovery aggregated not more than 500,000. An early enumeration of the population made by the Spaniards in 1591, which included practically all of these tribes, gave a population of less than 700,000. (See Chapter VIII., The Philippines Three Hundred Years Ago.}

There are other facts too that show us how sparse the population must have been. The Spanish expeditions found many coasts and islands in the Bisayan group without inhabitants. Occasionally a sail or a canoe would be seen, and then these would disappear in some small "estero" or mangrove swamp and the land seem as unpopulated as before. At certain points, like Lima- saua, Butuan, and Bohol, the natives were more numer- ous, and Cebu was a large and thriving community; but

83

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 89

the Spaniards had nearly everywhere to search for settled places and cultivated lands.

The sparseness of population is also well indicated by the great scarcity of food. The Spaniards had much difficulty in securing sufficient provisions. A small amount of rice, a pig and a few chickens, were obtainable here and there, but the Filipinos had no large supplies. After the settlement of Manila was made, a large part of the food of the city was drawn from China. The very ease with which the Spaniards marched where thejr willed and reduced the Filipinos to obedience shows that the latter were weak in numbers. Laguna de Bay and the Camarines were among the most populous portions of the archipel- ago. All of these things and others show that the Fili- pinos were but a small fraction of their present number.

On the other hand, the Negritos seem to have been more numerous, or at least more in evidence. They were im- mediately noticed on the island of Negros, where at the present they are few and confined to the interior; and in the vicinity of Manila and in Batangas, where they are no longer found, they were mingling with the Tagalog popu- lation.

Conditions of Culture. — The culture of the various tribes, which is now quite the same throughout the archi- pelago, presented some differences. In the southern Bi- sayas, where the Spaniards first entered the archipelago, there seem to have been two kinds of natives: the hill dwellers, who lived in the interior of the islands in small numbers, who wore garments of tree bark and who some- times built their houses in the trees: and the sea dwellers, who were very much like the present day Moro tribes south of Mindanao, who are known as the Samal, and who built their villages over the sea or on the shore and

90 THE PHILIPPINES.

lived much in boats. These were probably later arrivals than the forest people. From both of these elements the Bisaya Filipinos are descended, but while the coast people have been entirely absorbed, some of the hill-folk are still pagan and uncivilized, and must be very much as they were when the Spaniards first came.

The liighest grade of culture was in the settlements where there was regular trade with Borneo, Siam, and China, and especially about Manila, where many Moham- medan Malays had colonized.

Languages of the Malayan Peoples. — With the exception of the Negrito, all the languages of the Philippines belong to one great family, which has been called the " Malayo- Polynesian." All are believed to be derived from one very ancient mother-tongue. It is astonishing how widely these Malayo-Polynesian tongues have spread. Farthest east in the Pacific are the Polynesian languages, then those of the small islands known as Micronesia; then Melanesian or Papuan; the Malayan throughout the East Indian archipelago, and to the north the languages of the Philippines. But this is not all; for far westward on the coast of Africa is the island of Madagascar, many of whose languages have no connection with African but belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family.1

The Tagalpg Language, — It should be a matter of great interest to Filipinos that the great scientist, Baron

1 The discovery of this famous relationship is attributed to the Spanish Jesuit, Abb6 Lorenzo Hervas, whose notable Catdlogo de las Lenguas de las Naciones conocidas was published in 1800-05; but the similarity of Malay and Polynesian had been earlier shown by nat- uralists who accompanied the second voyage of the famous English- man, Captain Cook (1772-75). The full proof, and the relation also of Malagasy, the language of Madagascar, was given in 1838 by the great German philologist, Baron William von Humboldt,

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 91

William von Humboldt, considered the Tagalog to be the richest and most perfect of all the languages of the Malayo- Polynesian family, and perhaps the type of them all. " It possesses," he said, "all the forms collectively of which particular ones are found singly in other dialects; and it has preserved them all with very trifling exceptions un- broken, and hi entire harmony and symmetry." The Spanish friars, on their arrival in the Philippines, devoted themselves at once to learning the native dialects and to the preparation of prayers and catechisms in these native tongues. They were very successful in their studies. Father Chirino tells us of one Jesuit who learned sufficient Tagalog in seventy days to preach and hear confession. In this way the Bisayan, the Tagalog, and the Ilokano were soon mastered.

In the light of the opinion of Von Humboldt, it is in- teresting to find these early Spaniards pronouncing the Tagalog the most difficult and the most admirable. "Of all of them," says Padre Chirino, "the one which most pleased me and filled me with admiration was the Tagalog. Because, as I said to the first archbishop, and afterwards to other serious persons, both there and here, I found in it four qualities of the four best languages of the world: Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Spanish; of the Hebrew, the mysteries and obscurities; of the Greek, the articles and the precision not only of the appellative but also of the proper nouns; of the Latin, the wealth and elegance; and of the Spanish, the good breeding, politeness, and cour- tesy." '

An Early Connection with the Hindus. — The Ma- layan languages contain a considerable proportion of words borrowed from the Sanskrit, and La this the Tagalog,

1 Rdacitin de las Islas Filipinos, 2d ed., p. 52.

92 THE PHILIPPINES.

Bisayan, and Ilokano are included. Whether these words were passed along from one Malayan group to another, or whether they were introduced by the actual presence and power of the Hindu in this archipelago, may be fair ground for debate; but the case for the latter position has been so well and brilliantly put by Dr. Pardo de Tavera that his conclusions are here given in his own words. "The words which Tagalog borrowed," he says, " are those which signify intellectual acts, moral conceptions, emotions, su- perstitions, names of deities, of planets, of numerals of high number, of botany, of war and its results and conse- quences, and finally of titles and dignities, some animals, instruments of industry, and the names of money."

From the evidence of these words, Dr. Pardo argues for a period in the early history of the Filipinos, not merely of commercial intercourse, like that of the Chinese, but of Hindu political and social domination. " I do not be- lieve," he says, "and I base my opinion on the same words that I have brought together in this vocabulary, that the Hindus were here simply as merchants, but that they dominated different parts of the archipelago, where to-day are spoken the most cultured languages, — the Tagalo, the Visayan, the Pampanga, and the Ilocano; and that the higher culture of these languages comes precisely from the influence of the Hindu race over the Filipino."

The Hindus in the Philippines. — " It is impossible to believe that the Hindus, if they came only as merchants, however great their number, would have impressed them- selves in such a way as to give to these islanders the num- ber and the kind of words which they did give. These names of dignitaries, of caciques, of high functionaries of the court, of noble ladies, indicate that all of these high positions with names of Sanskrit origin were occupied at

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 93

one time by men who spoke that language. The words of a similar origin for objects of war, fortresses, and battle- songs, for designating objects of religious belief, for su- perstitions, emotions, feelings, industrial and farming activities, show us clearly that the warfare, religion, literature, industry, and agriculture were at one time in the hands of the Hindus, and that this race was effec- tively dominant in the Philippines." l

Systems of Writing among the Filipinos. — When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, the Filipinos were using systems of writing borrowed from Hindu or Javanese sources. This matter is so interesting that one can not do better than to quote in full Padre Chirino's account, as he is the first of the Spanish writers to mention it and as his notice is quite complete.

"So given are these islanders to reading and writing that there is hardly a man, and much less a woman, that does not read and write in letters peculiar to the island of Manila, very different from those of China, Japan, and of India, as will be seen from the following alphabet.

"The vowels are three; but they serve for five, and are,

\Jr

e, i o, u

The consonants are no more than twelve, and they serve to write both consonant and vowel, in this form. The letter alone, without any point either above or below, sounds with a.

1 Another possible explanation of the many Sanskrit terms which are found in the Philippine languages, is that the period of contact between Filipinos and Hindus occurred not in the Philippines but in Java and Sumatra, whence the ancestors of the Filipinos perhaps came.

94 THE PHILIPPINES:

Q	I \f	c	C/7	i
Ba	ca da	&	ha	la
	/r» v	OQ	<T	2fr
1 ma	na pa	sa	ta	ya
Placing the	point above, each one sounds with e or with i. i \f Q £> r~^
Bi be	qui di quo de	gui gue	hi he	li le
X>	^ \>	ctf	C^	£0*
mi me	ni pi ne pe	si se	ti te	yt ye
Placing the	point below, it	sounds	with o or	with w.
?	x \f	?	W	T
bo bu	co do cu du	go gu	ho hu	lo lu
f	AS \f 9 9	Cti	Oo 9	>
mo mu	no po nu pu	so su	to tu	vo vu

For instance, in order to say ' cama/ the two letters alone suffice.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 95

X V

ca - ma If to the 3L there is placed a point above, it will say

it;

que - ma If it is given to both below, it will say

? y

co mo

The final consonants are supplied or understood in all cases, and so to say ' cantar/ they write

e*

ca - ta barba,

G> £>•

ba - ba

But with all, and that without many evasions, they make themselves understood, and they themselves understand marvellously. And the reader supplies, with much skill and ease, the consonants that are lacking. They have learned from us to write running the lines from the left hand to the right, but formerly they only wrote from above downwards, placing the first line (if I remember rightly) at the left hand, and continuing with the others to the right, the opposite of the Chinese and Japanese. . . . They write upon canes or on leaves of a palm, using for a pen a point of iron. Nowadays in writing not only

96 THE PHILIPPINES.

their own but also our letters, they use a quill very well cut, and paper like ourselves.

They have learned our language and pronunciation, and write as well as we do, and even better; for they are so bright that they learn everything with the greatest ease. I have brought with me handwriting with very good and correct lettering. In Tigbauan, I had in school a very small child, who in three months' time learned, by copy- ing from well-written letters that I set him, to write enough better than I, and transcribed for me writings of importance very faithfully, and without errors or mis- takes. But enough of languages and letters; now let us return to our occupation with human souls." 1

Sanskrit Source of the Filipino Alphabet. — Besides the Tagalogs, the Bisayas, Pampangos, Pangasinans, and Ilokanos-had alphabets, or more properly syllabaries sim- ilar to this one. Dr. Pardo de Tavera has gathered many data concerning them, and shows that they were un- doubtedly received by the Filipinos from a Sanskrit source.

Early Filipino Writings. — The Filipinos used this writing for setting down their poems and songs, which were their only literature. None of this, however, has come down to us, and the Filipinos soon adopted the Spanish alphabet, forming the syllables necessary to write their language from these letters. As all these have pho- netic values, it is still very easy for a Filipino to learn to pronounce and so read his own tongue. These old char- acters lingered for a couple of centuries, in certain places. Padre Totanes 2 tells us that it was rare in 1705 to find a person who could use them; but the Tagbanwas, a pagan

1 Relation de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., pp. 58, 59, chap. XVII. * Arte de la Lengua Tagala.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 97

people on the island of Palawan, use a similar syllabary to this day. Besides poems, they had songs which they sang as they rowed their canoes, as they pounded the rice from its husk, and as they gathered for feast or en- tertainment; and especially there were songs for the dead. In these songs, says Chirino, they recounted the deeds of their ancestors or of their deities.

Chinese in the Philippines. — Early Trade. — Very dif- ferent from the Hindu was the early influence of the Chi- nese. There is no evidence that, previous to the Spanish conquest, the Chinese settled or colonized in these islands at all; and yet three hundred years before the arrival of Magellan their trading-fleets were coming here regularly and several of the islands were well known to them. One evidence of this prehistoric trade is in the ancient Chinese jars and pottery which have been exhumed in the vicinity of Manila, but the Chinese writings themselves furnish us even better proof. About the beginning of the thirteenth century, though not earlier than 1205, a Chinese author named Chao Ju-kua wrote a work upon the maritime com- merce of the Chinese people. One chapter of his work is devoted to the Philippines, which he calls the country of Mayi.1 According to this record it is indicated that the Chinese were familiar with the islands of the archi- pelago seven hundred years ago.2

1 This name is derived, in the opinion of Professor Blumentritt, from Bayi , or Bay, meaning Laguna de Bay. Professor Meyer, in his Distribution of the Negritos, suggests an identification from this Chinese record, of the islands of Mindanao, Palawan (called Pa-lao-yu) and Panay, Xegros, Cebu, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and Luzon.

2 Through the courtesy of Professor Zulueta, of the Manila Liceo, permission was given to use from Chao Ju-kua's work these quota- tions, translated from the Chinese manuscript by Professor Blumentritt. The English translation is by Mr. P. L. Stangl.

98 THE PHILLIPINES.

Chinese Description of the People. — "The country of Mayi," says this interesting classic, "is situated to the north of Poni (Burney, or Borneo). About a thousand families inhabit the banks of a very winding stream. The natives clothe themselves in sheets of cloth resembling bed sheets, or cover their bodies with sarongs. (The sarong is the gay colored, typical garment of the Malay.) Scattered through the extensive forests are copper Buddha images, but no one knows how they got there.1

" When the mer- chant (Chinese) ships arrive at this port they an- chor in front of

' *^f£' j^^l 1 M&

an open place . . .

which serves as a Moro Brass Betel BOX. market, where

they trade in the

produce of the country. When a ship enters this port, the captain makes presents of white umbrellas (to the mandarins). The merchants are obliged to pay this tribute hi order to obtain the good will of these lords." The products of the country are stated to be yellow wax, cotton, pearls, shells, betel nuts, and yuta cloth, which was perhaps one of the several cloths still woven of abaca, or pifia. The articles imported by the Chinese were " porcelain, trade gold, objects of lead, glass beads bf all colors, iron cooking-pans, and iron needles."

Tfye^Negritos. — Very curious is the accurate mention in this Qhinese writing, of the Negritos, the first of all

1 " This would confirm," says Professor Blumentritt, " Dr. Pardo de Tavera's view that in ancient times the Philippines were under the influence of Buddhism from India."

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 99

accounts to be made of the little blacks. "In the in- terior of the valleys -lives a race called Hai-tan (Aeta). They are of low stature, have round eyes of a yellow color, curly hair, and their teeth are easily seen between their lips. (That is, probably, not darkened by betel-chewing or artificial stains.) They build their nests in the treetops and in each nest lives a family, which only consists of from three to five persons. They travel about in the densest thickets of the forests, and, without being seen themselves, shoot their arrows at the passers-by; for this reason they are much feared. If the trader (Chinese) throws them a small porcelain bowl, they will stoop down to catch it and then run away with it, shouting joyfully."

Increase in Chinese Trade. — These junks also visited the more central islands, but here traffic was conducted on the ships, the Chinese on arrival announcing them- selves by beating gongs and the Filipinos coming out to them in their light boats. Among other things here offered by the natives for trade are mentioned "strange cloth," perhaps sinamay or jusi, and fine mats.

This Chinese trade continued probably quite steadily until the arrival of the Spaniards. Then it received an enormous increase through the demand for Chinese food- products and wares made by the Spaniards, and because of the value of the Mexican silver which the Spaniards offered in exchange.

Trade with the Moro Malays of the South. — The spread of Mohammedanism and especially the foundation of the colony of Borneo brought the Philippines into important commercial relations with the Malays of the south. Pre- vious to the arrival of the Spaniards these relations seem to have been friendly and peaceful. The Mohammedan

100 THE PHILIPPINES.

Malays sent their praus northward for purposes of trade, and they were also settling in the north Philippines as they had in Mindanao.

When Legazpi's fleet, soon after its arrival, lay near the island of Bohol, Captain Martin de Goiti had a hard fight with a Moro vessel which was cruising for trade, and took six prisoners. One of them, whom they call the " pilot," was closely interrogated by the commander and some interesting information obtained, which is recorded by Padre San Augustih. Legazpi had a Malay slave inter- preter with him and San Augusti'n says that Padre Urdan- eta " knew well the Malayan language." The pilot said that " those of Borneo brought for trade with the Fili- pinos, copper and tin, which was brought to Borneo from China, porcelain, dishes, and bells made in their fashion, very different from those that the Christians use, and benzoin, and colored blankets from India, and cooking- pans made in China, and that they also brought iron lances very well tempered, and knives and other articles of barter, and that in exchange for them they took away from the islands gold, slaves, wax, and a kind of small seashell which they call ' sijueyes/ and which passes for money in the kingdom of Siam and other places; and also they carry off some white cloths, of which there is a great quantity in the islands." 1

Butuan, on the north coast of Mindanao, seems to have been quite a trading-place resorted to by vessels from all quarters. This region, like many other parts of the Philippines, has produced from time immemorial small quantities of gold, and all the early voyagers speak of the gold earrings and ornaments of the natives. Butuan also produced sugarcane and was a trading-port for

1 Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, p. 95.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 101

slaves. This unfortunate traffic in human life seems to have been not unusual, and was doubtless stimulated by the commerce with Borneo. Junks from Siam trading with Cebu were also encountered by the Spaniards.

Result of this Intercourse and Commerce. — This inter- course and traffic had acquainted the Filipinos with many of the accessories of civilized life long before the arrival of the Spaniards. Their chiefs and datos dressed in silks, and maintained some splendor of surroundings; nearly the whole population of the tribes of the coast wrote and

Moro Brass Cannon, or "Lantaka."

communicated by means of a syllabary; vessels from Lu- zon traded as far south as Mindanao and Borneo, al- though the products of Asia proper came through the fleets of foreigners; and perhaps what indicates more clearly than anything else the advance the Filipinos were making through their communication with outside people is their use of firearms. Of this point there is no ques- tion. Everywhere in the vicinity of Manila, on Lubang, in Pampanga, at Cainta and Laguna de Bay, the Span- iards encountered forts mounting small cannon, or "lan- takas." * The Filipinos seem to have understood, more-

1 Relacidn de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, 1572; in Retana, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. I.

102 THE PHILIPPINES.

over, the arts of casting cannon and of making powder. The first gun-factory established by the Spaniards was in charge of a Filipino from Pampanga.

Early Political and Social Life. — The Barangay. - The weakest side of the culture of the early Filipinos was their political and social organization, and they were weak here in precisely the same way that the now uncivilized peoples of northern Luzon are still weak. Their state did not embrace the whole tribe or nation; it included simply the community. Outside of the settlers in one immedi- ate vicinity, all others were enemies or at most foreigners. There were in the Philippines no large states, nor even great rajas and sultans such as were found in the Malay Archipelago, but instead on every island were a multitude of small communities, each independent of the other and frequently waging war.

The unit of their political order was a little cluster of houses of from thirty to one hundred families, called a " barangay," which still exists in the Philippines as the "barrio." At the head of each barangay was a chief known as the "dato," a word no longer used in the northern Philippines, though it persists among the Moros of Mindanao. The powers of these datos within their small areas appear to have been great, and they were treated with utmost respect by the people.

The barangays were grouped together in tiny federa- tions including about as much territory as the present towns, whose affairs were conducted by the chiefs or datos, although sometimes they seem to have all been in obedience to a single chief, known in some places as the "hari," at other times by the Hindu word "raja," or the Mohammedan term "sultan." Sometimes the power of one of these rajas seems to have extended over the

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 103

whole of a small island, but usually their "kingdoms" embraced only a few miles.

Changes Made by the Spaniards. — The Spaniards, in enforcing their authority through the islands, took away the real power from the datos, grouping the baran- gays into towns, or " pueblos," and making the datos, headmen, caciques or principales. Something of the old distinction between the dato, or " principal," and the common man may be still represented in the " gente ilustrada," or the more wealthy, educated, and influential class found in each town, and the " gente baja," or the poor and uneducated.

Classes of Filipinos under the Datos. — Beneath the datos, according to Chirino and Morga, there were three classes of Filipinos. First wrere the free " maharlika," who paid no tribute to the dato, but who accompanied him to war, rowed his boat when he went on a journey, and attended him hi his house. This class is called by Morga " timauas." *

Then there was a very large class, wrho appear to have been freedmen or liberated slaves, who had acquired their own homes and lived with their families, but who owed to dato or maharlika heavy debts of service; to sow and harvest in his ricefields, to tend his fish-traps, to row his canoe, to build his house, to attend him when he had guests, and to perform any other duties that the chief might command. These semi-free were called "aliping namamahay," and their condition of bondage descended to their children.

Beneath these existed a class of slaves. These were the "siguiguiliris," and they were numerous. Their slavery

1 Sucesos de las Filipinos, p. 297.

104 THE PHILIPPINES.

arose in several ways. Some were those who as children had been captured in war and their lives spared. Some became slaves by selling their freedom in times of hunger. But most of them became slaves through debt, which de- scended from father to son. A debt of five or six pesos was enough in some cases to deprive a man of his freedom. 'These slaves were absolutely owned by their lord, who could theoretically sell them like cattle; but, in spite of its bad possibilities, this Filipino slavery was apparently not of a cruel or distressing nature. The slaves frequently associated on kindly relations with their masters and were not overworked. This form of slavery still persists in the Philippines among the Moros of Mindanao and Jolo. Chil- dren of slaves inherited their parents' slavery. If one parent was free and the other slave, the first, third, and fifth children were free and the second, fourth, and sixth slaves. This whole matter of inheritance of slavery was curiously worked out in details.

Life in the Barangay. — Community feeling was very strong within the barangay. A man could not leave his own barangay for life in another without the consent of the community and the payment of money. If a man of one barrio married a woman of another, their children were divided between the two barangay s. The barangay was responsible for the good conduct of its members, and if one of them suffered an injury from a man outside, the whole barangay had to be appeased. Disputes and wrongs between members of the same barangay were referred to a number of old men, who decided the matter in accord- ance with the customs of the tribe, which were handed down by tradition.1

1 These data are largely taken from the account of the customs of the Tagalog prepared by Friar Juan de Plasencia, in 1589, at the

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 105

The Religion of the Filipinos. — The Filipinos on the arrival of the Spaniards were fetish-worshipers, but they had one spirit whom they believed was the greatest of all and the creator or maker of things. The Tagalogs called this deity Bathala,1 the Bisayas, Loon, and the Ilokanos, Kabunian. They also worshiped the spirits of their an- cestors, which were represented by small images called "anitos." Fetishes, which are any objects believed to. possess miraculous power, were common among the people, and idols or images were worshiped. Pigafetta describes some idols which he saw hi Cebu, and Chirino tells us that, within the memory of Filipinos whom he knew, they had idols of stone, wood, bone, or the tooth of a crocodile, and that there were some of gold.

They also reverenced animals and birds, especially the crocodile, the crow, and a mythical bird of blue or yellow color, whch was called by the name of their deity Bathala.2 They had no temples or public places of worship, but each one had his anitos hi his own house and performed his sacrifices and acts of worship there. As sacrifices they killed pigs or chickens, and made such occasions times of feasting, song, and drunkenness. The life of the

request of Dr. Santiago de Vera, the governor and president of the Audiencia. Although there are references to it by the early his- torians of the Philippines, this little code did not see the light until a few years ago, when a manuscript copy was discovered in the con- vent of the Franciscans at Manila, by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, and was by him published. It treats of slave-holding, penalties for crime, inheritances, adoption, dowry, and marriage. (Las Costumbres de los Tagdlog en Filipinos, segun el Padre Plasencia, by T. H. Pardo de Tavera. Madrid, 1892.)

1 See on this matter Diccionario Mitologico de Filipinos, by Blu- mentritt; Retana, Archivo del Biblidfilo Filipino, vol. II.

2 Tliis word is of Sanskrit origin and is common throughout Malay- sia.

106 THE PHILIPPINES.

Filipino was undoubtedly filled with superstitious fears and imaginings.

The Mohammedan Malays. — The Mohammedans out- side of southern Mindanao and Jolo, had settled in the vicinity of Manila Bay and on Mindoro, Lubang, and adjacent coasts of Luzon. The spread of Mohammedan- ism was stopped by the Spaniards, although it is nar- rated that for a long time many of those living on the shores of Manila Bay refused to eat pork, which is for- bidden by the Koran, and practiced the rite of circum- cision. As late as 1583, Bishop Salazar, in writing to the king of affairs in the Philippines, says the Moros had preached the law of Mohammed to great numbers in these islands and by this preaching many of the Gentiles had become Mohammedans; and further he adds, "Those who have received this foul law guard it with much persistence and there is great difficulty in making them abandon it; and with cause too, for the reasons they give, to our shame and confusion, are that they were better treated by the preachers of Mohammed than they have been by the preachers of Christ." l

Material Progress of the Filipinos. — The material sur- roundings of the Filipino before the arrival of the Span- iards were in nearly every way quite as they are to-day. The "center of population" of each town to-day, with its great church, tribunal, stores and houses of stone and wood, is certainly in marked contrast; but the appear- ance of a barrio a little distance from the center is to-day probably much as it was then. Then, as now, the bulk of the people lived in humble houses of bam-

1 Relacidn de las Cosas de las Filipinos hecha por Sr. Domingo de Salazar, Primer obispo de dichas islas, 1583; in Retana, Archivo, vol. III.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 107

boo and nipa raised on piles above the dampness of the soil; then, as now, the food was largely rice and the excellent fish which abound in river and sea. There were on the water the same familiar bancas and fish corrals, and on land the rice fields and cocoanut groves. The Fili- pinos had then most of the present domesticated animals, — dogs, cats, goats, chickens, and pigs, — and perhaps hi Luzon the domesticated buffalo, although this animal was widely introduced into the Philippines from China after the Spanish conquest. Horses followed the Spaniards and their numbers were increased by the bringing in of Chinese mares, whose importation is frequently mentioned.

The Spaniards introduced also the cultivation of to- bacco, coffee, and cacao, and perhaps also the native corn of America, the maize, although Pigafetta says they found it already growing in the Bisayas.

The Filipino has been affected by these centuries of Spanish sovereignty far less on his material side than he has on his spiritual, and it is mainly in the deepening and elevating of his emotional and mental life and not in the bettering of his material condition that advance has been made.

CHAPTER VI.

THE SPANISH SOLDIER AND THE SPANISH MISSIONARY.

History of the Philippines as a Part of the History of the Spanish Colonies. — We have already seen how the Philippines were discovered by Magellan in his search for the Spice Islands. Brilliant and romantic as is the story of that voyage, it brought no immediate reward to Spain. Portugal remained in her enjoyment of the Eastern trade and nearly half a century elapsed before Spain obtained a settlement in these islands. But if for a time he neg- lected the Far East, the Spaniard from the Peninsula threw himself with almost incredible energy and devo- tion into the material and spiritual conquest of America. All the greatest achievements of the Spanish soldier and the Spanish missionary had been secured within fifty years from the day when Columbus sighted the West Indies.

In order to understand the history of the Philippines, we must not forget that these islands formed a part of this great colonial empire and were under the same ad- ministration; that for over two centuries the Philippines were reached through Mexico and to a great extent influ- enced by Mexico; that the same governors, judges, and soldiers held office in both hemispheres, passing from America to the Philippines and being promoted from the Islands to the higher official positions of Mexico and Peru. So to understand the rule of Spain in the Philippines, we must study the great administrative machinery and the

108

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 109

great body of laws which were developed for the govern- ment of the Indies.1

Character of the Spanish Explorers. — The conquests themselves were largely effected through the enterprise and wealth of private individuals; but these men held commissions from the Spanish crown, their actions were subject to strict royal control, and a large proportion of the profits and plunder of their expeditions were paid to the royal treasury. Upon some of these conquerors the crown bestowed the proud title of " adelantado." The Spanish nobility threw themselves into these hazardous undertakings with the courage and fixed determination born of their long struggle with the Moors. Out of the soul-trying circumstances of Western conquest many ob- scure men rose, through their brilliant qualities of spirit, to positions of eminence and power; but the exalted of- fices of viceroy and governor were reserved for the titled favorites of the king.

The Royal Audiencia. — Very early the Spanish court, . in order to protect its own authority, found it necessary to succeed the ambitious and adventurous conqueror by a ruler in close relationship with and absolute dependence on the royal will. Thus in Mexico, Corte"s the conqueror was removed and replaced by the viceroy Mendoza, who established upon the conquests of the former the great Spanish colony of New Spain, to this day the most suc- cessful of all the states planted by Spain in America.

To limit the power of the governor or viceroy, as well

1 The foundation and character of this great colonial administra- tion have been admirably described by the Honorable Bernard Moses, United States Philippine Commissioner and the first Secretary of Public Instruction, in his work, The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America.

110 THE PHILIPPINES.

as to act as a supreme court for the settlement of actions and legal questions, was created the " Royal Audiencia." This was a body of men of noble rank and learned in the law, sent out from Spain to form in each country a co- lonial court; but its powers were not alone judicial; they were also administrative. In the absence of the governor the audiencia assumed his duties.

Treatment of the Natives by the Spanish. — In his treat- ment of the natives, whose lands he captured, the Span- ish king attempted three things, — first, to secure to the colonist and to the crown the advantages of their labor, second, to convert the Indians to the Christian religion as maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, and third, to protect them from cruelty and inhumanity. Edict after edict, law after law, issued from the Spanish throne with these ends in view. As they stand upon the greatest of colonial law-books, the Recopilacidn de Leyes de las Indias, they display an a.dmirable sensitiveness to the needs of the Indian and an appreciation of the dangers to which he was subjected; but in the actual practice these benefi- cent provisions were largely useless.

The first and third of Spain's purposes in her treatment of the native proved incompatible. History has shown that liberty and enlightenment can not be taken from a race with one hand and protection given it with the other. All classes of Spain's colonial government were frankly in pursuit of wealth. Greed filled them all, and was the mainspring of every discovery and every settlement. The king wanted revenue for his treasury; the noble and the soldier, booty for their private purse; the friar, wealth for his order; the bishop, power for his church. All this wealth had to come out of the native toiler on the lands which the Spanish conqueror had seized; and while noble

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. Ill

motives were probably never absent and at certain times prevailed, yet in the main the native of America and of the Philippines was a sufferer under the hand and power of the Spaniard.

"The Encomenderos." — Spain's system of controlling the lives and the labor of the Indians was based to a cer- tain extent on the feudal system, still surviving in the Peninsula at the time of her colonial conquests. The captains and soldiers and priests of her successful con- quests had assigned to them great estates or fruitful lands with their native inhabitants, which they managed and ruled for their own profit. Such estates were called first "repartimientos." But very soon it became the practice, hi America, to grant large numbers of Indians to the ser- vice of a Spaniard, who had over them the power of a master and \vho enjoyed the profits of their labor. In return he was supposed to provide for the conversion of the Indians and their religious instruction. Such a grant of Indians was called an "encomienda." The "encomen- dero" was not absolute lord of the lives and properties of the Indians, for elaborate laws were framed for the latter's protection. Yet the granting of subjects without the land on which they lived made possible their transfer and sale from one encomendero to another, and hi this way thou- sands of Indians of America were made practically slaves, and were forced into labor in the mines.

As we have already seen, the whole system was attacked by the Dominican priest, Las Casas, a truly noble char- acter in the history of American colonization, and various efforts were made in America to limit the encomiendas and to prevent their introduction into Mexico and Peru ; but the great power of the encomendero in America, together with the influence of the Church, which held extensive

112 THE PHILIPPINES.

encomiendas, had been sufficient to extend the institution, even against Las Casas' impassioned remonstrances. Its abolition in Mexico was decreed in 1544, but " commis- sioners representing the municipality of Mexico and the religious orders were sent to Spain to ask the king to re- voke at least those parts of the 'New Laws' which threatened the interests of the settlers. By a royal decree of October 20, 1545, the desired revocation was granted. This action filled the Spanish settlers with joy and the en- slaved Indians with despair." l

Thus was the institution early established as a part of the colonial system and came with the conquerors to the Philippines.

Restrictions on Colonization and Commerce. — For the management of all colonial affairs the king created a great board, or bureau, known as the "Council of the In- dies," which sat in Madrid and whose members were among the highest officials of Spain. The Spanish government exercised the closest supervision over all colonial matters, and colonization was never free. All persons, wares, and ships, passing from Spain to any of her colonial posses- sions, were obliged to pass through Seville, and this one port alone.

This wealthy ancient city, situated on the river Gua- dalquivir in southwestern Spain, was the gateway to the Spanish Empire. From this port went forth the mailed soldier, the robed friar, the adventurous noble, and the brave and highborn Spanish ladies, who accompanied their husbands to such great distances over the sea. And back to this port were brought the gold of Peru, the silver of Mexico, and the silks and embroideries of China, dis- patched through the Philippines.

1 Moses: Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, p. 12.

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 113

It must be observed that all intercourse between Spain and her colonies was rigidly controlled by the govern- ment. Spain sought to create and maintain an exclusive monopoly of her colonial trade. To enforce and direct this monopoly, there was .at Seville the Commercial House, or "Casa de Contratacion." No one could sail from Spain to a colonial possession without a permit and after government registration. No one could send out goods or import them except through the Commercial House and upon the payment of extraordinary imposts. Trade was absolutely forbidden to any except Spaniards. And by her forts and fleets Spain strove to isolate her col- onies from the approach of Portuguese, Dutch, or English, whose ships, no less daringly manned than those of Spain herself, were beginning to traverse the seas in search of the plunder and spoils of foreign conquest and trade.

Summary of the Colonial Policy of Spain. — Spain sought foreign colonies, first, for the spoils of accumulated wealth that could be seized and carried away at once, and, secondly, for the income that could be procured through the labor of the inhabitants of the lands she gained. In framing her government and administration of her colo- nies, she sought primarily the political enlightenment and welfare neither of the Spanish colonist nor the native race, but the glory, power, and patronage of the crown. The commercial and trade regulations were devised, not to develop the resources and increase the prosperity of the colonies, but to add wealth to the Peninsula. Yet the purposes of Spain were far from being wholly selfish. With zeal and success she sought the conversion of the heathen natives, whom she subjected, and in this showed a humanitarian interest in advance of the Dutch and Eng- lish, who rivaled her in colonial empire.

114 THE PHILIPPINES.

The colonial ideals under which the policy of Spain was framed were those of the times. In the centuries that have succeeded, public wisdom and conscience on these matters have immeasurably improved. Nations no longer make conquests frankly to exploit them, but the public opinion of the world demands that the welfare of the co- lonial subject be sought and that he be protected from official greed. 'There is great advance still to be made. It can hardly be said that the world yet recognizes that a stronger people should assist a weaker without assurance of material reward, but this is the direction in which the most enlightened feeling is advancing. Every undertak- ing of the white race, which has such aims in view, is an experiment worthy of profound interest and solicitous sympathy.

Result of the Voyage of Magellan and Elcano. — The mind of the Spanish adventurer was greatly excited by the results of Sebastian Elcano's voyage. Here was the opportunity for rich trade and great profit. Numerous plans were laid before the king, one of them for the build- ing of an Indian trading-fleet and an annual voyage to the Moluccas to gather a great harvest of spices.

Portugal protested against this move until the question of her claim to the Moluccas, under the division of Pope Alexander, could be settled. The exact longitude of Ter- nate west from the line 370 leagues beyond the Verde Islands was not well known. Spaniards argued that it was less than 180 degrees, and, therefore, in spite of Por- tugal's earlier discovery, belonged to them. The pilot, Medina, for example, explained to Charles V. that from the meridian 370 degrees west of San Anton (the most westerly island of the Verde group) to the city of Mexico was 59 degrees, from Mexico to Navidad, 9 degrees, and

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 115

from this port to Cebu, 100 degrees, a total of only 168 degrees, leaving a margin of 12 degrees; therefore by the final treaty the Indies, Moluccas, Borneo, Gilolo, and the Philippines were Spain's.1 A great council of em- bassadors and cosmographers was held at Badajoz in 1524, but reached no agreement. Spain announced her resolu- tion to occupy the Moluccas, and Portugal threatened with death the Spanish adventurers who should be found there.

The First Expedition to the Philippines. — Spain acted immediately upon her determination, and hi 1525 dis- patched an expedition under Jofre de Loaisa to reap the fruits of Magellan's discoveries.2 The captain of one ves- sel was Sebastian Elcano, who completed the voyage of Magellan. On his ship sailed Andres de Urdaneta, who later became an Augustinian friar and accompanied the expedition of Legazpi that finally effected the settlement of the Philippines. Not without great hardship and losses did the fleet pass the Straits of Magellan and enter the Pacific Ocean. In mid-ocean Loaisa died, and four days later the famous Sebastian Elcano. Following a route somewhat similar to that of Magellan, the fleet reached first the Ladrone Islands and later the coast of Mindanao. From here they attempted to sail to Cebu, but the strong northeast monsoon drove them southward to the Mo- luccas, and they landed on Tidor the last day of the year 1526.

1 Demarcation del Maluco, hecha por el maestro Medina, in Docu- mentor ineditos, vol. V., p. 552.

2 This and subsequent voyages are given in the Documenlos ineditos, vol. V., and a graphic account is in Argensola's Conquista de las Islas Molucas. They are also well narrated in English by Burney, Du- coveries in the South Sea, vol. I., chapters V., XII., and XIV.

116 THE PHILIPPINES. .

The Failure of the Expedition. — The Portuguese were at this moment fighting to reduce the native rajas of these islands to subjection. They regarded the Spaniards as enemies, and each party of Europeans was shortly en- gaged in fighting and in inciting the natives against the other. The condition of the Spaniards became desperate in the extreme, and indicates at what cost of life the con- quests of the sixteenth century were made. Their ships had become so battered by storm as to be no longer sea- worthy. The two officers, who had successively followed Loaisa and Elcano in command, had likewise perished. Of the 450 men who had sailed from Spain, but 120 now survived. These, under the leadership of Hernando de la Torre, threw up a fort on the island of Tidor, unable to go farther or to retire, and awaited hoped-for succor from Spain.

Relief came, not from the Peninsula, but from Mexico. Under the instructions of the Spanish king, in Octo- ber, 1527* Cortes dispatched from Mexico a small -expedi- tion in charge of D. Alvaro de Saavedra. Swept rapidly by the equatorial trades, in a few months Saavedra had traversed the Carolines, reprovisioned on Mindanao, and reached the survivors on Tidor. Twice they attempted to return to New Spain, but strong trade winds blow without cessation north and south on either side of the equator for the space of more than twelve hundred miles, and the northern latitude of calms and prevailing westerly winds were not yet known.

Twice Saavedra beat his way eastward among the strange islands of Papua and Melanesia, only to be at last driven back upon Tidor and there to die. The sur- vivors were forced to abandon the Moluccas. By sur- rendering to the Portuguese they were assisted to return

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 117

to Europe by way of Malacca, Ceylon, and Africa, and they arrived at Lisbon in 1536, the survivors of Loaisa's expedition, having been gone from Spain eleven years.

The efforts of the Spanish crown to obtain possession of the Spice Islands, the Moluccas and Celebes, with their coveted products of nutmeg, cinnamon, and pepper, were for the time suspended. By the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529) the Emperor, Charles V., for the sum of three hundred and fifty thousand gold ducats, mortgaged his claim to the Moluccas. For thirteen years the provisions of this treaty were respected by the Spaniards, and then another attempt was made to obtain a foothold in the East Indies.

The Second Expedition to the Philippines. — The facts that disaster had overwhelmed so many, that two oceans must be crossed, and that no sailing-route from Asia back to America was known, did not deter the Spaniards from their perilous conquests; and in 1542 another expedition sailed from Mexico, under command of Lopez de Villa- lobos, to explore the Philippines and if possible to reach China.

Across the Pacific they made a safe and pleasant voyage. In the warm waters of the Pacific they sailed among those wonderful coral atolls, rings of low shore, decked with palms, grouped hi beautiful archipelagoes, whose appearance has never failed to delight the navi- gator, and whose composition is one of the most interest- ing subjects known to students of the earth's structure and history. Some of these many islands Villalobos took pos- session of hi the name of Spain. These were perhaps the Pelew Islands or the Carolines.

At last Villalobos reached the east coast of Mindanao, but after some deaths and sickness they sailed again and

118 THE PHILIPPINES.

were carried south by the monsoon to the little island of Sarangani, south of the southern peninsula of Mindanao. The natives were hostile, but the Spaniards drove them from their stronghold and made some captures of musk, amber, oil, and gold-dust. In need of provisions, they planted the maize, or Indian corn, the wonderful cereal of America, which yields so bounteously, and so soon after planting. Food was greatly needed by the Spaniards and was very difficult to obtain.

The Naming of the Islands. — Villalobos equipped a small vessel and sent it northward to try to reach Cebu. This vessel reached the coast of Samar. Villalobos gave to the island the name of Felipina, in honor of the Spanish Infante, or heir apparent, Philip, who was soon to succeed his father Charles V. as King Philip the Second of Spain. Later in his correspondence with the Portuguese Villalobos speaks of the archipelago as Las Felipinas. Although for many years the title of the Islas del Poniente continued hi use, Villalobos' name of Filipinas gradually gained place and has lived.

The End of the Expedition. — While on Sarangani demands were made by the Portuguese, who claimed that Mindanao belonged with Celebes, and that the Span- iards should leave. Driven from Mindanao by lack of food and hostility of the natives, Villalobos was blown southward by storms to Gilolo. Here, after long negotiations, the Portuguese compelled him to surrender. The survivors of the expedition dispersed, some remain- ing in the Indies, and some eventually reaching Spain; but Villalobos, overwhelmed by discouragement, died on the island of Amboyna. The priest who ministered to him in his last hours was the famous Jesuit missionary to the Indies, Saint Francis Xavier.

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 119

Twenty-three years were to elapse after the sailing of Villulobos' fleet before another Spanish expedition should reach the Philippines. The year 1565 dates the perma- nent occupation of the archipelago by the Spanish.

Increase in Political Power of the Church. — Under Philip the Second, the champion of ecclesiasticism, the Spanish crown cemented the union of the monarchy with the church and devoted the resources of the empire, not only to colonial acquisition, but to combating the Pro- testant revolution on the one hand and heathenism on the other. The Spanish king effected so close a union of the church and state in Spain, that from this time on religious issues increasingly gained in importance, and profoundly influenced the policy and fate of the nation. The policy of Philip the Second, however, brought upon Spain the revolt of the Dutch Lowlands and the wars with England, and her struggle with these two nations drained her resources both on land and sea, and occa- sioned a physical and moral decline. But while Spain was constantly losing power and prestige in Europe, the king was extending his colonial domain, lending royal aid to the ambitious adventurer and to the ardent mis- sionary friar. Spain's object being to christianize as well as to conquer, the missionary became a very important figure hi the history of every colonial enterprise, and these great orders to whom missions were intrusted thus became the central institutions in the history of the Philippines.

The Rise of Monasticism. — Monasticism was introduced into Europe from the East at the very commencement of the Middle Ages. The fundamental idea of the old mo- nasticism was retirement from human society in the belief that the world was bad and could not be bettered, and

120 THE PHILIPPINES.

that men could lead holier lives and better please God by forsaking secular employments and family relations, and devoting all their attention to purifying their characters. The first important order in Europe were the Benedictines, organized in the sixth century. Their rule and organ- ization were the pattern for those that followed.

The clergy of the church were divided thus into two groups, — first, the parish priests, or ministers, who lived among the people over whom they exercised the cure of souls, and who, because they were of the people themselves and lived their lives in association with the community, were known as the •" secular clergy," and second, the monks, or " regular clergy," who were so called because they lived under the " rule " of their order.

In the early part of the thirteenth century monasti- cism, which had waned somewhat during the preceding two centuries, received a new impetus and inspiration from the organization of new orders known as brethren or " friars." The idea underlying their organization was noble, and higher than that of the old monasticism ; for it emphasized the idea of service, of ministry both to the hearts and bodies of depressed and suffering men.

The Dominicans. — The Order of Dominicans was or- ganized by Saint Dominic, of Spain, about 1215. The primary object of its members was to defend the doc- trines of the Church and, by teaching and preaching, destroy the doubts and protests which in the thirteenth century were beginning to disturb -the claims of the Cath- olic Church and the Papacy. The Dominican friars did not live in seclusion, but traveled about, humbly clad, preaching in the villages and towns, and seeking to ex- pose and punish the heretic. The mediaeval universities, through their study of philosophy and the Roman law,

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 121

were producing a class of men disposed to hold opinions contrary to the teachings of the Church. The Dominicans realized the importance of these great centers of instruc- tion and entered them as teachers and masters, and by the beginning of the fifteenth century had made them strongholds of conservatism and orthodoxy.

The Franciscans. — In the same epoch of revival, the Order of Franciscans was founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in Italy. The aims of this order were not only to preach and administer the sacraments, but to nurse the sick, provide for the destitute, and alleviate the dreadful misery which affected whole classes in the Middle Ages. They took vows of absolute poverty, and so humble was the garb prescribed by their rule that they went barefooted from place to place.

The August inian Order was given organization by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256, and still other orders followed.

The Degeneration of the Orders. — Without doubt the early ministrations of these friars were productive of great good both on the religious and humanitarian sides. But, as the orders became wealthy, the friars lost their spiritu- ality and their lives grew vicious. By the beginning of the sixteenth century the administration of the Church throughout Europe had become so corrupt, the economic burden of the religious orders so great, and religious teaching and belief so material, that the best and noblest minds in all countries were agitating for reform.

The Reformation. — In addition to changes in church administration, many Christians were demanding a greater freedom of religious thinking and radical changes hi the Church doctrine which had taken form in the Middle Ages. Thus, while all the best minds in the Church were united in seeking a reformation of character and of admin-

122 THE PHILIPPINES.

istration, great differences arose between them as to the possibility of change in Church doctrines. These differ- ences accordingly separated them into two parties; the Papal party adhered strongly to the doctrine as it was then accepted, while various leaders in the north of Europe, including Martin Luther hi Germany, Swingli in Switzer- land, and John Calvin in France and Geneva, broke with the authority of the Pope and declared for a liberation of the individual conscience.

Upon the side of the Papacy, the Emperor Charles the Fifth threw the weight of the Spanish monarchy, and to enforce the Papal authority he attacked the German princes by force of arms. The result was a great revolt from the Roman Catholic Church, which spread all over northern Germany, a large portion of Switzerland, the lowlands of the Rhine, and England, and which included a numerous and very influential element among the French people. These countries, with the exception of France, have remained Protestant to the present day; and the great expansion of the English people in America and the East has established Protestantism in all parts of the world.

Effects of the Reformation in the Roman Catholic Church. — The reform movement, which lasted through the century, brought about a great improvement in the Roman Catholic Church. Many, who remained devoted to Roman Catholic orthodoxy, were zealous for administra- tive reform. A great assembly of Churchmen, the Council of Trent, for years devoted itself to legislation to correct abuses. The Inquisition was revived and put into force against Protestants, especially hi the dominions of Spain, and the religious orders were reformed and stimulated to new sacrifices and great undertakings.

But greater, perhaps, than any of these agencies hi re-

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 123

establishing the power of the Pope and reviving the life of the Roman Catholic Church was the organization of a new order, the "Society of Jesus." The founder was a Span- iard, Ignatius Loyola. The Jesuits devoted themselves especially to education and missionary activity. Their schools soon covered Europe, while their mission stations were to be found in both North and South America, India, the East Indies, China, and Japan.

The Spanish Missionary. — The Roman Catholic Church, having lost a large part of Europe, thus strove to make up the loss by gaining converts in heathen lands. Spain, being the power most rapidly advancing her conquests abroad, was the source of the most tireless missionary effort. From the time of Columbus, every fleet that sailed to gain plunder and lands for the Spanish kingdom carried bands of friars and churchmen to convert to Christianity the heathen peoples whom the sword of the soldier should reduce to obedience.

"The Laws of the Indies" gave special power and prom- inence to the priest. In these early days of Spain's colonial empire many priests were men of piety, learning, and un- selfish devotion. Their efforts softened somewhat the vio- lence and brutality that often marred the Spanish treatment of the native, and they became the civilizing agents among the peoples whom the Spanish soldiers had conquered.

In Paraguay, California, and the Philippines the power and importance of the Spanish missionary outweighed that of the soldier or governor in the settlement of those coun- tries and the control of the native inhabitants.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT BI THE SPANIARDS

IN THE

PHILIPPINES, 1565-1590

SCALE OF MILES

CHAPTER VII.

PERIOD OF CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600.

Cause of Settlement and Conquest of the Philippines. — The previous Spanish expeditions whose misfortunes have been narrated, seemed to have proved to the Court of Spain that they could not drive the Portuguese from the Moluccas. But to the east of the Moluccas lay great un- explored archipelagoes, which might lie within the Span- .ish demarcation and which might yield spices and other valuable articles of trade; and as the Portuguese had made no effective occupation of the Philippines, the minds of Spanish conquerors turned to this group also as a coveted field of conquest, even though it was pretty well under- stood that they lay in the latitude of the Moluccas, and so were denied by treaty to Spain.

In 1559 the Spanish king, Felipe II., commanded the viceroy of Mexico to undertake again the discovery of the islands lying "toward the Moluccas," but the rights of Portugal to islands within her demarcation were to be respected. Five years passed before ships and equipments could be prepared, and during these years the objects of the expedition received considerable discussion and under- went some change.

The king invited Andre's de Urdaneta, who years before had been a captain in the expedition of Loaisa, to accom- pany the expedition as a guide- and director. Urdaneta, after his return from the previous expedition, had re- nounced military life and had become an Augustinian friar. He was known to be a man of wise judgment,

125

126 THE PHILIPPINES.

with good knowledge of cosmography, and as a missionary he was able to give to the expedition that religious strength which characterized all Spanish undertakings.

It was Urdaneta's plan to colonize, not the Philippines, but New Guinea; but the Audiencia of Mexico, which had charge of fitting out the expedition, charged it in minute instructions to reach and if possible colonize the Philip- pines, to trade for spices and to discover the return sail- ing route back across the Pacific to New Spain. The natives of the islands were to be converted to Christianity, and missionaries were to accompany the expedition. In the quaint language of Fray Gaspar de San Augustln, there were sent "holy guides to unfurl and wave the banners of Christ, even to the remotest portions of the islands, and to drive the devil from the tyrannical pos- session, which he had held for so many ages, usurping to himself the adoration of those peoples." 1

The Third Expedition to the Philippines. — The expedi- tion sailed from the port of Natividad, Mexico, November 21, 1564, under the command of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. The ships followed for a part of the way a course further south than was necessary, and touched at some inhabited islands of Micronesia. About the 22d of January they reached the Ladrones and had some trouble with the natives. They reached the southern end of Samar about February the 13th. Possession of Samar was taken by Legazpi in the name of the king, and small parties were sent both north and south to look for villages of the Fil- ipinos.

A few days later they rounded the southern part of Samar, crossed the strait to the coast of southern Leyte,

1 Fray Gaspar de San Augustm: Conquistas de las Islas Filipinos, lib. I., c. 13.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 127

and Captain Martin de Goiti discovered the town of Cabalian, and on the 5th of March the fleet sailed to this town. Provisions were scarce on the Spanish vessels, and great difficulty was experienced in getting food from the few natives met hi boats or in the small settlements discovered.

Legazpi at Bo- hol. — About the middle of March the fleet arrived at Bohol, doubt- less the southern or eastern shore. AYhile near here Goiti in a small boat captured a Moro prau from Borneo and after a hard fight brought back the M o r o s as pris- oners to Legazpi. There proved to be quite a trade

ovlc-finff hMwPPn (From a painting by Lima, in the Malacanan

palace at Manila.)

the Moros from Borneo and the natives of Bohol and Mindanao.

Here on Bohol they were able to make friendly terms with the natives, and with Sicatuna, the dato of Bohol, Legazpi performed the ceremony of blood covenant. The Spanish leader and the Filipino chief each made a small

128

THE PHILIPPINES.

cut in his own arm or breast and drank the blood of the other. According to Gaspar de San Augustfn, the blood was mixed with a little wine or water and drunk from a goblet.1 This custom was the most sacred bond of friendship among the Filipinos, and friendship so pledged was usu- ally kept with great fidelity.

Legazpi in Cebu. — On the 27th of April, 1565, Le- gazpi's fleet reached Cebu. Here, in this beautiful strait

The Blood Compact. (Painting by Juan Luna.)

and fine anchoring-ground, Magellan's ships had lingered until the death of their leader forty-four years before. A splendid native settlement lined the shore, so Father Chirino tells us, for a distance of more than a league. The natives of Cebu were fearful and greatly agitated,

1 One of the best paintings of the Filipino artist Juan Luna, which hangs in the Ayuntamiento in Manila, represents Legazpi in the act of the " Pacto de Sangre " with this Filipino chieftain.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. , 129

and seemed determined to resist the landing of the Span- iards. But at the first discharge of the guns of the ships, the natives abandoned the shore, and, setting fire to the town, retreated into the jungles and hills. Without loss of life the Spaniards landed, and occupied the harbor and town.

Finding of "the Holy Child of Ce~bu." — The Spanish soldiers found in one of the houses of the na-. tives a small wooden image of the Child Jesus. A similar image, Pigafetta tells us, he himself had given to a native while in the island with Magellan. It had been pre- served by the na- tives and was re- garded by them as an object of vener- ation. To the pious Spaniards the discovery of this sacred object was hailed as an event of great good fortune. It was taken by the monks, and carried to a shrine especially erected for it. It still rests in the church of the Augustinians, an object of great devotion.

Settlement made at Cebu. — In honor of this image this settlement of the Spaniards in the Philippines later

The Holy Child (Santo Nino) of Cebu.

130 THE PHILIPPINES.

received the name of " City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus." Here Legazpi established a camp, and, by great tact and skill, gradually won the confidence and friend- ship of the inhabitants. A formal peace was at last concluded in which the dato, Tupas, recognized the sover- eignty of Spain ; and the people of Cebu and the Spaniards bound themselves to assist each other against the enemies of either.

They had some difficulty in understanding one another, but the Spaniards had with them a Mohammedan Malay of Borneo, called Cid-Hamal, who had been taken from the East Indies to the Peninsula and thence to Mexico and Legazpi's expedition. The languages of Malaysia and the Philippines are so closely related that this man was able to interpret. Almost immediately, however, the mission- aries began the study of the native dialect, and Padre Chirino tells us that Friar Martin Herrada made here the first Filipino vocabulary, and was soon preaching the Gospel to the natives in their own language.

Discovery of the Northern Return Route across the Pacific. — Before the arrival of the expedition in the Philippines, the captain of one of Legazpi's ships, in- spired by ungenerous ambition and the hopes of getting a reward, outsailed the rest of the fleet. Having arrived first in the islands, he started at once upon the return voyage. Unlike preceding captains who had tried to return to New Spain by sailing eastward from the islands against both wind and ocean current, this captain sailed northward beyond the trades into the more favorable westerly winds, and found his way back to America and New Spain.

Legazpi's instructions required him to dispatch at least one vessel on the return voyage to New Spain soon after

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 131

arriving in the Philippines. Accordingly on June 1st the " San Pablo " set sail, carrying about two hundred men, including Urdaneta and another friar. This vessel also followed the northern route across the Pacific, and after a voyage of great hardship, occupying three and a half months, it reached the coast of North America at Califor- nia and followed it southward to Acapulco.

The discovery made by these captains of a favorable route for vessels returning from the islands to New Spain safe from capture by the Portuguese, completed the plans of the Spanish for the occupation of the Philippines. In 1567 another vessel was dispatched by Legazpi and made this voyage successfully.

The sailing of the " San Pablo " left Legazpi in Cebu with a colony of only one hundred and fifty Spaniards, poorly provided with resources, to commence the conquest of the Philippines. But he kept the friendship and respect of the natives, and in 1566 and 1568 ships with reinforce- ments arrived from Mexico.

While Legazpi was at Panay, in 1570, there finally arrived a ship which brought instructions from the king, in reply to Legazpi's first reports, that the islands should be held and colonized. These orders appointed Legazpi adelantado and governor, and allowed the assignment of natives in encomiendas to the soldiers who had effected the conquest.

The further exploration of the islands had meanwhile proceeded.

The great difficulty experienced by Legazpi was to pro- cure sufficient food for his expedition. At different times he sent a ship to the nearest islands, and twice his ship went south to Mindanao to procure a cargo of cinnamon to be sent back to New Spain.

132 THE PHILIPPINES.

Meanwhile, a captain, Enriquez de Guzman, had dis- covered Masbate, Burias, and Ticao, and had landed on Luzon in the neighborhood of Albay, called then " Italon."

Thus month by month the Spaniards gained acquaint- ance with the beautiful island sea of the archipelago, with its green islands and brilliant sheets of water, its safe harbors and scattered settlements.

While Legazpi's resources were weakest, he was attacked and blockaded at Cebu by a Portuguese fleet which sought to prevent the Spanish occupation. Both to strengthen his position and to secure better supplies, Legazpi moved his camp in 1569 to the island of Panay. The Bisayan tribes tattooed their bodies with ornamental designs, a practice widespread throughout Oceanica, and which still is common among the tribes of northern Luzon. This practice caused the Spaniards to give to the Bisayas the title of " Islas de los Pintados " (the Islands of the Painted).

Legazpi found that the island of Mindoro had been par- tially settled by Moros from the south, and many of these settlements were devoted to piracy, preying especially upon the towns on the north coast of Panay. In Jan- uary, 1570, Legazpi dispatched his grandson, Juan de Salcedo, to punish these marauders.1

Capture of Pirate Strongholds. — Salcedo had a force of forty Spaniards and a large number of Bisayas. He landed on the western coast of Mindoro and took the pirate town of Mamburao. The main stronghold of the Moros he found to be on the small island of Lubang, north- west of Mindoro, Here they had three strong forts with high walls, on which were mounted small brass cannon,

1 There is an old account of this interesting expedition by one who participated. (Relation de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, Manila, 1572; Retana, Archivo del BMiofilo Filipino, vol. IV.)

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600.

133

or " lantakas." Two of these forts were surrounded by moats. There were several days of fighting before Lu- bang was conquered. The possession of Lubang brought the Spaniards almost to the entrance of Manila Bay. Conquest of the Moro City of Manila. — Expedition from Panay. — Reports had already come to Legazpi of an important Mohammedan settlement named " May- nila/' on the shore of a great bay, and a Mohammedan chieftain, called Maomat, was procured to guide the Spaniards on their conquest of this region.1 For this pur-

straits of Manila.

(From an old Dutch chart. See page 193.)

pose Legazpi sent his field-marshal, Martin de Goiti, with Salcedo, one hundred and twenty Spanish soldiers, and fourteen or fifteen boats filled with Bisayan allies. They left Panay early in May, and, after stopping at Mindoro, came to anchor in Manila Bay, off the mouth of the Pasig River. The Mohammedan City. — On the south bank of the river was the fortified town of the Mohammedan chief- tain, Raja Soliman; on the north bank was the town of Tondo, under the Raja Alcandora, or Lacandola. Morga2 tells us that these Mohamme'dan settlers from the island

1 Morga: Sucesos de las Islas Filipinos, 2d ed., p. 10.

2 Sucesos de las Islas Filipinos, p. 316.

1. Artilterg and Naval

3, Audiencia or Court i.AKlitar!, Hospital 5.Umt:ersily of Ht.Thomat o.Ayuntamiento or Palace 7. Archbishop'* Palace S.Intendencia 9.C

0. College of Santa Potertoia 19. Oh

SCALE OF FEET

6 280 «o e5o 800 idoo

* THE CITY O?1

MANILA

( Adapted from Buzeta Dicotonarlo de Iffi fslas FlltploraJ

134

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 135

of Borneo had commenced to arrive on the island only a few years before the coming of the Spaniards. They had settled and married among the Filipino population already occupying Manila Bay, and had introduced some of the forms and practices of the Mohammedan religion. The city of Manila was defended by a fort, apparently on the exact site of the present fort of Santiago. It was built of the trunks of palms, and had embrasures where were mounted a considerable number of cannon, or lantakas.

Capture of the City. — The natives received the for- eigners at first with a show of friendliness, but after they had landed on the banks of the Pasig, Soliman, with a large force, assaulted them. The impetuous Spaniards charged, and carried the fortifications, and the natives fled, setting fire to their settlement. When the fight was over the Spaniards found among the dead the body of a Portuguese artillerist, who had directed the defense. Doubtless he was one who had deserted from the Portu- guese garrisons far south in the Indian archipelago to cast in his fortunes with the Malays. It being the commence- ment of the season of rains and typhoons, the Spaniards decided to defer the occupation of Manila, and, after ex- ploring Cavite harbor, they returned to Panay.

A year was spent in strengthening their hold on the Bisayas and in arranging for their conquest of Luzon. On Masbate were placed a friar and six soldiers, so small was the number that could be spared.

Founding of the Spanish City of Manila. — With a force of 230 men Legazpi returned in the spring of 1571 to the conquest of Luzon. It was a bloodless victory. The Filipino rajas declared themselves vassals of the Spanish king, and in the months of May and June the Spaniards established themselves in the present site of the city.

136 THE PHILIPPINES.

At once Legazpi gave orders for the reconstruction of the fort, the building of quarters, a convent for the Au- gustinian monks, a church, and 150 houses. The bounda- ries of this city followed closely the outlines of the Tagalog city " Maynila," and it seems probable that the location of buildings then established has been adhered to until the present time. This settlement appeared so desirable to Legazpi that he at once designated it as the capital of the archipelago. Almost immediately he organized its municipal government, or ayuntamiento.

The First Battle on Manila Bay. — In spite of their ready submission, the rajas, Soliman and Lacandola, did not yield their sovereignty without a struggle. They were able to secure assistance in the Tagalog and Pampango settlements of Macabebe and Hagonoy. A great fleet of forty war-praus gathered in palm-lined estuaries on the north shore of Manila Bay, and came sweeping down the shallow coast to drive the Spaniards from the island. Against them were sent Goiti and fifty men. The protect- ive mail armor, the heavy swords and lances, the horrible firearms, coupled with the persistent courage and fierce resolution of the Spanish soldier of the sixteenth century, swept back this native armament. The chieftain Soliman was killed.

The Conquest of Central Luzon. — Goiti continued his marching and conquering northward until the southern end of the plain of central Luzon, that stretches from Manila Bay to the Gulf of Lingayen, lay submissive before him. A little later the raja Lacandola died, having accepted Christian baptism, and the only powerful resist- ance on the island of Luzon was ended.

Goiti was sent back to the Bisayas, and the command of the army of Luzon fell to Salcedo, the brilliant and

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 137

daring grandson of Legazpi, at this time only twenty-two years of age. This young knight led his command up the Pasig River. Cainta and Taytay, at that time impor- tant Tagalog towns, were conquered, and then the coun- try south of Laguna de Bay. The town of Cainta was fortified and defended by small cannon, and although Salcedo spent three days hi negotiations, it was only taken by storm, in which four hundred Filipino men and women perished.1 From here Salcedo marched over the mountains to the Pacific coast and south into the Cam- arines, where he discovered the gold mines of Paracale and Mambulao.

At about this time the Spaniards discovered the Cuyos and Calamianes islands and the northern part of Palawan.

Exploration of the Coast of Northern Luzon. — In 1572, Salcedo, with a force of only forty-five men, sailed north- ward from Manila, landed in Zambales and Pangasinan, and on the long and rich Ilokos coast effected a permanent submission of the inhabitants. He also visited the coast farther north, where the great and fertile valley of the Cagayan, the largest river of the archipelago, reaches to the sea. From here he continued his adventurous journey down the Pacific coast of Luzon to the island of Polillo, and returned by way of Laguna de Bay to Manila.

Death of Legazpi. — He arrived in September, 1572, to find that his grandfather and commander, Legazpi, had died a month before (August 20, 1572). After seven years of labor the conqueror of difficulties was dead, but almost the entire archipelago had been added to the crown of Spain. Three hundred years of Spanish dominion se- cured little more territory than that traversed and pacified

1 Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, p. 24.

138

THE PHILIPPINES.

by the conquerors of these early years. In spite of their slender forces, the daring of the Spaniards induced them to follow a policy of widely extending their power, effect- ing settlements, and enforcing submission wherever rich coasts and the gathering of population attracted them.

Within a single year's time most of the coast country of Luzon had been traversed, import- ant positions seized, and the inhabitants por- tioned out in encomien- das. On the death of Legazpi, the command fell to Guido de Labe- zares.

Reasons for this Easy Conquest of the Philip- pines. — The explana- tion of how so small a number of Europeans could so rapidly and suc- cessfully reduce to sub- jection the inhabitants of a territory like thePhil- ippines, separated into so many different islands, is to be found in several things. First. — The expedition had a great leader, one of those knights combining sagacity with resolution, who glorify the brief period when Spanish prestige was highest. No policy could ever be successful in the Philippines which did not depend for its strength upon giving a measure of satisfaction to the Filipino people. Legazpi did this. He

Legazpi Monument, Luneta.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 139

appears to have won the native datos, treating them with consideration, and holding out to them the expectations of a better and more prosperous era, which the