Fe eS Te ee eee ee ee ee .
AMERICAN JOURNAL
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS, Proressorns JAMES D. DANA anv B. SILLIMAN.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS,
Prorressors ASA GRAY anp WOLCOTT GIBBS, OF CAMBRIDGE, Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON, S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH anp A. E. VERRILL, OF NEW HAVEN, Prorrssor A, M. MAYER, or Hosoxen, N. J.
THIRD SERIES. VOL. V.—[_WHOLE NUMBER, CV.) Nos. 25—30. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1873.
WITH TWO MAPS AND FOUR PLATES.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1873. PHINTED BY TUTTE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, 221 sTATE $7.
SOUR! BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY
CONTENTS OF VOLUME V.
NUMBER XXV.
Art, L—Brief Contributions to Zodlogy, from the Museum of Yale College. No, XXIIIL—Results of Recent Dredg- = ote ree on the Coast of New ee by A. E.
on SON. TIL. — Researches; in » Aetna. Memoir Second. the Distribution of Chemical Force in the Spectrum ; by JOHN ILLIAM Dmareiioc oe
oe -e Ripe Way <0) 8 eee V.—On the 2 oes Détermiiiation ‘of the relative In- tensities of Sounds; and on the measurement of the
— of various substances to Reflect and to Transmit norous Vibrations ; by Atrrep M, Mayer,_-.--.--.- VI.—On the Quartzite, pete nai Seucihad: rocks of the pee of — t Barrington Berkshire Co., Mass.; by
18 872; i d by H. A. Newron, --- VUL—Di iscovery of a new Planet; by James C. Watson, -- SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Tests for certain nic Fluids, W.
Page
25
39
Orga: ANKLYN: On the Tranfimationprodut of Starch, O’SuLLIvaN, 63.—On Dextrin, ogee ear ia
ing Molecular Woh cae: the Vapor Vode, LANDOLT, 65.—On i com-
bined action of Heat and Pressure on Paraffin, THORPE and Young,
crusted Chare: Origin of the Weeping Willow, 76s
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence — posdeny of Sciences, 78—Discovery of Mastodo ae in Ohio, Hicks: Niagara: Its History and Geology, hoto
n Incidents and Poetry, with Thustrations, HOLLEY : Geysers and Scenery Region Parke 79.—A Popular Trea ia ge — Microscopic pic Mounting, etc., MARTIN,
P f or bonsai ie Nati ‘ ret)
lv CONTENTS.
NUMBER XXVI
— Be ue the Spectrum of the Aurora of October 14th,
sty Guonat ¥. Dameee, (255.525 20 558 et
>. 0c is Quartzite, Limestone and associated rocks of the ITi
~ Distribution of Chemical Force in the Spectrum ; by Dra luded,
Page
HN Wit1i1AM DraPEr, ares - -aepule eek as 91 XII. aaa: of Recent Dredgin Expeditions on bees Coast of New England; by A. E. Verritt, Spee C0) pisss 8 XIIL—A description of the Victoria Meteoric Iron, with notes on Chladnite or Enstatite; by J. Lawre wars Sac BiH 107 XIV.—Analytical Notices ; by Woxcorr Gipss,-. .---.---- 110 XV.—On the gigantic fossil Mammals of ie Orda Dinoce- rata; by O. C. Marsu. With two plates. 117 XVIL—On the Experimental Detennineeeae of the relative In- tensities of Sounds; and on the measurement of the powers of various substances to reflect me to transmit Sonorous Vibrations; by ALFRED 23 XVII.—Meteoric Shower of Nov. 27-28, 1872, as observed at the Observatory of Montcalieri, Italy ; by Padre Denza, 126 XVIII.—Experiments for the de termination of the height to which liquids may be poe above the edge of a vessel; T. C, MenpenHaL SOIENTIFIO INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—On the spectrum of nitrogen, SHUSTER, 131.—On new modes of forming amides and nitriles, Lerts: On bibromide of niet BIEDER- MANN and OPPENHEIM: On cymol from oil of turpentine and oil of lemons, OPPEN-
HEIM, 132.—On the combinations of yttrium and erbium, CLEVE and HOEGLAND,
stkchusiiona: LapensurG: Triphenylmethane, KexuLé and esa ag, soa
saris i of eRe PT Uneer, 135.—New Coal-tar Hydrocarbons, Firri Platform Balance, 136
bake and Natural History—On Tin discoveries in Queensland, a : severe 137.—On the Devonian Fossils in the Wahsatch ae S Tenney, 139,—The Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872, L. Parmrert; Geological Chart of Swollen: Koks- ce
Botany, British and Foreign, 143.—Discharge of the Seeds of Witch-Hazel (Hama- melis): Chi
is): Chlorodictyon, a new Genus of the Danian Group, J.G. AGARDH, 144.— i Pilulari i i s: Les Mélastoma
—Meteors of Nov. — 1872, in Europe, 150.—On a new Meteorite
Astri fond € in ‘Indiana, Prof. Cox
Miscellaneous Scientific Jabitabiiins Resi Si by J. LeConts, 156.—Syracuse Univer- sity: the sige Great Magnet, A. M. MaYeR, 157.—Revision of Aga Echini, A.
AGassiz, 158.—Wagner’s Chemical enact ok Wwa.CrookEs, 159.—Alizarine,
natural and artificial, F. VeRSMANN: Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of
Sciences: Das Elbthalgebirge in Shion H. B. GEINir ippendix—On i 161.—The Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872, by L. Paumreri, 162
CONTENTS. Vv
NUMBER XXVIL Art, XIX.—Observations on the duration jot multiple char- acter of Flashes of Lightning; by Oapen N. Roop,._.. 163 XX.—On the effects of Magnetization in Baka the Di-
mensions of Iron, Steel and Bismuth bars; by ALFRED AYER. Part Ay ving wil Lat Baye tbe ed 170
rt mrs REVERS Theories of Heat; by W. A. Saemoie 186
Anarie —On the oo and papier eras in New Eng- and; by James. D. Dawa, co. . 2 ee 198 anes sin | some new species a Fossils from the Primordial ede Potsdam group of Rensselaer county, N. Y.; by S. W. ORD, SS an ea oa es eels os ee ee
XXV.—Discovery of a new Planet; by C. H. F. Perers,.._ 215
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics. —lImproved aiaaeS, THORPE: Photographie repro- duction of Diffraction- ee Srromt, 216,
nd Ni by J. D. erg rots stays Trains of bou rs, and on the tra ee rt of boulders to a level above that of their Paging by plies REED, 218.—Results of the Earth’s Contraction, by R. Mau 219.—On Ohio and thor Gas Wells, by “ S. NEWBERRY, 225 —Possil Birds ‘from the Cretaceous of North America, by
ULL: The History of Balanoglossus and Tornaria, by A. AGassiz, 2°4.— Journal of Researches og Natural History and Gadkoter 9 of the Countries visited - during the voyage of H. M.S. Beagle round the world, Darwin: Note on the Dates of some of Prof. Cope’ 's recent Papers, by 0. C. MARSH, 235. Astronomy. neta = a Analysis in connection with the Spectrum of the Sun, Lookysr, 2 gence.—Explorations west of _ neg meridian, 237.
ro Sag pi tific Intelli. Tnsta of remarkably low temperature observed a w Haven, Conn., 238 yer roe and Results of the Precipitation in Rain ae Snow in in the United
of Ho a i a CARPENTER, 2 ‘International Scientific ve Barat 241 . _ Mary rie oa m4) —Rev. Adam Sed : James Henry 0: Matthew #. Maury: Prof. Macquorn Rankine, 242.
Appendiz.—A new Planet, PETERS, 243,
vi CONTENTS.
NUMBER XXVIIL
Art. XXVIL—Comparison of the mean daily range of the Magnetic ew ey and the aes er of Auroras ob- served ie year; by Exras Lo ViL—
Page
a. XXVIII. ea, some points in Dynamical Geology; by T. STERRY XXIX.—On a imple device for projecting on a screen the Seis sata of the needles of a Galvanometer ; Pe ALFRE eo AN OE ls os ee es mae ey es | 270 XXX. “Ingemigations on Parasulphobenzoic Acid; by Ira REMsEN ea @0) 5... ws s55424s 4) oes ee 274 XXXI.—Note on the Age of the Metamorphic Rocks of Port- and, Doles county, Wisconsin; by Rotanp D. Irvine, 282
A
XXXIL —On the Biel Borate of Lime (Grypeonidephite Lec by A. W. Cua 2
y XX XI. - aeeitopatione West of the 100th Meridian, . ------ 290 XXXIV.—On ivana; by in the Soa rocks of West- by W. D. Moor: 2
+
e XXXV.—Additional Oiovieas on the Dinocerata ; hg ). Mina
Sphzroma, O. Hare . Co rangement of the Families of Fishes, de peas 315, — Arrangement of the Families of a Me i siding Fertilization i in Grasses, HILDEB’ of November 27th, 1 i872, vai Biela’s gums 317.—Meteor in "Kentucky, ex 12th, 1872: Double meteor of Feb. 14th, 1873, 318.—Astro- nomi ical Engravings from the Observatory of Harvard College: te new method i Chrom: Il teleseo
Comet, and other reports from the U. 8. Naval Observat atory, "320. —Note — “teed sul Sole, < P. A. Seccn!: The Astronomische Nachrichten,
Misce ‘cienti igence.—The California Academy of Sciences, oa. —
Cirenat Col College Junior Change of a Chemistry, F. eas Ancient Stone
sg Temes Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain, J. Evans: Hrolution
“% ) CHAPMAN, eel .—Address befor the Royal Sosety of of New South Wale es,
B. CLARKE Tyndall’s works, 323. — Obituary.— Dr. John Torrey, 324.
CONTENTS. Vii
NUMBER XXIX. Arr. XXXVI — some of the ancient Glaciers of the Sier- ip ras; by JosepH LeConre. With a Map on Plate V,__ 325 XXXVIL Eo RI effects ieee the Fis colt of os ides; by Wm. Ferret, - XXXVIIL—On the Origin of Mountains; : by ‘Jamzs D. Dana, oar XXXITX, Hes ce Automatic Filtering Apparatus; by Harvey
WER ee cg ae XLL—The Salt deposits of Western Ontario; by Joun GIBSON, 362 XLII.—Comparison ‘of the ‘Spectra of the ‘Limb and of the ay On of the Set — at the Sheffiel tific School ;
s. 8. Has 369
XL “Oonshaine on the ‘Physical Laboratory of Har- vard College——No. IV. Induced currents and derived circuits; by Joun Trowsrer.—No. v. eis a method of measuring induced currents; by F. H. Biezktow.—No. VI. On methods of determining the resistance of a bat- tery, deduced from Poggendorff’s mode of measuring Electromotive Forces; oe N. D.C. Dope, & sens 372 AprEnpDix.—Notice of new Tertiary Mammals, by O. C. Marsn, 407
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. and Physics.—On the Action of Charcoal o
0 a
Jacost, 380.—Ozone and Antozone. Their History and Nature, etc., C. B. Elements of Natural Philosophy, W. To itm ad P G. Tarr, 381.
Geology and Natural History.—Notes on the Island of Curagao, W. M. Gas, 382.
Hill fossils identified among specimens from Idaho, F. B. MEEK, 383.
—On the Probable Existence of Microscopic Diamonds, with Zircons and Topaz,
a the Sands of Hydraulic Washings in California, B. Smimman, 384.— gap
Wurtz 1
tribution to the. Histo of ‘the Fresh pier Alge of America, H. Cc.
Woop or a | 1872-73, 391.—Sachs’ Ferbock, 3d edition: The
Expression of ‘a ‘maéueas in Man and Animals, C. DARWIN, 397. Astronomy.—On the variation in the diameter of the Sun, A. Szccut, 397.
Sang’s pgm Fae : Obituary, Baron Liebig,
Vili CONTENTS,
NUMBER XXX.
Arr. XLIV.—John Torrey: A Biographical Notice, .------ 411 XLV.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale ollege. No. XXVI. "aha a compact Anglesite from Arizona; by Gro. J. Bru + XLVL—On some Reaults of the Earth’s Contraction from cooling, including the Agee of rae ET and ni nature
of the Earth’s Interio > by Ja Jamrs D. Dana. 423 LVII.—On the Relations of the ailing: Coingloineealen and Limestone of Sauk crm S os to each other and to the Azoic; by Jamxs H. E 444 VIII.—On the formation of the Meson of the Harth-sur gph Reply to criticisms of T. Sterry Hunt; by Josep TimCONT®, 6 ooo hn ec os 8 XLIX. Makes of ma! boners on Jupiter and its Satellites ; y M: Miron: No.8.) 0 a 54
L.—Some remarks on the Geological Structure of a district of country lying to the north of the Grand Cafion of the olorado; by J. OWkhie ss eo ge ee ss 456 LL.—Remarks on certain Errors in Mr. J eftreys’s Article on “The Mollusca of ‘Theor compared tg those of Eas- tern North America;” by A. E. VERRILL, ---------- 465 —Note on the use of a diffraction “ seen” s a substi- tute for the train of prisms in a Solar Ee cetrosope ; by G. A. YOUNG... coiccr a i oe sa ee, 472 Aprenpix.—LIIL—Notice ot New Tertiary Mammals (con- . tinued); by O. C. Mar 485 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Geology.—Note on ower occurrence of the Trias in British gee gs ee J. - Wait NEY, 473.—Notes to page 438, on mountain-making, by J. D. hee Geol
Ru 9 : Plant: Hooker’s Icones Plantarum: Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plan’ m. S. Sullivant, 481, ae oe Observations of Meteers, 481.—Origin of Meteoroids and some ites, 4 Uaneous ific Intelligence.—The National Academy of Sciences, 483.— Reports of ere and Surveys to ascertain the practicability of a ship 0
@ Examination of Medicinal Chenille, 4 sg aaa A 3.0 241, 19 1. from top, fo: gy re wk read pel bane!
Lac gh 419, line 23 from top, for forty,” read “ Vol. iv, p. 88, line 6 from top, for “spine,” read “spire.”
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, ?
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. I—Brief yale tenet to Zoilogy, from the Museum _ Yale College. XXIITL. Hig TERI of Recent Dredging Ex- peditions on the ae of New sah edu by A. E. VERRILL.
oy of investigating the fishes .and_ fisheries of the Bay of
had already day gee: a large portion of six summers to qatbeae in poe waters, ‘to organize parties and construct the ape
* A similar exploration of the waters of Vineyard Sound, B vs ee Pap and cB agp localities, during the entire summer of 1871, was conducted by t a ae
- ngland, ‘ weeks, and by invitation accompanied our parties on a few dr ee It is to these excursion: s that 1 he alludes in a a recent article on “ The Mollusea of
Kastern Ni ica,” published i
a the government of the United States.” re explicit statement would have prevented the disagreeable comments ‘tibet ae ni flees appeared in some of our newspapers from persons unacquainted with the facts. Am. Jour, reset em” ere: Vou. V, No. 25.—Jan., 1873.
-2 <A. EB. Verrili—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
volunteers, the funds at the disposal of the Commission being
an sufficient to pay for the necessary apparatus and materials required for the purpose. Very essential aid was also rendered by the officers of the U. 5S. Coast Survey by accom- modating one party on the steamer Bache, while engaged in the survey of St. George’s Bank, and giving them opportunities for dredging in that region; and by the Secretary of the Treasury, who allowed the U.S. revenue cutter Mosswood to take our
and to the aid which they rendered us in many ways.
According to the plans adopted these expiorations had in view several distinct purposes, all more or less connected with the investigation of the fisheries. The special subjects attended to by this section of the Fish Commission party were chiefly the following :
1st. The exploration of the shores and shallow water for the purpose of making collections of all the algz and marine animals living between tides, on every different kind of shore, including the numerous burrowing worms and crustacea, and to ascertain as much as possible concerning their habits, relative abundance, stations, etc.
2d. The extension of similar observations by means of the dredge, trawl, tangles, and other instruments, into all depths down to the deepest waters of the Bay of Fundy, and to make a systematic survey, as complete as possible, of all the smaller
bays and harbors within our reach, both to obtain complete col-
lections of the animals and plants and to ascertain the precise character of the bottom, special attention being paid to locali- ties known to be the feeding grounds of valuable fishes, and to those animals upon which they are known to feed. It is believed that when the collections and notes made by the writer and his associates during previous years shall have been com- bined with those made during the past season, we shall have a tolerably thorough knowledge of the physical character and life of the bottom and shores in this region.
3d. The depth of the water and its temperature, both at the surface and bottom, was to be observed and recorded in as many localities as possible, and especially where dredging was to be done, and lists of the ccncks and plants from special localities or depths were to be prepared, so as to show the influence of temperature and other physical features upon animal and vege- table life. Many valuable observations of this kind were made. The aedeatak of the water was taken in numerous localities, both by Professor Baird and the dredging parties, by means of
Sibel aaa
Seah os rt ee eee
A. EF. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England. 38
n such as worms, naked mollusks, ascidians, polyps etc. Accord- ingly, Mr. J. H. Emerton of Salem was employed during the Experience, during the past summer has shown that these instruments aoe a standard instr re several are used, and the error, = pst :
instrument sh = pe every observation recorded nt should be numbered or lettered, and wi ‘
there should be a designation of the particular instrument used, otherwise errors
of several degrees may occur.
4 A, E. Verrilli— Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
month of August to make such drawings. During this time he labored most faithfully and diligently, and with remarkable results, for to his great skill with the pencil he adds the accu- rate observation and enthusiasm of a genuine naturalist. During the short time he was with us he made 164 drawings from living animals, many of them quite elaborate. All of these were compared critically with the living specimens at the time, and carefully corrected, even in the minute details, whenever neces- sary. ‘These drawings will be used for the illustration of the final report, and will be of themselves an exceedingly valuable contribution to science, for they nearly all represent animals never before accurately figured, if at all. A large part of them are also of direct importance, since they represent the natural food of our common edible fishes.
8th. In all these investigations the relations existing between the fishes and the lower animals which serve as food for them, were constantly borne in mind, and all information bearing directly upon this subject that could be obtained was recorded. To this end large numbers of stomachs from fishes newly caught were examined, and lists of the species found in them were made. Most of those thus ascertained to be their ordi- nary food, were traced to their natural haunts from whence the fishes obtain them.
9th. The parasites of fishes, both external and internal, were collected and preserved for future study.
10th. Similar investigations, so far as practicable, were to be carried on at St. George’s Bank, on the U. S. steamer Bache, in connection with the ordinary work of the U. S. Coast Sur- vey, by a party of two, provided with all the apparatus and materials necessary for the purpose. This party at first con- sisted of Mr. S. I. Smith and Mr. Oscar Harger, assistants in
the Yale College Museum, both of whom had previously had_
experience in such work. During the last cruise of the Bache they were relieved by Dr. A. S. Packard and Mr. Caleb Cooke, of Salem. Very important collections were made by both these parties, notwithstanding the unfavorable weather which they encountered.
As a general summary of the character of our collections, I may state that those made this year, together with those obtained by our parties in the same localities in previous years, ~ but not yet reported upon, have added at least 350 species to those hitherto recorded from the same region, exclusive of Foraminifera. Entomostraca, and other minute forms. Man of these are undescribed species, but the majority are known from northern Europe. Of Polyps there were previously known 8 Actinoids and 4 Aleyonoids; we have added 4 Actinoids and 3 Alcyonoids; among the former a new and gigantic species o
ES a
PE es teh lemmas i och ead PANS dae id 8 mle ieee ae 3)
Re a ny eT
A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England. 5
and at St. George’s Bank; Solaster furcifer Dub. and K., Astro- pecten arcticus Sars, both from 150 fathoms, near St. George’s Bank; Pentacta assimilis (D. and K.) and Lophothuria squamata (Miill. sp.) both from 430 fathoms. Of Mollusca, Dr. Stimpson oe 142 species in his work on the Invertebrata of
30 of Gasteropods, 3 of Cephalopods. Among the most inter- esting of these is a fine species of Octopus,t which we obtained
ous and unequal, the inner ones lon. , in the t s 2°25 inc es long, and ‘12 in diameter e, grad) tapering, ; 1 inch and less in length. Oral es numerous, crowded ral ro rgest
cimens about 1 inch long, slender, acute. Color of body dark chestnut-brown,
pale bluish just below the tentacles; disk pale yellowish-brown; space within the oral tentacles, around the mouth, deep brown, with lighter r: : oral tentacles pale chestnut-b wn; marginal ones deep salmon or light oe w rk re ine into two lateral ones. The two largest specimens, dredged in 28 fathoms, east of Grand Menan, by the _ Writer, measured 5 inches across the disk and tentacles, but their bodies were mutilated. Entire ones of much smaller size were dre ged by Dr. Packard and Mr. Cooke in 110 and 150 fathoms, soft mud, near St. George’s Bank. — The largest of these was 8 inches long, and like other species of the genus, inhabited a thick, tough, felt-like, muddy tube. = Pennatula, dredged by Dr. Packard and Mr. Cooke in 110 and 160 fath- hear St. G. i i identical with the species nT George’s Bank, is apparently ide Gate Tawrence x doag
7
Mr. J. F. Whi sev localities in water, both in 1871 and 1872, but resembles ordinary E specimens 0: P. phosphorea rm re than d s sent to me by Mr. Whiteaves. . hs re more time a’ dy + been gone ard ap it to as “e ether it i i also summer 0. it be a distinct species. A Virgularia was ras gh ne Gackaed
- : ba “er t. Whiteaves, which may be identical with the one dredged 150 fathoms.
depre sed, — Pi Aan oadly rounded posteriorly, separa °onstriction at the sides. Head aiesoat as broad as the body, swollen above and
1, irregularly conical, erectile tubercle, which has some sma Prominent, conical tubercles on its surface; the whole upper surface of the body,
6 A. E Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
from five different localities in the Bay of Fundy, at depths varying from 60 to 106 fathoms; 7 rophon Gunneri Lov.; Ringt- cula nitida V. (new sp.); Pleurotomella Packardi V. (sp. and gen. new), a reddish shell with a deep slit in the outer lip; the adult of Scaphan nder puncto-striatus, over.an inch long; Arca ieee loides ; Pecten pustulosus V. (new sp.); Glandula arenicola V.; oan ‘lichenoides » Defrancia lucernaria ; Anarthropora loncaks ria fistu/osa, ‘ete. : all those last named were from deep water near St George’s Bank, but the Trophon, Arca, and Cellaria were also from the Bay of Fundy, off Grand Menan. Of Worms Dr. Stimpson enumerated 52 species, but we can easily add 125 species to his list. Among the more interesting of these are species of Het Ss Sagitta, Chetoderma, Thalassema (asmall right green species), ee Hermione, Gattiola, Goniada, Scalibregma, Travisia, Ammotrypane, Maldane Ammoc hares, Amphareie, saspleiaiess, Melinna, Amage, Pista, Terebellides, Aph-
head, and arms is also covered with minute scattered tubercles, oo, ioe yore but little bean Siphon large, tapering, capable of being bent all dir
tions, so as to be used for swimming both forward, ee sre sideways, accor ra: ing to its icon Arms subequal, relatively short, stout, tapering to slender points, connected for about one third of their length by a web, which extends as a Trow membrane
eac F
the third pair has its terminal portion, for — a third of its entire length, modi-
fied for reproductive purposes into a large spoon-shaped organ, igor’ elliptical ides i ma dee
. f bent into an acute angle, the apex directed forward, leaving a deep V-shaped sinus behind it, which is in continuation with a shallow groove pee d by a thickening of the web along the side of the arm and terminating midway between it and the fourt! : : :
an;
is a slight constriction, below which the basal portion bears about 31 suckers, like those on the other arms. The modified portion of the arm is considerably longer than the distance between the Riakiaiin at its base and the interbrachial web, and equal to one half the total length of the oa which bears suckers, The cor- responding arm on the left side is of the ordinary form and has about 51 suckers. Length of the largest specimen, in alco see dxohinive of the arms, = “15 inches; breadth of hn body 1-25; between eyes -7; length of the arms of t t pair, from mouth, 2°25; from mouth to to edge of f the web “70; ce of modified portion of third _ arm a Paes vee this organ when expan
When living the aiken a usu ~ a thickly specked with -
orange brown and vt Of H arbor, Cam po Bello I., in 75 and 8 fathoms, shelly; off Herring ton in 60 promos muddy; Poff Grand’ Menen3 in oe ee gravel and sa:
I first dredged this Troecenting species Sse on the ‘‘Mosswood” in company with elites Baird, in honor of whom I have named it. It was kept alive sev- eral days, and Mr. Emerton made some anes drawings of it while living. Iti somewhat related to O. Grenlandicus Dewh., but the male of the latter has the third right arm much longer, with the modified portion relatively very much smaller and quite different in form, and with more numerous folds, and the basal part bears 4 to 43 suckers; the dhe arms also have more numerous suckers; the web is less extensive and the body is more elongated.
A, E. Verrili—Dredgings on the Coast of New England. 7
chiefly by Professor Katon, Mr. Prudden, r. Isham, and Mrs. Verrill. Some species were obtained
Thacher, of New Haven; Mr. J. : Mr. G. Brown Goode, of Middletown, should be specially men- tioned. Prof. D. C. Eaton, of New Haven, was with us a short time to collect the alge, and many others who were able to remain only for a short time rendered important aid.
i . §. L Smith, and to him I am telsbeia tor pip Micra Rtv o oe te spo une in this ia O. Harger has, however, consented to determine and describe the
8 A. EF. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
small party, a of Prof. H. E. Webster and Mr. .
Chas. Pond, of Union College, were located for a short time
at Grand Menan, anid made some very important collections
there, both at low water and by dredging. The large lots of a
including four species, collected by them, were particularly fine. They also obtained collections of special value, be- cause collected at the same localities where the lamented Dr. Stimpson dredged, in 1850, the specimens described in his well known work on the Invertebrata of Grand Menan. Prof, Webster and Mr. Pond had, earlier in the season, carried on extensive dredgings off Cape — near the western extremity of the coast of Maine, at various depths down to 40 fathoms, in behalf of Union College, and obtained there an interesting collection. Mess I. Smith and Oscar Harger were delegated ss nidcsina ged the Bache to explore the St. George’s Banks, to various delays in the departure of the steamer hey a not actually get off nia the last of August, Sere lngr the time for the operations was very much shortened an weather was for the most part rough and stormy. They se ceeded, however, in obtaining ten casts which proved to be of great interest. They made one successful ewe ne in 430 fathoms, which is the deepest yet done on the American coast, north of Florida.* From this single hese in 430 rats eee they obtained 44 species of animals, exclusive of Foraminifera. mong them were representatives of most of the classes of invertebrate marine animals. Some of them are of great in- terest and many of them quite new to American waters, although previously described from the European coast. The lines of soundings and dredgings run by the Bache were located by accurate observations, and will be reported upon hereafter, the soundings and temperature determinations being a part of the regular work of the officers of the Coast Survey. The deepest
Instruments).¢ Among the more interesting things obtained in this locality were the following, which are new to the U. S. coast, or at least have not been ] previously recorded :$ Urticina
* Several dredgings were made by Pourtalés, off Florida, in 450 to 600 fathoms. + The character of the life at this locality was very similar to that prevailing in the 2 een waters of the Bay of Fundy, where w pion, to be from 37-5" to 40°. tae ot os oc ee ee tical from the two regions, ee baaigatinis dec eg na grate ¢ Several of these were also dredged by our parties in the deepest waters of the Bay yes Fundy, and pabdociiantiy by Dr. Packed and Mr. Cooke.
A, FE. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England. 9
Lophothuria squamata V. (Miil
. Sp.); Campanularia verticillata ; Lafoéa fruticosa Sars. ; Caly- cella fastigiata Hincks (var. with long pedicels); Sertularella Gayi H. ; anew species of Halecium ;* Pecten pustulosus V. (new
digitata (Mill. sp.); Pentacta assimilis (Dub. and Koren sp.) ; Miill. sp.) ; :
but perhaps an obese and dwarf variety of A. lens), Rhyncho- bolus setosus (CErst. sp.); Scalpellum sp., etc. In addition to these there were several species known previously from deep
New England, some of them even reaching low-water mark. Among these are Urticina crassicornis ; Tubularia indivisa; Eu- dendrium ramosum ; Sertularella tricuspidata Gray ; Euryechinus Dribachiensis V.; Echinarachnius parma; Margarita obseura ; Natica clausa; Mamma immaculata; Lunatia Grinlandica ; Neptunea pygmea ; Entalis striolata ; Leodice vivida (St.); Noth- ria conchylega Malm. (abundant), Pycnogonum pelagicum St. ; Melita dentata Boeck; Uneiola irrorata Say; fandalus annu- heornis ; Hupagurus Kroyeri St., ete.
The bottom was composed of coarse gravel and sand, and the specimens obtained indicate a rich and varied fauna, while the presence of a large number of predacious species, with we developed eyes, shows that there must be plenty of light. :
They also obtained many very interesting things from vari- ous localities on and near St. George’s Bank, and Le Have Bank, off Nova Scotia. On St. George’s Bank, in N. lat. 41°
panularia Hincksii Alder; Coppinia arcta Hincks; and a new species of Diphasia,+ remarkable for having the hydra cells
alecium robustum, sp. nov. Stem stout and coarse, composed of many tubes; branches stout, et eg compound except at tips, pinnately or bipinnately branched, the branchlets spreading at an angle of about 45°; yellowish white and translucent, about °5 of an inch long, divided by si le distant =, long internodes usually bearing from two to four hydroids. Hydrothecz alternate,
large, deep, ew. Vv , With an even, sligh rted rim, belo hich there is a slight per es dle region is slightly smaller, toe ed e , with a — g r th beds rominent projectio: are articulated upon slightly p Eriaedly og
nea Diphasia mirabilis, sp. nov. Stem stout, rather rigid, narro nately branched, saaewher flexuous between on — which g aeiqeaes straight, constricted at base, sp Ing an angle . Hydrothece on the main stem in two rows, nearly opposite; on branches
10 A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
arranged in six rows along the branches, instead of two oppo- site rows.
Many other peters species occurred here, among them Epizoanthus Am ws V., Cellaria fistulosa Linn., ‘Stylifer Stumpsoni V. ee ae ae Dribachiensis), Acirsa borealis,
mauropsis heliendes, Sabinea sepiemcarinata (Sabin ne).
At mors locality (d), a few miles from this, in N. lat. 41° 25’, W. long. 66° 25’, in 50 fathoms, sandy and shelly bottom, aeceenniee. at bottom 45°, surface 62°, Aug. 31st, a similar assemblage of species occurred. The Hydroids and B ryozoa were very numerous. Among the former the most abundant were Hydrallmania falcata Hincks, Sertuliria cupressina Linn Diphasia fallax Ag., Sertulareila polyzonias Gray (var. robusta S. tricusprdata Hincks, Lajoéa dumosa Sars, an verticillata ; but Lafota fruticosa Sars, EGA, ea Bincloat C. volubilis Alder, + Halecium Beanii Johns., Calycella syringa ae ee humilis Hincks, Eudendrium ramosum Ehr., and Tubularia indivisa Linn., also occurred. Among the Bry- oz0a oe — abundant were Cellularia ternata Johns., C. ter- nata, var. duplex Smitt, Bugula Murrayana Busk, Cellepora sca-
a, var. plicaia Smitt, ‘C. avicularis Hincks, and Discopora Ske- net Smitt (? var.), the last three investi ng the stems of Hydroids in profusion; Cellaria fistulosa L., Carberea Hillisii Smitt, and Farrella famitiaris (Gros. sp. =F, pedicellata Alder), also occurred. The oids and Bryozoa = this and other localities were cover ee immense numbers of Foraminifera.
This species of Ascidian had been known before only from ew oe dredged in Murray Bay, Can., by Dr. Dawson, an artha’s oe by, Mr. Prudden.
rh ‘of the previo: was ee to be 86°, of the surface 61°, on Sept. 12. These were the lowest temperatures o during the: summer.* In accordance with these temperatures six regular rows, occupying all sides of the branches, those in the adja- cent rove alternating. The hydrothece have large, appressed, somewhat swollen Kaa : aor : ore rains! bilabiate, operculated. Reproductive capsules not observ: * The lo st temperature observed in the Bay of Fundy was 37°5°, in 106 G i center ot lepth N. lat. 42° 187, bk ia. Be 64° 087, the temperature, taken by the officers 1e me ae were 62° at rface (air ‘63°), pre 37° at the bottom. At the depth of find fathoms, Nw ie tat. 4 42° 14’, W. long. 63° 59’, they found the surface temperature 63° and the bottom 39°. N. lat. Sa be Wee Oe Le
A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England. 11
the animal life in this region was found to have a more arctic character than in most of the other localities examined.
Among the arctic species found here were Thwaria articu- lata, Rhynchonella psittucea, Astarte elliptica, A. Banksti, Scalaria Greenlandica, Aporrhais occidentalis, Trophon Gunnert, Bela vio- lacea, and many other northern shells ; Pteraster militaris, Lopho- thuria Fabrici: V., Eupagurus Kroyert St., Paramphithoe cata- phracta (Stimp.), Tritropis aculeatus Boeck ; Myriozoum subgra- cile, Eschara papposa Pack. and Escharoides rosacea Smitt. The last four and the four first named were not found in any of our Bay of Fundy dredgings, and have not been found so far south before, to my knowledge. In 60 fathoms (i), near the last locality, N. lat. 42° 44’, W. long. 64° 36’, a similar assemblage of animals was met with, including the 7ritropis aculeatus, but there were a number of additional ones of interest, among them Acanthozone cuspidatus Boeck, Sabinea septemcarinata (Sabine),
yas araneus, Turritella reticulata, Aglaophenia myriophyllum, Lajoéa fruticosa Sars, and a peculiar sponge (Po/ymastia), grow- ing in short stump-like masses, with a convex and verrucose summit, looking something like fragments of cauliflower. The temperature at this place was not ascertained, owing to the loss of the thermometer.
N. lat. 42° 21’, W. long. 64° 9’, the temperature
fathoms, muddy bottom, the temperature was 39°, big tnrs surface 57°, but in aes was found to be 44°, the surface and air being 62°. It is greatly to be
be made in any of deeper waters. * It is somewhat rkable that Crepidi } is Lam. (plana Say), a sonthern apectes, ocoutred be and on St. George's Bank, although unknown
Species, occ in the Bay of Fundy. This is a species perfectly distinct from 0. which setae eyiaes have united ae wrioonay it occurs associated with the lat- n the outside of shells, Limuli, etc.
12 A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
of the surface was 72°; and (n) in N. lat. 41° 25’, W. long. 65° to 65° 25’, where the temperature varied at different hours from 66° to 70°.
Among the species obtained here were Neptunus Sayi Stimp., Nautilograpsus minutus Edw., Latreutes ensiferus Stimp., Lucier,
Mysis, Thysanopoda, Callio opeus leviusculus, Hyperia, two spe- cies, and seven other genera allied to Hyperia, all of which are new to the North American coast, viz: Anchylomera, Oxycepha- lus, Platyscelus, Thyropus, Phrosina, Phronima, Pronoe ; besides these there were species of Sapphirina, Lepas, and many other Crustacea. Among the Acalephs were Stomolophus me/eagris Ag., Pelagia cyanella Per. and Les., and Cestum Veneris (?) Les., of which the first two have been known before o only from far south, on the coasts of Florida and 8S. Carolina, and the last from the Mediterranean ; Physalia Arethusa Til., and Charybdea periphylla Per. and Les., were also obtained, both of which are properly Gulf Stream species. The latter has apparently been unobserved since it was briefly described in 1809, and very imperfectly figured. Of Mollusca there were Salpee in abun- ance, three species of //eteropods new to our coast, and ten “eae of Pteropods, previously unknown in our waters. Amon
e latter are * Sinliola acus (Eschscholtz sp.), and four other species of the same genus, two of Pleuropus, with species of Spiralis, etc. Besides these, Sagitta was abundant, also various larval Crustacea, and attached to floating masses of Fucus ves- tculosus and Sargassum bacciferum were species H aan etc. A small fish (Mote/la) was also taken at the su
Dr. A. S. Packard, of Salem, Mass., kindly: consented to take charge of the dredging on the last cruise of the Bache, for Messrs. Smith and Harger were obliged to return to New Haven. It ought to be mentioned here, however, that he had long desired to explore the region of St George's Bank, and had he returned from Europe “earlier in the season he would doubtless have gone on the previous cruises. He was assisted by Mr. Caleb Cooke, of Salem, who has had considerable ex- Rhy in collecting, both on our coast and that of Africa.
W. long. 67° 49’; the others were made in sequence, cons eastward, as the steamer approached and passed over the crest f the bank, near its eastern end; but the last, in 150 fathoms, aa a little farther north as well as east from the precedin ones. It will, therefore, be apparent that the region examine on this cruise was quite distant from those explored previously,
A, E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England. 18
between St. George’s Bank and the coasts of Maine and Nova Scotia, and hence sheltered to some extent by the banks from, the action of the powerful currents, which sweep over their outer sides and summit, and which appear to be sufficient to prevent the accumulation of fine sediments in that region, even at the depth of 430 fathoms, while in all shallower depths the bottom was wholly of gravel, sand, and shells. At the sum- mit of the banks (St. George’s Shoal and Cultivator Shoal) the water is very shallow,—so much so that the waves break there in heavy storms,—and the bottom is composed of mov- ing sands, almost barren of life in some places.
e existence of powerful currents in this region was fully demonstrated this season .by the Bache, and their velocity was ascertained in some localities. Mr. Smith also tells me that even far to the eastward of St. George’s Bank, where no bot- tom was found at 1800 fathoms, the conflicting currents were
s ”
sufficient to produce heavy “rip
: hiteaves during the summers of 1871 and "72, resembles that of Dr. Packard's
Atlantic. The fauna was essentially the same in the three muddy localities explored by Dr. Packard, and referred to above, viz. : in (0) 110, (p) 85, and (s) 150 fathoms ; the tempera- tures of the surface (Oct. 12th), were 56°, 56°, and 52° F. respectively ; and of the bottom 49°, 49°, and 52°. These bottom temperatures are doubtless to be corrected for a con-
14. A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
siderable instrumental error, for which I have no data. The life Hage. a temperature not above 40°, and perhaps con- siderably lo Asa fall tours with complete lists of the species obtained on this and the previous cruises, will soon be published, it is on] ly necessary to mention, at this time, some of the more inter- esting discoveries. From the 150-fathom locality, N. lat. 42° 11’, W. long. 67° 17’, 92 species were obtained,* exclusive of Foraminifera. mong the Radiata from this place, the most poe aon were (u) Bolocera Tuedice Grosse ; (u, 0) Certanthus borealis V., OV. ; (o, p) Pennatula; + Virgularia (see note, page 5); (2) Sicdoeella Gayt Hincks; S&. tricusprdata H.; Sertularia cupressina Linn. ; Ophioglypha Sarsti Lym.; Ophiacantha spinulosa Miill. and Trosch.; + Archaster arcticus Sars; + Solaster furcifer Dub. and Koren; (t, & 0, p) Schizaster fragilis (D. and K.); Eehinar- achnius parma; + Thyon e fusus? Koren. Of these the Virgularia, locera, Cerianthus, Astropecten, Solaster, and Thyone have all been added to the American fauna this year, the last three being as yet — on this side of the Atlantic only from Dr. Packard’ s dredgi Of Mollusca ere were 32 species : among the Bryozoa were + Discoporella verrucaria Smitt; +Avarthropora borealis Smitt ; ornerea lichenoides Smitt; Cellularia ternata (var. Jobnst. ; Bugula Murrayana Busk: among the Lamellibranchs were ‘e) Pecten pustulosus V.,sp. nov. ;+ (v) Arca pectunculoides Scacchi ; Jeera arctica ecg Yoldia obesa saa Leda tenuisulcata ;
Menan in 28 to 52 fathoms; v is west of the southern portion of Grand Menan in 40 to 60 fathoms; w, is between Campo Bello an the brite: ~ Me Aenea x is off Head Harbor, in 70 to 90 fathoms. The + indica the species has not been found as yet in any other locality on he time of he Ui United States. Species without any designation have been found in numerous localiti
Pecten pustulosus
sp. nov. Upper valve more convex than the lower, a little swollen toward the umbo; ‘di
by Sens ange a grooves, which pass between and separate the vesicles ; on the w , above the origin of the vesicles, the border of the grooves rises into a _ igh miatvor’ lamella. Lower valve with fine, close, slightly raised, con- ee faint toward the beak. Auricles unequal, that of the
~
A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England. 15
(g, 1) Astarte lens (dwarf var.); A. guadrans Gould: of the Gas- teropods some of the more important were +(0) seaabinahoe
teak « vestita Jeftr reys + Velutinies iis : obscura ; M. cinerea Couth. ; ; Scaphander puncto-striatus H. & A.
an adult ae. 1:15 of an inch long, °75 broad, with a firm, rather thick shell, destitute of epidermis, but with punctate lines
upper valve gore — a little projecting posteriorly, much larger and more pro- minent, with a d emargination anteriorly, its surface with concentric lel and radi 3h or rows of small conical vesicles; that of the lower valve a deep, angular byssal notch anteriorly, its surface with concentric lamelle ad ao radiating ridges. Color yellowish-white. Length -30 of an inch; height thickness “10, r St. George’s Bank @ i in 150 fathoms, mud (living); east of St. George’s @) ts "430 fathoms, os and gravel (dead, but fresh valves). otomella Pac ackardti V., sp. and gen. nov. Shel Pomen. fragile, translucent, pale flesh- colored, moderately stout, with an
. acute, s mewhat turreted spine. Whorls nine; the apical Meer for about two and 0 halt ored this
2 cave band below the suture, corresponding to the posterior notch in the outer lip; the whorls are crossed below the sub- neue band by a ete va Dera prominent, rounded, somewhat oblique ribs, most prominent on the m of the whorl, but not a angulated ; on the last whorl these ribs become very 0 moo below the middle, and follow the curve of the edge of the lip, nearly fading out para orly face between the ribs is marked by faint lines of growth and by fine neg slighty
i ribs wi They
0. aan on the lower part of the 0 —— and are very faint on the ‘sub- utura j
gro + e ape is S hast wide very thin, sharp, prominent presto separated aan e ocuine Ww. y ‘a wi pr hg a above, sepa vot the cieounnferen
absence of eyes and operculum, great ae of the e posterior sinus, and character of the apex, indicate that this ae st a new al ch I purpose to call rotomelia, living s
e } Torellia vestita? Jeffrey i i ize somewhat resembles large specimens of Page
small and low; whorls four, the last : in bulk of the sh re deep. Umbilicus small and , somewhat co’ by the reflected outer edge of the columella, which recedes in front and joins the uter lip a ob , forming a broad, shallow, anterior imner border of the columella a little excavated near the whorl, eed Swollen in the m Outer lip s , regularly rounded Epidermis 4 with conspicuous lin wth, finely reticulated vi
greenis i 08 Of gro — hair-like processes, hes. along which arise numerous, slender, but short, hair-like . 8 beneath the epidermis white, nearly smooth. Length ‘30 of an inch, breadth °40, ae of ee "24, breadth *1 n, dead and inhabited by a Sipunculus, was found.
16 J. W. Dawson—Footprints, etc., on Carboniferous Rocks.
as in the smaller specimens previously known ; and Ringicula nitida V.,* a new species allied to A. buccinea Desh., of Europe ; Cylichna ‘alba ; Lenin albus ; Entalis striolata St. ; ; and Den- talium occidentale St., ete
mong the Crustacea were Hupagurus Kroyert Stimp., £. Bernhardus St., EH. pubescens St., Hyas coarctatus, Ptilocheirus pinguis Stimp., Harpina fusiformis Smith (St. sp.), Aga polita Stimp., 4. psora Bate and West., and Balanus porcatus. All of these Crustacea, except the species of ga, are common in the shallow waters of the Bay of Fundy.
{To be continued.]
Arr. Il.—IJmpressions and Footprints of Aquatic Animals and rere oie on etek, gli Rocks ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S.
THE footprints and other markings of aquatic invertebrate animals ae of fishes are necessarily, for the most part, less distinctive and important than those of land animals, both ecause less characteristic in themselves, and because reproduced under similar forms in very different geological periods. The former peculiarity has caused them to be neglected as of little importance, or to be confounded with impressions of plants. With reference to the latter, I have myself shown that the impressions made by the modern King-crab faithfully represent the Protichnites, Climactichnites, and Rusichnites of the Primor- dial and Silurian, and similar comparisons have been made by Salter, Jones, Dana and others, between the tracks of modern Crustaceans and worms and some of those in the oldest rocks.
1. Protichnites Owen. The footprints from the Potsdam Soap in Canada, for
which this name was proposed by Owen, which were by him referred to Crustaceans probably fierass cae Limulus, were * Ringicula ni
itida V., 8 Shell small, white, sda fecal oval, with five whorls, spire rapidly and regu- larly tapered, sub-acute, shorter than the aperture. Whorls very convex, regularly rounded, the sutures well impressed ; a well marked, impressed, revolving line
n nt, microscopic revolving lines, most distinct anteriorly perture ewhat cre sha Outer lip evenly rounded, fo the segment of a circle, the border regularly thickened, ing a little posteriorly, near the suture. us on the narrow, nearly even, but a little swollen in the middle and slightly raised. Columella stout, recurved at o strong, very ent, equal, spir: Segre ge anterior one projecting be ond the can th
the end roun an inch; breadth -125; length of aperture ‘10;
same ‘043. Two living specimens from (0) 110 and (s) 150 fathoms, muddy bottom.
J. W. Dawson—Footprints, etc., on Carboniferous Rocks. 17
shown by me in 1862* to correspond precisely with those of the American Limulus (Pelyphemus occidentalis). I proved by experiment with the modern animal that the recurring series of groups of markings were produced by the toes of the large posterior thoracic feet, the irregular scratches seen in Protichnites lineatus by the ordinary feet, and the central furrow by the tail. It was also shown that when the Limulus uses its swimming feet it produces impressions of the character of those named Climac- tichnites, from the same beds which afford Protichnites. The principal difference between Protichnites and their modern representatives is that the latter have two lateral furrows pro- duced by the sides of the carapace, which are wanting in the former. : As Limuloid crustaceans are well known in the Carbonif- erous beds of Europe and America, their footprints might be expected to occur in rocks of this age, but the first I have met with were sent to me last summer by my friend Mr. Elder, of Harvard College, who found them quite abundantly in dark- colored flag-stones belonging to the Millstone Grit formation at McKay’s Head in Nova Scotia (fig. 1). The animal which pro- duced these marks must have been of small size (about half an inch in breadth), in this agreeing with the usual size of the Coal-formation Limuloids; and like the ancient Protichnite- makers, it left no trace of the edges of the carapace, but a very distinct impression of a sharp pointed tail. Its posterior feet had three or possibly four sharp toes. There were besides several pairs of sharp-pointed walking feet. On the same slabs. there are some series of marks, evidently made by the same kind of animal, which have no tail-mar , and there are tail- marks with only traces of those of the toes. It is worthy of notice that, though these tracks indicate the presence of the ani- mals, no crusts of Carboniferous Limuloid crustaceans have yet been found in Nova Scotia. The sand in which the tracks now referred to were made was probably too hard to permit the swimming feet to make any impression. With respect to the absence of the marks of the sides of the carapace, I may ob- Serve that the genus Belinurus of the Carboniferous had the sides of the carapace less deep than that of the modern Limu- lus, and this may also have been the case with the more ancient Limuloids of the Potsdam. See as to this a letter by Prof. Hall In = waite Naturalist, Be Wa ‘natensedl a veep ohare 0 Protichni a e reife a § : i Hive aig Phas bia (Gs , which at first sight much resembles P. Scoticus, from the Primordial of Roxburghshire,
* Canadian Nat., vol. vii. ' + Siluria, 4th edition, p. 153. Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Series, Vor. V, No. 25.—Jan., 1878. 2
18 J. W. Dawson—Footprints, ete., on Carboniferous Rocks.
pressure of a pair of flat organs, crenated or toothed at the edges, rather than divided into separate toes. Its horizon is the Lower Carboniferous. It was collected by Prof. Hartt.
he first species of Protichnites referred to above may be appropriately named P. Carbonarius, and the second P. Acadicus. They are, I believe, the first impressions of this kind found in the Carboniferous.
2. Rusichniies Dawson.
In a paper published in the Canadian Naturalist, 1864, I showed that the singular bilobate markings with transverse strie named Rusophycus by Hall, and found in the Chazy of Canada and the Clinton group of New York, are really casts of burrows connected with footprints consisting of a double series of transverse markings, and that a comparison of them with the trails and burrows of Limulus justified the conclusion that itthey were produced by Trilobites. I proposed for these and for similar impressions of small size found in the Carboniferous, the name given above. The Carboniferous examples I supposed might have been produced by the species of Phillipsia found in
these beds. specimen recently obtained from Horton shows this kind of impression passing in places into a kind of Pro- tichnites, as if the creature possessed walking feet as well as the lamellate swimming feet which it ordinarily used.
I can scarcely doubt that the Cruziana semiplicata of Salter, and C. similis of Billings from the Primordial of Newfound- land, must have been produced by crustaceans not dissimilar from those to which Rusichnites belongs.
To Rusichnites rather than to Protichnites ought perhaps to ‘be referred certain transverse linear impressions with a broad -eentral groove from the Lower Carboniferous of Horton, which ‘occur at that place under different modifications, and sometimes ‘seem to change into light scratches or touches of feet employed in swimming, or end abruptly as if the animal had suddenly risen from the bottom.
Arenicolites Salter.
This genus may be held to include cylindrical burrows of worms with or without marks of minute sete. They occur in rocks of all ages, and are especially abundant in the Lower Carboniferous series of Half-way River, Nova Scotia, and in the Upper Coal-formation at Tatamagouche in the same province; those at the latter place showing minute scratches produced by the setee of the worms.* With the ordinary form at Horton there occur very long and slender, thread-like forms of the same nature with those to which the name Nemertites has been given.
* Journal of the Geological Society, vol. ii.
J. W. Dawson— Footprints, etc., on Carboniferous Rocks. 19
I have long been of opinion that many of the cylindrical markings which have been described as plants under the names Palewochorda, Buthotrephis, Paleophycus, Arthrophycus, &c., are burrows of this kind, but the main difficulty seemed to be to account for their branching in a radiate or palmate manner. have recently met with specimens from the Primordial and Carboniferous which seem to explain this. They show a cen-
tral hole or burrow from which the animal seems to have stretched and withdrawn its body in different directions, so as to give an appearance of branching and radiation, possibly due merely to the excursions of the same worm from the mouth of its burrow.
No distinct examples of the Primordial and Silurian worm- trails known as Nereites, Myrianites and Crossopodia, have yet occurred to me in the Carboniferous.
_ Diplichnites Dawson.
hence been induced to su that these imprints may have been produced by the pocueal of ventral fins of fishes armed
20 uJ. W. Dawson—Footprints, etc., on Carboniferous Rocks.
impressions of the type of Diplichnites are known to me only in the Carboniferous. Szrichnites of Billings, from the Anti- costi group,* has some points of resemblance to it, but is essen- tially distinct. My species may be named D. enigma.
Rabdichnites Dawson.
Under this name I would designate the straight or slightly curved marks usually striated or grooved longitudinally, and either single or in pairs, which abound on some Carboniferous beds, and also in much older formations. At Horton Bluff, in beds holding remains of fishes and numerous footprints of crus- taceans and reptiles, and scratches which were probably made by the fins of Rihas these marks abound. They were evidently furrows drawn by pointed objects trailed over the mud, and reproduced in relief on the under surfaces of the beds next deposited. Some have been produced by rounded points and are semi-cylindrical. Others are the work of chisel-shaped, pointed, notched or fimbriated organs, giving a variety of more or less close subordinate grooves or striz. In some cases they
s into or are associated with punctures or impressions made perpendicularly like those last noticed, and this is especially the case with some of the smaller varieties. The whole of these
different form found in the Primordial of Great Britain. He * Report on Silurian Fossils of Anticosti, 1866.
J. W. Dawson—Footprints, ete., on Carboniferous Rocks, 21
supposed them to have been the work of species of Hymenoca- ris. ‘These marks may, however, indicate the existence of some free-swimming animals of the Primordial seas as yet unknown to us
Three other suggestions merit consideration in this connection. One is that alge and also land plants, drifting with tides or cur- rents, often make the most remarkable and fantastic trails A
marking of this kind was observed by Mr. G. M. Dawson last
markings of this kind would suffice to give species of Hophy- ton, Another is furnished by a fact stated to the author by Prof. Morse, namely, that Lingule, when dislodged from their burrows, trail themselves over the bottom like worms, by means of their cirri. Colonies of these creatures, so abundant in the Primordial, may, when obliged to remove, have covered the. surfaces of beds of mud with vermicular markings. The third is that the Rabdichnite-markings resemble some of the grooves in Silurian rocks which have been referred to trails of Gastero- pede . for instance, those from the Clinton group, described y Hall.
_ As might be expected, the markings above referred to, when im relief, occur on the under sides of the beds, A few instances
Imitative Markings. Rill-marks are often very beautifully developed on the Car- boniferous shales and argillaceous sandstones, though not more elaborately than on the modern mud-banks of the Bay of Fundy,* and they oceur as far back as the oldest Cambrian.t+
* Acadian Geology, 2nd ed., p. 26. : + Salter, Journal of Geol. Society, vol. xii, p. 251.
22 J. W. Dawson—Footprints, etc., on Carboniferous Rocks.
and others resemble roots, fucoids allied to Buthotrephis, or the radiating worm-burrows already referred to.
Shrinkage cracks are also abundant in some of the Carbonifer- ous beds and are sometimes accompanied with impressions of rain-drops. When finely reticulated they might be mistaken for the venation of leaves, and when complicated with little rill- marks tributary to their sides, they precisely resemble the Dic- tuolites of Hall from the Medina Sandstone.
An entirely different kind of shrinkage-crack is that which occurs in certain carbonized and flattened plants, and which sometimes communicates to them a marvelous resemblance to the netted under-surface of an exogenous leaf (fig. 5). Flat- tened stems of plants and layers of cortical matter, when car- bonized, shrink in such a manner as to produce minute reticu- lated cracks. These become filled with mineral matter before the coaly substance has been completely consolidated. A fur- ther compression occurs, causing the coaly substance to collapse, leaving the little veins of harder mineral matter projecting. These impress their form upon the clay or shale above and below, and thus when the mass is broken open we have a car- bonaceous film or thin layer covered with a network of raised lines, and corresponding minute depressed lines on the shale in contact with it. The reticulations are generally irregular, but sometimes they very closely resemble the veins of a reticu- lately veined leaf. One of the most ‘curious specimens in my possession was collected by Mr. Elder in the Lower Carbon- iferous of Horton Bluff. The little veins which form the pro- jecting network are in this case white calcite; but at the sur- face their projecting edges are blackened with a carbonaceous
m.
Slicken-sided bodies, resembling the fossil fruits described by Geinitz as Gulielmites, and the objects believed by Fleming and Carruthers* to be casts of cavities filled with fluid, abound in the shales of the Carboniferous and Devonian. They are, no
* Journal of Geol. Society, June, 1871. + Ibid, vol. x, p. 14.
J. W. Dawson—Footprints, etc., on Carboniferous Rocks. 28
SES
Scotia,
“a ‘ “i
ee : 3 3...5 g.
= Aes | Sal 3. ce 2 3222 g goes Sie mie a eed PEELE Huy flit ts solos was
a, See ee
g & &
Fi Fi Fie F tion of
24 J. W. Dawson—Footprints, etc., on Carboniferous Rocks.
slicken-sided in this way, and which if wholly covered by this kind of marking could scarcely aa been recognized. I have red bodies of this kind in figs. 126 and 231 of my report on the Devonian and Upper Silurian plants, believing them, owing to their carbonaceous covering, to be probably slicken-sided fruits, though of uncertain nature. In every case I think these ies must have had a solid nucleus of some sort, as the severe pressure implied in slicken-siding is quite incompatible with a mere ‘“fluid-cavity,” even supposing this to have existe Prof. Marsh has well explained another phase of the influence of hard bodies in producing partial slicken-sides, in his paper on Stylolites, read before the American Association in 1867, and the application of the combined forces of concretionary action and slicken-siding to the production of the cone-in-cone concre- tions, which occur in the Coal-formation and as low as the Pri- mordial, was illustrated by the author in his Acadian Geology, 676.
“Of course, as I have not seen the specimens referred by Prof Geinitz to Gulielmites, but only the figures in his Memoir on the Permian plants of Saxony, I cann not offer any decided opin- ion as to their nature; but I have little doubt that the bodies mentioned by Mr. Ca rruthers are of the kind above referred to,
and would be found to have had a solid nucleus either organic or of some other kind.
I may remark in conclusion that it would be well if collectors would give some attention to imitative markings an footprints of the kinds above referred to, as well as to their mode of occurrence with reference to the surfaces and material of the beds on which they are found. The labors of Hitchcock and others show how much interesting information may thus be obtained, and many mischievous errors might also be avoided.
nmy own studies in fossil bota tany, [ have made it a point to collect and study all markings resembling plants, as well as the effects of crumpling, pressure, concretionary action, crystaliza- tion, shrinkage and slicken- siding upon actual vegetable re- mains; and by so doing I have avoided the trouble and expense of describing and figuring some dozens of imaginary species; while it would be easy to point out in works of some pretension costly figures and elaborate descriptions based on imitative forms or distorted and otherwise altered fossils.
J. W. Draper—Distribution, ete., in the Spectrum. 25
Art. III.—Researches in Actino-chemisiry. Mnmotr SEconp. On the Distribution of Chemical Force in the Spectrum ; by JoHN Witiiam Draper, M.D., LLD., President of the Fac-
ulties of Science and Medicine in the University of New York.
Wirn scarcely an exception, the most recent works on the chemical action of radiations an seg nate the se et,
lar changes in any special substance is determined by the absorp- tive property of that substance.
second in a paper in the same journal,
between the phenomena of the chemical rays and those of radiant heat” (Sept., 1841). eee
he opinion commonly held respecting the distribution a
‘ } ;
the higher parts of the spectrum a special principle prevails, to which the Soabeeb ee of & actinic aii is often applied—an Mappropriate iteration. In these pages I use the derivatives of axris, not in this restricted sense, but as expressive of radia- Hons of every kind. This is their proper signification. =
_ Every part of the spectrum, no matter what its refrangibility may be, can produce chemical changes, and therefore there is No special localization of force in any limited region. Out of a large bod of evidence that might be adduced, I select a few prominent instances.
26 J. W. Draper— Distribution of
1st —Case of the Compounds of Silver.
Silver is the basis of the most important photographic sensitive substances. Its iodide, bromide and chloride, darkening with rapidity under the influence of the more refrangible rays, have mainly been the cause of the misconception above alluded to respecting the tripartite constitution of the spectrum. It is necessary, therefore, to determine what are really the habitudes
of these substances. 1.) If a spectrum be received on iodide of silver, formed on the metallic tablet of the daguerreotype, and carefully screened from all access of extraneous light, both before and during the exposure, on developing with mercury vapor an impression is evolved in all the more refrangible regions. This stain corre- sponds in character and position to the blackening effect which under like circumstances would be found on any common sensi- tive silver paper. It is this which has given rise to the opinion that the so-called actinic rays exist only i in the upper part of the spectrum. If, however, the action of the light be long con- tinued, a white stain makes its appearance over all the less refrangible regions. It Nee a point of maximum to which I shall again presently re But if the callie tablet during its exposure to the spectrum ts also receiving diffused light of little intensity, as the light of day or OF a s lamp, 1 it = ‘be found on developing that rs strikingly from the preceding. BKyvery ray that the prism can tenant from below the extreme red to beyond the extreme violet, has been active. The ultra-red heat lines a, f, y, are present. It must be ees in mind that the im- pression of these lines is a proof of proper spectrum action, and distinguishes it from that of diffused light, arising either from the atmosphere or from the imperfect transparency of the prism—a valuable indication. The resulting photograph shows two well marked regions or phases of action. On its general surface, which, having condensed the mercury vapor, has the aspect of the high lights of the daguerreotype, and forms as it were the basis for the spectrum picture, there is in the region of the more refrangible rays a bluish or olive- colored impres- sion, the counterpart of the result described in the foregoing paragraph. But in the region of the less refrangible rays no mercurial deposit has occurred, the place of those rays being depicted in metallic silver, dark, and answering to the shadows of the daguerreotype. This protected portion, which stands out in bold relief from the white background, reaches from a little below G to beyond the extreme red, and encloses the heat lines above named. They are in the form of white streaks Though I speak of them as single lines, they are in reality groups or perhaps bands.
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 27
The general appearance of the photograph at once suggests that the less refrangible rays can arrest the action of the day- light, and protect the silver iodide from change. A close ex- amination shows that there are three points, the extreme red, the center of the yellow, and the extreme violet, which ap- parently can hold the daylight in check. There are also two intervening ones in which the actions conspire. The point of maximum protection corresponds to the point of maximum action referred to above in paragraph (1).
(3.) If the metallic tablet, previously to its exposure to the spectrum, be submitted for a few moments to a weak light, so that were it developed it would at this stage whiten all over, the action of the spectrum upon it will be the same as in the last case (2). But this change in the mode of the experiment leads to a very important conclusion. The less refrangible rays can reverse or undo the change, in whatever it may consist, that light has already impressed on the iodide of silver. ee
ow bearing in mind the facts, that the photographie action of diffused light on this iodide is mainly due to the more re- rangible rays it contains, we are brought by these experiments to the following conclusions :
Ist. Every ray in the spectrum acts on silver iodide.
2d. The more refrangible rays apparently promote the action of the daylight on that substance ; the less refrangible apparently arrest 1t. :
ing substance of the silver iodide are involved. [ abstain for the moment from giving further details of these
ie Herschel, in the case of one I sent him many years ago. His examination of it, illustrated by a lithograph, may be found im the Philosophical Magazine (Feb., 1843). I shall have to return to the subject of the behavior of silver iodide in presence of radiations on a subsequent page of this memoir. : _ The main point at present established is this, that the silver iodide under proper treatment is affected by every ray that a flint -glass prism can transmit, and therefore it Is altogether erroneous to suppose that chemical force is restricted to the more refrangible portions of the spectrum. 2d.—Case of Bitumens and Resms.
These substances are of special interest in the history of pho-
tography, since in the hands of Niéped they probably were the
28 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
in benzine, and developed by a mixture of benzine and alcohol.
The bitumen solution being poured on a glass plate in a dark room, and drained off as in the operation of collodion, leaves a film sufficiently thin to be iridescent. This is exposed to the spectrum for five minutes, and then developed.
The beginning of the impression is below the line A, its termination beyond H. Every ray in the spectrum acts. The ee is continuous except where the Fraunhofer lines fall. A
etter illustration that the chemical action of the spectrum is not restricted to the higher rays, but is possessed by all, could hardly be adduced.
3d.— Case of Carbonic Acid.
.
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 29
carbonic acid. The curve of the production of chlorophyl, the curve of the destruction of chlorophyl, the curve of the visible absorption of chlorophyl, and the curve of the decomposition of carbonic acid, are not all necessarily coincident. ‘To con- found them together, as is too frequently done, is to be led to incorrect conclusions.
Two different methods may be resorted to for determining the rays which accomplish the decomposition of carbonic acid.
Ist, The place of maximum evolution of oxygen gas in the Spectrum may be determined. 2d, the place in which young etiolated plants turn green.
I resorted to both these methods, and obtained from them the same results. The rays which decompose carbonic acid are
portion of green on the other. Though the form of experimen- tation does not admit a close reference to the fixed lines, I think
The two absorptive media, potassium bichromate, and cupro-ammonium sulphate, so often and so usefully employed In actino-chemical researches, corroborate this conclusion. Plants cannot decompose carbonic acid, nor can they turn green in rays that have passed through a solution of the latter salt.
€y accomplish both those results in rays that have passed through the former.
€ decomposition of carbonic acid, and the production of
chlorophyl by the less refrangible rays of the spectrum, afford
thus a striking illustration that chemical changes may be brought about by other than the so-called chemical rays. 4th.— Case of the Colors of F lowers.
The production and destruction of vegetable colors by the agency of light has of course long been a matter of common observation. Little has, however, been done in the special ex- Ae of the facts, and that little for the most part by
ersche
We have only to examine his memoir in the Philosophical Transactions (part II, 1842), to be satisfied that nearly every radiation can produce effects. Thus the yellow stain im by the Corchorus Japonica to paper is whitened by the green, blue, indigo and violet rays. e rose-red of the Zen weeks
30 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
stock is in like manner changed by the yellow, orange and red. The rich blue tint of the Viola odorata, turned green by sodium carbonate, is bleached by the same group of rays, that is, b those less refraneible than the yellow. The green (chlorophyl) of the Hider leaf is changed by the extreme red.
It is needless to extend this list of examples. The foregoing establish the principle, that every part of the spectrum displays activity, some vegetable colors being affected by one, others by
er
my expe Royal Society, 1856, 1857).
n Table III. of my memoir, above referred to, it is shown that this mixture is affected by every ray of the spectrum; but by different ones with very different energy. e maximum is in the indigo, the action nee being more than 700 times as
powerful as in the extreme red.
6th.—Case of the Bending of the Stems of Plants th the Spectrum. It is a matter of common observation, that plants tend to
grow toward the light. Dr. Gardner was, however, the first to
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 31
examine the details of this phenomenon in the spectrum. His memoir is in the Philosophical Magazine (Jan., 1844). When seeds are made to germinate and grow for a few days in dark- ness, they develop vertical stems, very slender and some inches in length. These, on being placed so as to receive the spectrum, soon exhibit a bending motion. The stems in other parts of the spectrum turn toward the indigo; those in the indigo bend to the approaching ray. Removed into darkness, they recover their upright position. These movements are the most striking of all actinic phenomena. I have often witnessed them with admiration.
“ The first action of light is perceived in the mean red rays, and it attains a maximum incomparably greater at that point than elsewhere. The next part affected is in the indigo, and accompanying it there is an action from + 10% to + 36°0 of the same scale (Herschel’s) beginning abruptly in Fraunhofer’s
ue. So striking is this whole result, that some of my earlier spectra contained a perfectly neutral space, from—50 to +20.5, in which the chlorophyl was in no way changed, whilst the solar picture in the red was sharp and of a dazzling white. The maximum in the indigo was also bleached, producing a linear Spectrum, as follows:
Tn which the orange, yellow and green rays are neutral. These it will be reenshored are active in forming chlorophyl. Upon longer exposure the subordinate action along the yellow, etc., Securs, but not until the other portions are perfectly bleached. “In Sir J. Herschel’s experiments there remained a salm color after the discharge of the green. This is not seen when ch orophyl is used, and is due to a coloring matter in the leaf, soluble in water, but insoluble in ether.” T have quoted these results in detail because they illustrate a striking manner the law that vegetable colurs are destroyed by rays com lementary to those that have produced them, and ree proof that rays of every refrangibility may be chemically Ctive,
in
At this poirt I abstain from adding other instances showing that chemical changes are brought about in every part of the Spectrum. The list of cases here presented might be indef-
32 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
initely extended, if these did not suffice. But how is it pos- sible to restrict the chemical force of the spectrum to the region of the more refrangible rays, in face of the facts that compounds of silver such as the iodide, which have heretofore been mainly relied upon to support that view and, in fact, originated it, are now proved to be affected by every ray from the invisible ultra- red to the invisible ultra-violet; how when it is proved that the decomposition of carbonic acid, by far the most general and most important of the chemical actions of light, is brought about not by the more refrangible, but by the yellow rays? The delicate colors of flowers, which vary indefinitely in their tints, originate under the influence of rays of many different refrangi- bilities, and are bleached or destroyed by spectrum colors com- plementary to their own, and, therefore, varying indefinitely in their refrangibility. Toward the indigo ray the stems of plants incline; from the red their roots turn away. There is nota wave of light that does not leave its impress on bitumens and resins, some undulations promoting their oxidation, some their deoxidation. These actions are not limited to decompositions ; they extend to combinations. Every ray in the spectrum brings on the union of chlorine and hydrogen.
The conclusion to which these facts point is, then, that it is erroneous to restrict the chemical force of the spectrum to the more refrangible, or, indeed, to any special region. There is not a ray, visible or invisible, that cannot produce a special chemical effect. e diagram so generally used to illustrate the calorific, luminous, and chemical parts of the spectrum, serves only to mislead.
While thus we find that chemical action may take place throughout the entire length of the spectrum, the remarks that ave been made in the previous memoir (this Journal, Sept., 1872), respecting the ditsrasths of calorific distribution in
844. ey are referred to in the Philosophical Magazine (June, 1845). As they were obtained on silver plates made
The fixed lines were beautifully represented in the photo- graphs. They were, however, so numerous and so delicate,
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 33
that I did not attempt to do more than to mark the prominent ones. These were, I believe, the first diffraction photographs that had ever been obtained. The wave-lengths assigned were according to Fraunhofer’s scale, which represents parts of a Paris inch.
The length of the photographic impression given by the prism I was then using, from the line H to the ultra-violet end of the spectrum, was about three times that from H to G; but im the spectrum by the grating, though the exposure was in one instance continued for a whole hour, the impression beyond H was not more than 1} times the length of that toG. I more moderate exposures the last fixed line in the photograph was about as far from H on one side as G was on the other. This, therefore, showed very clearly the difference of distribu- tion in the diffraction and prismatic spectra.
OF THE CHEMICAL ACTION OF RADIATIONS ON SUBSTANCES.
eoener arrangement of bodies,” I now pass to the second, which is—
“That the ray effective in producing chemical or molecular changes in any special substance, is determined by the absorp- tive property of that substance.”
This involves the conception of selective absorption, as I have formerly shown (Phil. Mag., Sept., 1841). A ray which pro- uces a maximum effect on one substance may have no effect
1st.— Of the decomposition of silver iodide.
There are two forms in which the silver iodide has been used for photographic urposes: Ist, when prepared by the action of the vapor of iodine on metallic silver, as in the daguerreotype tablet; 2d, when nitrate of silver is decomposed by iodide of potassium, or other metallic iodides. These preparations differ strikingly in their actinic behavior, the former furnishing by far the most interesting series of facts.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuep Serres, Vou. V, No. 25.—Jan., 1873. 3
34 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
When a polished surface of silver is exposed at common temperatures to the vapor of iodine, it speedily tarnishes, a film of silver iodide forming. This passes through several well marked tints, as the exposure continues and the thickness increases. They may be thus enumerated in the order of their occurrence: 1, lemon-yellow; 2, golden-yellow; 3, red; 4, lue; 5, lavender; 6, metallic; 7, deep yellow; 8, red; 9,
een. eal these films are sensitive. Under the influence of radia- tions they exhibit two phases of modification. Ist, an invisible modification, which, however, can be made apparent or devel- oped, as Daguerre discovered, by exposure to the vapor of mercury, the iodide turning white by the condensation of mer- cury upon it, wherever it has been exposed to light; but remaining unacted upon in parts that have been in shadow. 2d, a visible modification, which arises under a longer exposure, the iodide passing through various shades of olive and blue, and eventually becoming dark-gray. But though all the variously tinted films of silver iodide are impressionable, they differ greatly in relative sensitiveness, with each other. This may be very satisfac- torily shown by producing on one silver tablet bands of all the above named colors, an effect readily accomplished by suitably unscreening successive portions of the tablet during the process of iodizing, and then exposing all at the same time to a common radiation. It will be found on developing with mercury vapor that the bands of a yellow color have been the most sensitive, those of a metallic aspect have been scarcely acted on, and those of other tints intermediately. It is to be particularly remarked that the second yellow, numbered 7 in the above series, is equally sensitive with the first yellow, numbered 2. rom this it appears that the sensitiveness of this form of iodide depends not merely on its chemical constitution, but also on its optical properties. The — of this different sensitiveness in different films of iodide becomes obvious when we cause a tablet prepared as just described with tinted bands to reflect the radiations falling on it to another tablet iodized to a yellow color, and placed ina camera. After due exposure
first plate and its image on the second together, it will be per- ceived that the parts that have been affected on the one are
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 35
impression obtained: 1st, when eit light has been excluded ; and 2d, when it has been permitted simultaneously or previously to act.
n the latter case, in all that region of the spectrum from the more refrangible extremity to somewhat below the line G, the usual darkening effect manifested by silver compounds is observed, but beyond this, and to the extreme less refrangible rays, with certain variations of intensity, the action of the extraneous and simultaneously acting light is checked, and the effect of previously acting light is destroyed.
It happened that in 1842 I obtained two very fine specimens of the latter spectra; one of these I sent to Sir J. Herschel, the other is still in my possession.
In the Philosophical Magazine (Feb., 1848), Herschel gave a detailed description of these spectrum impressions. He was isposed to refer the appearance they present to the phenomena of thin films, but at the same time pointed out the difficulties im the way of that explanation, He also sent me three roofs he had cbinined on ordinary sensitive paper, darkened ry ex- Posure to light, then washed with a solution of iodide of te - stum, and placed in the spectrum. He described them as follows:
chant paper from which excess of nitrate of silver has not been abstracted, under the influence of an iodic salt, Produced by a November sun. N. B.—View it also trans- parently against the light.”
36 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
(2.) “ Blackened paper under the influence of an iodie salt, when no excess of nitrate of silver exists in the paper.”
(3.) “ Action of spectrum under iodic influence when very little nitrate of silver remains in excess in the paper. Tio be viewed also transparently.”
These paper photographs I still preserve. They are as per- sk as when first made. e different colored spaces of the
ectrum are marked upon them with pencil. The appearances they respectively present are as follows: (1) is bleached by the more refrangible rays, and blackened deeply from the yellow to the ultra-red ; (2) is bleached from the ultra invisible red to the ultra-violet: a maximum oceurs abruptly about the blue; (3) has the same upper spectrum as the others, a bleached dot in the center of the yellow, and a darkened space on the extreme red. e action has reached from the ultra-red to the ultra-
et.
In Herschel’s epee these effects in the less refrangible region are connected with the drying of the paper. It is well known that paper in a Sas condition is more sensitive than ‘such as is dry. But obviously this condition does not obtain in the case of the daguerreotype operation, which is essentially a dry process.
In 1846 MM. Foucault and Fizeau, having repeated the experiment originally made by me, presented a communication to the French Academy of Sciences to the effect that when a silver tablet which has been sensitized by exposure to iodine and bromine, and then impressed by light, is exposed to the : P eelerana, the effect is greatly icrensed in all the region above
line ©, and is neutralized in all that below C. They remarked the distinctness with which the atmospheric line A ‘comes out, and saw the ultra spectrum heat-rays a, f, y, de- ‘scribed by me some years previously.
The interpretation given by them is, that the more refrangible rays promote the previous action of light; t the less neutralize it. ‘The curve representing the chemical intensity of the different rays would cross the axis of abscissas about the boundary o the red and orange; below that point to the ultra-red the ordin- ates would have negative values; above it to the ultra-violet 2a values would be positive (Comptes Rendus, No. 14, tome
him bein vg while the more refrangible rays atin sensi-
nation “ rayons exeitacout.” to the latter “ rayons continuateurs” (Comptes Rendus, No. 17, tome 28).
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 37
In 1847 M. Claudet communicated a paper to the Royal Society, subsequently published in the Philosophical Magazine (Feb., 1848), on this subject. His attention had been drawn to it by observing that the red image of the sun, during a dense fog, had destroyed the effect previously produced on a sensi- tive silver surface, and that this destruction could be occasioned at pleasure by the use of red and yellow screens. surface
ich has been impressed by daylight, and the impression then obliterated by the less refrangible rays, had recovered its primitive condition. It was ready to be impressed again b daylight, and again the resulting’ effect might be destroyed. Claudet found that this excitation and neutralization might be repeated many times, the chemical constitution of the film remaining unchanged to the last.
These facts seem to be inconsistent with Herschel’s opinion, that positive and negative pictures may succeed each other b the continued action of a radiation, on the principle of Newton's ri
not a trace of action can be detected. The lines a, f, v, can- not be obtained on collodion. There is, therefore, a difference between its behavior under exposure to light and that of a daguerreotype tablet.
The reversals that are obtained on collodion by the use of certain haloid compounds, are altogether different from the re- Versals on the thin films of a silver tablet. They are produced by the more refrangible rays.
On exposing a collodion surface prepared in the usual man- ner to daylight, long enough to stain it completely, then wash- Ing off the free nitrate, and in succession dipping the plate into a weak solution of iodide of potassium, exposing it to the spec- trum, washing, again dipping it in the nitrate bath, and finally developing, a reversed action is obtained. The daylight is per- fectly neutralized, but not after the manner in a spp toneegee
sure of five seconds. In twelve seconds the protected space is much larger; in thirty seconds it has spread from F to H. Its, however, to be particularly remarked that the less refrangible Tays show no action. : Es The results are substantially the same when, instead of iodide of potassium, the chloride of sodium, corrosive sublimate, bro-
38 J. W. Draper—Distribution, ete., in the Spectrum.
mide of potassium, or fluoride of potassium, is used. In all these the reversing action is from F to H, and has its maximum somewhere about G. at is, the reversing action coincides with the direct action; there is no protection in the lower por- tion of the spectrum as in the daguerreotype. The effect is altogether due to the change of composition of the sensitive film rdinarily it contains free nitrate; now it contains free iodide, chloride, &ec. he silver compounds of collodion absorb the radiations fall- ing on them which are capable of producing a photographic effect. Yet sensitive as it is, collodion is very far from having its maximum sensitiveness, as is shown by the following experi- ment, which is of no small interest to photographers. I took five dry collodion plates, prepared by what is known as the tannin process, and having made a pile of them, caused the rays of a gas flame to pass through them all at the same time. On developing it was found that the first plate was strongly im- pressed, and the second, which had been behind it, apparently uiteas much. Even the fifth was considerably stained. From this it follows that the collodion film, as ordinarily used, absorbs only a fractional part of the rays that can affect it. Could it be
to produce a maximum effect.
Though the silver iodide is affected by radiations of every refrangibility, it is decomposed so that a subiodide results only by those of which the wave-length is less than 5000. If in presence of metallic silver, as on the daguerreotype tablet, the iodine disengaged unites with the free silver beneath. The rays of high refrangibility occasion in it chemical decomposi- tion, those of less rebrangitiey: physical modification. In the language of the older theories of actino-chemistry, this sub- stance may be said to exert a selective absorption. In this it illustrates the general principle, that it depends on the nature of the ponderable material presented to radiations which of them shall be absorbed.
(To be continued.)
h. Ridgway— Relation between Color, ete., in Birds. 39
Art. IV.—On the relation between Color and Geographical Dis- tribution in Birds, as exhibited in Melanism and Hyperchrom- wm; by RoBert Rip@way.
(Continued from vol. iv, page 460.)
B [o) anes Eh O Qu oy i] ee — fen et = ay ras) co) o gg — ° =} wm 4 om, — ie) ES 4 fa) = © <4 oO F oa ct 2) =) i
) + (eastern coast, from Mirador to Honduras), in which the red is altogether deeper than in the northern forms (var. Virginianus and var. wgneus).t§ In the case of Pyranga estiva, Central American
° “> o io) et wey %. =) TR a 7) oO ia) nd oO =} st 3 al ° ie) | ia) a pS] B = — B = A
. CARDINALIS VIRGINIANUS Var. CARNEUS. ardinalis carneus Less., Rev. Zool., 1842, 209 (Acapulco et Relego).—Bonap. Oardinnds fae (Female.) inalis oni Bonap., Consp., p. 209. (Young Male. ~yee West Coast of middle America, from Colima to Realejo. t ARDINAL GINIANUS Var. COCCINEUS. Cardinalis Virginianus var. coccineus Ridgway. ee Atlantic coast of middle America, from Xalapa to Honduras; Yucatan. t ARDINALIS VIRGINIANUS Var. IGNEUS. de Zena ird, Pr. A. N. &., 1859, 305 (Cape St. Lucas) ~~ Cape St. Lucas, ’ Arizona, and western Mexico, south to the Tres. as ds
ari va § = 18 somewhat remarkable that in these southern races (including var. igneus, trictea nthe feature is most exaggerated) the black before the eye is much res- regim and does not cross the forehead (except sometimes very narrowly) as in i oes var. Virginianus. ARPODACUS FRONTALIS var. HEMORRHOUS. Fringilla hemorrhoa Wagl., Isis, 1831, 525.—Carpodacus hem. Scl., P. Z. 8., re p. 304; 1858, 303; 1859, 380.—Cat. Am. B., 1862, 122.—Baird, 417
- N. Am., 1858, 417. < ub. Table-lands and elevated regions of Mexico. DACUS FRONTALIS var. RHODOCOLPUS. : x pedacus rhodocolpus Caban., Mus. Hein., p. 166.—Scl., P. Z.S., 1856, 304; 27, we. acific coast of southern California and Mexico (south to Colima), and Peninsula of Lower California.
40 Rk. Ridgway— Relation between Color and
the wings and tail; bud, in all cases, it is brightest within those limits to which it as confined i in the nena pattern. ‘The specimens from the Middle Province of the U. S. (var. /rontalis)* may be taken as representing the normal style, for it is from this central race that the two extreme differentiations diverge This tendency to an extension of red, as we approach to the oe coast, is strictly paralleled in the case of Sphyropicus aking ng specimens of this species from the Atlantic States (typical S. varius)t, it is noticed that in the male the red patch on the throat is entirely cut off from the white rictal stripe by a continuous maxillary stripe of black, while the nuchal band is brownish white; and that the female has te throat entirely white. Not more than one per cent. have a tinge of red on the nape in the male, or a trace of it on the throat in the female. In specimens from the Rocky Moun- tains (var. nuchalis)t we find that al/ have the nuchal band more or less red, while the female invariably has the throat at least one-third of this color; the male, too, has the black max- illary stripe interrupted, allowing the red of the gular patch to touch, for quite a distance, the white stripe beneath the eye, while it invades, for a greater or less extent, the black pectoral crescent. Another step is seen in specimens from the region between the Rocky Mountains a the Cascade Range, in which the red is extended still more; first, the black auricular stripe has a few touches of red, the black pectoral crescent is mixed with red feathers, and the light area surroanding it (sulphur yellow in the more eastern styles) is more or less tinged with red; then as we continue ps i the red in- creases more and more, until in specimens from the coast region of California, Oregon, "Washington Territory, and British Col- umbia (var. “ruber)§ it overspreads the whole head, neck and breast, in extreme examples entirely obliterating the normal pattern, though, usually, this can be distinctly traced. With tg CARPODACUS FRONTALIS, var. FRONT ila, ae Say, Long’s as ii 40.—Carpodacus frontalis Bonap., Consp., 533.—Baird, B. N. co 1858, 415. Carpodacus Fondhoris moon § Ay NS 8., vii, p. 61. Hab. Middle Province of the U. ‘s. ‘including the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mts., and southern a sg from the Rio Grande to Fort Tejon, Cal.
n., 3. N., 176.—Sph VYTOpicCUus varius Baird, B. N. Am., 1858, 103.—Scl, Cat 1862, 335. ~~ Hab. Eastern
fab. vince of North America (breeding north of 40°); Mexico (both coa: hi rberaabecns — var. NUCHALI hyropicus r. nuchalis Baird, B. N. Am., 1858, 103 (sub. S. varius). Hab, Rocky Rocky Me. and dig middle Province of U. 8.
§ SPHYROPICUS V. RUBER. ame a Gm, 8. 8. Nei i, 1788, 429.—Sphyropicus ruber Baird, B, N. Am., 1 i
Hab. Pacific Province of U. 8. {east only to western slope of Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges).
Geographical Distribution in Birds, 41
this increase in the extent of red, there is also a gradually increased amount of black, strictly parallel to that in Picus villosus (var. Harris) and P. pubescens (var. Gairdner?) from the same regions (see vol. iv, p. 456).
the rump, primaries, abdomen and tail-coverts. is form becomes more specialized, by the exaggeration of these char- acters, as it reaches its southern limit. In the conspicuously streaked forehead, lengthened crest, ashy body, and contras shades of blue, this form approximates closely to
4 white supraocular spot, barred greater coverts, or other pecu- liar features of the Rocky Mountain and Mexican form. That
42 R. Ridgway— Relation between Color and
the northern race of C. Steller should grade into C. macrolopha, and why the southern one does not, seems to be easily explained by the following facts: The habitat longitudinally of C. cor- onata (var. macrolopha) within the United States is exceedingly - limited, it being confined to the central ranges of the Rocky Mountain system; thus it is everywhere separated from the habitat of Stelleri var. frontalis, which is equally restricted longi- tudinally by that broad desert expanse, the Great Basin, which affords no sheltering woods such as are furnished on the two boundary barriers, the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Moun- tains, which each represents. e northern limit to the range of C. macrolopha passes just a little beyond the southern limit of the habitat of the north- ern race of the coast stock, and at a latitude where the ‘Great Basin a greatly reduced in width, or even terminates, and where the two great mountain systems become less dis- tinctly aati Consequently the coast stock cannot grade into the Rocky Mountain one, by iwgoaeine) its habitat, er before it becomes modified into var. frontalis. Thus in the rd parallelism of modification on tween Stelleri var. frontalis and coronata var. macrolopha, as we trace the two forms southward, we recognize merely the effect of a latitudinal influence. The coast stock reaches its southern limit with the Sierra Nevada, and this of course prevents it from passing into C. coronata var. diademata. he proportionate jeeenemels of these two forms may be mo clearly illustrated by the follow. ing diagram and synopsis; the letters and figures of the former representing those of the latter
A. Supraocular spot of white; Se wing-coverts barred with black; chin and throat abruptly lighter than adjacent parts ae sarbniataks
ead and crest deep blue; back purplish blue B gpears amount of blue). Hab. Vera Cruz to —
sho onata.*
2. Head and crest blue-black, er tinged with blue; back agora iseae (Int termediate rm.) Hab. Central regions of Mexico, a diademata.t
* CYANURA CORONATA var. Cyanura coronata Swains, Phil. 2 aaa +) 1, 182%, 437. Hab, Eastern Mexico and Honduras. (No orth to Mirador and Xalapa.)
. Central table-lands and mountains of Mexico.
Geographical Distribution in Birds. 43
3. Head and crest deep black, scarcely tinged with blue; back ashy (minimum amount of blue). Had. Rocky Mts. of the United States. Var. macrolopha.*
No supraocular spot of white; greater wing-coverts not _bar- red with black; chin and throat not abruptly lighter than the adjacent portions (C. Steller?).
1’. Head, crest and anterior part of the body, above and below, sooty black; no blue on the forehead; the blue of a
Var. frontalis.t
Like @ Stellert var. frontalis, all the races of C. coronata have the forehead streaked, but with milk-white instead of pale blue. Steller: var. frontalis, and coronata var. macrolopha, further agree in having the longest crests, most slender bills, and most con- trasted shades of blue, in the whole series; while O. Stelleri and
ation of the bill, and contrasted shades of blue, with excess of heither black nor blue; while “A. 1” and “B. 1’” represent the shortest crest and stoutest bill, and uniform shade of blue, with excess of blue on the one hand and of black on the other. AS a summary of these facts, it appears evident that the Series of forms under consideration is divided into two well marked stocks, but that they intergrade at one point. The conclusion, then, must be that they are all modifications of one * CYANURA CORONATA var, MACROLOPHA. anocitta macrolopha Baird, P. A. N. 8., 1854, 118. Cyanura m. Baird, B. A. Am., 1858, 582. Hab. Central Rocky Mountains of the U. 8. YANURA
t = oie RI var. STELLERI. os orvus Stellert Gm., 8. N., i, 1788, 370 (Sit ee Cyanura s. Sw., F. B. A., ii, 1831, 495. App. (descr. but not fig., Me3 is of cone a tecuetinte form between Stelleri and macrolopha /).—Baird, B, N. Am., , 581 t Crancra
STELLERI var. FRONTALIS. Cyanura Stelleri var. frontalis Ridgway.
44 A. M. Mayer on the Experimental Determination
relationship of species, and may in this case, perhaps, well be abandoned.
RT. V.—On the Experimental Determination of the relative Intensities of Sounds; and on the measurement of the powers 2 various substances to Reflect and to Transmit Sonorous Vibra- tions; by ALFRED M. Mayer, Ph.D.
(Read before the National Academy of Sciences, in Cambridge, Nov. 21, 1872.)
Waite the problems of the determination of the pitch of sounds and the explanation of timbre have received their com- pee elucidation at the hands of Mersenne, Young, De la Tour,
6nig and Helmholtz, the problem of the accurate experimen- tal determination of the relative intensities of given sonorous vibrations has never been solved.
The method I here present will, I hope, open the way to the complete solution of this difficult and important problem; and I trust that the success I have met with will instigate others, more learned and patient, to attack with superior acumen & subject which must necessarily become of fundamental import- ance in the future progress of acoustic research.
1. The determination of the relative intensities of sounds of the same pttch.
If two sonorous impulses meet in traversing an elastic
the impulses from the two resonators meet at the confluence of the two branches of the forked tube, and connect the branch of
of the Relative Intensities in Sound. 45
mirror will present its well known serrated appearance. On sounding the second body impulses from it will meet those from the first body, and if the phases of vibration of the impulses on the manometric membrane are opposed and of equal intensity, the membrane will remain at rest and the flame will now appear in the mirror as a band of light with a rectilinear upper border. But although the intensities of the pulses can easily be ren- tie equal y altering the distance of one of the resonators
ing means. I cut a piece out of one of the tubes equal in length to a half-wave of the note we are experimenting on, and replace this piece of tubing with a glass tube of the same length, ito which slides another glass tube also of half a wave in length. Now the experimentation becomes expeditious and
If the latter do not entirely disappear from the band of light in the mirror, w
measured, and the inverse ratio of the — of these distances will be the ratio of the intensities of the vibrations at
46 A. M. Mayer on the Experimental Determination, ete.
It will be observed that the accuracy of the determinations by this experimental method depend on three conditions. First, that the vibrating effects of the same area of a spherical sonorous waye diminish in intensity as the reciprocals of the squares of the distances of this area form the point of origin of the wave. There is every dynamic reason to believe in the truth of this proposition. The second necessary condition is that the elongation of one of the resonator tubes over the other by half a wave-length of firm glass tubing does not diminish the intensity of the impulses which have traversed it. Numer- ous experiments, especially those of Biot and Regnault on the aqueduct pipes of Paris, show that this short connecting tube of
lass cannot in any way affect the accuracy of the measures. The third condition is that the intensities of pulses sent through a tube from a resonator vary directly with the intensities of
precision the relative intensities of two sonorous vibrations pro- ducing the same note.
Savart and many other experimenters have determined the relative intensities of two sounds by placing sand or other light particles on membranes and receding from the source of sound until no motions of the particles were visible. Also Drs. Renz and Wolf (Pogg. Ann., vol. elxxiv, p. 595) give the results of experiments on the determination with the ear of the inten- sity of the sounds of a ticking watch. More recently Dr. Heller (Pogg. Ann., vol. cexvii, p. 566) has made an elaborate research on the intensities of sounds; deducing mathematically his deter- minations from the observed amplitudes of vibration of a mem- brane; and Mr. Bosanquet (L. E. and D. Phil. Mag., Nov., 1872) has just published a paper in which he proposes to measure the intensities of the sounds of pipes of different pitch by the deter- mination of the quantity of air which each pipe consumes in sounding. But all of these experimenters acknowledge the want of precision in their measures and the difficulties in the actual practice of their methods.
(To be concluded.)
J. D, Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, etc. 47
Art. VI.—On the Quartzite, Limestone and associated rocks of the vicinity of Great Barrington, Berkshire Co., Mass. ; by JAMES D. Dana. With a map.
{Continued from vol. iv, p. 453.]
2. From the Housatonic valley westward.
We might naturally suppose that the succession of strata in Monument mountain—gneiss, quartzite, gneiss, quartzite, in ascending order, and 800 to 1,000 feet thick (vol. iv, p. 450)— would be found to characterize the formation above the Stock-
small area, the lower mica schist is in one direction replaced by quartzite; the lower quartzite, in another direction, by mica slate ; and all the quartzite, mica schist and gneiss of the moun- tain, in another direction, by mica slate and chloritic mica slate, some of it dotted with magnetic iron. In the facts it is further shown that within a mile to the north of an east-and-west syn- clinal fold, there is a change from the one fold to two synclinals and an anticlinal; that several isolated north and south ranges of limestone are anticlinal emergences of a single burrowing wide-spread stratum or formation; and that some, if not all, of the high ridges of nearly vertically inclined mica slate, like that of Tom Ball, are synclinal folds of the slate. .
In treating of the region “from the Housatonic valley west- ward,” I present the facts by reference to five east-and-west séctions in an interval of six miles.
West of the valley in the vicinity of Housatonic village, there - are the following ridges and valleys (see map, repeated, wit! some emendations, in this volume): 1, the quartzite ridge W, and more to the west another, lettered L; 2, the Williamsville valley, continued south in Long Pond valley; 8, the Tom Ball ridge of mica slate; 4, 5, 6, the two limestone valleys of Alford separated by a mica slate ridge (Alford Ridge).
1. A section across the Housatonic valley just below the old
addition its continuation westward across the Williamsville valley and Tom Ball into Alford. It shows the anticlinal of the Housatonic valley (A*), with limestone outcropping from beneath the schist that a few hundred yards farther south covers it (as represented in section 1), and the schist overlaid by the quartzite on both sides of the river. In Williamsville valley,
48 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, etc.,
the limestone does not reappear; but instead, there is sufficient evidence that the overlying schist or slate is the upper rock under the alluvium of the river. The large masses of rock in sight are mostly boulders ; yet some appear to be true outcrops,
and if so indicate much variation a aoe ith none at a high angle. In the slopes of Tom Ball, along iis section, the slate of the lower part is nearly horizontal, or even westerly 15°, and some of it is calcareous; but forty yards above it changes to 40° to the eastward, wit ith the strike N. 5° E.; and higher up to 50°-70°, and even 80° at the summit. The west slope of the mountain in this part is very precipitous.*
W A? H Section from Monument mountain westward, south of f 4,
V3 Section ae Glendale westward.
- 9. The section in fig. 4 was taken just north of the line of the old furnace, fon the map, or of the cross road f’. The first elevation west of the ecg is the ridge N, which is nearly a continuation of W ; but e W consists of quartzite, about N the quartzite is scar ere there are only the underlying beds of mica slate and limestone, a bluff of mica slate forming its summit—not over 150 feet above the river. The mica slate dips to the westward 25°. West of this ridge the section is essentially i same as No. 3, no limestone outeropping in its
e slate being probably the upper rock underneath the levies
3. a. Half to two-thirds of a mile farther north in the Housa- tonic valley, near 6’ (map), the schist on the east (right) of the
*In n figures 3, 4, 5, W shows the positio n of Williams river, and ee Housatonic river; and the height on the west (left) is Tom Ball ridge. The letter
same scale is to the vertical about as one to four.
wn the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 49
limestone, so gently inclined near f, becomes nearly vertical, and the limestone adjoining has the same dip; but in the field to the westward the latter falls off in dip within 50 yards to its usual small amount, and farther west the beds disappear under the mica slate of Williamsville valley.
. Again, half a mile farther north, near 6 on the map, the same schist, as represented at V? in fig. 5,* has the same nearly vertical position, the dip being 80° to 70° to the eastward, and in part vertical; and the limestone adjoins it with an eastward dip of 70°, strike N. 2°-5° E. To the west of the brook, along the rising road, this limestone changes its dip to 62°, and strike to.N. 15°-20° W. ; then, at top of the ascent, to 40°, and in a few rods to 25° to the eastward, and strike to N. 40°-60° W., the northing in the dip increasing. At the top of the ascent there is a bluff north of the road which consists of
the western foot, which show that the dip on that side is 45° to 50° to the eastward, the strike N. 10-20° E.
A ‘om Ball ri to the west. of schist V1, V°, is oe surface rather gently inclined for more than three fourths of its breadth. Am. Jour, rag en Vou. V, No. 25.—Jan., 1873.
* In figure 5, the part above A® is represented too high in proportion to height of cig Ba : ri The limestone A’, between cap at
50 J. D. Dana on the Quartaite, Limestone, ete.,
uninterruptedly through the eastern valley of Alford and be- yond, nearly encircling the mountain. Tom Ball ridge is thus cut off completely from the West Stockbridge ridge, half a mile of nearly level land, with outcropping limestone, intervening between their bases
The limestone in he northern Perk of the Alford valley has generally a strike of N. 10 to 20° EH: (but at one place N. 8° W.), and an saat dip of 45° to 50°; ; at the Churchill marble quarry (CQ, map), a north and south strike, with a dip of 90°, but a hundred yards north the dip diminishes to 40° to the east- ward, and 300 south, to 30° and 35°; near Alford village, at one place the strike is N. 25° E. ; at the south end of the valley N. 2°
to 5° EK. (but at one place N. 20° E.), the dip mostly 50 to 70°,
0°
Heaths varying to 90°. The variations are such as occur in all the limestone regions, but less than usual, owing to the high inclination of the beds. a Churchill’s marble quarry there is
no division of the rock into layers through a thickness of 50 feet, while at the quarries north and south of it above referred to, where the dip is 80° to 40°, the layers are 1 to 6 or 8 a thick. The great thickness at Churchill’s quarry is owing to the soldering of many layers together, which took place at the time of metamorphism under the pressure producing the uplift and accompanying the crystallization. Such an obliteration of the layers when the dip is high is common throughout the limestone region of the Green Mountains. wo important conclusions may be here stated.
I. The limestone of the Housatonic fold, A’ in the sections, is the same stratum with that of the northern part of the Williamsville valley and that of Eastern Alford.
II. This limestone passes beneath the Tom Ball ridge, and the rock of this ridge is, therefore, an overlying stratum, and has a synclinal position.
c. The section in figure 5 extends eastward to Glendale.
The mica slate V?, already referred to (and which extends — along by 0’ and ’ to the western side of Monument Moun-
has a width in this section of about 200 yards. The strike . 2° E. to N. 5° W., and dip 60° to 80° to the eastward. Next to the eastward comes limestone, A?; first, with a steep
* The latter ridge Me ee yee ee map), and its line is a more western one. The mica slate of ridge is the same with that of Tom Ball, and is similarly seamed with quartz bg tp oaths 20°-25° E., and the dip 40°-45° E.
in the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 51
Glendale, which continues uninterruptedly eastward to Stock- bridge; it adjoins the slate west of it (V") conformably ; it loses its steep dip and becomes undulating over the Glendale and Stockbridge region, dipping variously but generally at a small angle to the eastward.
The slate V’, just west of Glendale, whose position is indi- cated by @ on the map, continues southward, crossing the Housatonic at the northwest bend in the river; and, with the limestones A! on its east side and A? on the west, constitutes a ridge, a’, which stretches southward to Monument Mountain, stopping at the elevated plain (200 feet or more above the river) of Smith’s farm (Sm on the map). The strike of the mica slate at the bend is N. 20° W., varying, on going westward, to N. 10° E., with the dip 70° to 80° to the eastward; the western part is very rusty and decomposing.
Now near the Old Furnace (fig. 8) the limestone A® goes be- neath the mica slate V*, at a small angle. This limestone hence must go beneath this more steeply dipping schist, since it is a continuation of V*, and it must emerge to the eastward either im the limestone A? or in AL. But the nearly vertical dips of V* and V! (fig. 5), and the conformable yet mostly small-dipp ing limestone over the intermediate region, show that V? and V* are independent synclinals, and therefore,that the limestone is all one and the same stratum rising in a series of anticlinals, as illustrated in the section. :
Following the limestone A? south to Monument Mountain it appears finally to pass beneath the schist, though the covering of soil prevents a satisfactory examination of the junction.
n the steep slope rising above the Smith farm plateau on the south, the schist, where it outcrops, dips westward, which is unusual in Monument Mountain, and is apparently connected with the synclinal of mica slate that here commences. on this plain ‘in the schist (near I, map) there are two very thin
generally very small (25° and less) and very various as about Glendale. Lenox Mountain is Tcbabl: the course a synclinal, like the ridge @ a’ in which it ' Seems to begin, and like Tom Ball.
52 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, ete.
of the slope (from which the steeper part of the mountain rises) is 80 or 90 feet above the Smith farm plain.
The range of steeply dipping schist, V' (fig. 5), which near Glendale has about the same width as V?, is not 50 feet wide (between the steeply inclined limestones A', A®*), at its ter- mination just north of Smith’s farm (Sm on map) ; which shows that the fold V* is pinched out as it nears the mountain.
rom the above facts we have good grounds for the follow- ing additional conclusions.
III. The limestone of Eastern Alford, of the north end of Williamsville valley about Freedley’s quarry, of the Housatonic valley, and that of Glendale and Stockbridge all belong to one strat Moreover, this same stratum of limestone extends from the Freedley quarry region (F Q on the map), at the north end of Tom Ball ridge, without break, I believe, north to West Stockbridge, three miles distant in the same Williams river valley ;* and thence farther north, as I know from observation, through Richmond to Pittsfield ; and also south from Alford ito Egremont and Canaan. It is evidently one continuous mass.
IV. While in Monument Mountain there is a single broad uplift of the rocks, there are, directly north of it within a mile (section in fig. 5), two steep synclinals of mica slate; and this mica slate is part of the Monument Mountain formation. =
V. In the synclinal V? (figure 5) the folded stratum of mica ‘slate is a little less than 300 feet thick, since the whole breadth is 200 yards and the dip nearly vertical; and this directly over- lies the limestone. Now near the Old Furnace on the Housa- tonic river the thickness of the mica slate over the limestone 18 only 50 or 60 feet; and this is overlaid in Monument Mount- -ain by 200 or 250 feet of quartzite ; and, above this, 300 feet at least of mica schist and gneiss; and then higher up another thick stratum of quartzite. Therefore, in the short distance of a mile and a half, the lower quartzite of Monument Mountain, -¢, 200 to 250 feet thick, has wholly disappeared, and inst of it there is mica slate. This quartzite, to the northward, even before reaching the line of the Old Fnrnace, is mostly well bedded, and although mainly concealed by soil; shows evidence of thinning in that direction.
VI. In the section in fig. 5, at its west end, the quartzite of Monument Mountain, g', overlying the schist and limestone mear the Old Furnace, would naturally be looked for in the rocks of the Tom Ball ridge above the limestone. But it does not exist in any part of the slopes, nor does it outcrop to the south, except at the southern end of the ridge. Hence again
= » map the roads terminating at W S lead to the village of West Stock- bridge, and that at C to the village of West Stockbridge Center, west of the West Stockbridge ridge.
Meteors of November 24-27, 1872. 53
the quartzite stratum has little persistence in any direction. Its representative in this region, when absent, is mica slate.
VIL. Only 800 feet of the Monument Mountain formation are folded up in each of the folds V? and V° in the section represented in fig. 5. is was probably because these folds are so small, the overlying beds having been rejected, broken up, and carried off. T'wo synclinals and an anticlinal are com- prised within a breadth of only two-thirds of a mile.
IIL. Steep synclinals of slate, when the slate is associated with a thick stratum of limestone and is the overlying rock, should make ridges; and per contra, steep anticlinals if the slate 1s the underlying rock. In both cases, to produce an enduring ridge, the slate should be folded on itself so as to make a com- mon mass; and this is not the case in an anticlinal with lime-
_ two more sections across this western part of the Great Bar- Tington region remain to be described. [To be continued. ]
Art. VIL— Observations upon the Meteors of Nov. 24th-27th, 1872; compiled by H. A. NEwTon.
THE meteors seen upon the evenings of Nov. 24th, 25th and 27th, from their numbers, and from their probable connection with Biela’s comet, are of such interest and importance as to Justify a minute record of observations upon them.
November 24th,
1. In New Haven.—On the evening of Sunday, Nov. 24th, about 7h 85", Arthur T. Hadley, a student in Yale College, saw several meteors descend from the constellation Cygnus toward the western horizon. He called the attention of his uncle,
54 Meteors of November 24-27, 1872.
Prof. Twining, to the occurrence, and soon after Prof. Twining notified me. The appearance so early in November of the meteors supposed to be connected with Biela’s comet had not been anticipated, and, therefore, they came upon us by surprise. Prof. Twining, previously to calling me, had made a rude approximation to the place of the radiant, considering it to be in the neighborhood of Andromeda’s hand. Between half-past seven and a quarter-past nine his nephew counted 43 meteors. The actual time of watching was estimated as between 60 and 65 minutes.
The counting of the meteors was kept up with some interrup- tions till after midnight, with the following results.
From 8° 15™ to 8" 30™ Pp. m. 7 meteors, by 1 observer. “ 8 45 0 “ 14 6 6“
oc 9 9) “ 9 a4 5 “cc 9 oe = 6c “ 9 15 “ 9 30 6c 10 “ 1 “ - 9 380 45: = q 43 1 " “cc 9 45 “ 10 0 “ 10 73 1 oe Sr33O 60 6.10545. 36 Bia . “a 10 45 “ 1 1 0 “ce 84 66 4 oe “ 1 1 0 “cc 1 a 3 15 “cc 15 “cc 2 i tee & i STDS Ye ee 23 ~ 2 a ee A ee 15 - 2 ‘ th oo eee 11 - 2 “ “3 2 0 66 1 2 3 0 74 6 74 2 “ce oe ie ke ee 7 = 1 -
There was no moon, and the sky was tolerably clear We could not command the parts within 15 or 20 degrees of the orizon because of trees and houses. Allowance in the num- bers of the above table should also be made for the time I was
selves,
The following tracks, laid down upon a chart by Arthur T. Hadley and myself, will help to locate the radiant, and deter- mine its character. The place assigned to the center of the radiant area by me at the time was two or three degrees north of y Andromeda.
R. A. ieee RA Bonding N, Dee. Obs. 343 54 315 53 H. 315 35 802 29 H. 15 37 10 344 N. 18 46 13 50 N. 34 43 41 38 N. 42 39 47 38} N. 50 25 54 20 N. 24 23 244 16 N. 28 24 28 N. 60 784 135 81 N. 320 66 265 60 N. 345 64 335 654 N. 358 62 342 66 N. 355 20 850 11 H.
2. In Bethlehem, Pa.—The number of shooting stars, as is evident from this record, would not attract general attention, eing only about 40 to the hour for a single observer. Mr. M. Gummere, of Bethlehem, Pa, however, noticed them, and counted 40 between 10 and 11 o'clock. They appeared to im to radiate from near the zenith. Three or four were quite brilliant,
November 25th. - In New Haven.—On the morning of Monday, Nov. 25th, I watched 15™, and saw no conformable meteors. The sky was
W. n the evening of Monday, Mr. O. Harger and the writer watched from 7" 40™ to 9". The haze and clouds interfered Somewhat, yet we saw 28 meteors, of which we estimated 15 to be conformable to a radiant near Andromeda. It was quite evident that a part of those seen belonged to the same group as those of the previous evening. ae Later in the evening Mr. Harger, assisted by Bouton, Nevins, Tillinghast and Torrey of the Sophomore Class in Yale College, watched 3} hours with the following results. The recorded tlons expressing the amount of sky covered by clouds are considered by Mr. Harger as too small. Time, Conf. meteors. Unconf. No.ofobs. Cloudiness, From 10° 25" to118 o™, 7 S$ (4 4 sky covered. 11
“
MAD SO 11 4 H . at 300 * 38° 9% 6 ee i2 Oo « 12 30 i “ ie tee | as 24 «38 ee: hie * 4518 4 ee a eee ee }at , 45 2
2 0 eae pn Total, 39 conf. 41 unconf.
56 - Meteors of November 24-27, 1872.
One-half of the meteors seen were, therefore, of the Androm- eda group. On Sunday evening the proportion was three- fourths, implying a frequency on the earlier evening three-fold that on the later. This relative frequency is confirmed also by the absolute numbers seen.
A storm prevented further observation until Wednesday evening.
November 27th.
4. In New Haven.—On Wednesday evening the meteors were in such abundance as to constitute a true stur-shower, even in Mr. Herrick’s use of that word. He thought that the term should be reserved for occasions when at least 1,000 meteors per hour were visible.
A party of students upon the tower of Graduate’s Hall, under my direction, began to count regularly at 6" 38" p.m. The periods in which fifty were counted, and the number of persons counting were as follows:
In 4™ 0° by 2 obs. | In 3™ 55 by 6 obs. In 5™ 08 by 5 obs. a 6 Q 6 a sea ee Falta 15 a." RN ee 4 10 shes
2° 415 : 56 6 * 4 20 F pied = 30° -ay* Si oe * s Orr 1. 80 46 8 40 ¢™ a ess 2 30 4 6 2 50 6 * 6 «6 re is 2 15 6 3.10 6.4 6 45 4.2% 2 30 Gx {s <6 3,45 48 9 ...85 s.S 4..% S.- 6 4.63: 3.30. 6 «+ ee 7 30 “ 2 25 4. * 6 “ | Total, 1750 in 1303”.
These numbers show a tolerably steady diminution in the frequency of the flights, there bemg 1000 in the first 563% minutes, and 750 in the last 74 minutes. Many others, not noticed by the persons counting, were seen by Prof. Twining and myself. These were not included in their numbers. The were looking in different directions, a portion of the sky being allotted to each observer. Toward the close of the above period (84 48™), the haze had increased so as to interfere seri- ously. There was no moon.
er twelve o'clock I watched fifteen minutes. Through breaks in the clouds enough sky was visible to assure me that the display was essentially over. rof. Twining was with us the latter part of the time, and made the following notes upon the characters of the meteors and the place of the radiant:
‘From the ‘Tower’ as a station, I observed from 7 33™ P. M. to 84 45", giving attention to the apparent radiant, and the space on every side of it. I saw but one flight that was noticeable for length or brilliancy. This was about 12° long. It would
Meteors of November 24-27, 1872. 57
not have been remarkable in either the displays of August 10th or of Nov. 14th. The flights were frequent, but very short, slow-moving and faint. Near the radiant they were foreshort- ened, as usual; but still the apparent paths were so very short, that the absolute lengths of luminous track were evi- dently less than those of the usual periodic meteors. With- in 10° of the radiant five tracks were observed from 4° to #° long, and with a duration of 0°38 to 085 of time. The luminous lines were narrow, and often unstuble, and not in well estab- lished right lines. The longest flight in duration was about 0*7, being not 5° long. Except in three instances the flights were from 1° to 4° in length, and 0*°8 to 0s6 in duration.
“The position of the radiant was very well established. Its centre was about 43° N. Decl. and 25° R. A.; but the area of emanation seemed to be as much as 8° long. Its longer diame- ter was along a circle of declination and it was perhaps 3° in the cross direction.”
xcept to record the times and results of the counting, my Own attention was confined to the determination of the place and extent of the radiant area. This was at least 8°, and was
h beginning, 25° R. A., 41° Dec; end, 234° R. A., 38° Dec. Beginning, 26° R. A., 44° Dec. ; end, 264° R. A., 48° Dee. ~— the Sheffield Scientific School, Prof. Lyman and Mr. G.
* Prof. Twining says that it did most certainly include the star.
58 Meteors of November 24—27, 1872.
part of the sky, counted 50 meteors between 7 35™ and 7" 56™. Thursday I saw no meteors in 15 minutes between 53° and 6", P.M. On Friday, from 8" 53™ to 9" 8", p.M., I saw 3 meteors in a clear sky, neither coming from Andromeda. On Saturday, from 5" 40™ to 6", a. M., I saw 8 flights in the eastern sky, three of which might have come from Andromeda, then in the N.W. Four were from near the zenith, perhaps from Leo. 5. In Washington.—The following report of Rear Admiral Sands to the Secretary of the Navy, is copied from the N. Y. Herald:—“ I have the honor to report that last night, being clear, a fine display of meteors was observed by Professor Hastman and Mr. Horrigan, watchman of the observatory. In the early evening, Professor Eastman being occupied in other duties, Mr. Horrigan observed 485 meteors between 6" 15™ and 8, P. M. From 8* to 9", p. M., Professor Eastman observed part of the time, and 131 were seen; after 9", Pp. M., 100 more were seen, and at 10", Pp. M., the display seemed to cease. The maximum
reports the following observations.
From 65 25" to 65 43", Washington mean time, one hundred meteors were counted, and from 75 40" to 8 0", fifty were counted. Most of the meteors were small, and only four or
Meteors of November 24--27, 1872. 59
five near the zenith left trails that endured a few seconds. The sky was clear to within L0° or 15° of the horizon. By a rough estimation, from a few of the tracks traced upon a globe, the radiant was located at R. A. 355°, Dec. +438°.
From this position of the radiant, Prof. Hall computed the
following parabolic orbit by the formulas of Dr. Weiss.
Elements of Meteors. Biela’s Comet. a a = 109°°0 9 = 246°"4 o = 245°°9 tee ty * 12°48 logq= 9976 log ¢g= 9°935
7. Prof. 8S. Newcomb also writes to the editors as follows: “This evening between 6" 50™ and 7", W. M. T., meteors fell
degree or so to the northeast, which would make its position R. A. 1532" = Dee. + 414°.
The uncertainty of this position I suppose to be about 2°. At 7h 20m the frequency had duitiaatatt so rapidly that it was no longer — to estimate the position of the radiant with Precision. This accidental opportunity to determine it may there- fore have been fortunate enough to warrant the publication of its result.”
8. In Rochester, N. Y.—Mr. Lewis Swift, in Rochester, N. Y., counted in an hour and a half, between 9" and 114, p. m., 51 meteors. All but one radiated from y Andromede, or more exactly from a point about one fourth the distance from y to f. At the beginning of his observations the radiant was exactly at y, but at the end was as stated above. They were mostly small and moved more slowly than ordinary meteors.
On the next evening (Nov. 28th) the sky was clear, but there were no meteors.
9. In Philadelphia, Pa.—Mr. B. V. Marsh, on Wednesday evening, about 10 minutes after 6, counted 11 meteors in a minute or two. He then kept watch for an hour or two with the following results :
From 6" 15™ to 6" 30" 50 meteors, or 200 to the hour. a. 5. ee
<4 6 ~ Fay «8 a9 ae “ 120 A “2 9 Ob @ ggg “s 90 “ “1-30 “4 17 as 3 12
Total, 148»... He adds: “I presume that the maximum had passed before I commenced my count, as there was a steady diminution 1n the hourly rate, and I am confident that the interval during which
60 Meteors of November 24-27, 1872.
I saw the first 11 did not exceed two minutes, giving an hourly
large, and seemed to me oblong—say 50° b: . The space
which I marked upon the globe was enclosed in an ellipse hav-
ing its axes terminating as follows:
Major axis from R. A. 347°, Dec. +20°, to R. A. 42°, Dec. + 40° inor “ is eee A, oie, TES ae “Of course these figures cannot make claim to much accuracy,
but I record my impression, noted at the time. I also noted as
follows: paths short—not many over 5°; color of larger ones ellowish ; velocity moderate ; paths of 3 or 4 appeared wavy ; rilliancy quite moderate, few if any equal to a star of Ist mag.; some few with trains, but none of them persistent. On
Thursday and Friday evenings not a meteor was to be seen.” 10. In Haddonfield, N. J.—Mr. W. C. Taylor, of Philadelphia,
writes: “ From the numbers seen by myself, and several mem-
bers of my family, I am satisfied that 20 per minute (for 5 ob- servers) is a safe estimate of their frequency at seven o'clock
Supposing that, as with the earlier meteors of this month, the
display would intensify as the night advanced, I did not keep
a continuous watch at this time. Toward eight o'clock our y became partially overcast, but there remained visible
enough of the heavens to show that the number of meteors had
greatly lessened. At ten o’clock the intervals averaged about
80 seconds for one observer. At two o'clock this (Thursday)
morning, in two short watches, I saw not a single meteor.”
‘*T have been an observer of the November meteors for many years, but never, except on one occasion, saw them so abun- dant as they were early last evening. I can name no better radiant than y Andromede.”
11. In Oxford, Conn.—Mr. O. Harger was on the road to Oxford at 64, p. m., Wednesday. In what he estimated as 10 minutes he counted, alone, 100 meteors. The period included the time of striking the hour siz.
From 8° 3™ p, m, to 8" 22™, he and his brother counted 100 meteors. oe 39 bas - 5 a a
~ 2 36-8 9 27 “ . 1 .
12. In Indiana.—At Greencastle, Ind., Prof. Tingley counted 110 in 40 minutes, at a time not later than 7° 55", P.M. At Princeton from 7 45™ to 86 15", p. M., Mr. Hunter and others in one half of the sky saw 70.
Remarks upon the Display.
Dr. Weiss, of Vienna, who first pointed out in 1868,* the
probable connection between Biela’s comet and the meteors seen * Sitzungsberichte, vol. lvii.
Meteors of November 24-27, 1872. 61
Dec. 6th, 1798, by Brandes, and Dee. 6th, 1888, by Mr. Herrick, gives the radiant for meteors following the path of that comet, as R. A., 23°-4, N. Decl., 48°-0. I assigned a point 3° from y Andromede as the center of the radiznt of the meteors, or about R. A. 25°38, N. Decl., 43°°3. The longitude of the node of Biela’s comet was in 1852, according to Hubbard, 245° 51’, and the comet would pass about a million of miles from the earth’s orbit, between it and the sun. We passed that place of the node early Wednesday evening, Nov. 27th. There can hardly be a doubt therefore that these meteors were once frag- ments, or companions, of that comet.
Any theory that shall explain the formation of the present grouping of meteoroids must account for the magnitude and shape of the radiant areas. If the members of a group have
he orbits must then either lie approximately in a plane or there must be a common node in the ecliptic, where the earth meets them. Such a node would point unequivocally to the earth as the body that originally scattered the comet.
f, as seems more probable, the orbits, however, lie nearly in one plane, either the major axes, or the longitudes of the peri- helia, must differ widely. Neither of these conditions could be satisfied, so far as I can see, by a group formed from the dis- persion of a comet by Jupiter, or other large planet. If the fragments of the comet leave the neighborhood of Jupiter, they should after each revolution return nearly to the same point in space. But a radiant area 8° or 10° long on the night of Nov. 27th, implies a distribution of the aphelia over 10° or 12° of longitude, or a similarly large difference of major axes. Such orbits can hardly have a common point at a great distance from
€sun. Moreover, a scattering accomplished in a short time upon a body moving in an orbit inclined several degrees to the ecliptic should, it would seem, be incompatible with a group- Ing at the earth’s node. ;
Again, suppose a disrupted body or agglomeration, has been once changed into a stream by the differential action of gravita- tion in the manner shown so beautifully by Schiaparelli. If the perturbing forces exerted by any planet or planets, whether temporary or long continued, should produce such differences
62 Meteors of November 24-27, 1872.
of major axes, or longitudes of perihelia, by differential ac- tion, the total action would, undoubtedly, entirely scatter the group at the earth’s nodes.
In fact, instead of regarding the meteors as a stream we ought rather to look upon the group as coming together near the perihelion,—or near the node,—and then scattering widely, to reassemble, perhaps, after a complete revolution in the orbit.
A resisting medium cannot account for the observed effect, for this does not change the longitude of the perihelion of an orbit.
It seems to me, therefore, that the periodic meteors cannot have been brought into the solar system as a stream, but that the forces which have scattered the comets are those acting near the perihelia of their orbits. As a probable corollary, we may infer that whatever force divided Biela’s comet into its two principal parts was one acting near the perihelion.
If we consider the orbits of the meteors of Nov. 14th, the cine discussion is simplified. That shower is sharply
differences of inclination of the orbi e size of the radiant is therefore due almost exclusively
sion of the node of the group, as a group, equally forbids great ts.
Art. VIIL.—Discovery of anew Planet ; by James C. WaTSON. (From a communication to one of the Editors.
On the 25th inst. at 7" 30™ I discovered in Taurus a planet hith- erto unknown. It is large and bright, resembling a star of the 9th magnitude. The unfavorable state of the weather has prevented me from obtaining any observations later than the 26th. The fol- lowing are the places observed:
1872
" Ann Arbor m. t. a é
Nov. 25, 9° 49" $1* 4> 21™ 44°92 +19° 34! 16/2 25, 10:81. 61 4 21 48°44 19 84. 19°9 25, 10 47 14 4 21 42°65 10... 34::.18:0
, 26, to ee eee 4 20 40°72 +19 34 39°7 Observatory, Ann Arbor, Nov. 30, 1872.
Chemistry and Physics. 63
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.
1. Tests for certain Organic Fluids.—In his investigations con- nected with the ammonia process of water-analysis, WANKLYN
ammonia obtained characteristic, but the relative amounts yielded by the two processes given are so also, This fact, Wanklyn i be of : ; Segre:
by Nessler’s test, By this process, it is possible to distinguish
Satisfactorily between a spot of milk and one of white of egg upon
ee handkerchief.—Jour. Chem. Soc., II, x, 645, August, a F
G. F. B. he Transformation-products of Starch.—The results of
the sugar. For the preparation of the former, 100 grams air- dried starch were stirred up with 300 c.c. of water at 40° and the
iodine, it was boiled, cooled, filtered, evaporated to 300 c.c., and Precipitated by alcohol. Similar quantities of paste were trans- ‘ormed i
Waxy mass, even after 30 precipitations, still retained the power of reducing cupric oxide to the extent of 8 or 9 per cent. of dex- ose. To eliminate this reducing body, the dextrin solution was submitted to fermentation, and again precipitated by alcohol, three or four times. It was finally washed wit alcohol, t : L filter, pressed in bibulous paper, and dried over sulphuric acid. Eight preparations made by these general methods, modifying °
64 Scientific Intelligence.
only the details, gave products remarkably uniform in character and composition, but still retaining a reducing power equal to Os re de
brittle white powder, showing shining fracture-surfaces, “<_—
An aqueous solution, containing 10 grms. in 100 a has a sp. ‘or.
solution increases in reduci ing “power, and becomes constant when the amount of sugar present, calculated as dextrose, is equal to 66 per cent. - ~ dextrin employed. The specific rotat ory power is then [a] = . Tostudy the sugar produced, a starch paste, made as " ioaking was treated with the extract from 20 grams pale malt, and the mixture allowed to stand at 40° to 45° for ab hours. It was boiled, cooled, filtered, evaporated to 30
boiled with 2 “Mikers of alcohol (sp. gr. 0.82), cooled, the sakes decanted and set aside. In six days the sides of the "vessel were
substance were made, some from the mother-liquors, others by dialysis and reprecipitation. The products were all alike, had a specific rotatory power [a] = + 150, and reduced copper oxide equal to 65 per cent. glucose. — gave numbers agreeing with the pais C,2H,,0,,. The author believes, point
two-thirds as great as dextrose, and which appears to be identical with Dubrunfaut’s maltose.—Jour. Chem. Soc., I, x, 579, J - 1872
extrin is insoluble—filtered the solution, and placed it aside. The next day a slight peepuenente appeared, which 1n- creased daily for three weeks. The supernatant ‘liquid was decanted; the precipitate, washed free from sulphuric aie by
es feebly by diastase, not colored by iodine, converted into dex- rose by heating with ‘dilute sulphuric acid, and having a rotatory
power nearly double that of dextrose. Agreeing i in all except the t omar closely with exten — Bull. Soe., ch. Tl, xviii, 66,
July 15, G. F. B
Chemistry and Physics. 65
. On the existence of an inferior Homologue of Benzol.— Kekulé’s theory of the hexacarbon nucleus of aromatic compounds forbids the existence of an inferior homologue of benzol. The an-
d be at once determined. OMMIER has submitted, therefore, the lightest products of coal- tar to examination, with a view of detecting pentene. The first product isolated was a small quantity of an oil boiling between 40° and 50°, which had the density of water and consisted of nearly pure carbon disulphide. A second product, boiling from 58° to 62°—pentene, according to Carius, boiling at 60°-~after the separation of the CS,, was nitrated, and yielded a compound identical with binitrobenzol. Pentene has no existence in coal-tar, therefore.——_Bull. Soc. Ch., Wl, xviii, 70, July 15, 1872. GF. B. é n the Synthesis of Orcin.—Orcin, discovered by Robiquet in 1829, is the basis of the coloring matter of lichens. a a
3 homologue of resorcin, and has the formula C, H, fe
yielded a thick brown liquid containing two isomeric aci named respectively a and / chlorocresylsulphurous acids. They were separated by the greater solubility of the barium salt of the latter. The a chlorocresylsulphite of potassium obtained from the barium salt, was fused in a silver capsule with twice its weight of potassium hydrate. Hydrogen was disengaged, and, after
i ether to dissolve the orcin. After removal of the ether by dis-
e Stance of well-known molecular weight, as 18 mgr. ' water, or better 119.5 mgr. of chloroform, and in the other a quantity of the
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turep Series, Vor. V, No. 25.—Jan., 1878. 5
66 Scientific Intelligence.
substance to be examined equal to its molecular weight in milli- grams. These tubes, as in Hofmann’s method for vapor-densities ith a
Bo ea and all the subsequent calculation, are avoided. The only difficulty seems ane lie in the accurate weighing; but, practically, this is no object since the weighing of liquids is effected in small bulbs, a it ‘is sufficiently accurate if carried to ae The tubes are calibrated easily by pouring into each of them weighed quantity of mercury, about equal in volume to that of the vapor to be estimated. If the mercury does not stand at the same height in both, gradually push a glass rod into it in the larger tube until the same level is reached. Mark carefully the point to which the rod is immersed, cut it off at this place, and allow the piece to rise to the top of the mercury in that tube
excellently well . as a lecture experiment.— Ber. ta Chains Ges., v, 597, June, 1872. <a
i ‘On the ined action of Heat and Pressure on tues ifjin.— In a second paper on this subject, Toorre and Youne give the subake ‘ot distillation under rete of 34 kilos. of paraffin made
rom e, which melted at 46° and was composed of C 85.14, H 14.81. About 4 litres of fiuid hydrocarbons were aed of which 0.3 liter boiled below 100°, 1 liter between 100° and 200°, and 2.7 litres between 200° an 300°. The marsh gas series and
eans of bromine. Of the former, pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, and nonane were obtained. Of the latter, the ‘brominated derivatives of the corresponding olefines. Paraffin undergoes @ similar decomposition to butane and other members of the mars rsh gas series.—_Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., v, 556, July, 1872. G. F. B.
Il. Geotocy anp Natrurat History.
Geology and Natural History. 67
have, subsequently, examined Cretaceous strata in Brown and Redwood counties, in southwestern Minnesota, where they rest unconformably upon rocks of Azoic age. So far as I am aware, these are the most easterly localities in the interior region of North America at which strata of Cretaceous age have been actually observed in situ. The first mentioned Cretaceous rocks are referred to the division which, in my report on the Geology of Iowa, I have named the Nisnabotany sandstone, and the latter to the division called the Inoceramus beds, in the same report. All these, as well as all the Cretaceous rocks hitherto know in the interior region, east m eastern Nebraska and Dakota, are referred to the “ Earlier Cretaceous” of Meek and Hayden.
have now to announce discoveries of Cretaceous fossils, and
at different localities containing specimens which belong to seve- ral of the most characteristic types of that period, especially of its later epochs.
During the year 1870 my attention was called to the existence
of these fossils in the drift of Howar county, Iowa, r. n T. Smith, of Lime Springs, and a few weeks ago I visited the local- ity indicated, in company with hi It is found in a railroad cut
Ww * of the soil. The collections have not yet been critically studied, but the following statement of the one made at Lime Springs will
in addition to the ammonite he found there a few years ago. e Belemnitella is of the same species as those found in Howard county, sixty miles directly northward. ae _the fish teeth have been submitted, for examination, to my — Prof. O. H. St. John, who writes me as follows concerning e€
“ All the squaloid teeth belong to the genus Otodus of Agassiz, may represent three species, but I suspect they are but so rms of peci
; he ‘cit toma originally made known from the European chalk formation, with mr fin later Cretaceous and Tertiary teeth from this country
68 Scientific Intelligence.
have been identified—I do not presume to say upon what authority. With some of the latter your specimens are intimately reiated, perhaps identical. You have two or three fragments of teeth (one nearly perfect), which agen! belong to the same genus as those from the sey Greensand and later deposits known as Saurocephalus. All these tedth evidently belong to a later epoch than the chalky beds on the Big Sioux river, near Sioux City, the fishes of which have a much stronger resemblance to those from the Chalk of Europe than have the specimens under consideration, while the squaloid teeth ahs the latter bear the most intimate resemblance to certain forms o saeseaden from the Cretaceous rocks = Alabama. Hence I conclude your specimens have been derived
om deposits of the Later Drevetedin, probably squivatons to the ‘Alsbarn a fish-bearing Cretaceous st rata. That they are very late Pickasated forms there can be no doubt, from the fact of their close ‘elationship to teeth found in the Eocene of the Old World. Iam not prepared to show how close this relationship is, although the first sig t of your little collection strongly suggested their Eocene age.”
Although all = specimens forming the subject of this memoir have been found in the drift, they have been found at such local- pee and under such circumstances as to leave no doubt in the
ind of the writer that the Cretaceous sea once extended as far pane between the 42d and 44th parallels of latitude, as the 92d degree of longitude west from Greenwich. This is nearly two hundred miles further eastward than any Cretaceous deposits were ever known to have extended in the interior region of North America at the time I commenced my official examination of the geology of Iowa in 1866. What gives additional interest to these discoveries is the fact that the fossils doubtless belong to a Meso- zoic epoch as late as any yet oo in any part of North
erica, and much later than that any Cretaceous strata of
other strata is doand is in Here ihr Misacabes: where the Inoce-
mus beds, as before stated, rest upon the Azoic rocks, the older Puehaabouns sandstone being absent there, but present about 150 miles to the southwestward.
None of the strata in which these fossils were originally depos- ited have, as before intimated, been found in situ, but fragments of them, and also the material of the drift to which ar evidently,
in part, gave jie pasts that they were soft and friable like most of the Cretaceous rocks of the great interior region. Conse- quently they were oni disturbed and removed by the forces in — during the Glacial epoch. While much of the material
these strata was doubtless transported to great distances and its character as such thus obliterated, delicate fossils, as well as soft and friable fragments of the strata, are found embedded in the
Geology and Natural History. 69
gravelly clay so slightly eroded as to forbid the belief that they ave been transported to any considerable distance from the place of their origin.
Then I observed that this muddy stream issued from a bank of legs quarried stones and dirt, that was sixty or seventy feet in 1g
e This I at once took to be a moraine. In climbing to the top of it, I was struck with the steepness of its slope, and with i raw, unsettled, plantless, new e. Th htest
hb ere m¢ abundant near the bottom of the bank, I shouted “A living Glacier |” mae 4 ese bent dirt-lines show that the ice is following in its dif- ferent parts with unequal velocity, and these imbedded stones are Journeying down, to be built into the moraine, and they gradually become more abundant as they approach the moraine, because there the motion is slower. , On traversing my new-found glacier, Icame to a crevasse, down a wide and jagged portion of which I succeeded in making my way, and discovered that my so-called snow-bank was clear, green
70 Scientific Intelligence.
ice, and, comparing the form of the basin which it occupied with similar adjacent basins that were empty, I was led to the opinion that this glacier was several hundred feet in dept Then I went to the “snow-banks” of Mts. Lyell and pent and, on examination, was convinced that they also were true gla- ae and that a dozen other snow-banks seen from the summit of t. Lyell, crouching in shadow, were glaciers, living as any in the world, and busily engaged in completing that vast work of moun- tain-making accomplishe their giant relations now dead, cairo united and continuous, covered all the range from summit
Y Bet although I was myself thus fully satisfied concerning the real nature of these ice masses, I found that my friends regarded my deductions and statements with distrust ; therefore I deter- mined to collect proofs of the common, measured, arithmetical
ind.
On the twenty-first of August last, I planted five stakes in the glacier of Mt. McClure, which is situated east of Yosemite Valley, near the summit of the 1 range. Four of these stakes were extended —— the glacier, in a straight line, from the east side to a point
ear the middle of the glacier. The first stake was planted about
wenty-five yards from the east bank of the glacier; pa second, ninety four yards; the third, 152, and the fourth, 225 yards. The oni s of these stakes were determined by sighting across from
k to bank, past a plumb-line, made of a stone and a black horse-hair.
On observing my stakes on the sixth of October, or in forty-six ie after being planted, I found that stake No. 1, had been car-
rie d dow wh stream — inches ; No. 2, eighteen "inches; No. 3, ke WwW
near the middle of the ackai: perhaps it was not far from the
between the head of the glacier and stake N o. 4. Its motion I found to be, in fk pos days, forty inches. Thus these a earmips
ati :s the bottom of their basins, causing an upward and downward swegding, co gg tae o the horizontals wedging as indicated by the served dirt-ban
e Mt. Me Clure glacier is abot one-half of a mile in length, and the same in width at the broadest place. It is crevassed on the south-east corner. The crevasse runs ubout south-west and north-east, and is several hundred yards in length. It is nowhere more than one foot in width.
The Mt. — slicer, separated from that of McClure by a narrow crest, is about a mile in length. I have planted stakes in ee glaciers of “Red Mane ” also, but have not yet observed
em
The Sierras adjacent to the Yosemite Valley are composed of slate and granite, set on edge at right angles to the direction of
Geology and Natural History. 71
the range, or about north 30 deg. east, and south 30 deg. west. Lines of cleavage cross these, running nearly parallel with the
or the granite may be, it still possesses these lines of cleavage, whic require only simple conditions of moisture, time, etc., for their
iving ? rise to those narrow-slotted cafions, called “ devil’s lanes,” “ devil’s
In many places, in the higher portion of the Sierras, these slot- ted cafions are filled with snow, which I thought might prove to
place were only sixteen feet apart. I set a short, inflexible stake im the ice, so as just to touch the tightly-drawn line, by whic
teenths of an inch. At the end of four days, I again examin and found that the whole downward motion was thirteen-sixteenths of an inch, showing that the flow of this glacier was perfectly regular,
n accounting for those narrow-lane caiions, so common here, I always referred them to ice-action in connection with special con- ditions of cleavage, and I was gratified to find that their forma- tion was still going on. This Hoffman glacier is about 1,000 feet long by fifteen to thirty feet wide, and perhaps 100 feet deep in the deepest places. :
I go back to the mountains to complete these observations. These are the first fruits, and the rest of the crop I will bring in when I come to study in the Coast Range.— Overland Monthly Jor December, ni
3. Return of the Yale College Geological Expedition.—Professor Marsu and party returned on the 7th of December from the Rocky
72 Scientific Intelligence.
Mountains, where they have spent the last two months in geolo- gical researches. They bring back . large number of vertebrate fossils from the Cretaceous and Ter rade ho Rae of the We -
4. On Spontaneous ey ot in aw entis. —(Communicated to this Journal).—Among the specimens of Z. spinulifera Hall, collected from the St. Sak limestone in Marion County, lowa, is one show- ing what is probably true spontaneous fission. his is the only specimen showing such a character, among thousands of specimens of many species, which I have collected from the Palaozoic rocks of America, and seems remarkable in a genus so ain a simple and solitary. The ontiine of the specimen is such as faintly suggest that its peculiarity may be the result of a Pe
of two individuals, but not only is there no limiting wall dividing it into two parts, there is also no impression or suture of the epitheca to suggest such a fusion. The specimen is of “orduae height, the outline of the double calyx being oblong, one diameter eing about twice as great as the other, There are two well marked septal fossettes, forming an angle of about 130 degrees with each other, and the other parts are developed in ip ordinary
of violence, because the pi itheca and transverse plates are un- roken. Specimens showing auiiele recovery from violence, inflicted while the polyp was ss are not uncommon, Iowa State University, Aug. 7th, 1 Cc, A. WHITE. Voleano of Kilauea. Tea one of our residents who has just returned from Kilauea by the Annie, we learn that the crater The old
Geology and Natural History. 73
the world, and illustrate universal principles. The general subjects of the origin and arrangements of rocks, and their
of water in the condition of oceans, er n glaciers, ess and simplicity calculated to attract the popular reader. The succession of life on the globe is only mn bri i
beaches, the influence of changes of lev the features and courses of rivers of Britain and France, the qualities of rive waters and the nature of British soils, come consideration.
to all geologists, Its value is much enhance logic map of Great Britain beautifully colored, which forms its frontis- lece,
We think there is much that is hypothetical in his views on the merican Huronian, but in general his remarks on American rth
acterizing them, and found along their coasts, and points out the
s us how little we know with regard to this great subject. Some additional facts might have been introduced with reference
74 Scientific Intelligence.
to the bed of the deep ocean; but the ocean’s bottom is still to 4 great extent an unknown region, and much more investigation will be required before the facts connected with the inland waters
labors has given increased interest to these investigations. C.
A second species of the peculiar genus of Cretaceous birds, with biconcave vertebre (Ichthyornis), was found by the writer during a recent visit to Western Kansas. e remains indicate a bird
uP species Sia be called Ichthyornis celer, and the group of birds now represented by the two species may be named Jchthyornide.
Yale College, Dec. 16th, 1872.
10. Recherche de la Rapidité de Croissance des Banes de Corauxz dans V Ocean Pacifique; Expérience fuite a Vile de Taiti, en Novem- bre, 1869; par MM. F. Le Cri ieutenant de vaisseau, et Dunit pr Binazt, Ingenieur des constructions navales, pp. 22, 8vo. Paris, 1872. (Adolphe Lainé, rue des Saints-Péres, 19).—
Hence, they draw no conclusion from their results. Before leay- ing the region, they made the following arrangements with refer- ence to future measurements. They planted two blocks of coral, cementing them below and nearly burying them in the soil, plac-
ing them 0°21 meters above the Wilkes stone which is between
o new stones N. 77 s third stone N. 70° 55’ E.; from the bell of the new mission church S. 81° 40’ E. <A horizontal line passing from the mark on the new stone is 7-460" above the madreporic heads. This observation they leave for comparison with future measurements. They °
Maps accompany the pamphlet; one is copied from kes ; the other is from a chart by MM. Le Clere 5 Minier, lieutenants of
Astronomy. 75
the vessel, and contains lines showing the position of the points referred to above .
11. Brongniart on the theoretical Structure of the Cone in Conifere,—This latest view of the nature of the fertile scale was brought out by Mr. Brongniart, at a meeting of the Botanical
Society of France, July 14, 1871, upon the occasion of the reading
and the subtending tract in Abictinew are the result of a complete ion i inus, &¢., and incomplete in Araucaria, of the same organ which in Cupressinee is undivided
or simple, e ovuliferous scale is therefore to the tract what the scale upon the petal of a Crowfoot is to the petal itself— Vid. Bull. Soc, Bot. Fr., XViii, p. j .
: i att p. 14 A. G. 12. Zizania aquatica not tuberiferous.—In the number of this d
edies this by plunging the fresh specimens for a short time in water containing one per cent. of hydrochloric acid, and after- Ward washing in pure water. Their aspect when thus prepared and dried is nearly that of the living plant. .G. 14. Origin of the Weeping Willow.—From the investigations of Karl Koch it appears that the “Garad,” upon which according to the Psalmist, the captive Jews at Babylon hung their harps, is not the weeping willow named Salix Babylonica by Linnzus in view of the current tradition, and is not a willow at all, but a poplar.
Ill. Asrronomy.
1. On the Spectrum of the great Nebula in Orion, and on the sg of some Stars toward and from the Earth.—In this paper
r. Huggins gives the results of his recent observations.
Spectrum of the Nebula of Orion.— Four lines are seen. . - First line... : is line : Seen to be very narrow, of a width corresponding to the slit, i defined at both edges, and undoubtedly not double. The line of
76 Scientific Intelligence.
nitrogen when compared with it appeared double, and each com- ponent nebulous and broader = n cy line of the nebula. This latter line was seen on several nights to be apparently coincident with the middle of the less srefrangible line of the double line of nitrogen, This observation was on one night confirmed by obser- vation with the more powerful spectroscope. ..... have not yet been able to find a condition of luminous nitrogen in vas the line has the same characters as those presented by the line in the nebula, when it is single and of the width of the slit... .. Upon the whole, I am inclined to regard the line in the nebula as probably due to nitrogen.
“Second line. This line was found by my former come
rrow and are defined. sf rat not been able to obtain decisive observations as to the ene motion of the nebula in the line of sight.
In his paper Dr. Huggins gives the details of his observations on various stars, and the following are his results tabulated.
Taste L—Stars moving from the Sun.
Star. Compared Apparent motion Earth’s Motion with in miles. motion. from Sun. oe ee H 26 to 36 —10 to 14 18 to 22 motolweds os: Na 37 may 9 22 C21 SM sie i ine pli [ —15 Cin 40 to 45 = 23 to 28 Magulus, 2200 iG : 30 to 35 —18 12 to 17 8 Ursse majors... Bee hae ied ia ee pee pedis eee ee as ee oe a 5 re se pane Pgs 5 | 30 —9 to 13 17 to 21 £ “ a pein a Be nes ede atte 7 edn are aN Goes gas eg ¢ ae “ sie 7 Bip ae ee Ci ino, amine Nl nia ee B deen A Sees ERGs gre Gouge ja SG ee ees A es ee : GC ee Po Sia age ee eee @ Virgie dS ace Be er hate ae HDR ore atari tee <8 a Coronz borealis, Te | ees apie oe ee ee eee PROCyOH, oc ee ree Sve 2 eet eae ee Oapella oc a a a eae Se NT get eee ee Aldebaran? ....._- Me ee ao eee ee iopeiz, ....__ a a See ee eee Huggins was anticipated in his observation of this fourth line by ene
* Dr. Huggi Herschel and by Prof. J. Winlock, who mri ata discovered it; the first the night of Oct. 25, 1868, at Bangalore, India, the second, with perfect begets ness, at Harvard Observatory on the night of Nov. 13, 13, 1868. Mr. Huggins was informed as to the previous observation of Prof. Winlock, but does not mention it M. M.
Astronomy. V7
Tas.E II.—Stars approaching the Sun.
Compared Apparent motion Earth’s Motion to- Star. with in miles. Motion. ward Sun. APORUTUS, 5 ck. a5 Mg 50 5 Rey ies a er H 40 to 50 +3°9 44 to 54 eUyen 2S. H 30 +9 a9 Soon is RR ee Mg 32 +17 49 @ Urse majoris, _ _ __ Mg 35 to 50 +11 46 to 60 EPROM, ccs ones Be eo ae dita, Big Be) eae SO, ss ae eee eek Ge ee ig ROGERS Rarea t , See he a Fs Speed ee eee ee PEG O23 oe ji eee ee ee PhS om aepenh? ye ea ee V Pe@asi Pesce = Pia Dae im eee irre yore 8 @ Andromeda, _____ tS emer eee Cee Teer be or mars ra ee a hit a
On the above determinations Dr. Huggins makes the following remarks :— “'The velocities of approach and of recession which have been assigned to the stars in this paper represent the whole of the mo- tion in the line of sight which exists between them and the sun. 8 we know that the sun is moving in space, a certain part of these observed velocities must be due to solar motion. Ihave not
Tt seems not improbable that this part of the stars’ motions ma
o ® Ee 0g © or] ot i 69 i} 4 ° a8 Qu 6 D fo as os BE: 2 et ot io} ep) a = e, mn =) © — ° S —— a o> — ° S Dp 4 oe — ° p<
first magnitude is equal to 0’-209, a velocity but little greater
than one-fourth of the earth’s annual motion in its orbit. ; “It will be observed that, speaking generally, the stars which the spectroscope shows to be moving from the earth (Sirius, betel- geux, Rigel, Procyon) are situated in a part of the heavens oppo- site to Hercules, toward which the sun is advancing, while the Stars in the neighborhood of this region, as Arcturus, Vega, gui, show a motion of approach. ‘There are in the stars
Mr. Proctor has brought to light strong evidence in favor of the drift of the stars in groups, having a community of moe y his graphical investigation of the proper motions of all the bil s of Mr. Main and Mr. Stone. bow pnts! lity of al i into systems was early sug- y of all the stars being ode Oo) 4 Fee tha oan remarkable instances pointed out by Mr. Proctor are the sie P, ¥, 6, &, 2, of the Great Bear, which have a community
78 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
a motions, while a and 7 of the same constellation have a er motion in ee opposite diseetior. Now, the spectroscopic
always be found between the proper motions which indicate the apparent motions at right angles to the line of sight and the radial - motions as discovered by the spectroscope, still it is interesting to remark that in the case of the stars Castor and Pollux, one of
y Leonis, which has an opposite radial motion to a and f of the same constellation, os rom these stars in - propcee ge its proper motion.” — Proc. R. 8. of L., vol. xx, No.1
TV. MiIscELLANEOUS ScrIentiFic INTELLIGENCE.
1. National Academy of Sciences.—The following is a list of papers read at the meeting of es N ational Academy of Sciatioa held at Cambridge, Nov. 50, 18
as sos Fe uscests of the Museum of au Zodlogy in Cambridge; by L. Aga
2. Oe. Deen different modes of teething — —- by L. Agassiz . On the manufacture of re for great guns, and on increasing the effi- ciency | - Baie arms by improved ammunition rote ee by UM. C. Meigs.
4, tic Pyrometer ; ss Alfred M. May 5. mer ‘of the =~ Survey aaiseaiedaad dxjedition to the Rocky Moun- — by Chas. A. . Presentation 2 y - isothermal chart and of a hypsometric sketch of the Uni- ted ‘States ; by Chas. A. Schott. Account of the proceedings of the International Standards Commission at Paria September, 1872; Be Hilgard. 8. Developm ment of Acti by Alex. A 9. The gla a) phenomena pr the Floaithecis es ae compared with those of the North assiZ. 10. AfBiboe of Echinoderms and Worms; ; by A. Agassi 11. On the construction and advantages of a large rere barometer; by M. C.
Meigs.
12. Notice of investigations making in California on the reliability of the barom- eter as a hypsometric instrument; ot J.D. Whi wey
Saesppiere of Echinoderms; by A. Agassi
e de pices of the ‘relative intensities of sounds, and on bine meas- Siete ae the tiene us ery vl A, M. May . 5. Experimental Exhibition of the exploration of an Acoustic Wave Surface; f 4. it
arches on the chan. nge of oe, of Sie Steel rods and of hol- net iron cylinders by their magnetization; by A. M May
“ Analytical Notices; by 1)
. Results of recent dredgings on on the coast of New England; by A. £. Verrill.
ri Tidal Researches; by W. F%
20. Embryological fragments co Sassen the Volutidae; by LZ. Agassiz.
21. On the specific cre! of some animals along the Atlantic and Pacific shores of America; by L. Agassiz.
22. The copulatory organs of the Selachians compared with one another and with those of other Vertebrates; by ZL. Agase?z.
Miscellaneous Intelligence 79
23. On the changes Selachians undergo with age; by L. Agassiz.
24, Critical remarks about scientific views entertained upon theoretical grounds; by L. Agassiz.
25. Observations on the nature and duration of lightning; by O. N. Rood.
26. Notice of the progress of the topographical work of the Geological Survey of California; . D. Whitney.
27. The 1474 Corona line; by C. A. Young.
28. Mathematical reversal and semi-reversal; by Benjamin Peirce,
y> i specific gravity is greater than that of fresh bone.
ranville, O., Dec. 6, 1872.
3, Niagara > Its History and Geology, Incidents.and Poetry, with Illustrations 3 by Gro. W. Hottey. 165 pp. 12mo, with a map: 1872. New York City. Sheldon & Co.—Mr. Holley has resided for over thirty years at Niagara Falls, and in the little volume he hag lately given us, he records his own observations and the curious facts of various sorts which he has collected
Michigan, whose waters form their outlet by the Tlinois valley Into the Gulf of Mexico. These facts as well as the details of the
80 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
photographs of 1871 an ended series of pict ures of the won- derful objects seen during eY past summer. Next toa persona visit to this land of g , hot springs, fountains of boiling
mud, waterfalls, lakes Sad sick majestic mountains, is a morning spent over these photographs. They would do credit to the best photo- graphic laboratory, and considering the pean inherent in a long and arduous journey, they are really admira
The Yellowstone series well illustrates the advantage of photo- graphy over any hand drawings in bringing out details of struc ture, especially where the artist is guided by the geologist in
selecting the best points of view. Among the novelties which are a itive addition to our knowlege of orography we men- tion = the views of the Three Tetons. Among the
region with the geysers in action Such views give an oppor- tunity for the geologist to compare beds of chemical deposition with our ordinary limestone
There are already 600 of teas views, and the Government has given permission to have them so at moderate prices. ere
are three series of sizes, one 1114 inches at $1 each, a medium size, » 8X 10 at 50 cts. each, and stereographs at $3 per dozen.
5.
opular Treatise on Gems ; by L, FevcHrwaNcer. 528 pp. 12mo. New York, 1872 ere No. 55 Cedar st., New Led With the exception of a brief addition to the Appendix,
this,is a reprint of the last — of Feuchtwanger’s valuable and well illustrated work on gems.
A Manual of Microscopic Mounting, with notes on the col- pose and examination of objects ; oun H. Martin, 200 pp. 8vo, with many illustrations drawn by the Sathor Philadelphia, ch 2. (Lindsay & Blakist ton). From the London edition.— This
require zs the practical microscopist. e drawings are numer ous and most of them original, and much in the work is new t0 science.
The Expressi the Emotions in a and Animals. By Charles Darwin- 374 pp. 12 mo. refs 1872 (John E. Murray),
Descriptive Catalogue of Minerals, being ‘the rsene se of eile av F.G.S. Godalming, Surrey, 1872. pp. 159. London (printed by Taylor & Franc’
The Earth a Great Magnet; by A. M. neve, * Ph. D., Brot of Physics in the Stevens Technological Institute of Te echnology. pp. 12mo, 1872. New Haven: C. C. Chatfield & : Co.
Py . * a Mi ocl. VOL. Vo PLATE 1 1873.
p—— 4
i €
ONINIOPGY SNMOL
aN Rs
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AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS,
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. IX.— On the Spectrum of the Aurora of October 14th, 1872; by GrorGE F, Barker.
ANOTHER very brilliant aurora was visible in New Haven on the evening of October 14th, 1872. Like the one obsery the previous year—on the 9th of November, 1871—it was dis- tinguished by its intense crimson color, and by its form—which was that of a single broad streamer shooting up in the western sky from near the horizon almost to the zenith. The bright-
The instrument used in examining its spectrum was a single prism spectroscope of Duboseq, similar to the one used for the aurora of November, 1871 (this Journal, III, ii, 465, Dec., 1871). The prism is an equilateral one of flint, dense enough to distinctly separate the D lines with the magnifying power employed. The spectrum of the aurora, as seen in this instru- ment, was very bright and consisted of seven lines and bands, being markedly different from that of the aurora of Nov., 1871, the bands being crowded more together toward the middle of the spectrum. means of a candle flame the divisions on the millimeter scale were illuminated, and the sodium lin
Were distinctly visible, the auroral lines could be clearly and sharply distinguished. The divisions of the scale which cut Am. Jour. a Vou. V, No. 26.—Fes., 1873. :
82 G. F. Barker—Spectrum of the Aurora of Oct., 1872.
the lines centrally were recorded, the slit being about a millt- meter wide. Measured in this way, the seven auroral lines and bands, beginning at the least refrangible, had the following positions on the scale: 89°5, 110, 120-125, 182-1385, 188-142, 150-155, and 181. The bands extended over the divisions of the scale above given. These numbers are the mean of three closely accordant and complete measurements by myself, and of one by my friend, Mr. C. B. Dudley, of this city. Count- ing the lines in order from red to blue, the brightness of the — seven was as follows: 2, 1, 7, 8, 6, 4,5; the line marked 110 being the brightest. The lines 895 and 110 were sharp on the edges, the line 181 nearly so, and the lines 8, 4, 5, and 6, from the red end, were more or less broad bands nebulous on the edges, but shading away equally apparently on each side. The measurements may be regarded as accurate to within half a division of the scale.
he value of these scale-numbers in wave-lengths was deter- mined, as before, by a series of measurements of certain of the characteristic elemental lines and of the principal lines of Fraun- hofer in full sunlight. The elemental lines measured had the following readings upon the scale of the instrument:
K a@ 66, Lia 81, Sr 6 81°5, Ha 83, Sry 84, Caa 92, Li 6 94, Sr a 95, Naa 100, Ca # 111°5, Tla 119, H 6 141°5, Sr 6 157, Hy 181, Ca y 187, K £ 206.
The scale-numbers for the Fraunhofer lines read as follows: A 66, a 72°5, B 77, C 83, D 100, E 122, 6 126, F 141°5, G 181.
The wave-lengths of these lines being taken from Angstrém’s tables as given by Gibbs, the wave-lengths of the auroral lines were obtained by direct interpolation from these; it bein assumed that no error greater than those of the instrumen measurement would be thus introduced. The following table gives the auroral data as obtained thus far:
Scale Auroral Other
Lines. number. Wave-length. lines. measurements. 6 e 72-5 716 B 77 687 C 83 656 : 630 N. R. 1} Hae: 805 630 630 | ee i 623 Barker. D 100 589 Barker. (2) line 110 555 BBB 1 Bi Wuntosk trom. E 122 527 ae ee 582 A. Clark, Jr-
(8) band 120-125 583-520 —»- 88-520 jeer
G. F. Barker—Spectrum of the Aurora of Oct. 1872. 88
Scale Auroral Other Lines, number. Wave-length. lines. measurements, 2 517
6
(4) band 182-135 505-499 505-499 {3% Barker. (5) band 138-142 493-485 493-485 {38 Bane 86 .
1415 4. (6) band 150-155 474-467 474-467 fi wmnce G 181 431 (7) line 181 431 431 494 A. Clark, Jr.
In this table, column 1 gives the lines observed, both Fraun- hofer and auroral; column 2, the corresponding number on the
scale of the instrument; column 8, the wave-lengths caleu-
new, yet that no previous observer has seen all of them at once, Vogel having seen five, and four having been seen by myse
appear to coincide nearly with the solar lines FandG. But the want of a line corresponding to the C line, shows that these lines cannot be due to hydrogen. Moreover, the 8d band Includes the E line within it. On plotting the spectrum of
made by Professor Pickering. The existence of the between 2 and 4 gi
fixi auroral lines. It is certainly clear that if the identity between these lines and those of the air-spectrum—of course under mod- ified conditions—is to be established (as Professor Vogel thinks will be the case), this can only be done by absolute verification of lines by measurement. If the auroras at
of temperature and pressure; conditions already abunda " shown to have a marked effect on the spectrum, gece “lent number of accurate line-measurements, therefore, it may
84 J. D. Dana on the Quaritzite, Limestone, etc.,
be possible, not only to settle this question of identity with the air-spectrum, but also to get some approximate ideas upon the temperature and pressure in the auroral regions, and to deter- mine the reasons of the differences observed in the spectra of various auroras. Pocket-spectroscope examinations may give a general idea of the spectrum, but they cannot serve for any exact determinations.*
New Haven, Dec. 30, 1872.
Art. X.—On the Quartzite, Limestone and associated rocks of the vicinity of Great Barrington, Berkshire Co., Mass.; by JAMES D. DANA.
[Continued from page 53.]
2. From the Housatonic valley westward— continued.
In the ridge (L) to the southwestward of Housatonic village, the quartzite stratum, instead of being replaced by mica slate, as is the case to the north and northwest, is quartzite still ; more- over, the underlying stratum of gneiss, s!, is quartzite also, $0 that the limestone—the outcropping rock of Long Pond valley —is directly overlaid by quartzite. Further, these rocks, 2 place of being nearly horizontal in position, are nearly vertical.
Figure 6 represents an east and west section across this region a mile north of Vandeusenville, and extending west through the Tom Ball ridge into Alford.+ (Fig. 3, of a sec tion through Williamsville, and 5, of one through the north
* An examination of the spectrum of this aurora with Hawkins and Wale’s
direct-vision pocket spectroscope showed that it coincided apparently with yo
spectrum seen in the larger instrument, except that the bands were not the less di
+ Above V4, in the section fig. 6, is the Tom Ball ridge; above A‘, the Long Pond valley ; above L, the ridge L; at W, Williams river; at H, the Housatonie river, with low plains either side.
in the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 85
tact of the limestone and quartzite tells us nothing as to whether the quartzite conforms to the limestone in dip, or whether the two are separated by a fault. But this question is settled positively by the ewistence of a laminated bed of quartzose limestone, or caleareous quartzite, 40 to 50 feet thick, i
quartzite itself, as exhibited in the section (fig. 6). The lamina- tion of this calcareous stratum is very perfect and uniform, and extends for a long distance along the west slope of the ridge, Its strike is N. 5° E., and its dip 70°-75° to the east-
V3 AB Section from Glendale westward, through north end of Tom Ball. 3.
: Ww Baal 2 er Section from Monument Mountain westward, through middle of Tom Ball.
sencessueeseceanesesraneetaeneneneaneeer aennanerscancasetenannne, gene
H Alluvial plain S. of Mon. Mt.
Section across Long Pond valley through southern half of Tom Ball.
ward. The impure limestone or calcareous quartzite contains occasionally minute, slender, brown tourmalines, some of them half an. rae long. e stratum is se arated from the limestone on the west by about forty feet of the hard bedless quartzite, the part of the quartzite that corresponds in thickness with the lower gneiss in the Monument Mountain section (figs. 3 or 4)
the exact amount cannot be determined on account ©
absence of bedding.
86 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Inmestone, etc.,
To the east of the quartzite the slopes (the eastern of ridge L) are covered with earth, showing that there is a soft, decom- posable rock beneath, probably mica schist ; and toward the foot of the slopes there is an outcrop of the mica schist, dipping 28° to the eastward, the strike being north. This amount of dip 1s very much less than that of the western side of the quartzite; and it is probable that the dip in the quartzite gradually diminishes to the eastward. The mica schist is evidently the stratum s* of Monument mountain, while the quartzite corresponds to g' and s'combined. The limestone of Lond Pond valley is 7’; while that in the quartzite is a layer not before noted, which we may call / ‘
The slate of the part of Tom Ball in this section is the smoothish mica slate, like that to the north, but it differs in earrying the high dip of 60°-70°, even down to its eastern foot. The strike is north or nearly so, like that of the lime stone and quartzite of the opposite side of Long Pond valley. On the western slope of the Tom Ball ridge the rocks are mostly concealed by earth ; but there are many exposures of limestone in Alford over the plain at its foot, and in these the beds have an average strike of N. 5°-10° E., and a dip of 50°-70° to the eastward ; in some places 90°.
6. Continuing this section westward across the town of Alford, we pass from the limestone of eastern Alford to the mica slate of Alford ridge. The slate and limestone at their junction have the same strike and dip; the strike observ (just east of K on the map) being N. 7° E. and the dip 70° to the eastward. :
In the western Alford valley there is again limestone with a high dip, and beyond this the mica slate of the Taconic ridge. The most western outcrop of limestone observed, or that nearest to the Taconic ridge, gave for the strike N. 19° E. and dip 52; and the same was obtained as the average for the slate of the ridge, a hundred yards distant. The limestone is evidently conformable to both the slate of Alford ridge and the Taconic. This slate in each is identical in its characters with that of the Tom Ball ridge—a smooth-surfaced mica slate, partly chlorite and more or less garnetiferous, and containing many qu veins the cavities of which are often filled with chlorite. :
c. We come now to the question as to the folds along this section ; and, in connection, the character of the fold along the Tom Ball ridge elsewhere.
At the north end of the Tom Ball ridge the existence of 4 synclinal is fully demonstrated, as shown in fig. 5. The lime stone strata at the eastern and western foot here dip towa each other beneath the slates of the ridge; and moreover the limestone emerging on the east is directly continuous arou
mm the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 87
the north end of the mountain with that on the west. It remains, therefore, only to trace out the changes in the synclinal fold to the southward through the rest of the mountain.
long the section in fig. 6.—The low quartzite ridges W and L (see map) are overlapping parts of an interrupted series, in which L is situated half a mile to the west of the line of W. The high inclination of the strata in L is evidently connected with this more western shove of the ridge. In consequence of it the limestone is bent up into a close fold and the Tom Ball ndge west of it into another equally close, the strata having a dip of from 50° to 75°; and as the slates of Tom Ball form a synclinal, the limestone corresponds to an anticlinal. This is indicated in the curved lines in fig. 6.
I may add that in the limestone of eastern and western Alford there are probably other anticlinals. With regard to these more western ranges of limestone, especially that west of Alford ridge, the evidence is not yet complete.
Along the section in fig. 3.—To understand the fold abreast of Williamsville we must note that in this section the lime- stone of the Housatonic fold, A’, dips westward, and continues apparently at no great distance beneath the surface to the Tom
all ridge, where the foot rocks on the east are nearly horizon- tal; and then, after passing under the mountain, emerges on the west at a high angle like that of the Tom Ball slates adjoin- ing. Now, following the strata from Monument Mountain westward, it is plain that they do not dip beneath the surface in the Williamsville valley, and thence bend up into Tom Ball; | but their course, as just stated, is nearly horizontal till reaching the present position of Tom Ball. ‘The downward bend in the synclinal, therefore, took place along what is now the eastern slope of the mountain. In fic. 3 the part of the section along the junction of the horizontal and pe tee Loa | slates ~ left blank; fig. 3A shows the same with this bend in the ayers.
In section 6, the quartzite of the ridge on the east (L) is unrep- resented on the opposite or western side of Long Pond valley.
ted, non-
88 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, etc.,
Another ridge of quartzite of similar character starts near the same point and stretches southeastward, crossing the road from Vandeusenville to Alford just west of Long Pond brook. It is marked v on the map. No section was found showing the re- lation of the Tom Ball slates to the quartzite; but the limestone of Long Pond valley, east of the quartzite ridge (at e’) and that on the west of it (near e, either side of the road) both dip toward the ridge, the latter at an angle o x 0°; and thus it is proved that the quartzite is a stratum directly overlying the limestone, and, therefore, the same that exists in ridge W. It hence follows that the beds of Tom Ball, while all mica slate at the north end, are replaced by quartzite in their bottom portion at the south end of the ridge. From e, limestone is continuous westward and then northward into and through Alford, and also southward over Egremont; while from e’ the limestone extends eastward to Vandeusenville ; and in this part it is vari- ous in its strike and dip. Near g the dip is to the southwest- ward, being at the more southern outcrop 35°, with the strike N. 50° W.; then, a few rods to the north, 40°, strike N. 35° W. ; then 50° to 70°, strike N. 35° to 24° W.; then farther north, near the quartzite, 70° to the eastward, strike N. 5° to 10° E. This range of outcropping limestone, extending east to Vandeu- senville, —- off the quartzite ridge L; or, in other words, the quartzite, which is the overlying rock, does not extend across It. Along the road opposite the iron furnace, just west of Vandeu- senville, the bedding of the limestone is obscure; but the strike appears to be east and west and the dip northward 50° to 60°.
5. I pass now to the fifth of the western sections, or that in the line of Great Barrington, two miles south of Vandeusen- ville.
In this section, fig. 7, the limestone on the left (west) is that of the Egremont region, already shown to be identical with that of Alford, Glendale and Stockbridge. It dips under three hun-
iF
Section across the Housatonic valley through Great Barrington.
dred feet or more of schist (mica schist and gneiss), in which, as the section shows, there is a bed of quartzite. The bill rises directly from the railroad track at Great Barrington, and has the limestone outcropping at its highest part, near z (map); as well as along the lower of its western slopes.
in the vicinity of Great Barrington, Mass. 89
The dip of the limestone in this section is mostly between 45° and 55°; the mean strike is N. 10° E dip of the schist is, with small exceptions, 35° to 40°, and the strike N. 10° to 20° E. There is a wrench in the ridge south of the highest part (z on the map), so that the strike varies; being N. 10° to 20° W., at points northeast of 2; N. to N. 10° E.,, to the east of it, or at the marble quarry; then, N. 25° E., and finally N. 40° to 50° E., 150 yards to the east of south; and this last strike is found across this part of the ridge at the western foot.
_ The evidence of the existence of a bed of quartzite in the ridge is small but positive. Hard-jointed quartzite outcrops at a point toward the upper limit of the schist, S. E. of z, for a dis- tance of 12 or 15 yards, and also at a second point above, both of them west of the village. The strike of the outcrop is N. 50° K., conforming to that of the limestone above it, its position being in the wrenched portion of the ridge. The thickness of the bed may not be more than fifteen yards, as the outcrop 1s no wider; but the shortness of the outcrop in the line of the bedding is proof that the bed is mainly the soft quartzite; and if so, it may be 100 feet or more in breadth. Three-quarters of a mile to the north, along by y, near a road crossing the ridge, the surface of the fields is thickly strewn with great blocks of quartzite, which seem to indicate that the bed exists beneath, and has considerable width. This range of quartzite masses continues near the road to the eastern of the spurs of quartz- ite, at the south end of Tom Ball ridge; and at « there is a low hill of outcropping quartzite. These facts connect the rocks of the Tom Ball and ong Pond region with those of the ridge just west of Great Barrington, giving positive proof that the quartzite is the lower quartzite, or q’.
The ridge west of Great Barrington consists, consequently, above the underlying limestone, of (1) a lower stratum of schist (s'); (2) a bed of quartzite (q'); (8) an upper bed of schist (s?) much thicker than the lower (s') There is no upper quartzite.
_ This section introduces a new element, an upper stratum of limestone, overlying the upper schist (s*), where the upper
uartzite would be looked for. It outerops in the valley near the railroad and also east of the river and village. The lime- Stone is a bluish-gray and firm granular variety. Some por- tons are quite pyritiferous; and at one spot (near the Maple avenue crossing) {found minute brown tourmalines with the pyrite, Just west of the railroad track, 60 yards north of the
aple avenue crossing, the limestone outcrops within fifteen yards of the schist, and both have the strike N. 7° to 10 E., and eastward dip 65°. There is another outcrop at the Maple avenue crossing, giving the strike N. 8° E. and dip 40° to 35°.
90 J. D. Dana on the Quartzite, Limestone, ete.
More to the eastward the dip increases, it being in the ledge called Mt. Peter (P, fig. 7), east of the principal street of the village, 70° to 80° to the eastward, and mostly obscure; and again, east of the river, toward East Mountain (a third of a mile east of the Berkshire House), 80° to 85° to the westward, with the strike nearly north, or between N. 10° E. and N. 10°
have been unable to find evidence that this limestone is a continuation, in a fold, of that of Egremont.
This Great Barrington section (fig. 7) terminates eastward in the slopes of East Mountain, in which the rock, a durable gneiss through the lower half with 120 feet of quartzite above,
ips 60° to 50° in the outcrops nearest the limestone, diminishing eastward to 50° and 40°, with the strike about N. 10° E. Some of the outcrops of limestone and gneiss are not over ten yards apart. The unconformability between the gneiss and limestone
north ; the facts need not be repeated. The stratum of mica schist and gneiss, s*, in Monument Mt., which becomes mica slate in the northwest margin of the mountain and the ridges west, including Tom Ball, is mica schist and gneiss again in the nage west of Great Barrington ; and in that east of Great Barrington it is a firm gneiss, breaking into huge blocks—many such cover- ing parts of the slopes. ese differences are due partly (a) to original differences in mineral composition; but partly (6), @ all probability, to differences in the conditions attending meta- morphism, such as the amount of heat, the amount of moisture ates the amount of pressure and of resistance to the pressure.
one of the smooth mica slate, like that of Tom Ball and the Taconic Mountains, occurs in this part of Berkshire east of Great Barrington.
XI. The synclinal fold in the Tom Ball ridge is at its south- ern end close-compres etween the limestone anticlinals, and dwindles out in that direction ; while, at the northern end, it 15 broadly expanded and the limestone emerges from beneath 1t, the eastern and northeastern portion at a small angle.
J. W. Draper—Distribution, ete., in the Spectrum. 91
XIL The conformability of the western range of limestone in Alford with the slates of the Taconic ridge still farther west has, in an early part of this memoir (p. 2), been made a basis for the conclusion—the ordinary one of geological writers on the subject—that the Taconic slates are older than the Stockbridge limestone. But it must be shown that the Taconic ridges are not the courses of synclinal folds, before this can be accepted as an established fact.
_ ve may now turn to the region east of the Housatonic river, (To be continued.)
ArT. XL— Researches in Actino-chemistry. MEMOIR SECOND. On the Distribution of Chemical Force in the Spectrum ; by Joun Winttam Draper, M.D., LLD., President of the Fac- ulties of Science and Medicine in the University of New York.
[Continued from page 38.] ;
2d.—Of the union of chlorine and hydrogen.
a large jar filled with chlorine. This arrangement may be
salt, that it could be used as a gas jar. The radiations of a lamp were caused to pass through it, so as to be submitted to the selective absorption of the mixture. They were then
v
Wo facts were now apparent, Ist, the mixture of chlorine and hydrogen in the absorption vessel began to unite under the Influence of the rays of the lamp. 2d, the rays which bad
92 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
From this it follows that on its passage through a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, the radiation had sutfered absorption, and as respects the mixture under trial had become de-actinized, Simultaneously the mixture itself had been affected, its constit- uent gases uniting. And thus it appears that the radiation had undergone a change in producing a change in the pondera- ble matter.
The following modification of this experiment shows the part played by the chlorine and hydrogen respectively, when they are in the act of uniting.
a) The glass absorption vessel above described was filled with atmospheric air, and the chemical force of the radiation passing from the Jamp through it was determined. It was measured by the time required to cause the index of the actino- meter to descend through one division. This was 12 seconds.
(6) The absorption vessel was now half filled with chlorine, obtained from hydrochloric acid and peroxide of manganese.
than in the preceding case, since the chlorine was now uniting with the Paice On measuring the force it was found to be represented by 19 seconds.
(d) Lastly, the first (a) of these measures was repeated with a view of ascertaining whether the intensity of the lamp had changed. It gave 12 seconds as before. j
From these observations it may be concluded that the addi- tion of hydrogen to chlorine does not increase its absorptive
wer. Moreover, it is obvious that the action of the radiation is expended primarily on the chlorine, giving it a disposition to unite with the hydrogen, and that the functions discharged by the chlorine and by the hydrogen respectively are altogether different. The ray itself also undergoes a change; it suffers absorption and loss of a part of its vis viva.
As to the ray which is thus absorbed. In 1885 I found that a radiation which had passed through a solution of potassium bichromate failed to accomplish the union of chlorine and hydrogen; but one which had passed through ammonia phate of copper could do it energetically. This indicates that the effective rays are among the more refrangible. On expos- ing these gases in the spectrum, the maximum action takes place in the indigo rays (Phil. Mag., Dec., 18438).
Recently (1871) some suggestions have been made by M. Budde respecting the action of light upon chlorine. Admit-
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 93
he duces heat, rays of high refrangibility will cause chlorine to expand, but it will contract to its original volume when no longer under the influence of light.
n corroboration of this conclusion Budde found that a differ- ential thermometer filled with chlorine showed a certain expan- sion when placed in the red or yellow rays, but it gave an expansion six or seven times greater when in the violet rays.
ently ought to do under Angstrém’s law. “A gas when lumi- nous emits rays of light of the same refrangibility as those which it has the power to absorb.”
Of the four rays characteristic of hydrogen there is one the wave-length of which is 4340. It is in the indigo space.
ticker gives for chlorine a ray nearly answering to this. Its wave-length is 4838, and also another 4346, the latter being one of the best marked of the chlorine lines.
There are, therefore, rays in the indigo which are absorbed
both by hydrogen and by chlorine. The place of these rays in the spectrum corresponds to that in which the gases unite—the place of maximum action for their mixture. _ But the absorptive action of chlorine is not limited to a few isolated lines. The gas removes a very large portion of the Spectrum. Subsequent experiments must determine whether each of these lines of absorption is also a line of maximum chemical action.
The chlor-hydrogen actinometer, referred to in previous para- graphs as depending for its indications on the union of chlorine and hydrogen, furnishes the means of ascertaining many facts
94 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
respecting the combination of those substances advantageously, since it gives accurate quantitative measures.
By referring to my papers in the Philosophical Magazine . (Dec., 1843, July, 1844, Nov., 1845, Nov., 1857) it will be found that chlorine and hydrogen do not unite in the dark at any ordi- nary temperature or in any length of time; but if exposed to a feeble radiation such as that of a lamp they are strongly
ected. The phenomena present two phases: 1st, for a brief period there is no recognizable chemical effect, a preliminary actinization, or as Professors Bunsen and Roscoe subsequently termed it, photo-chemical induction, taking place. It is mani- fested by an expansion and contraction of the mixture. 2d, the combination of the gases begins, it steadily increases, and soon acquires uniformity. In obtaining measures by the use of these gases we must, therefore, wait until this preliminary actinization is completed. That accomplished, the hydrochloric acid arising from the union of the gases is absorbed so quickly, that the movements of the index-liquid over the graduated scale give trustworthy indications.
As regards the duration of the effect produced on the gases by this preliminary actinization, I found that it continued some time—several hours (Phil. Mag., July, 1844). Professors Bunsen and Roscoe, however, in their memoir read before the Royal Society, state that it is quite transient (Transactions R. Soc., 1856).
This preliminary actinization completed, the quantity of hydrochloric acid produced measures the quantity of the acting radiation. This I proved by using a gas flame of standa height, and a measuring lens consisting of a double convex, five inches in diameter, sectors of which could be uncovered by the rotation of pasteboard screens upon its center, the quantity of hydrochloric acid produced in a given time being propor- tional to the area of the sector uncovered. The same was also
roved by using a standard flame, and exposing the gases dur- ing different periods of time. The quantity of hydrochloric acid produced is proportional to the time. ie he following experiment illustrates the phenomena arising during the actinization of a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, and substantiates several of the foregoing statements. : iverging rays of a lamp were made parallel by a suit- able combination of convex lenses. In the resulting beam a _chlor-hydrogen actinometer was placed, there being in front of it a metallic screen, so arranged that it could be easily remov or replaced, and thus permit the rays of the lamp to fall on the actinometer or intercept them.
On removing the screen and allowing the rays to fall on the
sensitive mixture in the actinometer, an expansion amounting
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 95 to half a degree was observed. In 60 seconds this expansion ceased.
The volume of the mixture now remained stationary, no apparent change going on init. At length, after the close of 270 seconds, it was beginning to contract, and hydrochloric acid to form.
At the end of 45 seconds more a contraction of half a degree had occurred; the volume of the mixture was, therefore, now the same as when the experiment began, this half degree of contraction compensating for the half degree of expansion.
e rate of contraction of the gaseous mixture, that is, the
rate at which its constituents were uniting, was then ascertained.
rom these observations it appeared that when chlorine and
hydrogen unite, under the influence of a radiation, there are four distinct periods of action.
Ist. For a brief period the mixture expands, 2 _ 2d. For a much longer period it then remains stationary in
volume, though still absorbing rays. :
ontraction arising from the production of hydrochloric acid begins; at first it goes on slowly, then more and more ra
with uniformity, equal quantities of hydrochloric acid being produced in equal times by the action of equal quantities of the rays.
pidly. 4th. After that contraction is fully established, it proceeds fe h
_ The prominent phenomena exhibited by a mixture of chlor- tne and hydrogén are a preliminary absorption and a subse- quent definite action.
It may be remarked, since a similar preliminary absorption occurs in the case of other sensitive substances; that there is in Practical photography an advantage, both as respects time and Correctness in light and shadow, gained by submitting a sensi- tive surface to a brief exposure in a dim light, so as to pass it through its preliminary stage.
The expansion referred to as taking place during the first of these periods, may be advantageously observed when the dis- turbing radiation is very intense. It is well seen when a Ley-
this an instantaneous expansion, followed by an instantaneous con- traction. Not unfrequently the gases unite with an explosion. I have had several of these instruments destroyed in that manner.
ner, Stee
It might be su posed that this instantaneous expansion 18 due to a heat dvnctane arising from the absorption of rays that are not engaged in producing the chemical effect. But this interpretation seems to be incompatible with the instanta- heously following contraction. Though it is admissible that
96 J. W. Draper—Distribution of
heat should be instantaneously disengaged by the preliminary actinization, it is difficult to conceive how it can so instantane- ously disappear.
hen the radiation is withdrawn, and the hydrochloric acid absorbed, there is no after-combining. The action is perfectly definite. For a given amount of chemical action, an equiva- lent quantity of the radiation is absorbed.
The instances I have cited in this discussion of the mode of action of radiations are, one of decomposition, in the case of the silver iodide, and one of combination, in the case of hydrochloric acid. I might have introduced another, the dissociation of ferric oxalate, which I have closely studied, but it would have made the memoir of undue length. From the facts herein con- sidered the following deductions may be drawn.
When a radiation impinges on a material substance it im- parts to that substance more or less of its vis viva, and therefore undergoes a change itself. The substance also is disturbed. Its physical and chemical properties determine the resulting phenomena.
(1st.) Ifthe substance be black and undecomposable, the radia- tion establishes vibrations among the molecules it encounters. We interpret these vibrations as radiant heat. The molecules of the medium do not lose the wis viva they have acquired at once, since they are of greater density than the ether. Each becomes a center of agitation, and heat-radiation and conduc- tion in all directions are the result. The undulations thus set
are commonly of longer waves, and as the movements grad- ually decline the shorter waves of these are the first to be extin- guished, the longer ones the last. This, therefore, is in accora- ance with what I found to be the case in the gradual warming of a solid body, in which the long waves pertain to a low tem- perature, the short ones arising as the temperature ascends hil. Mag., May, 1847). :
In some cases, however, instead of the disturbing undulation giving rise to longer waves, it produces shorter ones, as is shown when a platinum wire is put into a hydrogen flame, or by Tyn- dall’s experiments, in which invisible undulations below the red
ive rise to the ignition of platinum. :
(2d.) If the substance be colored and undecomposable, it will extinguish rays complementary to its own tint. The tempera- ture will rise correspondingly.
(3d.) If the substance be decomposable, those portions of the radiation presented to it which are of a complementary tint wil] be extinguished. The force thus disappearing will not expended in establishing vibrations in the arresting particles, but in breaking down the union of those which have arrested
Chemical Force in the Spectrum. 97
them, from associated particles. No vibrations therefore are originated, no heat is produced, there is no lateral conduction.
pred. Up to a certain point the dislocation taking place may
and removal of such a sheet. But a certain point of tempera- ture or exposure gained, the paper scorches, that is, undergoes chemical change, and then there is no restoration, no recovery of its original condition. Hence it may be said of such a sheet of paper that it exhibits two phases, in the first of which a re- turn to the original condition is possible, in the second such a return is impossible, because of the supervening of the chem- leal change.
N investigation of the effects produced by a ray presents then, these two separate and distinct phases, the physical and the chemical.
General Conclusions.
The facts presented in the former and the present memoir Suggest the following conclusions:
Ist. That the concentration of heat heretofore observed in the &ss refrangible portion of the prismatic spectrum, arises from the special action of the prism, and would not be perceived in a diffraction m.
2d. From the long observed and unquestionable fact, that there is in the prismatic spectrum a gradual diminution in the Jeat-measures from a maximum below the red to a minimum m the violet, coupled with the fact now presented by me, that
e heat of the upper half of the spectrum is equal to that of the lower half, it follows that the true distribution of heat throughout. the spaces of the spectrum is equal. In conse- quence of the equal velocity of ether-waves, they will on com- Plete extinction by a receiving surface generate equal quanti- tles of heat, no matter what their length may be. Provided,
Am. Jour, se yeni, Vou. V, No. 26.—Fes., 1873.
98 A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
that their extinction takes place without producing any chemi- cal effect.
Art. XIl—Brief Contributions to Zovlogy, from the Museum of Yale College. No. XXIV.—Results of Recent Dredging Expeditions on the Coast of New England ; by A. E. VERRILL.
(Continued from page 16.)
Tur Annelids obtained by Dr. Packard, both in the 150- and 110-fathom localities, were numerous and interesting, many 0 them being previously unknown in our waters. e number
corded from America. Among the more interesting were
(t, x) Hermione hystrix (?) ; Lumbriconereis fragilis ; Nothria con-
chylega Malm. ;* (0) N. opahina V. (new species, see page 102) ;
+(0) Gontada maculata (Ersted ; Trophonia aspera (Stim eo + Scalibregma inflatum ee fos a cirrata Malmg. ;
+(0)Pista cristata Malmg. ; (x) Amage auricula Malmg. ; a 0)
Melinna cristata Mal. ; ee t) Samythella elongata V.t (a new genus
- bgt oe . ohare a Bite Prac nam for Northia (Johns.) by Malmgren for
+ are scarce r name was, however, eee in
use forage genus of shel poe spe srg snd be rejected on that acco’
Body skint, Soumya of about 50 selena = which bear fascicles of setze ; and posteriorly about 35 bear uncini only, b a small conical papilla pecigher the uncigerous lobe, as in Melinna ; the aioe Fooscbte on the 4th —
Branchie 6, p side by side in a continuous transverse Cephalic lobe oblique, somewhat shi eld-shape, with a narrowed prominent trout Buceal lobe shorter. Tentacles numerous, smooth and slender
A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New Boglosia 99
and Sn eritela a t) Terebellides Stroemi Sars; (0, p) Maldan Sarsii Malmg., which forms tough, parchment-like tubes anid
soma ceementarium i sp.), * nae 0 dead Chel of vari- ous oom pte eh east up the aperture with firmly cemented mud and sand; this species is common also in the
shallower hatin of New England, from Martha’s Vineyard northward. The second species, P. tubicola V. (new species)
This a is closely allied to Beene bes of Malmgren, in the romcrag ed of the: head a umber of branchize t differs in having a mu ch larger number of segmen: ts 8 this ie reerec ste Melinna), and in having only 15 poorest Segments, ins or. 17,
Samythel adongai , Sp. D
Body slender, composed of 6 54 segmen in the specimens examined, ein he larly to the e posterior end. Rid vec obo oe as — as long, broadl,
, tapering. subequal, slender, tapering, about twice the length of the cephalic lobe. Sete numerous and long in all the fascicles Sean the first three, bee longest nearly one- third of the diameter of the bo y- e posterior end of y is surrounded by about eight small papille, of which the two upper ones ar £6 San gest. Length of the largest specimens, in alcohol, 1:5; diameter, °10 to *12 of an inch. The tubes consist of a thin pee oe bi to which oS hg layer of sand, in
: arly ‘orm s firmly cem Histoire Nat. des Annes, Vol. 1 p. >. 628, 1866. This i is ogre Sipunculus Bern-
hardus of American wri , but not of Forbes. P. hamulatwm Packard, Mem. Pes II, p. maa 1867. may oer be the same species.
icola, vody versatile in form in contraction short, cylindrical, oval, or fusiform, °5 to a long, ‘10 to “15 in diameter; in full extension the body is more in
often extended into a short rt proboscis, with the mouth at the py below the re tacles there is sometimes a dilatio: on, but this is without. special ines or gran the n te
8s iar bodi ing fe doubeect th : ti bo caantnal Ox ving opel Mens); at a) \ raf at be ee organ at peared is an irregular zone of
18) ‘ard the base of the rr rtion, and have here the form of small, si conical, elevated warts, to which dirt ait aeialty adheres firmly ; the retractile por- ord sit arta, iiroayhian with minute conical verruce or r papille, most prominent
many respects P. comen darn saqroon vety Sonely with Sis, BO Sus are Posterior end much smoother, pt with less conspicuous suckers; the hooks are
100 A. E. Verrill—Dredgings on the Coast of New England.
forms a very coarse, short, thick tube, composed of mud and coarse sand firmly cemented together. This was an abundant