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THE MYTHOLOGY OF ALL RACES
Volume VIII
CHINESE
JAPANESE
Volume I. Greek and Roman WrujAM Sherwood Fox, Ph.D., Princeton University.
Volume II. Eddie
Ajckl Olrik, Ph.D., University of Copenhagen.
VoLU"UE III. Celtic, Slavic
Canon John A. MacCulloch, D.D., Bridge of Allan, Scotland.
Jan MACH.4L, Ph.D., Bohemian University, Prague.
Volume IV. Finno-Ugric, Siberian Uno Holmberg, Ph.D., University of Finland, Helsingfors.
\'0LUJrE V. Semitic Stephen Herbert Langdon, M.A., B.D., Ph.D., O.xford.
Volume VI. Indian, Iraniaji A. Berriedale Keith, D.C.L., Edinburgh University. Albert J. Carnoy, Ph.D., University of Louvain.
Volume VU. Armenian, African Mardiros ANA>fiKiAN, B.D., Kennedy School of Missions, Hart- ford, Connecticut. AucE Werner, L.L.A. (St. Andrews) ; School of Oriental Studies, London
Volume VIII. Chinese, Japanese
John Calvin Ferguson, Ph.D.,
{Adviser to the President of the Republic of China)
Masaharu Anesaki, Litt.D., University of Tokyo.
{Japanese Exchange Professor at Harvard University, iqis-iqis)
Volume IX. Oceanic Roland BtrRSAGE Ddcon, Ph.D., Harvard University.
Volume X. American (North of Mexico) Hartley Burr Alexander, Ph.D., University of Nebraska.
Volume XI. American {Latin) Hartley Burr Alexander, Ph.D., University of Nebraska.
Volume XII. Egyptian, Indo-Chinese W. Max MtJLLER, Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania. Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E., London^
Volume Xni. Index
PLATE I
Eight Genii Crossing the Sea See p. 1 1 8.
THE MYTHOLOGY OF ALL RACES
IN THIRTEEN VOLUMES
CANON JOHN ARNOTT MacCULLOCH, D.D., Editor GEORGE FOOT MOORE, A.M., D.D., LL.D., Consulting Editor
CHINESE
BY
JOHN C. FERGUSON
JAPANESE
BY
MASAHARU ANESAKI
PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE OF RELIGION AT THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO
VOLUME VIII
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA MARSHALL JONES COMPANY • BOSTON
M Dcccc xxvni
Copyright, 1928 By Marshall Jones Company
Copyrighted in Great Britain
All rights reserved
Printed May, 1928
Ui
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY THE PLIMPTON PRESS • NORWOOD • MASS. BOUND BY THE BOSTON BOOKBINDING COMPANY
CONTENTS
CHINESE
PAGE
Author's Preface 3
Introduction 5
Chapter I. Taoism 13
II. The Three Emperors 25
III. Other Prehistoric Emperors 33
IV. Intermixture of Early Religious Beliefs. 46 V. Cosmogony and Cosmological Theories . . 52
VI. Spirits of Nature 61
VII. Domestic Rites 74
VIII. Great National Heroes 85
IX. The Animal and Vegetable Worlds .... 98
X. Supernatural Beings 108
XL Occultism ^ ^33
XII. Folk-lore '. 148
XIII. Exemplary Tales 161
XIV. Theatrical Tales i74
XV. Buddhist Myths 188
XVI. Criticism 199 - ^^;
JAPANESE
PAGE
Author's Preface 207
Introduction 209
Chapter I. Cosmological Myths and Tales of Origins. 221
I Spontaneous Generation: Life and Death 221
II The Rulers of the World: The Contest between the
Sun-Goddess and Storm-God 225
III Further Conflicts and Compromises 228
IV Episodes and Myths of Origins 231
vi CONTENTS
PAGE
V The Beliefs Concerning the Soul 2^7
VI The Buddhist Paradise and the Guardians of the
World 240
Chapter II. Local Legends and Communal Cults . . 244
Topography and the Division into Clans . . . 244
Chapter III. Fairies, Celestial Beings, the Men of the
Mountain 256
I The Sources of Fairy Tales 256
II The Fairy-Maiden 257
III The Buddhist Fairies, the Tennin and the Ryujin . . 267
IV The Taoist Immortals 274
Chapter IV. Demons, Vampires and other Ghostly
Beings 281
I The Devil 282
II The Hungry Ghost and the Furious Spirit 287
III Other Ghostly Beings 289
Chapter V. Romantic Stories 293
Chapter VL Heroic Stories 303
Chapter VII. Stories of Animals 316
I Grateful Animals 318
II Revengeful and Malicious Animals 324
III The Serpent 331
IV Love and Marriage of Animals 333
V The Insects, especially the Butterfly 335
Chapter VIII. Stories of Plants and Flowers .... 338
I Mythical Trees 339
II The Genii of the Plants 340
III The Flower Fairies 342
IV The Floral Calendar 348
Chapter IX. Didactic Stories, Humour and Satire . 354
I The Adaptation of Stories to Didactic Purposes . . . 354
II The Story of Bontenkoku 356
III Humour and Satire .... 360
IV An Age of Discontent and Satire 362
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
Appendix, Folk-Lore in Folk-Songs 369
Notes, Japanese 377
Bibliography, Chinese 391
Bibliography, Japanese 395
Index, Chinese 403
ILLUSTRATIONS FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE FACING PAGE
I Eight Genii Crossing the Sea — Coloured . . .Frontisfiece
II Central Hall, Po Yun Kuan 2 2
III I. Third Court, Po Yiin Kuan 50
2. Fourth Court, Po Yiin Kuan 50
IV Court of the Tung Yo Temple 136
V Court of the Tung Yo Temple 136
VI Chang Tao-lin, Taoist Patriarch — Coloured . . . 154
VII The Primeval Couple Creating Islands 222
VIII The Sun-goddess — Coloured 226
IX The Lady-who-makes-the-trees-bloom 232
X The Star Festival of Tana-bata 236
XI A Ghost 240
XII Shozu-ga no Baba, Guardian of the Cross-road . . . 240
XIII Jizo, Guardian of the Children's Souls 240
XIV Emma, the Pluto of the Buddhist Hells 240
XV Furu no Yashiro, a Shinto Shrine 246
XVI Mount Tsukuba 250
XVII Mount Fuji 250
XVIII The Fairies of the Cherry Blossoms and the Emperor
Temmu 260
XIX A Female Immortal Riding on a Mythical Peacock . 276
XX A Y\tw of the Gathering Place of the Immortals . . 276
XXI A Male Immortal Riding on a Chinese Dragon . . . 276
XXII The Sennin of Kume 276
XXIII Uzume and the Seven Deities of Good Fortune . . . 280
XXIV Daikoku, God of Good Fortune 280
XXV Ebisu, God of Good Fortune 280
XXVI Fuku-roku-ju, God of Good Fortune 280
XXVII Frolic of Demons 284
ix
X ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE FACING PAGE
XXVIII Shoki, the Devil Hunter 286
XXIX Sojo-bo, the Chief of the Gengu or Vampires . 288
XXX Rai-jin, Thunder 288
XXXI Fu-jin, Wind 288
XXXII Yama-uba, the Mountain Woman and her Son,
Kintaro 288
XXXIII The Maiden of Unai 296
XXXIV Shuten D6ji, The Drunkard Boy 306
XXXV Ushiwaka and Benkei on Gojo Bridge in Miyako . 310
XXXVI Momotaro, the Peachling Boy, on the Isle of
Devils — Coloured 314
XXXVII Momotaro, the Peachling Boy, on the Isle of
Devils — Coloured 314
XXXVIII A Badger in the Disguise of a Buddhist Monk . . 326
XXXIX Wedding of the Monkeys 332
XL The Classical Dance of the Butterflies — Coloured 336
XLI New Year's Day 348
XLII May Day 348
XLIII Tortoises, Symbolizing Longevity 348
XLIV Cranes, Symbolizing Prosperity 348
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
FIGURE PAGE
1 Hou-chi 6
2 Meeting of Confucius and Lao Tzii 15
3 Kuang Ch'eng-tzu 22
4 The Three Emperors; Huang Ti, Fu Hsi and Shen Nung . 26
5 Goddess of the Lo, Lo Shen 34
6 Pi Kan 40
7 Lieh Tzu 53
8 Yii Huang, the Jade Emperor 58
9 T'u-ti and his Wife 64
10 Hou-t'u 67
1 1 Ch'eng Huang 68
12 Sa Chen-jen 69
13 Jade Lady, Yii Nu 71
ILLUSTRATIONS xi
FIGURE PAGE
14 T'ien Hou y2
15 Tsao Shen, God of the Hearth 74
16 Men Shen, Guardians of the Portals 77
17 Ts'ai Shen, God of Riches 78
18 Chao Kung-ming, God of Riches 79
19 Chiang Tzu-ya 80
20 Shou Hsing, Nan-chi lao-jen, God of Longevity .... 81
21 Chang Hsien 83
22 Ta Ssii Ming 85
23 Hsiao Ssu Ming 86
24 Tung Huang T'ai I 87
25 Yun Chung Chiin 88
26 Hsiang Chiin 89
27 Hsiang Fu-jen 90
28 Tung Chiin 91
29 Ho Po 92
30 Shan Kuei 93
31 Kuo Shang 94
32 Kuan Yii, God of War 95
33 Kuo Tzu-i 96
34 The Phoenix 99
35 The Dragon, Lung 102
36 The Fox 103
37 Hua T'o, the Great Physician 1 07
38 The Taoist Trinity, T'ien Pao, Ling Pao, Shen Pao ... 108
39 Yiian Shih T'ien Tsun 109
40 Tao Chiin IIO
41 Chen Wu Ill
42 Wen Ch'ang, God of Literature II2
43 Tung Wang Kung and Hsi Wang Mu 115
44 Four of the Eight Immortals; Lan Ts'ai-ho, Li T'ieh-kuai,
Lu Tung-pin, Chung-li Ch'iian 118
45 Li T'ieh-kuai 119
46 Chung-li Ch'iian 120
47 Lii Tung-pin I2I
48 Lii Tung-pin, Chung-li Ch'iian 122
xii ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
49 Lan Ts'ai-ho 124
50 Chang-kuo 125
51 Han Hsiang 126
52 Ts'ao Kuo-chiu 127
53 Ho Hsien-ku 129
54 Ho Hsien-ku, Chang Kuo 130
55 Weaving Damsel and Shepherd Boy, Chih Nil and Niu Lang 131
56 Control of the Breath 146
57 Chung K'uei 152
58 Shih Kan Tang 153
59 The Goddess of T'ai-shan, Niang Niang 154
60 Yo Fei 180
61 A Hermit's Mountain Hut 195
MAP
FACING PAGE
Illustrating the Story of the Addition of Pieces of Land to
Izumo by Omi-tsu-nu 248
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
BY JOHN C. FERGUSON
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
THIS volume should be called " Outlines of Chinese My- thology." It lays no claim to consideration as being an exhaustive study of Chinese mythology, which would require many volumes. It has been possible to condense the essential facts into this small space by an exclusion of all myths which have any suspicion of a foreign origin and by avoiding all com- parisons between those of China and those of other countries. Only such traditional stories have been examined as are con- cerned with the powers of nature, the origin of created things, or the growth of governmental institutions and popular customs among the Chinese people.
When the earliest written records of China were made, es- tablished government and an orderly life among the people already existed. There must have been also a vast store of oral traditions. The task of those who were able to transmit their opinions by means of writing was to explain established govern- ment and organized life in the light of oral tradition. Out of this attempt grew all the myths which centre around the early rulers, celestial and terrestrial. Although the form of these myths may have suffered many changes as they were being transcribed to writing, their content has, without doubt, been accurately preserved j it is with written traditions that this study is concerned.
The sources are numerous and are too well-known to those who are versed in Chinese literature to need mentioning, while a detailed list would be of no help to the general reader. The index will serve as a guide to those who wish to go further into Chinese literary sources, as well as an aid to those to whom the system of transliteration of Chinese sounds may be unfamiliar.
4 AUTHOR'S PREFACE '
On the part of the author the approach to the subject has been made with full recognition that pitfalls for the unwary were waiting at every turn. The extent of Chinese literature, the niceties of verbal distinction, the various versions of stories which have gradually developed into fixed accounts, the free use of imaginative details by authors who agree only concerning central facts, these and many other similar conditions make the path of one working in this field slippery and dangerous. The hope of the author is that the aid of scholarly Chinese friends has helped him to avoid many mistakes and has enabled him to give a presentation of the outlines of a vast subject which no one up to the present writing has ventured to treat.
JOHN C. FERGUSON
January, 1927
vm — I
INTRODUCTION
THE origin of the tribes which first settled along the valley of the Yellow River and expanded into the Chinese race, is still a subject for future investigators. Wherever these early settlers came from, they possessed strong physiques and must have been fond of adventure, for we find them scattered along the Yangtze River in the neighbourhood of the present city of Hankow and far east of the hills of Chehkiang, as well as having pushed their way to the country north and south of the mouth of the Yellow River. The courses of the great rivers of China being eastward, it is reasonable to suppose that the drift of the mainland population of China has been from west to east.
The coast provinces of China, Kuangtung, Fukien, and the southern half of Chehkiang, give evidences of having been pop- ulated in the first instance by seafaring people, probably of Malay origin. They were allied to the early populations of the Philippine Islands and Japan, spoke many dialects, and per- sisted for a long time in their inherent tendency to split up into small divisions. The mainland civilization of China gradually spread south-eastward among these illiterate people, and from the time of the T'ang dynasty in the seventh century a.d., absorbed them not only into the political domain, but also in- fused into them its dominating spirit. China furnished these tribes with literature, art and government institutions so com- pletely that in a few generations nearly all traces of their exotic origin had been obliterated, the only persisting reminder being in the name " Men of T'ang " by which the people of Canton still call themselves, thus remembering that they came into the
INTRODUCTION
realm of Chinese civilization in the T'ang dynasty, and that this event was the beginning of their ordered life under established government.
There was no attempt among the early annalists of China to trace their national origin to a divine or supernatural source. The nearest approach to such extravagance is in the account of
the birth of the legendary founder of the Chow dynasty. Hou-chi, to whom sacrifices were offered by the House of Chow, was the son of Chiang Yiian. His mother, who had been child- less for some time, trod on a toe- print made by God, was moved thereby to become pregnant, and later gave birth to Hou-chi. This wonderful son was reared with the aid of sheep and oxen who protected him with loving care. Birds screened and sup- ported him with their wings. He was able to feed himself at an early age by planting beans and wheat. It was he who gave to his people the beautiful grains of the millet which was reaped in abundance and stacked up on the ground for the support of his dependent people. This tale has been recognized in historical times as a fable, and treated with good-natured tolerance, though not with belief. There has been a surprising lack of Interest among Chinese writers concerning this subject of the origin of their race, and It will be noted In this account of Hou-chi that nothing Is said about the origin of his mother. The keen common sense of the Chinese race, which has been one of their most prominent characteristics
Hou-chi
INTRODUCTION 7
in all ages, has kept them from the folly of ascribing a divine origin to their particular race.
The historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien commences his Annals with Huang Ti, the first of the Five Sovereigns, 2704-2595 b.c. Some other writers go back to the earlier period of the mythical Three Emperors, but the period in which events may be re- garded as having historical foundations is much later even than the time of Huang Ti. With the information which is at pres- ent available to the world, it is not safe to place the commence- ment of the historical period of China earlier than the fall of the Shang dynasty, and the rise of the House of Chow, 1 1 22 b.c. It is better still to place the beginning of reliable history as 841 B.C., which is the first exact date with which Ssu-ma Ch'ien starts in the Shih Chi. At this period we are met with a civiliza- tion already well established. The people not only were good agriculturists, but also understood the art of writing. Such remains as we ^u.ve of an earlier time are ideographs incised on bones or cast as inscriptions on bronze sacrificial vessels. The amount of historical knowledge gained from these is very small and has made little contribution to our understanding of the early civilization of China. Their chief value has been in fur- nishing evidence that the civilization of China as we know it in the Chow dynasty, is a continuous development from the early civilization of the original inhabitants of China, and that it is not an importation from outside sources. China developed for herself a civilization distinct from that of any other nation of antiquity, and this civilization with many changes and wide development has remained down to our present time. It has had a longer continuous existence than any other that the world has ever known.
The practice of divination and the observance of ceremonies, family and tribal, are the two outstanding features of the ancient civilization of China. They represent the contrasting ideals of individualistic and of social development. The conception of
8 INTRODITCTION
the individual, governed by his own innate sense of right and wrong, as forming the basis of the state, is associated with the practices of divination by means of which the immediate actions of the individual should be determined and the results of his actions foretold. The conception of the state, personified by its tutelary head, as determining right or wrong for the individual, is associated with ceremonial observances. The former system, being individualistic, is liberal, while the latter is conservative. The former provides for change amidst changing circumstances; the latter contemplates rigidity based upon existing tradition.
It has been customary among Chinese writers to divide the philosophic concepts of the nation into nine schools. These are: (i) The School of Dualism, (2) The School of Letters, (3) The School of Equality, (4) The School of Words, (5) The School of Laws, (6) The School of Doctrine, (7) The School of Agriculturists, (8) The School of Tolerance, and (9) The Eclectic School. There is no need of following the intri- cate philosophic distinctions of these nine schools in this present discussion; it is sufficient to note that they can be classified under the two general headings of Liberalism, as exemplified by Lao Tzu, Tao Chia, and of Conservatism, as typified by Confucius, Ju Chia. The development and tendencies of these two schools circumscribe the entire body of Chinese thought, both ancient and modern.
The line of demarcation between these two schools may be illustrated by the adherence of the one to the Eight Diagrams reputed to have been evolved by Fu Hsi from marks found on the back of a dragon horse; and of the other to the ceremonial Nine Tripods recognized by Confucius as the emblem of Impe- rial authority. The Liberal School found ancient authorization in " The Book of Changes," the Conservative in " The Spring and Autumn Annals." The former was free to range over the whole field of animal and plant life in search of an explanation of man's relation to the universe; the latter confined itself to
INTRODUCTION 9
human activities as found in social organizations. These are only general distinctions and cannot be pressed too far, but are sufficient to indicate the diverging tendencies of thought in China from earliest time.
It is convenient to start with Confucius and Lao Tzu of the sixth century b.c, as the point from which two distinct systems take their origin, although these men are only exponents of systems which had already become settled. Tao, nature, with its constant changes, became the centre of Liberalism in opposi- tion to the Confucian theory of absolutism represented by the Emperor. The Liberal School believed in bringing the head of the state to the same account for his personal actions as the humblest person j whereas under the Conservative system of Confucius, the Emperor is restricted by no law. Even though it is conceded that moral considerations should determine his conduct, no legal pressure could be brought to bear upon him as upon an ordinary man. The standard commentator of the Liberal School, Pan Ku, makes I Yin, who is said to have lived in the eighteenth century b.c, the first exponent of the prin- ciples of Tao. It was I Yin who advised T'ang to plot rebellion against the existing Hsia dynasty, and remained with him as adviser when he established the new dynasty of Shang. The next two exponents of the Tao are given by this commentator as T'ai Kung and Yii Hsiung, who were attached to Wen Wang at the time when he was planning a revolt against the cruel rule of the last years of the Shang dynasty. The next exponent of Tao, according to Pan Ku, was Kuan I-wu, Chief Minister of the state of Ch'i, and the first to make a feudal state assume he- gemony among the other states while acknowledging the nomi- nal authority of the ruling Chow dynasty. These authoritative examples of the early Tao teaching show it to have been in marked contrast with the Conservatism of the School of Letters which looked with tolerance upon the action of rulers simply for the reason that they were rulers.
10 INTRODUCTION
The greatest political support of Liberalism was the Emperor Shih Huang, the founder of the Ch'in dynasty. His Prime Minister, Li Ssu, was the most untiring opponent of the Con- servative School of his time or of any subsequent time. Both the Emperor and his Prime Minister were firm believers in the principles of the School of Doctrine or Tao. In personal con- duct as well as in the establishment and administration of his government, Shih Huang reflected no honour upon the teach- ings of the School of Lao Tzu. He was a cruel tyrant, passion- ate in temper, intolerant of any form of opposition and entirely dominated by his own imperious self-will. He burned the books of the Conservatives and destroyed their ceremonial uten- sils in the hope of cutting himself off from the restrictions im- posed by those who had gone before him, and of establishing a new order. His success was only partial, for though he estab- lished a bureaucratic form of government which continued in its general principles down to the Republican Revolution of 191 1-12, it was controlled after his death not by the principles in which he believed, but by those of the Conservative School. The task of the Han dynasty, which succeeded the Ch'in estab- lished by Shih Huang, consisted in retaining the form of gov- ernment established by Shih Huang and of bringing it under the domination of the philosophical ideas of the Conservative School. If Shih Huang had been a man of a higher type of personal character, the dynasty which he established might have had a good chance of survival. As it happened, his government survived in form, but came entirely under the control of an opposing set of principles.
During the Han dynasty, about 150 B.C., the sayings of Confucius were compiled by one of his descendants, K'ung An-kuo. This compilation, called Lun Yil Hsun Tz^Uy was based upon the comparison of two texts. One of these was found with other texts, p chung shu, in a wall of the home of Confucius when it was being demolished by Kung Wang, son
INTRODUCTION ii
of the Emperor Ching Ti, who was appointed by his father to be King of the Principality of Lu (modern Shantung). This text was written in the so-called " tadpole " characters, k^o-tou wen, and is known as the " ancient text," ku wen. The other text came from the neighbouring principality of Ch'i and, being written in the characters which were used in the last years of the Chow dynasty, is known as the " modern text," chin wen. The compilation of K'ung An-kuo, with some emendations, has re- mained the standard of the Conservative School for all succeed- ing generations, and as it includes the Ch^un Ch^iUy or " Spring and Autumn Annals," it carries back the account of China's an- cient civilization to a great antiquity.
It is thus evident that there have been from ancient times two lines of development in Chinese thought, one conservative and the other liberal. These have not been mutually exclusive, but have flourished side by side and not infrequently have been found together in the writings of one person. From the western point of view there is a lack of precision in the differences be- tween these two schools, but to the Chinese the contrast lies in their general ideas rather than in details.
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
CHAPTER I TAOISM
THE School of Doctrine, Tao, has gathered around it almost all the mythological characters of Chinese history j and it is necessary to understand the gradual development of this school into one of the national Three Religions — Confucian- ism, Taoism and Buddhism. The emphasis placed upon my- thological subjects having taken place after the establishment of Taoism as a religion, and the object of this book being to dis- cuss these subjects and not ethical ones, it will not be necessary in the following pages to make any further use of the term School of Doctrine, Tao. In its stead the term Taoism will be used in a generic sense as including all that went before as well as all that followed after its recognition as a religion.
There are three distinct stages of Taoism. The first of these, which may be called the ethical, can be dated conveniently as having begun with Lao Tzu and his writings which are included in the Tao Teh King. This was the stage of philosophic discus- sion, beginning about the close of the sixth century b.c. The second stage or the magical, as it may be called, began in the first century of the Christian era and is centred around the per- sonality of Chang Tao-ling. He retired to seclusion in the mountains of western China and devoted himself to the study of alchemy and to the cultivation of purity by means of mental abstraction. Here he was sought out by large numbers of dis- ciples, who paid him five pecks of rice a day for their keep, from
14 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
which his teaching became known as the Wu Tou Mi Tao or the " Doctrine of Five Pecks of Rice." This congregation of Chang's disciples was the first stirring of the movement which later was organized into a religion. Chang called himself "Celestial Teacher" {t^ien shih). This was a term used by Chuang Tzu, who states that it was conferred upon a youth of Hsiang Ch'eng by the Yellow Emperor. According to the Su Wen it was also given to Ch'i Po, one of the assistants of the Yellow Emperor, who is known as the founder of the art of healing. This was the stage of development of the magical arts and was based upon the mysteries of " The Book of Changes " rather than upon the ethical teachings of Lao Tzu. The third stage, or that of an organized religion, came in the seventh cen- tury A.D. during the reign of the illustrious founder of the T'ang dynasty, Li Shih-min, whose dynastic title is T'ai Tsung. Profoundly influenced by the tradition that the family name of Lao Tzu was Li, and that this was his own patronymic, T'ai Tsung lent his influence to the establishment of Taoism as a religion on the same basis as the flourishing Buddhistic religion in whose mysteries he was also a profound believer. Accord- ing to Fen Yen Chien Wen Chiy T'ai Tsung claimed Lao Tzu as the progenitor of his branch of the Li family.
As a religion Taoism was founded in the seventh century a.d., and in its religious aspects is an imitation of Buddhism. It adopted the Buddhistic custom of building temples in which groups of ascetics were collected for the purpose of performing religious rites and of propagating doctrine. Early Chinese his- tory was searched for personages who could be matched with those from India introduced into China by Buddhism. Lao Tzu took the place of Sakyamunij the Four Heavenly Kings (Ssu T'ien Wang) that of the Four Lokopolasj the Three Pure Ones (San Ch'ing) that of the Three Precious Ones (San Pao), etc. There was little attempt on the part of this new Taoist religion to refute any of the doctrines of Indian Buddhism, although a
)D
u
o
i6
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
close analysis of the doctrines of these two sects would show that they are not in harmony on fundamental questions. Bud- dhism aims at exterminating both soul and body, while Taoism strives to etherealize the body until it reaches a state of im- mortality. The radical difference in doctrinal teachings was glossed over in the zeal of the T'ang Emperor to transpose the popular belief in Buddhism into nationalistic lines. Every- thing in Taoism is of purely Chinese origin, and however much its form may have been influenced by the importation of Bud- dhism, the entire body of the Taoist doctrine springs from national sources. Taoism is a revolt against Buddhism because of its foreign origin, while at the same time it did not hesitate to copy slavishly its whole system of organization.
The influence of the ethical philosophy of Lao Tzu in the organized development of Taoism was largely overshadowed by the magical arts of Chang Tao-ling, who reverted to an earlier source than Lao Tzu for his authority. He went back to " The Book of Changes " (7 King), of which Confucius said in the " Analects " {Lun YU) : " If my number of years were in- creased, I would give fifty of them to the study of the I King and then I might come to be without great faults." " The Book of Changes " is the earliest of the Chinese classics, and, it may be added, remains the one least understood. It must have origi- nated several centuries earlier than the time of Confucius and Lao Tzu, but after the time of Wen Wang, 1231-1135 B.C., who expanded the original Eight Diagrams into sixty-four, such as are found in this classic. The I King is concerned with the discussion of lucky and unlucky events which are mysteriously entwined with the names of the Sixty-four Diagrams. It speaks of good fortune in such events as choosing a wife, in returning home, in going on an expedition. It couples morality with good fortune in such phrases as " there is prosperity for the hero who is correct in conduct." It gives great honour to the ruler of the state, and this is probably the reason that Confucius so
1 I « M M m
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TAOISM
17
sen - ly approved of its teachings, and was content to pass over its ;:igic. It is the text of the official phrases used by diviners, who it must be remembered, were high officials in the early govcnments of China. The rare passages in this classic which refc to a philosophic conception of government are submerged by " constant allusions to good and ill luck and to divination. .L ere are also three other early books which are filled with acconts of extraordinary happenings. The Shan Hat King (" ZVountain and Sea Classic ") would appear from its name to hve been devoted to geography, as the Shut King (" Water CIp c ") might have been expected to treat of water-ways. In rea-.y both these treatises, which are considered classical, con- tain iccounts of all sorts of strange things in the animal and aqucic worlds. In its present form the Shan Hai King was not comiled until after the beginning of the Christian era, but the tale contained therein are popular legends which had their ori':-! as far back at least as the Chow dynasty. The " Critical Cauogue " of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung's library, or Ssu K^u Civ an Shuy denies that the tenets of this classic are those of LarTzu, but Taoist authors have usually claimed it as belonging to leir sect. The third classic is the Yin Fu King (" Myste- rios Tally "), the authorship of which has been credited in Taist circles to the mythical Emperor, Huang Ti. This book is irgely devoted to ethical discussions in which an attempt is m2^e to fit the one side of the tally which covers the visible phnomena around us with the other half which relates to the uncen world. It discusses the hidden harmony which exists in 'A animate things where only discord appears on the surface, an reconciles the apparent disagreements between the seen and th unseen. Special mention is made of this classic in order to poit out the fact that in addition to Lao Tzu there were other acredited Taoists who gave their attention to ethics at the same ti-e as there was a constant succession of those who devoted t : inselves to magical and miraculous arts.
r';*
/■-s^
Jit^^l^J*
i6 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
close analysis of the doctrines of these two sects would show that they are not in harmony on fundamental questions. Bud- dhism aims at exterminating both soul and body, while Taoism strives to etherealize the body until it reaches a state of im- mortality. The radical difference in doctrinal teachings was glossed over in the zeal of the T'ang Emperor to transpose the popular belief in Buddhism into nationalistic lines. Every- thing in Taoism is of purely Chinese origin, and however much its form may have been influenced by the importation of Bud- dhism, the entire body of the Taoist doctrine springs from national sources. Taoism is a revolt against Buddhism because of its foreign origin, while at the same time it did not hesitate to copy slavishly its whole system of organization.
The influence of the ethical philosophy of Lao Tzu in the organized development of Taoism was largely overshadowed by the magical arts of Chang Tao-ling, who reverted to an earlier source than Lao Tzu for his authority. He went back to " The Book of Changes " (/ King)., of which Confucius said in the " Analects " (Lun Yu) : " If my number of years were in- creased, I would give fifty of them to the study of the / King and then I might come to be without great faults." " The Book of Changes " is the earliest of the Chinese classics, and, it may be added, remains the one least understood. It must have origi- nated several centuries earlier than the time of Confucius and Lao Tzu, but after the time of Wen Wang, 1231-1135 b.c, who expanded the original Eight Diagrams into sixty-four, such as are found in this classic. The / King is concerned with the discussion of lucky and unlucky events which are mysteriously entwined with the names of the Sixty-four Diagrams. It speaks of good fortune in such events as choosing a wife, in returning home, in going on an expedition. It couples morality with good fortune in such phrases as " there is prosperity for the hero who is correct in conduct." It gives great honour to the ruler of the state, and this is probably the reason that Confucius so
TAOISM 17
strongly approved of its teachings, and was content to pass over its magic. It is the text of the official phrases used by diviners, who, it must be remembered, were high officials in the early governments of China. The rare passages in this classic which refer to a philosophic conception of government are submerged by the constant allusions to good and ill luck and to divination. There are also three other early books which are filled with accounts of extraordinary happenings. The Shan Hat King (" Mountain and Sea Classic ") would appear from its name to have been devoted to geography, as the Shui King (" Water Classic ") might have been expected to treat of water-ways. In reality both these treatises, which are considered classical, con- tain accounts of all sorts of strange things in the animal and aquatic worlds. In its present form the Shan Hat King was not compiled until after the beginning of the Christian era, but the tales contained therein are popular legends which had their origin as far back at least as the Chow dynasty. The " Critical Catalogue " of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung's library, or Ssu K*u Chilian Shuy denies that the tenets of this classic are those of Lao Tzu, but Taoist authors have usually claimed it as belonging to their sect. The third classic is the Yin Fu King (" Myste- rious Tally "), the authorship of which has been credited in Taoist circles to the mythical Emperor, Huang Ti. This book is largely devoted to ethical discussions in which an attempt is made to fit the one side of the tally which covers the visible phenomena around us with the other half which relates to the unseen world. It discusses the hidden harmony which exists in all animate things where only discord appears on the surface, and reconciles the apparent disagreements between the seen and the unseen. Special mention is made of this classic in order to point out the fact that in addition to Lao Tzu there were other accredited Taoists who gave their attention to ethics at the same time as there was a constant succession of those who devoted themselves to magical and miraculous arts.
I
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TAOISM
19
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losophers Chuang and Lieh, as well as ir own disquisitions, are chiefly devoted to ethics. The nari of their discussions might naturally have been considered Mhcient to protect the teachings of Lao Tzu from seizure by hang Tao-ling of the Han dynasty and the Emperor T'ai Tsui' of the T'ang dynasty, as a basis upon which a structure of maic could be built and a religion established. The only reasonalc explanation of their having been unable to do so is, that silc it was impossible to harmonize the magical arts of Chang wh the teachings of the Conservative School represented by Corucius, the only possible resort of the Emperor T'ai Tsung in funding a nationalistic religion was to Lao Tzu whose teaching had been expressed in such ambiguous terms that they admted of many differing interpretations. The Conservatives stod for the existing order, whereas a new religion demanded chages. T'ai Tsung gave all due respect to the Conservative ess which rallied to his support as Emperor and appreciated h patronage of orthodox literature and art. At the same time h profound belief in the religious teachings of Buddhism impend him to borrow there- from all the essential principles whic should be worked over into a new nationalistic religion for Clna, based upon Liberal- ism, while at the same time it ran n risk of conflicting with Confucian Conservatism for the reaso that both had a common origin in the ancient civilization of Chia.
From the foregoing it will be seen lat Taoism, as developed into a national religion in the T'ang c^nasty, had a very mixed origin. By adopting Lao Tzu as tb philosophic founder of this religion, Taoism selected the anent sayings found in the Tao Teh King as capable of interpretcion in support of magical arts and alchemy, and as containing nothing which could be used against the incorporation of tfcse grosser elements into the new religion. The amplificatios of the teachiixg of Lao Tzu by Chuang Tzu, Lieh Tzu, Ha Fei Tzii and Huai-nan Tzu, which are accepted as standard iterpretations of his teach-
I
i8 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
The Tao Teh King was given this name by Hsiian Tsung, seventh Emperor of the T*ang dynasty, during the early part of the eighth century a.d., but its contents are rightly reputed to be mainly the sayings of Lao Tzu. Direct quotations from it, as well as paraphrases of its leading truths, are given by several philosophers earlier than the Christian era, the one nearest to the time of Lao Tzu having lived little more than one hundred years subsequent to him. There seems little reason to doubt the historical tradition that such a person as Lao Tzu existed, and that the record of his sayings is found in the Tao Teh King, even though we allow that this book may also contain interpola- tions and additions made by later writers. The doctrines of Lao Tzu are stated in crisp sentences, the meaning of which has caused endless speculation among Chinese commentators and foreign students. The first chapter discusses the word " Tao " which subsequently gave its name to the Taoist religion. Tao is at the beginning of all things, existing before the creation of the world. When it takes a form it is called Ming, " a name." The proper relation of a philosopher to the universe is non- action, wu weiy and quietness, ching. In general terms this classic shows how Tao is the true teacher of man, instructing him in humility, self-control, quietness, consideration for oth- ers and meekness. By following its principles, man can achieve, without striving or seeming to do so. There are a few traces of supernatural and mysterious influences which were easily di- verted by later Taoist teachers to the support of their magical practices and mysterious investigations^ but taken as a whole the classic maintains a high level in moral discussions. It has only a forced relationship to the Taoist religion of the T'ang dynasty, which may be justly compared to the forced relation- ship which Li Shih-min, T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, claimed with Li Erh, Lao Tzu, whose sayings arc found in the Tao Teh King.
The references to the teachings of Lao Tzu made by the phi-
TAOISM 19
losophers Chuang and Lieh, as well as their own disquisitions, are chiefly devoted to ethics. The nature of their discussions might naturally have been considered sufficient to protect the teachings of Lao Tzu from seizure by Chang Tao-ling of the Han dynasty and the Emperor T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, as a basis upon which a structure of magic could be built and a religion established. The only reasonable explanation of their having been unable to do so is, that since it was impossible to harmonize the magical arts of Chang with the teachings of the Conservative School represented by Confucius, the only possible resort of the Emperor T'ai Tsung in founding a nationalistic religion was to Lao Tzu whose teachings had been expressed in such ambiguous terms that they admitted of many differing interpretations. The Conservatives stood for the existing order, whereas a new religion demanded changes. T'ai Tsung gave all due respect to the Conservative class which rallied to his support as Emperor and appreciated his patronage of orthodox literature and art. At the same time his profound belief in the religious teachings of Buddhism impelled him to borrow there- from all the essential principles which should be worked over into a new nationalistic religion for China, based upon Liberal- ism, while at the same time it ran no risk of conflicting with Confucian Conservatism for the reason that both had a common origin in the ancient civilization of China.
From the foregoing it will be seen that Taoism, as developed into a national religion In the T'ang dynasty, had a very mixed origin. By adopting Lao Tzu as the philosophic founder of this religion, Taoism selected the ancient sayings found in the Tao Teh King as capable of interpretation In support of magical arts and alchemy, and as containing nothing which could be used against the incorporation of these grosser elements into the new religion. The amplifications of the teach 'ug o'f Lao Tzu by Chuang Tzu, Lieh Tzii, Han Fel Tzu and Huai-nan Tzu, which are accepted as standard interpretations of his teach-
20 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
ing, contain proportionately many more references to mysteri- ous events and supernatural abilities than the original sayings of the Tao Teh King, while at the same time they carry the views of Lao Tzu concerning immortality well along the road toward the magical practices, mystical charms and alchemic studies of Chang Tao-ling. From the time of Chang to that of T'ai Tsung at the opening of the Han dynasty, the influence of the Conservative School and the Confucian classics was at a low ebb, due in large measure to the rising popularity of Bud- dhistic teaching which came In upon China like a flood during this period. The whole trend of thought during those six hun- dred odd years, was In the direction of belief in miraculous events, worship of idols, and admiration of an ascetic life as most conducive to religious purification. With this state of mind, which had lasted for so long a time, T'ai Tsung found a soil well-prepared for the new religion of Taoism in which asceti- cism was favoured and magical arts were practised under the sanction of the ethical teachings of Lao Tzu. To asceticism and magic the Conservative Confucian school was unalterably op- posed, but the mixture of Lao Tzu's ethical teaching In Taoism and Its backward look to the early historical and mythical char- acters of China, saved Taoism from any persecution by the Con- servative class, not only at the time of Its origin, but also during all later centuries. Buddhism was persecuted because It was foreign j Taoism, which contained more superstition than its foreign rival, was looked upon with favour because Its whole atmosphere was nationalistic.
This strong nationalistic strain In Taoism led Its supporters to claim the early Emperor, Huang Ti, as the real founder of this new religion, thus going far back beyond Lao Tzu In point of time and prestige. The principles advocated by Confucius were attributed by him to Yao and Shun, of the twenty-fourth and twenty-third centuries b.c, but Taoism went back three cen- turies earlier to the first of the five sovereigns, who is reputed
TAOISM 21
to have ruled at the dawn of history. Huang Ti, usually known as the Yellow Emperor, formed a much more convenient start- ing point for the kind of religion that Taoism gave promise of becoming, than the ethical philosopher, Lao Tzu, for Huang Ti had not only had a miraculous birth, but his reign had been filled with marvellous events. He gathered around him six great Ministers with whose help he arranged the cyclical period of sixty years and composed a calendar. Mathematical calcu- lations were inaugurated. The people were taught to make utensils of wood, metal and earth, to build boats and carriages, to use money, to make musical instruments out of bamboo which he first brought to China, and to do many other wonderful things. He sacrificed to Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, in the first temple erected for this purpose, and is thus the reputed founder of the sacrificial cult. He is also given credit f jv hav- ing built the first palace so as to distinguish his residence from those of the common people. He studied the operations of the opposing principles of nature, and the properties of various herbs which he made into medicines, by the use of which human life couJd be greatly prolonged. Before his death, at the age of one hundred an*d eleven, the phoenix (feng-huang)y and the unicorn (ck^i-lin), had appeared as evidences of the benignity of his rule. These traditions concerning the Yellow Emperor had become well established in China long before the decision of T'ai Tsung to make Taoism a religion, and what more natural than that the Yellow Emperor, who had become the starting point of all miraculous and wonderful national events, should become the actual fountain from which it could be claimed that Taoism flowed. If it had not been for the influence of the Conservative School which emphasized ethical teaching, there is not much likelihood that any large emphasis would ever have been placed in Taoism upon its connection with Lao Tzu, for as a matter of fact, Taoism as a religion has very slight connec- tion with any kind of ethical teaching. Its real emphasis is upon
vni— 3
22
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
magical and occult practices, and its development in China from the T'ang dynasty onward would not have been much different from what it has been if no relation with Lao Tzu had been es- tablished. The true source of Taoism is rightly placed in the mythical and magical Yellow Emperor and the ascetic Chang Tao-ling rather than in the ethical recluse, Lao Tzu. With the Yellow En^peror was associated Kuang Ch'eng-tzu who has be- come a famous character. He dwelt as a recluse in a stone house on the K'ung-t'ung Mountain. According to Chuang Tzu the Yellow Em- peror at one time went to this mountain to inquire of Kuang Ch'eng-tzu concerning philosophical matters. Kuang Ch'eng- tzu is popularly repre- sented as standing with his face upturned, with his arms folded in such a way as to gather up his long sleeves, and with a large medallion s u s - pended from his belt. On the medallion are inscribed the Eight Diagrams. His celestial abode is in the Capital of Si- lence (Yii Hsu Kung). He is credited with the power of con- trolling evil spirits and giving victory in war.
It was during the Yiian dynasty that the position of Lao Tzu became fixed in Taoism. He had been canonized by T'ai Tsung with the title of Hsiian Yiian Huang Ti, which means " Em- peror of Mysterious Origin." The Yiian dynasty seized upon the first two characters of this canonical name, and connected
Fig. 3. Kuang Ch'eng-tzu
PLATE II
Central Hall, Po Yun Kuan, Taoist Temple, Peking
See pp. 23, 135.
TAOISM 23
them in reverence with its own name, Yuan, in the same way as T'ai Tsung had connected himself with Lao Tzu on account of having a common surname. This forced connection in two in- stances between reigning houses and Lao Tzu — the T'ang through identity of surname and the Yuan through similarity between its dynastic name and the canonical name bestowed upon Lao Tzu — had profound influence upon the success of Taoism as a religion among the people. During the tim.e of the first Yiian Emperor, Genghis Khan, a noted recluse, Ch'iu Ch'u-chi (Ch'iu Ch'ang Ch'un), was sought out in his retreat on the Snowy Mountain (Hsueh Shan), and from him the Em- peror learned of the doctrines of Taoism. It is in honour of this man that on the nineteenth day of the first moon it is cus- tomary for residents of Peking to make pilgrimages to the Po Yun Kuan, a famous Taoist temple outside the Hsi Pien Men. The popular name for this pilgrimage is Yen Chiu. This temple was the Ch'ang Ch'un palace during the Yiian dynasty and was presented by the Emperor Genghis Khan to Ch'iu Ch'u-chi. Tradition has it that Genghis Khan wished to betroth his daughter to Ch'iu, and that Ch'iu, fearing possible consequences of such a marriage, decided on the nineteenth day of the first moon to avoid any marriage by becoming an ascetic. It is in honour of Ch'iu's decision that this yearly pilgrimage is made. This popular account must, however, be set aside in view of the fact that the day celebrated was in reality the birthday of Ch'iu Ch'u-chi. During the reign of the Yuan Emperor, T'ien Li, 1 3 29-1 332 A.D., the great statesman and scholar, Chao Meng- fu, wrote the inscription for an immense stone tablet bestowed by this Emperor upon the Tung Yo temple outside the Ch'ao Yang Men which had been built under the Imperial patronage of one of his predecessors. This tablet remains in a good state of preservation in this large temple, and its inscription is one of the most interesting as well as authoritative expositions of Taoism available to students. In this inscription Taoism is
24 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
referred to as Hsuan Chiao instead of Tao Chiao, which was the popular name. The term Hsiian Chiao never came into popular use, but by its adoption the Yiian dynasty Emperors went one step further in the glorification of Lao Tzu by adding their approval to the canonization bestowed upon him by the T'ang Emperor T'ai Tsung, and by using the canonized name to designate this religion. Chao Meng-fu was himself a de- scendant of the Imperial house of Sung, which had placed Con- fucius upon the highest pedestal of honour, recognizing him as the equal of Heaven and Earth 5 but in the inscription for this Taoist temple, Chao exhausted his literary vocabulary in praise of Lao Tzu, whom he associated with the Yellow Emperor, a predecessor, and with the magician Chang Tao-ling, a successor. It will thus be seen that the T'ang dynasty founded Taoism, and the Yiian dynasty stabilized it.
The relation of Taoism to the mythological characters of China with all their fabulous deeds and mysterious theories of the universe, is complete. If we were to depend upon the views and records of the School of Letters (Ju Chia) we should have scant material, for we should be confined to the great names associated with the building up of an established government, and with the spread of the civilization instituted and developed by them. Studies in Buddhism lead us far afield into the early mythology of India. It is in Taoism as it now exists with Its assumed original Inspiration from the Yellow Emperor, that we find Incorporated all the mythological characters of early China, and their theories of life and the universe.
CHAPTER II THE THREE EMPERORS
AN account of the myths of China may rightly take the Yellow Emperor, Huang Ti, as a central point of de- parture. He is the third of the Three Emperors, San Huang, but is the first to whom a distinct personality is assigned. The first Emperor, Fu Hsi, is a type of the Hunting Age of the early nomad tribes which settled China. The second Emperor, Shen Nung, typifies the Agricultural Age during which perma- nent settlements were established and agricultural pursuits be- came continuous. It is only with the Yellow Emperor that a semblance of human individuality is associated with the great deeds which brought about the beginning of Chinese civiliza- tion. In Huang Ti there may be gathered the achievements and glories of several individuals whose names are lost, but at least in him we have a mythological character as distinguished from the generic name of periods such as those of Fu Hsi and Shen Nung, who were entirely fabulous.
The " Chronology of the Han Dynasty " {Han Li Chih), carries the early chronology of China back to a period of more than two million years, divided into ten great epochs. The first of these was inaugurated by P'an Ku, the first created be- ing and also the first creator. This epoch was called that of "The Nine Sovereigns " (Chiu Ti) and was followed by the epoch of " The Five Dragons " (Wu Lung) who were sever- ally called eldest, second, third, fourth and youngest. They were also given the names of the five notes of the musical scale, and the names of the planets. The third epoch consisted of fifty-nine generations, the fourth of three generations, the fifth
26
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
of six generations and the sixth of four generations, but no names have been assigned to any ruler in these four epochs. The seventh epoch had twenty-two sovereigns whose virtue was so conspicuous that their example was eagerly followed by the men of their generation. The eighth epoch had thirteen sovereigns, of whom the second was a ruler in modern Sze-
FiG. 4. The Three Emperors Huang Ti, Fu Hsi and Shen Nunc
chuan and there taught the people to make silk. In this epoch were two generations of "The Nest-builders" (Yu-ch'ao), four generations of "The Fire-producers" (Sui-jen), and eight generations of " Accomplishers " (Yung-ch'eng). The ninth epoch is a bridge between the purely fanciful and the real, and derives its name Shan T'ung from its virtue in transmitting the succession to one whose actions are based upon the fixed laws of the universe. The tenth and last of these initiatory epochs
THE THREE EMPERORS 27
is represented as beginning with Huang Ti, the Yellow Em- peror, and it variously ended either with the Great Yu, founder of the Hsia dynasty, or with Wu, the founder of the Chow dynasty. Reference to these epochs is made only for the pur- pose of stating the belief that the early myths of the Chinese, as we now have them, are the result of the work of men during the historical period of China, who gathered together the leg- ends, folk-lore, folk-songs, and all other available data, and arranged them in such systematic form as would explain the development of the civilization found by them at the beginning of the historical period. It will be noticed that these epochs end with the Yellow Emperor, Huang Ti, which is another reason for taking him as the central point of departure for mythologi- cal studies. No historical credence is attached by Chinese writ- ers to this period of the ten epochs. It is recognized by all as entirely fanciful.
The Yellow Emperor is reputed to have derived this desig- nation from having been born on the wu ssu day, which corre- sponds to the element Earth. He is also said to have been awarded the tablet (;W) by his predecessor, Shen Nung, which signified that he possessed the virtue of Earth (t^u-te). Earth being yellow in colour, he came to be called the Yellow Em- peror. His family name was Kung-sun and his given name, Hsien-yiian. His father was governor of Yu-hsiung, which is the modern city of Lo-yang. He was a man of upright charac- ter, and his wife, Fu-pao,was an accomplished woman who ac- companied him on all his voyages. While they were visiting the tombs of Fu Hsi and Shen Nung on a spring evening, there appeared in the skies a dazzling light which surrounded the constellation of the Great Bear with a circle of gold. Upon their return home his wife found that she was pregnant, and after twenty- four months, brought into the world a male child. There were many wonderful omens at his birth, the sky deck- ing itself with most beautiful clouds. From his youth the
28 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
child appeared to be blessed with unusual qualities of mind and body. On the death of his father, he succeeded him as gov- ernor of the principality of ,Yu-hsiung.
The country was ravaged at that time by Ch'ih Yu, against whom the Yellow Emperor led the Imperial forces of Shen Nung to victory. He was then proclaimed Emperor by the Princes, among whom he selected the most illustrious as his Ministers of State. His consort, Hsi-ling Shih, introduced the culture of silk-worms and the production of silk fabric. This is the historical basis assigned to this mythical character. The other incidents of his life are recorded by Lieh Tzu and by the author of Huang Ti Ping King Su Wen. The Yellow Em- peror is supposed to have gone in dreams to distant regions and places inhabited by spirits who walk on air and sleep on space as if on a bed. They neither sink in water nor burn in fire, and live without pain or sorrow or fear. After awaking from such a dream of three months duration, he taught the people how to control the forces of nature and their own hearts. After an- other long sleep he acquired the power of teaching, and gov- erned the country for twenty-seven years with such success that it became as happy as a fairyland in which the inhabitants in- haled air and sipped dew in place of ordinary food. They were able to control all their natural passions, so that society lived according to the rules of perfect virtue.
In the Su Wen a conversation is recorded between the Yellow Emperor and Ch'i Po concerning medicine and natural science. The good man in most ancient times, according to the dialogue, held Heaven and Earth in his hands and grasped the principles of light and darkness, breathing pure air and preserving his spirit in its perfection 5 his flesh was obedient to his spirit. Hence he was able to attain immortality like that of Heaven and Earth. This type of good man became an ascetic and care- fully preserved his soul so that he was able to wander through Heaven and Earth for countless years. The Yellow Emperor
THE THREE EMPERORS 29
discoursed to his companion on the meaning of the four seasons, and then proceeded to unfold the system of the universe. There are three kinds of air, — that of Heaven (t^ien-ch'i) , that of Earth (ii-ch^i), and that of the cycle (yiln-ch'i). There is also an evil vapour which attacks men and must be kept away, for it is the origin of all disease. In this book Earth is repre- sented as a body suspended in the air, moving eastward, while Heaven moves toward the west. The Yellow Emperor asked Ch'i Po to explain this, and he in reply described the constant motion of the five elements, metal, fire, air, earth and water, as similar to the motion of the sun, moon and planets in the heavens. The space above holds the pure essence of all living forms found on the earth. The Yellow Emperor asked: " Is not earth underneath? " to which the reply was given that earth is below man, but it is in the centre of space and is upheld by the great air surrounding it. These disquisitions on natural sci- ence are interlarded with discussions concerning medical treat- ments which could lengthen life to limitless years.
Although we have chosen the Yellow Emperor as a source from which the early myths of China evolve, attention also must be paid to his two imperial predecessors, Fu Hsi, and Shen Nung. Fu Hsi's official name as Emperor was T'ai Hao (" The Great Almighty"). He is represented as partly human and partly supernatural. His birth was miraculous and occurred in the vicinity of Kung-ch'ang in the present Province of Kan-su. The earliest extant representation of Fu Hsi is found on the stone tablets of Wu Liang Tz'ii in Shantung Province, 160 a.d., where he is accompanied by a female figure, the lower part of the bodies being in the form of intertwined tails of serpents. This being the earliest historical evidence available at the pres- ent time, it is clear that in the Han dynasty Fu Hsi was not con- sidered as human. According to the Shen Hsien T'ung Chien, Fu Hsi discovered the " Eight Diagrams " {fa kud) in the fol- lowing way. He was on the banks of the Meng River and saw
30 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
a monster of enormous height playing on the surface of the water. This monster had the body of a horse, scales of a fish, and also several feet. The lower parts of the body were cov- ered with hair, and on its back it carried a tablet. Fu Hsi spoke to it and begged it to come up on the bank. The monster im- mediately complied with the request, and Fu Hsi took posses- sion of the tablet. He found fifty-five lines which were inter- twined with figures. He carried the tablet to Fu Shan where he studied it at his leisure, and as a result of his studies, he com- posed the Eight Diagrams. According to tradition it was Fu Hsi who instituted matrimony, and forbade marriage between two people of the same surname. He drove wild animals out of the country and discovered iron, with which he made hunt- ing and fishing implements. He travelled eastward through the country which now is known as Shantung, Honan and Shensi. His capital city was at Ch'en, near K'ai-f eng in Honan Province. He was the first to establish rules for writing, and to offer sacrifices to Heaven on an altar in the open. His most conspicuous work was, however, the discovery of the Eight Diagrams, or perhaps it would be better to say that the Eight Diagrams as found in existence at the beginning of the histori- cal period of China, were responsible for the invention of the myth of Fu Hsi.
Shen Nung, known as the Earthly Emperor to distinguish him from Fu Hsi, the Heavenly Emperor, represents the age of agricultural pursuits. He is reputed to have been born on the mountain Lieh in the present Province of Hupeh. He was eight feet seven inches in height, and had the body of a man surmounted by the head of a bull. Three days after he was born he could talk, at the end of five days he could walk, at the end of the seventh he had a full set of teeth, and at the age of three years he was able to till the fields. He established the capital of his kingdom at Ch'u Fu, the birthplace of Confucius. He is said to have invented the cart and various types of agri-
THE THREE EMPERORS 31
cultural implements. He established markets at which the products of one part of the country could be exchanged with those from other parts. He studied plants and their uses in curing diseases of the body. In one day he discovered seventy kinds of vegetable poisons. He classified three hundred and sixty-five species of medicinal plants and wrote a book on them. He lived to the great age of one hundred and sixty-eight and then became an immortal.
Two other mythical tales of the period of the Three Em- perors need to be mentioned. One is that of Ts'ang Chieh, the legendary inventor of the art of writing, who is said to have had four eyes. He derived his first inspiration to invent writ- ing from noticing the marks of birds' feet in sand, and the spe- cial style of ancient characters, to the number of five hundred and forty, is known as " bird foot-prints writing " {niao chi- wen). The other is that of Nil Kua who is said to have been the sister and successor of Fu Hsi. The two characters of which her name is composed naturally lead to the surmise that she was a woman, though some early traditions discard the seeming im- plication of the name, and assert that Nii Kua was a man. The intertwining of her body with that of Fu Hsi on the bas-relief of Wu Liang Tz'u suggests either that the two were brother and sister, or husband and wife. A third possible explanation which seems to me nearer the truth is that Fu Hsi was assisted during his reign by his sister Nu Kua. In the Ti Wang Shih Chi it is stated that Nu Kua had the body of a serpent and the head of an ox. She instituted marriage ceremonies and assisted her brother Fu Hsi in invocation of the gods. The statements of the Shih Chi are that Nii Kua had the endowments of a divine sage and succeeded her brother Fu Hsi as sovereign. Toward the end of her reign one of the feudal princes, Kung Kung, rebelled and sought to overthrow t. e influence of Nii Kua. He was defeated in battle, whereupon he struck his head against the Pu-chou Mountain and razed it to the ground. This
32 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
shook the pillars of Heaven and destroyed the corners of the Earth. In order to repair the damage to the heavens, Nu Kua melted stones of five colours and cut off the feet of the tortoise in order to replace the four corners of the Earth. She burned reed grass to ashes which she used for stopping great floods, and thus rescued the land of Ch'i, which was the home of the later sovereigns of China.
In this chapter I have followed the written records in class- ing Fu Hsi, Shen Nung and Huang Ti as the Three Emperors. The bas-reliefs of Wu Liang Tz'u have a different classifica- tion. Fu Hsi and Nu Kua together form the first panel, Chu Jung occupies the next, and the third is that of Shen Nung, Huang Ti being assigned a later place among the Five Sov- ereigns. This divergence in the two lists of the Three Em- perors is thus seen to have been current in the Han dynasty, but as the list which I have adopted became the usually accepted one in later dynasties, it has seemed wise to discard my usual method of preferring the evidence of existing monuments to that of books, and to adopt the generally accepted list.
CHAPTER III OTHER PREHISTORIC EMPERORS
AS Fu HsI symbolized the Age of Hunting, Shen Nung that of Agriculture, and Huang Ti that of Invention, so the Great Yao and Shun are the legendary models for an Im- perial rule based on righteousness. These are the two early sovereigns whom Confucius taught his countrymen to regard as the model rulers whose virtues were resplendent to all genera- tions. The Shu King says that Yao was universally informed, intelligent, accomplished and thoughtful, and that his glory filled the empire. The commentary of the annals of the " Bamboo Books " {Chu Shu) states that when Yao had been Emperor seventy years, a brilliant star appeared in one of the heavenly constellations, and phoenixes were seen in the court- yards of the palace; pearl grass grew and grain was abundant j sweet dews moistened the ground and crystal springs issued from the hills; the sun and moon appeared like a pair of gems and the five planets looked like threaded pearls. In the Imperial kitchen a piece of flesh was seen which was as thin as a fan. This, when shaken, made such a wind that all eatables were kept cool and did not spoil. On each side of the palace-steps grew a kind of grass which produced one pod each day up to the fifteenth of the month. On each following day of the month one pod shrivelled up, but did not fall. This was called the lucky bean, also the calendar bean. There was a great flood which was assuaged by the Emperor, but he attributed the merit of his work to his Minister Shun, in whose f uvour he wished to resign. On account of the flood he fasted and purified himself, building altars near the two rivers Ho and Lo, after which he
34
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
selected a fortunate day and conducted Shun and other follow- ers up the Shou Mountain. On the island of the Ho, five old men were seen walking about. These were the spirits of the five planets. They conversed together and said: " The Ho T'u will soon appear and inform the Emperor of an auspicious time. He who understands this is Huang Yao, each of whose eyes has
Fig. 5, Goddess of the Lo, Lo Shen
two pupils." Thereupon the five old men flew away like float- ing stars and ascended into the constellation Mao (Pleiades). On the Hsin-ch'ou day of the second month, between daylight and dark, the ceremonies were all prepared. When the day began to decline a glorious light came forth from the Ho River, and beautiful vapours filled all the horizon; white clouds rose in the sky and a dragon-horse appeared bearing in his mouth a cuirass covered with scales, with red lines on a green ground.
OTHER PREHISTORIC EMPERORS 35
This dragon-horse ascended the altar, laid down the /'^-draw- ing, and departed. The cuirass was like a tortoise shell nine cubits broad. The t*u contained a tally of white gem in a casket of red gem covered with yellow gold and bound with a green string. On the tally were the words: " Gratefully presented to the Emperor Shun." It also said that Yu and Hsia would be the recipients of special orders from Heaven. The Emperor wrote down these words and deposited them in the eastern palace. After two years, during the second month, he led his Ministers to the Lo River into which he threw a round disk. After the ceremony he rested and waited for the close of the day, then a red light appeared j a tortoise arose from the waters with a writ- ing in red lines on its back, and rested on the altar. This writ- ing said that he should resign the throne to Shun, and accord- ingly the Emperor did so. This is a variant account of the origin of the ^^ ho t^u" and "/o shu" i.e., of the graphic arts of painting and calligraphy.
It is said of Shun in the Shu King that he was in a low and undistinguished position when Yao heard of his great intelli- gence and first proved him in many difficult situations with the idea of making him successor to the throne. The " Bamboo Books " state that he had a miraculous birth. His eyes, like those of Yao, had double pupils, for which reason he was known as " Double Brightness." He had a countenance like a dragon, a large mouth and a black body. His parents disliked him. They made him plaster a granary, and then set fire to itj but the bird-made clothing which he wore enabled him to fly away. They put him in a well to dig it deeper, and then at- tempted to fill it with stones from above j but on this occasion he wore dragon-made clothing and was able to get out. Later he dreamt that his eyebrows were as long as his hair.
On the accession of Shun, the lucky beai grew about the stairs, and phoenixes nested in the courts. When the musical stones were beaten in the nine ceremonial performances all the
36 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
beasts came frolicking one after the other, and a brilliant star appeared. In the fourteenth year of his reign, at a great per- formance with bells, resonant stones, organs and flutes, before the service was concluded there came a great storm of thunder and rain. A violent wind overthrew houses and tore up trees. The drum-sticks and drums were scattered on the ground and the bells and stones dashed about in confusion. The dancers fell prostrate and the director of music ran madly awayj but Shun, keeping hold of the frames from which the bells and stones were suspended, laughed and said: "How evident it is that the Empire does not belong to one man. This is in- dicated by these bells, stones, organs and flutes." Thereupon he presented Yu to Heaven and made him perform ceremonies such as are undertaken only by an Emperor^ then harmonious vapours responded on all sides and felicitous clouds were seen. They were like smoke and yet were not smoke j were like clouds and yet were not clouds j they were brilliantly confused, twisting and whirling. The officers in mutual harmony sang of these felicitous clouds, the Emperor leading the chorus and saying: " How bright are ye, felicitous clouds! In what good order are ye gathered together! The brightness of the sun and moon is repeated from morn to morn." All the ministers then came forward, and bowing low said: " Brilliant are the heavens above, where the shining stars are arranged. The brightness of the sun and moon ennoble our Emperor." The Emperor then again sang: "The sun and moon are constant} the stars and other heavenly bodies have their motions j the four seasons observe their rule. The people are sincere in all their services. When I think of music, the intelligences that re- spond to Heaven seem to be transferred to the sages and the worthies. All things listen to it. How thrilling are its rolling sounds! How does it inspire the dance! " When the great brightness was exhausted, the clouds shrivelled up and disap- peared. Thereupon the eight winds all blew genially and
OTHER PREHISTORIC EMPERORS 37
felicitous clouds collected in masses. The crouching dragons came hurriedly out of their dens. Iguanadons and fishes leaped up from their deeps j tortoises and turtles came out from their holes, thus carrying Yu away to found the dynasty, of Hsia. Shun then raised an altar at the Ho River, as had been previously done by Yao. When the day declined there came a fine and glorious light, and a yellow dragon came to the altar bearing on his back a /'/^-drawing, on which lines of red and green were intermingled. The writing on this t^u was to the effect that Shun should resign in favor ofYu.
The Emperor Yii marked out the nine Provinces, followed the course of the hills, deepened the rivers, and defined the taxes on the land as well as the articles which should be pre- sented as tribute. These are the statements of the Shu King concerning him. The " Bamboo Books " say that his mother was named Hsiu-chi. She was a falling star, and in a dream her thoughts were moved until she became pregnant, after which she swallowed a pearl and gave birth to a son. He had a tiger nose, and a large mouth j his ears had three orifices. When he grew up he had the virtue of a sage, and attained the great height of nine feet six inches. He dreamed that he was bathing in the Ho River and drank up all its water. He also had the happy omen of seeing a white fox with nine tails. As he was looking at the Ho River one day a tall man with a white face and a fish's body came out and said: "I am the spirit of the Ho. Wen Ming shall regulate the waters " (Wen Ming be- ing the personal name of Yu). Having so spoken he gave the Emperor a chart of the Ho which contained necessary regula- tions concerning the control of the flooded waters j then he re- turned to the deep. Yii set about his work, and when he had finished, Heaven gave him a dark-coloured mace with which to announce his completed work. When the fortunes of the Hsia dynasty which he founded were rising, all vegetation was lux-
38 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
uriant. Green dragons were seen, and from the Lo came the writing on the shell of the tortoise called " The Great Plan."
There is another myth concerning Yii which must not be omitted. While he was on his way south, in the middle of the river which he was crossing, two yellow dragons took the boat on their backs. All who were with him were afraid, but Yu laughed and said: " I received my appointment from Heaven and labour with all my strength to benefit man. To be born is the course of nature j to die is by Heaven's decree. Why be troubled by the dragons? " Hearing this the dragons went away, trailing their tails behind them.
The next of the great Emperors was the founder of the Shang dynasty. He is called T'ang, or Ch'eng T'ang, i.e., " T'ang the Successful." His family is reputed to have been of ancient descent, and before his own miraculous birth there had been at an earlier time another instance of this miracle. It is said that the lower part of his face was broad, and that the upper part tapered to a point. His face was white and whisk- ered, his body was larger on one side than on the other, and his voice was loud. He was nine feet high, and each of his arms had four joints. When he came east to Lo to see the altar that had been erected by Yao, he dropped a gem in the water and stood at some distance. Immediately yellow fishes leaped up in pairs. A black bird followed him and stood on the altar, where it was changed into a black gem. There was also a black tortoise with red lines forming ideographs, which said that the Hsia Emperor, Chieh Kuei, was a man of low principles, and that T'ang should supersede him. A spirit dragging a white wolf with a hook in its mouth, entered the court of the new dy- nasty Shang, which T'ang was called upon to found. During his reign silver overflowed from the hills, and all metals were plentiful.
The Shang dynasty continued for a period estimated to have been about six hundred years. It produced no outstanding fig-
OTHER PREHISTORIC EMPERORS 39
ures around whom mythical tales could be woven. Its best known figure is the tyrant Chou Hsin, whose cruelty brought about its downfall. His cruel deeds are notorious in later his- tories. He is represented as a man gifted with sharp senses, extraordinary mental ability and great physical strength. His wide knowledge enabled him to make light of the frequent remonstrances made to him by his Ministers, and his eloquence enabled him to gloss over his own vicious acts. He constantly boasted of his ability, and attempted to increase the reputation of his Empire by giving prominence to his own wonderful deeds. He was devoted to wine and debauchery, and was in- fatuated by his consort, Ta-chi, to whom he lent a willing ear. The deeds of this woman are recorded with the evident purpose of teaching the folly of an Emperor's yielding to the influence of a debauched woman. The Shu King says that she was shame- lessly lustful and cruel j the most licentious songs were com- posed for her amusement, and the vilest dances exhibited. A palace was erected for her at Ch'i with a famous terrace, two- thirds of a mile in width, surrounded by a park which was stocked with the rarest animals. The expenditures for the building of this palace made necessary heavy exactions which provoked the resentment of the people. At Sha-ch'iu, which is the modern district of P'ing-hsiang in the Province of Chihli, there was still greater extravagance and dissipation. There was a pond of wine, and the trees were hung with human flesh j men and women chased each other about quite naked. In the palace there were places where large parties spent the whole night drinking and carousing. When these excesses brought about rebellion by the princes, the Empress Ta-chi protested that the majesty of the throne was not being maintained, that punish- ments were too light and executions too infrequent. She there- fore devised two new instruments of torture, one of these was called " the heater," and consisted of a piece of metal made hot in a fire, which people were forced to take up in their hands.
40
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
The other was a copper pillar covered with grease and laid above a pit of live charcoal. Culprits were compelled to walk across this pillar and when their feet slipped and they fell into the fire, Ta-chi was greatly delighted. This punishment was called " roasting." These fearful enormities caused the whole Empire to be filled with indignation. One of the worst in- stances of Chou's cruelty was his treat- ment of Pi Kan. Pi Kan was a rela- tive of the tyrant, and being a man of good character, remonstrated with Chou upon the debauchery of the court. Chou became very angry and ordered the heart of Pi Kan to be torn out, saying that he had always heard that the heart of a man of superior virtue had seven orifices and that he wished to see whether or not his rela- tive Pi Kan was what he claimed to be. During the reign of Chou Hsin the small principality of Chow came into prominence, and the Duke of Chow, canonized as Wen Wang, led in the rebellion which overthrew the Shang dynasty. The site of this principality of Chow was in the vicinity of the present city of Hsi-an, capital of Shensi Province. The younger son of the Duke of Chow be- came the first sovereign of the new dynasty which took its name from this small principality. He is known in history as Wu Wang. As might be expected, tradition has woven many won- derful tales around this founder of a dynasty which is con- sidered by the Chinese as more responsible than any other for its wide-spread civilization.
The ancestry of Wu Wang is traced back to the Emperor Kao
Fig. 6. Pi Kan
OTHER PREHISTORIC EMPERORS 41
Hsin, whose wife became a mother in a miraculous manner. After the birth of her child, she decided to make away with him and left him in a narrow lane, but the child was attended by sheep and cattle so that he did not die. She then placed him in a forest where he was attended by a wood-cutter and his life preserved. She then laid him upon ice in the river, but a large bird came and covered him with one of its wings. Finally the mother made no further attempts to dispose of the child, but nursed him and brought him up, giving him the name of Ch'i or " Castaway." The lower part of this child's face was unduly developed, and his appearance was very extraordinary. When he grew up he became Minister of Agriculture to the Emperor Yao and rendered great service to the people.
The next step in the wonderful ancestry of Wu Wang is con- nected with Kung Liu, grandson of " Castaway." His virtues were so great that he was treated by the princes with the same ceremonies as were the right of an Emperor. Thirteen gener- ations after Kung Liu, a lineal descendant, Chi Li, was born. It is stated that his birth had been foretold, as far back as the time of Huang Ti, when a prophecy had been proclaimed that " the chief of the northwest should become king in a certain year J Ch'ang should lay the foundations of kingly dignity. Fa exercise the judgments necessary to it, and Tan develop its principles." This Ch'ang whose birth had been foretold, was the son of Chi Li and was afterwards known as Wen Wangj Fa, son of Ch'ang, became Wu Wang, the founder of the Chow dynasty, and Tan became Chow Kung, i.e., Duke of Chow. From this account it will be seen that both prophecy and miracle are called in to account for the ancestry of this illustrious founder of a great dynasty.
Wu Wang's father. Wen Wang, is described as a man with a dragon's countenance and a tiger's shouMers. He was ten feet in height and had four nipples on his chest. He became chief of the West, Hsi Po, and made his capital city in Feng.
42 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
Feng was the most important centre of the dukedom of Chow, and the location of the capital of China remained in its vicinity for many centuries. It was the capital at the dawn of Chinese authentic historical records, and this account of its having been chosen by the founder of the Chow dynasty may be accepted either as verbal tradition, or as a literary invention at the time when the first records were made.
To add greater dignity to the ancestry of Wu Wang, many other tales are recorded of his father. Wen Wang, the Duke of Chow, and his mother, T'ai Ssu. On an autumn day a red bird came to the capital with a writing in its beak which it put down at the Duke's door. He received it with reverence and found that the writing was to the effect that Chow should de- stroy the existing dynasty. The Duke was about to go out on a hunting expedition, and was told by one of the attendants that on his trip he would not secure a grizzly bear, but would be as- sisted by divine counsel. The hunting party went on its tour and found on the bank a man fishing, called Lu Shang (Tai Wang Kung). The Duke said to him that he had been wanting to meet him for seven years. Lu Shang hearing these words instantly changed his name, and speaking of himself as Wang or " Hope," replied that he had fished up a semi-circular gem on which was an inscription stating that Ch'ang, which was the Duke's personal name, would come and receive the gem. This was an omen that a dynasty should be established by his son.
Another tale told of Wu Wang's father is that he dreamt he was clothed with the sun and moon. In the first month of spring the five planets were in conjunction. A male and a fe- male phoenix went about the capital city with a writing in their beaks which said: "The Emperor has no principles. He op- presses the people and has brought disorder to the Empire. He can be tolerated no longer by Heaven. The powerful spirits of the earth have deserted him. The conjunction of the five planets will brighten all within the four seas." This myth adds
OTHER PREHISTORIC EMPERORS 43
astrology to the two previous myths of prophecy and miracle in the account of the ancestry of Wu Wang.
Wu Wang himself is said to have had a remarkable appear- ance. His upper and lower rows of teeth were each only one piece of bone, and he had the restless eyes of a shepherd. When he was crossing the River Meng a white fish leaped into his boat in the middle of the stream. He stooped down and picked it up. It was three feet in length, and under its eyes were red lines which formed the characters " Chou Hsin may be smitten." Over the top of these unfavourable characters the King wrote the one character meaning " dynasty," and im- mediately the other words disappeared. After this he burned the fish in sacrifice and announced the event to Heaven. At once fire came down from Heaven, but the fire gradually floated away in space and became a red bird with a stalk of grain in its beak. This grain was taken as a propitious omen for the prosperity of the country, and the fire as a direct response to the prayer of the new Emperor. After this he went to the east and conquered the whole country without difficulty. So easily was this accomplished that it is said that his soldiers did not need to stain their swords with blood, for the hearts of the people turned to him, recognizing him as a virtuous and noble ruler. Crops were abundant and the forest supplied timber for the building of an Imperial palace.
When Wu Wang died, his successor, Ch'eng Wang, was still young, and Tan, Duke of Chow, acted as regent for seven years. He established the institutions and music of the new dynasty. Spirit-like birds and phoenixes appeared and the mysterious bean again grew. The regent went with the new King to visit the Ho and Lo rivers. Having dropped a gem into the water and finished all the ceremonies, the King retired and waited until the day declined. Then rays of glory shone out and shrouded all the Ho, and green clouds floated in the sky. The green dragon came to the altar, carrying in its mouth a dark-
44 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
coloured shell with a figure on it, which he placed on the altar and went away. On the shell in red lines were ideographs which the regent copied. The writing was prophetic of the rise and fall of the fortunes of the Empire down to the dynasty of Ch'in and Han. The King took a lute and composed a song in which he humbly stated that he personally had no virtue which would warrant the appearance of the phoenixes, and that their presence was due entirely to the virtue of the former kings whose influence still extended to the homes of his humblest subjects.
It is not necessary to discuss the many differences of the ac- counts found in the "Bamboo Books" and those of the Shu King. These relate chiefly to chronological data and to the nar- rative concerning the government of Shun and the labours of Yii. From the standpoint of mythology, the greatest difference is in the fuller accounts of supernatural and marvellous events recorded in the " Bamboo Books." In his redaction of the Shu Kingy Confucius pared these down, or entirely eliminated them in accordance with his own disbelief in the mysterious. The " Bamboo Books," in common with the / King, emphasized supernatural events and have preserved to posterity the ancient myths, so essential to an understanding of the current beliefs of later times.
No better illustration of the extraordinary divergence of views during the ancient days of China could be found than in contrasting the contents of the " Book of Changes " (/ King), attributed to Wen Wang, the father of the founder of the Chow dynasty, with the Chow Li, attributed to Chow Kung, fourth son of Wen Wang. The I King is a book of occultism. In it the pa kua or " Eight Diagrams," are expanded into sixty- four, each of the original Eight Diagrams being composed of continuous or broken lines, or a combination of them. They were used for the interpretation of omens in the rites of divina- tion. From this book have sprung all the mysterious investi-
OTHER PREHISTORIC EMPERORS 45
gations and practices of the Chinese race. In marked contrast is the Chow Li which treats of the establishment of government and its functions. The Emperor, as " Son of Heaven " {^i*ien fzu) was surrounded by his Ministers and by the heads of the feudal principalities. His Ministers were the heads of the six departments of government {liu fu). The duties of each Min- ister were carefully specified. The plans of the Imperial pal- ace were given in detail. All the routine of the personal life of the Emperor, such as his dress, his meals, the words which he should use on special occasions, and postures which he should assume in ceremonies, were carefully stipulated. Everything in this book relates to actual experience. To the logical minds of Western people, it seems inconceivable that two such oppos- ing systems could coexist among the ancient Chinese people 5 it is stranger still to know that one individual mind could ap- prove equally of both, but herein lies an understanding of the growth and development of Chinese civilization. Its glory has been its inconsistency, its mixture of the sublime with the popu- lar, the dignified with the bizarre, the true with recognized faults. In antiquity the same mind accepted the stately cere- monials of the Chow Li and the crude mysteries of the / King; and withal it was not puzzled by their incompatibility. This frame of mind has continued through the centuries. Without an understanding of this peculiar feature of Chinese mentality, it is impossible to understand the wide currency of belief in their myths among a people severely iconoclastic in state ceremonials.
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CHAPTER IV
INTERMIXTURE OF EARLY RELIGIOUS
BELIEFS
THE intermixture in China of early beliefs is well illus- trated by the jade objects prescribed for the Master of Religious Ceremonies in the Choiv Lij as these objects are inter- preted by Dr. Berthold Laufer in the fifth chapter of his book on " Jade." There were six jade objects with which homage was paid to Heaven, to Earth, and to the Four Points of the Compass. With the round tablet, fiy of green colour, homage was paid to Heaven. With the yellow jade tube, ts^ungy hom- age was paid to Earth. With the green tablet, kueij homage was paid to the region of the East. With the red tablet, changy homage was rendered to the region of the South. With the white tablet, huy homage was paid to the region of the West. With the black jade of semi-circular shape, huangy homage was paid to the region of the North. The colour of the victims and of the pieces of silk used in sacrifices to the spirits of these sev- eral regions corresponded to that of the jade used for these purposes.
The commentary of the Chow Li adds definite instructions concerning the placing of these jade objects in the coffins of de- ceased members of the Imperial house. When the body was placed in the coffin the green tablet, kueiy was to the left and a divided tablet at the head. The white tablet, hUy was to the right, and the semi-circular one, huangy at the feet. The round tablet, fiy was to be placed under the back, and the jade tube, ts^ungy on the abdomen. In this way there was a representation
EARLY RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 47
of the brilliant cube, fang-ming, which serves as an emblem in the sacrifices. The round disk, pij and the square tube, ts^ungy were by their separation symbolical of Heaven and Earth. The intimate co-relation between the jade objects used in the pre- scribed religious ceremonies and in the burial of the dead, is readily recognized.
The references of the Chow hi, to these symbolic jade objects are in complete accord with our knowledge of the use of bronze vessels for religious worship. These vessels were used in fam- ily and national worship. In both instances they were associ- ated with ancestral worship, which, according to the Shu King) had its origin in the times of the mythical Emperors. Legge points out that the title given in the Shu King to the Minister of Religion in the time of the Emperor Shun is that of " Ar- ranger of the Ancestral Temple." The rule of Confucius that " parents when dead should be sacrificed to according to pro- priety," was doubtless in accordance with the practice that had come down from the earliest times of the nation. The spirits of the departed were supposed to have a knowledge of the cir- cumstances of their descendants and to be able to affect them. Events of importance in a family were communicated to the departed spirits before their shrines 5 many affairs of govern- ment were transacted in presence of the ancestral tablet. When Yao turned over to Shun the business of government, the cere- mony took place in the " Temple of the Accomplished Ances- tor," to whom Yao gave the credit for his possession of the supreme dignity. During the life of Yao, Shun on every re- turn to the capital from his visits of administration throughout the country, offered a bullock also before the shrine of this personage. In the same way when Shun found the business of government too heavy for him, and called Yu to share in it, the ceremony took place in the "Temple of the Spiritual Ances- tor," the chief in the line of Shunts progenitors. In the re- markable narrative concerning the prayer of Tan, the Duke of
48 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
Chow, for the recovery of his brother Wu Wang from a dan- gerous illness, and of his offering to die in his brother's stead, he raises three altars, one each to their father, grandfather and great-grandfather, and prays to them as if they in Heaven had charge of watching over their descendant. When he has ascer- tained by divination that Wu Wang will recover, he declares that this extension of the tenure of the throne has been renewed by the intervening merits of the three ancestors who had con- sented to the continuity of the ruling House. The Emperor P'an Keng, 1401-1373 b.c, irritated by the opposition of the wealthy and powerful feudal monarchs to his measures, and by their stirring up the people to complain against him, threatened them all with calamities which would be sent down upon them by his great ancestor, T'ang. He told his Ministers that their ancestors and fathers, who had loyally served his predecessors, were now urgently entreating T'ang, in his spirit-state in Heaven, to send severe punishments on their descendants.
The inscriptions on bronze vessels of the Shang and Chow dynasties, though never fully explained or understood by Chi- nese scholars, are at least clear in one respect, which is, that they contain the names of men who subscribe themselves as sons, and also contain directions to descendants to the effect that these vessels should be carefully preserved through all subsequent generations. The natural inference is that these vessels were used in sacrificial ceremonies in the ancestral temples. On one of the best known sets of bronze vessels, the Ch'i Hou set now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, the inscription indi- cates that the vessels were made for the Marquis of Ch'i, and these vessels were undoubtedly used in sacrificial ceremonies held in honour of the early rulers who brought this small prin- cipality into great prominence.
The intermixture of religious beliefs is further evidenced in the earliest accounts of the worship paid to the Supreme Ruler. The term Shang Ti, which has been adopted by translators as
EARLY RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 49
that of the Christian God, is associated in the Shu King with Huang T'ien, " Imperial Heaven "j and the four characters are written together as Huang T'ien Shang Ti, " Supreme Ruler of Imperial Heaven." The powers and prerogatives at- tached to the Supreme Ruler, Shang Ti, are attributed also to T'ien or " Heaven." Both these terms, Shang Ti and T'ien, are interpreted by the standard commentator of the Sung dy- nasty, Chu Hsi, as equivalent to Li. This term Li has been variously translated as " Order," " Law," " Principle," and " Abstract Right," but the word " Intelligence " seems to con- vey more of the original idea of Li in its meaning as the equiva- lent of Shang Ti and T'ien, than any of the other translations. The Supreme Ruler, or Heaven, was the great moral standard, and in accordance with their compliance with its decrees, earthly rulers were established upon their thrones 3 while acts in dis- obedience to its laws were punished by removal from their high positions. The Shu King says: " God acts in different waysj on the righteous he sends down all blessings, and on the wicked he pours out miseries." The first duty of rulers was to order their own conduct according to the immutable decrees of Heaven so that the people might follow their good example and lead vir- tuous lives. If the people were debauched it was a sure sign that the ruler was not living in accordance with the laws of Heaven and that someone would arise to take his place, as hap- pened at the end of the Hsia and Shang dynasties. There is no evidence to show that the early Chinese were monotheists, in the accepted use of that term. The position of Shang Ti in early Chinese belief was similar to that of Jahveh among the early Hebrews, who believed that " the Lord is a great God and a great King above all gods "j and also that " Thou, Lord, art exalted far above all gods." Among the Chinese the spirits of Heaven and Earth, of the land and the grain and of the Ances- tral Temple, were associated with high Heaven, the Supreme Ruler. The Shu King states that " the early kings assiduously
50 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
cultivated their natural virtue, serving and obeying the spirits of Heaven and Earth, of the land and the grain and of the Ancestral Temple j — all with a reverent veneration." In the same paragraph as this statement is another, warning the new successor to the throne that he was charged with obedience to the spirits of his ancestors, and cautioning him against disgrac- ing their memory.
There have been many misconceptions as to the status of Shang Ti in early Chinese beliefs. These have arisen largely from the fact that the Chinese never made anthropomorphic images of the Supreme Ruler. They placed him high above all in stately grandeur and magnificent power. None was so great a God as this Supreme Ruler. Man was so inferior to Heaven that neither his body nor his mind could be compared to the glory and majesty of the Ruler who was high over all. But while no images, fashioned after the model of the human form, were made of the Supreme Ruler, the ancient Chinese made images of another sort which fitted in with the require- ments of their abstract metaphysical minds. A round jade disk with a large hole bored in the centre, represented Earth. With these were jade shapes representing each of the Four Quarters, North, South, East and West. Laufer says that " the Chinese did not conceive of their cosmic gods as human beings, but as forces of nature with a well defined precinct of power, and they constructed their images on the ground of geometric qualities, supposed to be immanent to the great natural phenomena. The shapes of these images were found by way of geometric con- struction." The association of the spirits of the land and grain and of the Ancestral Temple with the worship of the Supreme Ruler, as equally binding upon princes and people, was not con- sidered derogatory to the prestige of the latter. No prophets arose in China, as in Israel, to warn the people against this com- bination. The result was that whereas in Israel a tribal God came to be the only God, in China the Supreme Ruler became
PLATE III
Po YiJN Kuan, Taoist Temple, Peking
1. Third Court.
2. Fourth Court. See pp. 23, 135.
EARLY RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 51
more and more lost sight of among the multitude of gods cre- ated in the likeness of man and other living creatures. High ethical precepts relating to Heaven were submerged in the ris- ing tide of nature worship.
The Emperor Shun sacrificed to the Liu Tsung or " Six Hon- oured Ones." Legge suggests that " In going to worship the hills and rivers and the hosts of spirits, he must have supposed there were certain tutelary beings who presided over the more conspicuous objects of nature and its various processes. They were under God and could do nothing except as they were per- mitted and empowered by himj but the worship of them . . . paved the way for the pantheism which enters largely into the belief of the Chinese at the present time, and of which we find one of the earliest steps in the practice, which commenced with the Chow dynasty, of not only using the term Heaven as syno- nym for God, but using also the combination Heaven and Earth." These Six Honoured Ones have been variously ex- plained by Chinese authors. Meng K'ang says that they were the stars, heavenly bodies, father of the wind, master of the rain, arbiter of the cosmic space, and arbiter of fate. Another authority divides them into two classes of three each: the heav- enly class consists of the sun, moon and stars, the earthly class of the T'ai Mountain, rivers and sea. Whatever may be the correct explanation, the worship paid to these Six Honoured Ones by the Emperor Shun proves conclusively that ancient Chinese worship was a system of polytheism In which the Su- preme Ruler, high above all others, was the source and standard of all moral authority.
CHAPTER V
COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGICAL THEORIES
IT is not possible to state that there is among the early Chinese any, clearly defined theory of the origin of the universe. There is a vague ascription to Shang Ti of infinite creative power, which is involved in the worship paid to him as the Great Ruler of the universe. We have already pointed out, however, that the worship of Shang Ti was also associated with that of the spirits of the earth and air, as well as of ancestors. It was also considered to be on the same plane as the worship of Heaven, and the two seemed to have been interchangeable. Shang Ti, the Great Ruler, was Heaven, and Heaven was Shang Ti J both represented the Great Law to which everything in the universe is subject. It was not conceived of as a personal entity, but as an all-pervading force under which all things live and move and have their being. This conception fitted in well with the Conservative view as to the right of kings to rule and princes to decree justice. The regulation of all creation under the supreme rule of Heaven found an adequate illustration in the relation of the subjects to the ruler of a state. As the views of the Conservative School were chiefly occupied, in their final analysis, with the control of the state, it was deemed by them unnecessary to inquire too closely into the nature of the Great Ruler of the universe. For them it was enough to know that his power is omnipotent and his will supreme. Speculation con- cerning him was considered superfluous; their only desire was to comply with his immutable decree.
According to the most obvious interpretation of Chapter VI
COSMOGONY — COSMOLOGICAL THEORIES 53
of the Tao Teh King, Lao Tzu seems to have ventured into the realm of cosmogony; and whatever may be thought of the trust- worthiness of the text there can be no doubt of the fact that its conceptions have been adopted by all later writers of the School of Tao. Wang P'i of the third century a.d. interprets this dif- ficult passage of the Tao Teh King in a sense which has been generally accepted as bringing out its original meaning j but Giles professed at one
time that he had "not f^-r-^
the remotest idea what it meant." Wang P'i says in explaining the meaning of Ku Shen (" the spirits of the valley"), that "a val- ley is the abode of va- cuity and silence, which, though nothing else can be found in the valley, still remain without form." It is thus evi- dent that the " spirits of the valley " mean the " spirits of vacuity and silence." I have translated hsu as " silence" in the sense of the word in Hood's sonnet:
" There is a silence where hath been no sound, There is a silence where no sound may be."
The whole passage (Chapter VI) may be translated: "The im- mortal spirits of the valley are called the great void. The great void is called Heaven and Earth. Continually it endures, work- ing without conscious exertion." Stripped of all unknown im- plications, Lao Tzu's theory of the universe is that out of a great void came Heaven and Earth whose laws are immutable.
vin— s
Li EH Tzu
54 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
There Is little or nothing in Chuang Tzu or Lieh Tzu which amplifies or explains the mysterious Chapter VI of the Tao Teh King, but in the " History of the Great Light " {Hung Lieh Chuan), the philosopher Liu An, commonly known as Huai- nan Tzu (ob., I22 b.c.) has written what is in reality a com- mentary upon it. Huai-nan Tzii gave little attention to the ethical teachings of Lao Tzuj his concern was with the trans- mutation of metals and the search for the elixir of immortality. He gathered around him large groups of ascetics {fang shih), who devoted their time to occult practices and researches. This type of study led Huai-nan Tzii into the consideration of the phenomena of nature and of the original creative force.
Huai-nan Tzu emphasized the doctrine of spontaneity, which, he said, is the original law of creation. Dragons live In water j tigers and leopards In the mountains — all following the natural instincts given them by Heaven and Earth. When the spring wind blows the fragrant rain falls, bringing life to all things j birds hatch their young and animals multiply j plants and trees bud and leaf j the processes are not visible and yet they come to completion. Again when autumn comes with cool breezes and frosty air, the trees bow and are stripped of their leaves, reptiles and insects burrow into the ground or hibernate j still no outward compelling forces are to be seen. This law of spontaneity is also true in Individual conduct. One should dis- play the kindness which is Innate In the human heart and avoid craftiness which defiles original Innocence and purity. Follow- ing this law further, the philosopher does not need to hear sounds or see forms In his study of natural phenomena; for in the midst of silence and loneliness he is conscious of both. Everywhere we find around us the works of nature, yet nature itself cannot be found by searching, though on the other hand it forces Itself upon our attention. If It be piled up, It will not be high; If it be dug down It will not be low; addition will not In- crease It, neither will subtraction diminish it; If planed It does
COSMOGONY — COSMOLOGICAL THEORIES 55
not become thin, if cut it remains uninjured j it is neither deep nor shallow. " Shadowy and indistinct, it has no formj indis- tinct and shadowy, its resources have no limit." Nature is the great force that sustains Heaven and Earth, spreads to the four quarters, fills up all within the Four Seas, supplies light to the sun, moon and stars, and is divided into male and female prin- ciples, Yang and Yin. By its force the sky revolves, the earth is motionless J the wind rises, clouds gather, thunder rolls and rain falls. All are the result of the spontaneous action of nature. Huai-nan Tzu draws from this law the teaching that man should be in harmony with nature, tranquil and content. As an example of compliance with this law he states that, in early times, Fu Hsi and Shen Nung understood the laws of nature so that they were in communion with the Creator and were able to assist in ordaining all things within the universe. There are many difficulties to a full understanding of the meaning of some passages in the text of Huai-nan Tzu, but their general tenor seems to be in accord with this law of spontaneity.
The venerable mystic who revealed himself to Liu Hsiang, 80-9 B.C., while he was absorbed in his nightly study of the stars, told him the mysteries of creation. He explained also the evolution of nature from the five elements (wu hsmg) — water, fire, wood, metal and earth. Before vanishing into space the mystic declared himself to be the Essence of the Great Centre — T'ai I Ching. Liu Hsiang was the author of the " History of the Han Dynasty " and the founder of the mod- ern style of historical composition, but he spent all his leisure time in occult studies. From his time onward the scholars who belonged to the School of Tao paid scant attention to ethical problems, but gave all their attention to speculation about the origin of life, its prolongation and its mysteriesj just as Chang Tao-ling a century later is the starting-point for the magical practices which have almost absorbed all else in Taoism. From Liu's time forward it is impossible to determine just when the
S6 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
various elements were introduced which went to form the cos- mological systems as explained by writers during the T'ang and Sung dynasty in such books as the Sung Li Ch^Uan ShUy and it is fruitless to attempt any chronological arrangement. There was much confusion of thought and divergence of view until general consent and wide acceptance were obtained for the fol- lowing theory.
This theory is that the great self-existent, wu chiy produced finite existence, fai chi. The finite evolved the two essential elements of nature, Yang and Yin, which may be translated as the male and female principles, or as positive and negative, or as light and darkness. Chu Hsi's account says that first was the self-existent and then the finite. The finite moved and there was Yang (light or the male principle); the finite rested and there was Yin (darkness or the female principle). In other words the sexual principle as known in propagation of animal life was predicated of nature as manifested in the finite j but there was no attempt to describe the infinite self-existent in terms of human forms or human experience. This primordial cause was unknowable and unexplainable.
The T'ai Hsi King, which may be translated " The Classic of Breath Control," is a further elaboration of the sixth Chap- ter of Lao Tzu. This classic is without date, and the name of the author is not known, but from its contents the probability is that it was written during the Yiian dynasty, when so much attention was given among the Taoists to the control of breath- ing as one of the necessary steps in attaining immortality. The teaching of this book is that in the universe there is but one aura, chH, and from this comes all life and death. All finite things are produced from the vast and inexhaustible reservoir of this aura. For this reason the aura is called a mother, that is, the Yin or female principle of nature which combines with the Yang or male principle of nature to form the eternal Tao. The Yang, male principle, is the " Spirit of Vacuity " (K'ung Shen).
4
COSMOGONY — COSMOLOGICAL THEORIES 57
The virility of this spirit unites with the receptivity of the aura to form the creative power of the universe. The spirit and aura both come from the original chaos, and neither of the two can ever be increased or diminished. It is evident that this theory of creation is a product of the Taoist School which devoted its attention chiefly to breath control. There are other cosmologi- cal theories in later books based upon Taoist teachings of occult- ism, many of them being intermixed with Buddhistic theories. The Hsin Yin King, or " Classic of Heart Revelation," is an example of such books, but their influence, either on the ortho- dox Taoist or on popular conceptions, has not been sufficient to warrant detailed consideration.
The scholarly interpretations of cosmogony which have been given above are entirely eclipsed by the vulgar theories of Tao- ism which have captured the minds of the majority of the Chi- nese people and which may be accepted as the teachings of present-day Taoism. According to these the Great Creator was P'an Ku. He came from the great chaos, and his body was four times the size of that of an ordinary man. Two horns projected from his head, and two tusks from his upper jaw. His body was thickly covered with hair. Knowing the prin- ciples of Heaven and Earth and the inherent changes of the dual fires of nature, he was able to excavate the deep valleys and pile up high mountains. He taught men to build boats and bridges} he understood the qualities of the rocks and was able to select those that were of value to mankind. With his ham- mer and chisel he wrought the universe into shape. From his high throne he issued his instructions to the people, whom he divided into the two classes of nobles and commoners. Above are the sun, moon and stars, he said, and below are the four seas. Listening to his discourse on the manner in which chaos was reduced to order, the people forgot their fatigue. After he had exhausted his instructions to them, one morning he disap- peared and was never again heard of. Thus the impersonal
58
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
powers of nature became personified in P'an Ku, who is entirely an anthropomorphic conception. According to Jen Fang who wrote the Shuh I Chi at the commencement of the sixth century, this myth was introduced into China by delegates returning from the Kingdom of Siam. It is not mentioned in the Thing Chien Wat Chi by Liu Shu in the eleventh century.
Another illustration of the personification of what had been originally con- sidered as impersonal law or principle, occurred dur- ing the Sung dynasty, when the Shang Ti, or " Great Ruler " of the classical writings became Yu Huang, the Jade Emperor of Tao- ist teaching. After the dis- graceful peace made by the Emperor Chen Tsung in 1005 A-D- with the Kitan Tartars, by which northern portions of the Empire were ceded away, the Em- peror tried by every means to regain his prestige. He sought out the soothsayers, geomancers and interpreters of dreams. In this he was en- couraged by his Minister, Wang Ch'in-jo, who explained to him that the revelations reputed to have been given to the early Emperors were only inventions to secure obedience, and that if the Emperor were to fabricate similar tales con- cerning himself, the people would be won back to loyal obedi- ence. In 1012 A.D. the Emperor called his Ministers together and told them of a dream in which he had received a letter
Fig. 8.
Yu Huang, the Jade Emperor
COSMOGONY — COSMOLOGICAL THEORIES 59
from Yu Huang which stated that Yii Huang had sent two letters to his ancestor, the founder of the Sung dynasty, and that now his Imperial ancestor was coming to pay him a visit. The Emperor later informed his Ministers that his august an- cestor had duly appeared to him in accordance with the promise of Yii Huang. The Imperial History, T^ung Chien Kang Mu, records these facts, and states that this is the first appearance of Yu Huang, and that absolutely nothing is known of his origin or life. No one previous to the dream of the Emperor had ever heard Yii Huang spoken of. He was the invention of a deceitful Emperor aided by a Minister who was spoken of in the reign of his successor as " obscene." This revelation {f'ien~ shu) to the Emperor Chen Tsung, was acquiesced in by another famous Minister, Wang Tan, in consideration of a large present by the Emperor, and his cowardice in doing so has been fre- quently commented upon by later writers.
Notwithstanding this fraudulent origin, Yii Huang received during the reign of the Emperor, Hui Tsung, i loi-i 125 a.d., the highest possible honour in being given the title of Hao T'ien Yii Huang Shang Ti, which means " The Great Ruler, Almighty Heaven, Yii Huang," and to this title was prefixed the statement that at creation he was the arbiter of divination, the controller of time and the true embodiment of Tao. This identification of Yii Huang as Shang Ti, the Great Ruler of the universe, was the highest possible ascription that could be made to him.
After this time stories of the life of Yii Huang were in- vented. His father was Ching-te, King of a fabulous country. The Queen was called Pao-yiieh, "The Precious Month." Having come to middle life she had not yet borne a male child. The King called priests to the palace to recite prayers with the object of obtaining an heir to the throne. During the following night the Queen had a dream in which Lao Tzii appeared to her, mounted on a dragon and carrying a male child in his arms.
6o CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
He flew through the air and came toward her, whereupon the Queen begged him to give her this child as heir to the crown. Lao Tzu consented and tossed the child to the Queen. She fell on her knees and thanked him. This was her dream. Awaken- ing the next morning she felt herself pregnant, and at the end of a year brought forth a child. From his earliest years the child showed himself generous to the poor, giving away all the riches of the palace. On the death of his father he was crowned King, but after a few days, he ceded the crown to the Prime Minister and left the kingdom in order to become a hermit at P'u-ming in the Province of Shensi. Here he attained perfec- tion of life and spent his time in healing the sick. In the midst of his deeds of charity he died. This is the fabulous account of his life as recorded in the Sou Shen Chi. To the common people of China, Yu Huang and P'an Ku are the great origin of all finite things, and to them worship is paid as the Great Creators.
CHAPTER VI SPIRITS OF NATURE
THE most persistent type of religious worship in China is that offered to the spirits of Earth. The ancient Em- peror Shun is said to have offered sacrifices to the hills in the wang ceremony, and later mythical Emperors in the lU cere- mony.j the Duke of Chow sacrificed a bull on the she altar in his worship of the powers of nature. There were also the fang sacrifices to the Four Quarters of the Earth, the yil sacrifice in prayers for rain, the chiao sacrifice to Heaven at the winter sol- stice, and to Earth at the summer solstice, as well as the offer- ings on the she chi altars to the spirits of the Earth and grain which were set up in every feudal state. There were also lesser rites connected with the worship of nature, such as the tsu t'len sacrifice and oblation offered by travellers on the night previous to the commencement of a journey, the -pa sacrifice made by travellers for good fortune in their undertakings, the sacrifice to the ancestor of horses in the "po ceremony which is referred to in " The Book of Odes," the sacrifice at the end of the year which was called cha in the Chow dynasty, and la in the Ch'in, and which was offered in thanksgiving for the harvest, the yo sacrifice in the spring and the t'l sacrifice in the autumn, both of which were attended by the ruler and all the princes, the kuet sacrifice for averting evil influences and the no sacrifice for the same purpose.
The hi Ki or " Book of Rites " records that the princes of- fered sacrifices to the spirits of the Earth and of agriculture — she chi. The early Chinese were an agricultural people and their thoughts naturally turned toward some deities to whose
62 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
influence could be ascribed the blessings of good harvests. She was the spirit of earth, and chi the spirit of grain j together they combined the idea of gods of agriculture, as the Emperor Shen Nung typified the origin of the cultivation of the soil. The spirits of the earth were honoured in different measure accord- ing to the extent of the territory over which they were supposed to preside. Some were local, others extended throughout the area of a duchy or feudal principality, while one spirit was worshipped by the Emperor as being the patron of agriculture throughout the Empire. According to the generally accepted tradition the first person who was deified as the national god of the soil, T'u-ti Shen or Hou-t'u Shen, was Ko Lung. He is said to have been a descendant of the legendary Emperor, Shen Nung, in the eleventh generation. Ko Lung was the Minister of Public Works during the reign of Chuan Hsu, the last of the Five Emperors, and distinguished himself by his zeal and ability. This position as patron god of the soil has been main- tained by Ko Lung with only two brief intervals, of which one was during the reign of the Emperor P'ing Ti of the Han dy- nasty, and the other at the beginning of the Ming dynasty.
The Li She, as referred to in the Shih Chij was the place where worship was paid to the gods of the soil. It is interest- ing to note that there was no fixed prescription as to the amount of the sacrifice as in all other ceremonies, but that the people of a district were expected to make offerings according to their ability, rich districts offering more than poor ones. Another important phase of this early nature worship is that in it oc- curred the first instances of the personification of spiritual be- ings. The Father of Husbandry, T'ien Tsu, is spoken of in the Shih King or " Book of Odes " (II. 6, VII. 2) as a personality in the same sense as ancestors. This personality was that of de- parted human spirits, and was considered in a different category from that of the living j but it was nevertheless distinctly mod- elled after the human form. This first known instance of
SPIRITS OF NATURE 63
anthropomorphism in early Chinese worship is recorded as hav- ing occurred in the Chow dynasty, and there is no available knowledge of its extension to other objects of worship which continued to be regarded as abstract forces, principles or laws.
These local deities impersonated the source of the kindly fruits of the earth In the district where altars were erected or offerings made. The local deities of a rich, prosperous district were on the same footing as those of a poor one. There Is no record of the use of a local god for tribal supremacy or tribal propaganda. If prosperity reigned In one district, the local god of the soil was thanked by the presentation of costly offerings, but he was not heralded as greater than the local gods of neigh- bouring districts, nor made the occasion of hostile attacks upon supposed inferiors. There were no jealousies and quarrels among different localities based upon the help of superior local deities, as there were between the Israelites on the one hand and the tabernacles of Edom, the Ishmaelites, Moab and the Hagarenes on the other. These deities were dependent for their prestige on the quality of the soil where they were wor- shipped, and the early Chinese would have thought of carrying the fertile soil of one district Into the sterile fields of another, as soon as of transferring a local deity from Its own habitat to another place. The deity was the essential essence of the local soil and could not be detached from It. Thus everywhere there was worship offered to these gods on the basis of their perfect equality. This was not henotheism, for over and above this local deity who could control the visible world of matter was Heaven, Supreme Ruler of the Invisible forces of nature.
Worship of nature among the ancient Chinese was national, tribal and local j at the present time it remains national and local. The great national centre is the Temple of Agriculture in Peking, which Is a large enclosure on the west side of the street opposite to the Temple of Heaven. Here in the spring
64
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
the Emperor was accustomed to turn over three furrows with an especially ornamented plough drawn by cows. As a local religion it is found everywhere in China, even in the sparsely populated agricultural districts of Manchuria and Mongolia, where no Buddhist or Taoist temples have been built. Scat- tered through the fields, on roadsides, on the streets of country hamlets, small structures are seen, which are often not more than four by six feet in size. These testify to the permanence
and universality of nature worship.
Theoretically na- ture worship is di- vided into worship of the Four Quarters and the Centre, as may be seen in the raised platform in the inner enclosure of the Central Park, Peking. Ac- tually throughout the country nature wor- ship is offered to the local deity, T'u-tl lao-yeh. This deity is usually some local celebrity who has been honoured in his life-time for benevolence or for his excep- tional character, and at death has been elevated to the rank of protector of the neighbourhood. Anyone after death may be selected for this honour. When misfortune has overtaken a place and it has been relieved by the efforts of some individual, this man is almost certain at death to be selected as the local deity to replace the one whose usefulness had expired, as shown by his inability to avert calamity. A man born in a village, who has become a high official or a prominent military leader, or a
Fig. g. T'u-ti and his Wife
SPIRITS OF NATURE 6$
prosperous merchant or a great scholar, and who had not for- gotten his birthplace by failing to contribute to its well-being, is almost certain at death to be made a T'u-ti lao-yeh or local deity.
I There is no other such extensive source of myths as is af- forded in the selection of these local deities. They are re- corded in the Sou Shen Chiy and it is from this book that the following tales are taken. In the last years of the Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 a.d., lived Chiang Tzu-wen. A native of the district which is now known as Yang-chow in Kiangsu Province, he became notorious as a drunkard and a libertine. He an- nounced that his bones were of a bluish-green colour and that therefore he expected to be deified. When he was Commander at Mu-ling, near Nanking, he pursued a robber to the foot of Chung Shan, now known as Purple Mountain. The robber turned on him and fatally wounded Chiang in the forehead. A few years later the Emperor Ta Ti of the newly- founded Wu dynasty was surprised to meet Chiang on the road. He was mounted on a white charger, carried a white fan, and was ac- companied by a retinue such as he had during his life-time. Chiang said to the Emperor: " You are having the extraordi- nary sight of a spirit. I must be made a local god, T'u-ti Shen." The Emperor was greatly perturbed and conferred upon him the title of Marquis of his capital city, Nanking, gave him an official seal, and erected a temple in his honour. He changed the name of Purple Mountain from Chung Shan to Chiang Shan, and made Chiang the local deity in charge of the protec- tion of the Mountain.
This is only one example, and not too creditable, of the choice of a deceased personage as a local deity. In most cases the selection is made for better reasons than in this one just quoted. Many great warriors have been deified in their native places or in localities where they have lived. P'eng Yii-lin, the famous Hunan General of the last generation, has become the
ee CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
protector of Hu-k'ou at the mouth of the Poyang Lake. Yo Fei, the great General whom the Sungs appointed in the twelfth century to repel the encroachments of the Golden Hordes of Tartars, is buried at the side of the West Lake. He was post- humously granted the title of the Prince of O (modern Hupeh), but his princely rank has not prevented the farming people of Hangchow district from making him a local protec- tive deity, T'u-ti lao-yeh. It does not always happen that the local deity was some particular individual who lived at a certain time j in many instances, and it might be safe to venture in most instances, he is only the general indefinite spirit of the soil and has no connection with any deceased individual.
In the small shrines the deity, T*u-ti lao-yeh, is sometimes, though rarely, found alone. In almost every instance a female figure is seated at his right. She is known as his wife, T'u-ti nai-nai. I have not been able to trace this custom of associating a woman with the deity to any date earlier than the middle of the Ming dynasty, but as yet little information on this question is available. In larger local shrines other deities are introduced, such as the god of wealth, Ts'ai Shen, whose horse stands at the side of the shrine, and the god of healing, Yo Wang. Some- times other lesser deities are also given places, such as the god who controls smallpox and the god who controls cholera. Ref- erence has already been made in the Introduction to Hou-chi, the patron of grain, the product of the soil. He was Director of Agriculture in the reign of the Emperor Yao, and sacrifices were offered to him during the Hsia dynasty. According to the Shih Chly sacrifices were offered to him at the same time as to Heaven during the reign of Ch'eng Wang, second Emperor of the Chow dynasty. The altar for this purpose was erected in the vicinity of the capital city. In connection with another patron of grain, Yin Hung, an interesting myth is narrated in the Feng Shen Yen I. When Yin Hung was twelve years of age the Empress of the tyrant Chou sought to take his life. He
SPIRITS OF NATURE
67
had already arrived at the place of execution when two im- mortals rescued him in a whirlwind and carried him off to a safe retreat on the mountain Tai Hua. He afterwards came out to fight on the side of the supporters of the Shang dynasty against the Chows, but this so outraged the Chow General that he pul- verized Yin Hung with the Eight Diagrams. After death he was canonized as patron of good harvests.
A myth is connected with the worship of Hou-t'u, who in modern temples is represented as a woman. This was origi- nally worship of the spirit of the earth, then it became a worship of individuals who were hon- oured as patrons of the soil, and deceased Emperors or Em- presses were designated as this deity. Since the early part of the Ming dynasty the god has been transformed into a goddess, Hou-t'u nai-nai. The general facts concerning the evolution of this worship are given in the
but
the
Fig. id. Hou-t'u
book Wu Li T^ung K^ao, no explanation is given of change of sex of the deity.
Another spirit which is now universally worshipped through- out China is the god of the city, Ch'eng Huang. He is men- tioned in Chinese literature first in the annals of the Northern Ch'i dynasty, 550-577 a.d., where it is said that a respectful countenance and dignified prayer in the worship of Ch'eng Huang will be answered by many blessings. During the T'ang dynasty, when everything was given an origin in early history, Ch'eng Huang was interpreted as being the same as Shui Jung,
68
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
one of the " Eight Spirits " (Pa Cha), to whom the Emperor Yao offered sacrifice, according to the Li Ki. There are forms of prayer written for his worship in the T'ang dynasty by Chang Shuo and Chang Chiu-ling, the famous litterateurs. In the
Fig. II. Ch'eng Huang
Sung dynasty worship of Ch'eng Huang was wide-spread, and he was ennobled as a Duke in every prefecture, a Marquis in every department, and an Earl in every county. During the reign of Hung Wu, in 1382, temples in his honour were de- clared to be public government property, and it was ordered that sacrifices should be offered to him. In the Manchu dy- nasty Ch'eng Huang was included in the prescribed regulations among those to whom regular sacrifices should be offered. With Ch'eng Huang is associated his wife, for whom special rooms
SPIRITS OF NATURE
69
are set aside in the temple. The growth of this T'ang dynasty myth into a national cult is one of the most remarkable inci- dents in Chinese mythology and is an evidence of the great in- fluence of Imperial patronage. The connection between Ch'eng Huang and Shui Jung rests solely upon the identity of the orig- inal meaning of the two names. Both have the meaning of a
Fig. 12. Sa Chen-jen
" city moat." By connecting the newly-invented Ch'eng Huang with the mythical spirit, Shui Jung, to which the Em- peror Yao sacrificed, the T'ang scholars gave a dignity to the new deity which he could not have attained in any other way. Shui Jung is only mentioned casually in the Li Ki and was not singled out by later generations as worthy of greater respect than any of the other " Eight Spirits." It was not until the
vin — 6
70 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
T'ang dynasty that his name was selected as a peg upon which to hang the legend of Ch'eng Huang.
Of the five sacred mountains, T'ai Shan in Shantung Prov- ince has been most closely connected with religious observances. Early Emperors are reputed to have visited it. Here Confu- cius stood and had a view of the whole empire. The Emperor Shih Huang of the Ch'in dynasty is reputed to have set up a tablet during his visit, and a rubbing of its inscription is still preserved in the Tai Miao in T'ai-an city. The entire character of the worship on this famous mountain was changed after the visit, in 1008 a.d., of the Emperor Chen Tsung of the Sung dynasty. This Emperor had probably been informed of the tales connected with the daughter of Tung Hai who appeared to Wen Wang. In his book Po Wu Chihj Chang Hua, 232— 300 A.D., says that when T'ai Kung Wang (the famous Minister of the Emperor Wen Wang and the preceptor of Wu Wang) was Governor of Kuan-t'an, for a full year there was a severe drought and no sound of wind was heard. In a dream Wen Wang saw a woman who was weeping bitterly. He inquired the reason for her grief and she replied: " I am the daughter of Tung Hai (' Eastern Sea ') and am married to Hsi Hai (* Western Sea '). Tomorrow I shall return eastward to Kuan- t'an. You are a man of high principles and distinguished nature so that I do not dare to disturb you by returning home in a whirlwind." The Emperor Wen Wang on the following day ordered the recall of T'ai Kung Wang from his distant post, whereupon the woman carried out her purpose of com- ing back and brought with her a copious shower of rain accom- panied with wind. She thus became known as the Lady of T'ai Shan.
Another account of this woman is given by Chang £)r-ch'i who lived at the close of the Ming and the beginning of the Manchu dynasty. In his book, Hao Ang Hsien Hua, he quotes from a romantic history, Pai Shih, that during the Han dy-
SPIRITS OF NATURE
71
nasty a lapidary fashioned two statues, one of the " Golden Lad" (Chin T'ung), and one of the "Jade Lady" (Yu Nu). During the Five Dynasties the hall of the temple in which these stood, collapsed and the statues fell down. The Golden Lad was broken in pieces, but the Jade Lady was submerged in a pool. When the Sung Emperor, Chen Tsung, visited T'ai Shan in 1008 a.d., he stooped to wash his hands in this pool. He found a stone statue ^i.
floating on the surface. It was taken out and found to be the Jade Lady. He or- dered his attendant Minister to erect a temple in her hon- our and conferred upon her the title of T'ien Hsien Yii Nu Pi Hsia Yuan Chii (" First Lord of the Blue Sky, Heavenly Fairy, Jade Lady"). This account is also given in the " Historical Records " of Shantung {Shan Tung K^ao Ku Lu). There are many shrines to this Lady on the mountain.
There are no myths which have general currency asso- ^''-" '^' J'^"^ ^ady, Ye Nu ciated with any other of the five sacred mountains. T'ai Shan has absorbed all the interest of the Taoists, and in its name as Tung Yo, " Eastern Peak," it has been the object of worship in every large centre where Taoist influence flourishes. The Tung Yo Temple, outside the Ch'ao Yang Men, is one of the most beautiful temples of Peking, and has been under Imperial patronage since the time of the Yiian dynasty. The myths con- cerned with the four sacred hills of Buddhistic worship, P'u-t'o,
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CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
Chiu-hua, Wu-t'ai and O-mei, are all foreign in their origin and do not call for attention among national legends.
T'ien Hou, goddess of the sea, is reputed to have been the sixth daughter of Lin Yiian of the P'u-t'ien district of Fukien Province, who lived during the Sung dynasty. From childhood she possessed supernatural powers. Her brother carried on a sea-trade. Whenever a great wind arose at sea, she closed her eyes and went forth in her divine power and rescued her brother.
Fig. 14. T'ien Hou
She died at twenty years of age, but continued to exercise her spiritual powers on the sea. She is worshipped by all sea-faring persons. She was canonized by the Emperor Yung Lo, 1402- 23A.D., of the Ming dynasty, as " Heavenly Consort " {tHen fet). There is a large temple in her honour on the North Soochow Road, at the corner of Honan Road, Shanghai, which was for many years used as the home of envoys going from or returning to China. She is also worshipped by persons jour- neying on rivers and canals. Ch'uan Hou, goddess of streams,
SPIRITS OF NATURE 73
is a variation in name of this goddess. There is also a ruler of water, Shui Chiin, who rides on a horse in the water and has a human form. He is followed in his course by fish. In the lat- ter part of the Han dynasty he is said to have been seen during a sacrifice to the rivers.
The wind god is called either Feng Po or Feng Shih. He is identified with the constellation Sagittarius, as strong winds come from the north-west. The rain god, Yii Shih, is associ- ated with the constellation Hyades in the south-west. These two controllers of wind and rain are mentioned in the Chow Li. There is another deity, Yen Kung, who has power to calm wind and waves. The Emperor Ta Ti, 222-252 a.d., of the Wu dy- nasty, is said to have erected an altar to Yen Kung outside the West Gate of Shanghai. This deity protected Shanghai during an attack of pirates in the reign of Chia Ching, 152 2- 1567 a.d., by causing a huge tidal wave to swamp their boats during the darkness of the night.
CHAPTER VII DOMESTIC RITES
RELIGIOUS ceremonies connected with the home are cele- brated at the New Year season and on special occasions such as birthdays, departure on journeys and moving into a new residence. These domestic ceremonies are usually spoken of as the " five sacrifices " {wu ssu) — (a) the hearth (tsao), (b) the portal {men), (c) the house {hu), (d) de- parture on journeys (hsing), and (e) the interior of the residence {chung- liu). These ceremonies all originated among the early inhabitants of China, though the present forms of observance came into vogue centuries later. None of them show traces of any foreign in- fluence.
Worship of the god of the hearth, Tsao Shen, is universal. On the night of the twenty-fourth day of the twelfth moon elaborate offerings of food and wine are arranged before a paper image of this god, after which the image is burned, together with horses, chariots, paper money and domestic utensils, whereupon Tsao Shen ascends to Heaven to make his report to the Most High regarding the condition and prospects of the family. In the hands of this god is the prosperity or adver- sity of the household, depending wholly upon the statements which he makes concerning its ideals and practices.
Fig. 15. Tsao Shen, God of the Hearth
DOMESTIC RITES 75
It is generally agreed by historical writers that the first offer- ing to the Prince of the Furnace, Tsao Chiin, as he was origi- nally called, was made by the Emperor Wu Ti, 140-86 b.c, of the Han dynasty. A mystic named Li Shao-chun assured the credulous monarch that he had received from the Prince of the Furnace the double blessing of freedom from growing old and from eating in order to live. He referred to the knowl- edge of alchemy possessed by the Emperor Huang Ti by which he was able to produce gold, and thus make a golden table- service which caused the food served in it to confer immortality upon those who partook of it. The Emperor Wu Ti demanded to see an image of this new god, and one night when he had already retired behind the curtains of his bed, Li Shao-chun exhibited it to him. This satisfied the curiosity of the emperor and he decided in 133 b.c. to offer a solemn sacrifice to the god in the hope of being able to produce gold and to obtain immor- tality. Li Shao-chiin was taken into the palace, and a year later attempted a bolder trick. He wrote a number of mysteri- ous sayings on silk which he caused a bull to eat. He then as- sured the Emperor that he would find marvellous writings in the stomach of an animal. Accordingly the bull was brought forward as the animal which had been specified by Li, and when it was slaughtered the writing on silk was found, but, unfortu- nately for Li, the Emperor recognized the penmanship to be that of Li himself. He ordered Li to be executed, but contin- ued his sacrifices to the god. At this time, i.e. in the second century b.c, the chief function of this god was supposed to be the control of the furnace in which metals could be transmuted into gold and the pill of immortality produced.
It is narrated by another writer that during the reign of the Emperor Hsuan Ti, 73-48 b.c, the Prince of the Furnace (Tsao Chiin) appeared to the Emperor in human form and called himself by the name of Ch'an Tzu-fang, which suggests a connection with Buddhistic propaganda. Ch'an Tzii-fang
76 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
wore yellow garments and his hair fell unkempt over his shoul- ders. The Emperor was greatly impressed by this appearance and offered the sacrifice of a lamb in his honour. Ch'an Tzu- fang received many emoluments from the Emperor. It is said that his great-grandson was the uncle of the Empress, Lieh Hou, consort of the Emperor Kuan Wu, 25-58 a.d.
Between the Han and Sung dynasties the Prince of the Fur- nace (Tsao Chiin) whose powers were connected with alchemy, was transformed Into the god of the hearth, Tsao Shen, the word tsao meaning both " furnace " and " hearth." As far as I know there are no records of the way in which this change took place, but the probability is that it occurred during the first years of the T'ang dynasty, when the process of creating new deities by the Taoists, and of ascribing new powers to deities already known, flourished at the height of its popularity. The first historical reference to the universality of the worship of the god of the hearth at the close of the year occurs in a collec- tion of poems called Shih Hu Tz'u, by Fan Ch'eng-ta, who lived in the reign of the Efnperor Kao Tsung, 1 127-1 162 a.d., of the Southern Sung dynasty. The poet says that every family made presents to this god preparatory to his departure to pre- sent his report of family affairs to the Ruler of Heaven, but no account of the origin of the custom is given. The poet refers to the custom of worshipping this god as being universal in the country at that time. It needed no explanation to those for whom his poem was written.
There is much intermixture of the conceptions concerning the god of the hearth, Tsao Shen, and the god of fire. Ho Shen. The origin of both is traced back to Chu Jung, one of the five ancient sacrifices (wu cht) of the Hsia dynasty. In the Yiieh-ling Chapter of the " Book of Rites " {Li Ki)^ it is stated that Chu Jung is the god of the Fourth Month. The T'ung Chien (" Historical Annals ") explains that Chu Jung refers to a grandson of the legendary Emperor, Chuan Hsu, 2513—
DOMESTIC RITES
77
2435 B.C., who was an officer of fire {Ho cheng). Chu Hsi, the standard commentator on the Confucian classics, identifies Chu Jung as tsao^ i.e. " furnace " or " hearth," but this is only- one of several explanations of the " five sacrifices," a subject on which only little information is available. Another inter- pretation of Chu Jung makes it equivalent to Ho Shen, the god of fire, presumably on account of the constant interchange of the use of tsao^ " furnace " or " stove," for the fire, hOy con-
Fig. 16. Men Shen, Guardians of the Portals
tained in it. In the Han dynasty five soldiers were grouped to- gether as a mess and used one tsao (" cooking range "). The head man of the mess was called ho fo and not tsao fo as might have been expected, thus showing the use of these two words tsao and ho as having one meaning in that connection. From this it may be justly inferred that these two words are used in- terchangeably in the names of these two deities.
At the New Year season the double doors at the entrance of every house are decorated with the pictures of two guardians, Men Shen. These are usually in military dress with swords, arrows or spears in their hands, and are reputed to ward off all evil influences. These pictures are not alike in various parts
78
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
of the country. According to the Feng Su T*ung the earliest was that of Ch'eng Ch'ing, an ancient warrior who is repre- sented with a long outer garment and carrying a sword. An- other early representation was that of Ching K'e who died 227 B.C., and who was a bold adventurer. He plotted to slay the Prince of Ch'in, but lost his life in the attempt. The two
brothers, Shu Yu and Yu Lei were also portrayed as guardians of the portal, but there is no further account of them than that they were noted warriors of antiquity. From the time of the first Emperor of the T'ang dynasty, Ch'in Ch'iung and Hu Ching-te have been most commonly represented as the two guardians. These were two statesmen who of- fered their services to the Emperor T'ai Tsung when he was nightly dis- turbed by evil spirits during a serious illness. They promised to remain at the gate of his palace throughout the whole night. During their vigil no spirits interfered with the repose of the Emperor, but it was at the ex- pense of the health of his Ministers. After a few days the Emperor called an artist to the palace and had portraits made of the two Min- isters in the hope that these would have the same effect as the actual presence of the men themselves. He had these portraits attached to the doors and, true to his expectations, they had the same effect of warding off the evil spirits as the presence of the statesmen. The custom rapidly spread until it is now universal in the country. Li official residences there are four guardians, two military and two civil.
Fig. 17. Ts'ai Shen, OF Riches
God
DOMESTIC RITES
79
The god of riches, Ts'ai Shen, is worshipped universally in families during the first days of the New Year, usually on the fifth or eighth of the first moon. He is usually represented as a visitor who desires to enter the home and is accompanied by many servants carrying treasures which he is ready to dispense freely to those who offer him obeisance. His origin is traced back to Chao Kung-ming, a hermit from Mount O-mei in
IZ
X
Fig. 1 8. Chao Kung-ming, God of Riches
Szechuan, who supported with magical incantations the Shang dynasty in its conflict with the men who founded the Chow dy- nasty. When Chiang Tzu-ya was aiding the cause of the Chows he decided that he must destroy the supernatural assistance which Chao Kung-ming was giving to the Shangs. Chiang made a straw efiigy of Chao before which he recited incantations for twenty days. On the twenty-first day he shot an arrow of peach-tree wood from his bow made of mulberry-tree wood, hitting the effigy in the heart. At this very moment Chao
8o
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
Kung-ming, who was in the camp of the enemy, was seized with mortal illness and died. During a subsequent visit to the deity Yiian Shih T'icn Tsun, Chiang Tzii-ya was commanded to bring into the god's presence the deceased Chao Kung-ming, where- upon Chiang was led to express regrets for having killed Chao, and to praise the virtues of his life. In the name of the deity
Yiian Shih, he pro- nounced a decree can- onizing Chao Kung- ming and promoting him to the presidency 0 f the Ministry o f Riches. This is the ac- count given in the Feng Shen Yen I. In addition to the family worship of the god of riches many temples have images of him to which incense is offered, especially during the first moon.
The interior of the home {tse) is distin- guished from the ex- terior which is described by the term hu. This interior is also called the chung-Uuy orig- inally the air shaft which afforded light and air to homes ex- cavated in the sides of hills. There are still many people who live in these excavated houses in the hills of Honan, Shansi and Shensi. This air shaft, being in the centre of the house, was the place where the family god was placed and the god himself came to be known by the name of the shaft, Chung-liu. In parts of the country where ordinary houses are constructed of
Fig. 19. Chiang Tzu-ya
DOMESTIC RITES
8i
brick, the usual name for the household god is Tse Shen. I have not been able to find an account of the origin of this cus- tom, although there can be no doubt that it has been observed from the earliest antiquity. This deity has never been asso- ciated with any particular individual.
Another family ceremony, mentioned in the Tso Chuariy is that of those moving into a house offering sacrifice to all persons who had resided at any previous time on the site. It is recognized that previous to their own residence in this particular spot countless gen- erations have lived in the same place. The object of the sacrifice is to show respect to those departed ones who in their day were familiar with this particular spot where the family has come to live.
At the time of birthday celebrations, offerings are pre- sented to the stellar deity, Shou Hsing, god of longevity. The star from which this deity takes his name is iden- tified as Canopus, the second
brightest star in the heavens. When it can be seen, national peace is assured 5 when it is invisible, dire calamities may happen. This deity was worshipped by Shih Huang of the Ch'in dynasty in 246 B.C., according to the records of the Han dynasty. There are also records of the worship of Shou Hsing by Emperors of the T'ang and Ming dynasties. At the present time pictures of him on paper or elaborately embroid-
FiG. 20. Shou Hsing, Nan-chi LAO-JEN God of Longevity
82 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
ered on silk or satin are used on the occasion of birthday cere- monies. He is now represented in human form as an old man with elongated forehead and pointed head, carrying in one hand a crook and in the other a peach, and mounted on a fawn which is turning its head so that it can see the face of its rider. He is often associated with the spirits of happiness and pros- perity, and the three are then known as Fu-shou-lu. He is also called the " Old Man of the Southern Pole " (Nan-chi lao- jen). Longevity is considered by the Chinese as the greatest of all human blessings.
Another domestic deity worshipped by members of the fam- ily who propose to start on a journey is the god of the road, Hsing Shen. The origin of this worship is prehistoric. The son of the fabulous Emperor Huang Ti, was named Lei. He was fond of constant travelling and finally died while on a journey. He was deified as the protector of wayfarers.
Among the Chinese there is no more notable characteristic than the desire for offspring. Pilgrimages are made to temples and prayers are made to deities whose favourable replies are as- sumed to be readily obtainable. The chief object of such wor- ship is the Buddhist deity, Kuan Yin, goddess of mercy. Wor- ship of Kuan Yin began during the period of the Six Dynasties and is now observed in all parts of the country. It was already wide-spread at the time of the foundation of the Sung dynasty in 960 A.D., but this did not prevent an attempt being made to replace this worship of a foreign goddess by that of a Chinese deity. The first Emperor of the Sung dynasty tried to elevate Chang Hsien to the position of the deity to whom prayers for offspring should be addressed, but his efforts were not rewarded with success. There are conflicting tales as to the identity of Chang Hsien. One of these states that his name was mentioned to the Emperor by the Lady Fei who had been taken from being the concubine of Meng Ch'ang, the last ruler of the Shu state of Szechuan, to be the concubine of the first Sung Emperor.
DOMESTIC RITES
83
She had a portrait hanging at the doorway of her apartments which was presumably that of her first husband j but when questioned as to whose portrait it was, this clever woman an- swered that it was that of Chang Hsien, a recluse of the period of the Five Dynasties. Another account states that the por-
FiG. 21. Chang Hsien
trait was one of the founder of the T'ang dynasty, and that Chang Hsien was only a supposititious name given to him by this woman. In a collection of poems called Su Lao-ch^uan Tsi^ it is said that the full name of Chang Hsien is Chang Yuan- hsiao. He was a native of Mei-shan, in Szechuan province, and retired for contemplation as a recluse to the Ch'ing Ch'eng Mountain in the Kuan district, also in Szechuan Province. The author of this poem was himself rewarded for praying to Chang Hsien by the birth of two children. This deity is reputed to
84 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
have taken up his spiritual abode in the Chia Hsien pavilion at Chiung Chow in Szechuan Province. All the references to Chang Hsien connect him with Szechuan Province and he may be considered as a special guardian of this part of China. He is represented as a man of noble bearing carrying a cross-bow and arrows. Above his head are clouds in which are seen the sun and the heavenly dog, reputed to devour the sun at the time of eclipses. In addition to his ability to give children to suppli- ants, he was also able to ward off calamities. He is given the central position in the "All Children's Hall " {Pai-tzu T^ang), but worship of this deity has never been wide-spread. It is a singular example of the failure of an Emperor to supplant the worship in temples of the foreign goddess Kuan Yin by that of a purely indigenous deity who would have been worshipped in the home, and as such it deserves notice. For once Imperial patronage failed to divert the people from an earlier choice.
CHAPTER VIII GREAT NATIONAL HEROES
AMONG the mythical heroes of China none are more pop- ular than those who were immortalized by Ch'u Yiian, 332-295 B.C., in his poem " Falling into Trouble " (Li Sao).
Fig. 22. Ta Ssu Ming
Ch'ii Yiian rose to high office in his native state of Ch'u, but was impeached on trivial grounds and expressed his disap- pointment in this poem. He retired to a quiet life, and finally committed suicide by jumping into a river on the
vm — 7
86
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
fifth day of the fifth moon. In memory of him the people of his district offered sacrifices to him annually on this date and the custom gradually spread until it was transformed into the Fifth Moon Feast, or, as it is often called, the Dragon Festival. The most interesting part of " Falling into Trouble " is the " Nine Songs " in which eleven heroes are
Fig. 23. Hsiao Ssu Ming
celebrated. These eleven are really only nine, for Ssu Ming is divided into two persons, senior and junior, and under Hsiang Chiin the two daughters of Yao, Hsiang Fu-jen, are treated each under a separate heading. If these four headings are combined into two as is usual in literary references, the " Nine Songs " in reality are connected with nine heroes. These were all heroes originally of the State of Ch'u, which is the modern Hupeh (and part of Hunan), but have become national by the
88 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
popularity of this poem. These heroes have not only been made famous in poetry j they have also been painted by famous artists. The " Nine Songs " painted by Li Kung-lin of the Sung dynasty is in the Government Museum at Peking, and is one of "The Four Beautiful Objects" (ssu met chu) of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung. The illustrations of these heroes are
<JS
Fig. 25. YiJN Chung Chun
taken from Li's painting. The following is a short description of each of the nine heroes:
( 1 ) Tung Huang T'ai I was worshipped in the eastern part of Ch'u as the Eastern Emperor.
(2) Yiin Chung Chun is the god of the clouds.
(3) Hsiang Chiin is the god of the waterways of Hsiang (modern Hunan).
(a) Hsiang Fu-jen, the two daughters of Emperor Yao, the older being named Wo Huang and the younger Nii Ying.
GREAT NATIONAL HEROES
89
They became the Empress and Consort of the Emperor Shun. Their graves are reputed to be at Hsiang Shan, an island in the Tung-t'ing lake of Hunan. The Emperor Shih Huang of the Ch'in dynasty is said to have been driven by a strong wind on the island while attempting to cross the lake. He became very angry and ordered all the trees and shrubs on the island to
Fig. 26. Hsiang Chun
be destroyed, thus turning the green hillsides to a dull brown {che ch^i shan).
(4) Ssu Ming is the arbiter of life and death, the assistant of High Heaven in controlling human events, the protector of virtue and enemy of evil. In this elegy Ssu Ming is divided into two beings, one senior and one junior, thus giving rise to the wrong interpretation that the two stellar deities Shang T'ai and Wen Ch'ang are referred to. The division into senior and junior arbiters is probably a poetic licence, in the same way, as
90
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
Hsiang Chiin is separated from Hsiang Fu-jen in this elegy, though they are usually joined together under the one term Hsiang Chiin.
(5) Tung Chiin is the god of the sun rising in the East.
(6) Ho Po is god of the Yellow River, according to the statement of Chuang Tzu. He has the form of a man. This name seems interchangeable with that of the god of the waters,
Fig. 27. Hsiang Fu-jen
Shui Shen, of the god of the fishes, Yii Po, and of two other gods of the waters called Feng I and Shui I. The poem under this heading in these " Nine Songs " refers to a journey made by Ho Po in company with a maiden who fell into the water and was rescued by him and taken to the " fish-scale house " (yil lin wu).
(7) Shan Kuei is a demon of the mountains. Giles, in his Chinese Literature has translated this poem, the first part of
GREAT NATIONAL HEROES 91
which describes the demon as follows: " Methinks there is a genius of the hills, clad in wistaria, girdled with ivy, with smil- ing lips of witching mien, riding on the red pard, wild cats gal- loping in the rear, reclining in a chariot, with banners of cassia, cloaked with the orchid, girt with azalea, culling the perfume of sweet flowers to leave behind a memory in the heart."
Fig. 28. Tung Chun
(8) Kuo Shang, the patriot who died for his country. This patriot, according to the poem, faced a body of enemies " as thick as the dark clouds."
(9) Li Hun, the ceremonialist, is worshipped on account of his perseverance in the correct observation of ceremony even at the cost of his own life.
These nine heroes have been celebrated by many poets since the time of Ch'u Yiian, and the poetical phrases used in de-
92
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
scribing them have been reproduced and reconstructed in num- berless poems. To literary men they are national heroes, but they have never become popular among the common people. They are all mythical characters.
In contrast to these, three historical characters must be men- tioned whose lives contributed in large measure to the belief
Fig. 29. Ho Po
in mystery and magic, although there are few myths told con- cerning these men themselves. The first of the three is Chang Liang. At the close of the short-lived Ch'in dynasty, 209 B.C., two military leaders, Liu Pang and Hsiang Chi, contended for the mastery, and for a long time the latter was uniformly vic- torious. Finally the Kuang Wu terms of peace were negotiated by which the father and wife of Liu Pang were restored to himj but no sooner had they returned than Liu Pang proceeded to break the treaty and again to attack Hsiang Chi, whom he
GREAT NATIONAL HEROES
93
shortly after defeated. Liu Pang thereupon proclaimed him- self Emperor of the Han dynasty which passed into history with many, achievements to its credit. Out of these troublous times emerged the strange person, Chang Liang. He came first into prominence by his attempt to assassinate Shih Huang, the great Ch'in Emperor, at Po Lang Sha, which is Yang-wu Hsien in Honan Province. After this futile attempt he retired
Fig. 30. Shan Kuei
to a hiding place in Kiang-su Province. He joined the service of Liu Pang and it was on his advice that the Kuang Wu peace- terms were broken. When Liu Pang became Emperor he raised Chang Liang to the rank of Marquis, declaring that his success had been mainly due to the wise counsels that had been given by Chang. The Emperor further honoured Chang by making him one of the " Three Heroes " (San Chieh). After these honours had been conferred upon him, Chang renounced
94 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
the world " to follow the example of Ch'ih Sung Tzu " who, according to the hteh Hsien Chuan^ was the arbiter of rain in the period of the legendary Shen Nung. He devoted himself to a study of the doctrines of Huang Ti and Lao Tzu, abstained from food and sought for immortality. It was chiefly due to his example that his descendant of the eighth generation, Chang Tao-ling, devoted himself to the mysteries of alchemy.
Fig. 31. Kuo Shang
Out of the stirring events at the close of the Han dynasty, as a result of which the country was divided into the Three King- doms (San Kuo) of Shu, Wei and Wu, emerges Kuan Yu who later became the god of war. These events are described with further details in Chapter XIV. Kuan Yu was the sworn brother of Liu Pei and followed him during his turbulent career. He was given charge of Hsia-p'i (the modern Hsii
GREAT NATIONAL HEROES
95
Chow, in Kiangsi Province) but during the defeat which Liu Pei suflrered at the hands of Ts'ao Ts'ao, he was captured. Ts'ao Ts'ao treated Kuan Yu with great consideration. This kindly treatment led Kuan Yii to assist Ts'ao Ts'ao when the latter was attacked by Yiian Shao, and with his own hands he slew Yen Liang who was one of Yiian Shao's generals. After this exhibition of his gratitude he sent a respectful letter to Ts'ao Ts'ao resigning his position and again joined the standard of his sworn brother, Liu Pei. He assisted Liu Pei in his campaigns in Central China, and was appointed to the charge of Hsiang Yang and Ching Chow in modern Hupeh Province, where he acquired a great reputation for the benevo- lence of his rule. In the attack made by Sun Ch'iian, founder of the Kingdom of Wu, Kuan Yu was slain. The Emperor Hui Tsung, 1100-1126 A.D., of the Sung dynasty, ennobled Kuan Yii as the Duke of Ch'ung Hui, and his successor, Ch'in Tsung, raised him to the rank of a Prince during the
days when the Sungs were fleeing from K'ai-feng to Hang- chow. The Emperor Wan Li, 1 572-1620 a.d., of the Ming dynasty, deified Kuan Yii, conferring upon him the title of " the patriotic assistant of Heaven and protector of his coun- try " (Hsieh t'ien hu kuo chung i ta ti). During the reign of Ch'ien Lung, 1 736-1 796 a.d., of the Manchu dynasty, this title was abbreviated, but Kuan Yii was further honoured by be- ing made the protector of the dynasty. In 19 14 the Republic ordered that sacrifices should be offered to him in military temples along with Yo Fei.
Fig. 32. Kuan Yu, God of War
96
CHIIESE MYTHOLOGY
During the troublas times that befell the Emperor Hsuan Tsung, 713-756 A.D.of the T'ang dynasty, one of the greatest of China's long list c eminent generals, Kuo Tzu-i, came into prominence. The coTuption of the court which centred around the Empress Yang Kd-f ei resulted in the rebellion of An Lu- shan who for a time esiblished himself as the Emperor Hsiung Wu of the Yen dyisty (in the modern Chihli Province).
Through brilliant campaigns against the rebel, Kuo Tzu-i succeeded in recovering all the territory which had been lost. He fought against the Targuts and the Turfans. For more than twenty years the supreme military power was in his hands and he exercised it with entire loyalty to the dissolute Emperor. He used no favouritism in the selection of his subordinates, and did not al- low his troops to molest the people. The Emperor gave his daughter in marriage to his son. He served during the reigns of these Emper- ors of the T'ang dynasty, by each of whom he was equally honoured and trusted. He died in 781 a.d. at the age of eighty-five. He is said to have been mor than seven feet in height and to have had, therefore, a comiEnding presence. He was ennobled as the Prince of Fen-yan in 763 by the Emperor Tai Tsung and was given the title of Imperial Father " (Shang Fu) by the Emperor Te Tsung. Ps posthumous title was " Patriotic Mili- tarist " (Chung Wu). In modern times he is worshipped in many places as the god f riches. According to the Shen Hsien T'ung Chien the origi of this worship was in a visit paid to
Fig. 33. Kuo Tzu-
^' Wiioim
GREAT NATIONAL lEROES
97
1^1
Kuo Tzul by "The Weaving Damsel Chih Nil), who ap- peared to him as he was about to retir on the night of the seventh day of the seventh moon and s;d: " ^You are the god of riches and of longevity. All kinds f riches and honours attend you."
Another great patriot was Yo Fei, 1 1 ",-i 141 a.d. He rose at the time when the Sung Emperors \^.re. being harassed on the northern boundaries by the Nu-cherfartars. The Tartars became so powerful that finally the Suns were obliged to con- clude with them a humiliating peace, by le terms of which the northern Provinces were ceded to them ad they established the Chin dynasty which reigned 11 15-121 a.d. Yo Fei was a faithful and loyal officer of the Sungs nd finally lost his life on their behalf, being imprisoned and mrdered by the treach- erous Ch'in Kuei. After death he was enobled as a Prince and his tomb on the banks of the Westeri Lake at Hangchow is held in high honour. Since 19 14 his naic has been linked with that of Kuan Yii in military temples, ad sacrifices are offered to his memory throughout the whole contry.
These are only a few of the great heoes of China. Others of equal interest historically might havbeen chosen, but those that have been mentioned have been selcted on account of their prominence either in literature or popu:r tradition.
96
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
During the troublous times that befell the Emperor Hsuan Tsung, 713-756 A.D., of the T'ang dynasty, one of the greatest of China's long list of eminent generals, Kuo Tzu-i, came into prominence. The corruption of the court which centred around the Empress Yang Kuei-fei resulted in the rebellion of An Lu- shan who for a time established himself as the Emperor Hsiung Wu of the Yen dynasty (in the modern Chihli Province).
Through brilliant campaigns against the rebel, Kuo Tzu-i succeeded in recovering all the territory which had been lost. He fought against the Targuts and the Turfans. For more than twenty years the supreme 1/7/1 llr^^^l/ X^ military power was in his hands and IV ' Mil /lHi\>V\ he exercised it with entire loyalty
to the dissolute Emperor. He used no favouritism in the selection of his subordinates, and did not al- low his troops to molest the people. The Emperor gave his daughter in marriage to his son. He served during the reigns of these Emper- ors of the T'ang dynasty, by each of whom he was equally honoured and trusted. He died in 781 a.d. at the age of eighty-five. He is said to have been more than seven feet in height and to have had, therefore, a commanding presence. He was ennobled as the Prince of Fen-yang in 763 by the Emperor Tai Tsung and was given the title of " Imperial Father " (Shang Fu) by the Emperor Te Tsung. His posthumous title was " Patriotic Mili- tarist " (Chung Wu), In modern times he is worshipped in many places as the god of riches. According to the Shen Hsien T^ung Chien the origin of this worship was in a visit paid to
GREAT NATIONAL HEROES 97
Kuo Tzui by "The Weaving Damsel " (Chih Nu), who ap- peared to him as he was about to retire on the night of the seventh day of the seventh moon and said: " ^You are the god of riches and of longevity. All kinds of riches and honours attend you."
Another great patriot was Yo Fei, 1 103-1 141 a.d. He rose at the time when the Sung Emperors were being harassed on the northern boundaries by the Nu-chen Tartars. The Tartars became so powerful that finally the Sungs were obliged to con- clude with them a humiliating peace, by the termiS of which the northern Provinces were ceded to them and they established the Chin dynasty which reigned 11 15-1234 a.d. Yo Fei was a faithful and loyal officer of the Sungs and finally lost his life on their behalf, being imprisoned and murdered by the treach- erous Ch'in Kuei. After death he was ennobled as a Prince and his tomb on the banks of the Western Lake at Hangchow is held in high honour. Since 19 14 his name has been linked with that of Kuan Yii in military temples, and sacrifices are oflFered to his memory throughout the whole country.
These are only a few of the great heroes of China. Others of equal interest historically might have been chosen, but those that have been mentioned have been selected on account of their prominence either in literature or popular tradition.
cHArn R i\
THi: AMMAi ANP \ ix;i TAiua-: woRi ns
A
v'COROlNG to the IJ Ki thcrt arr? four benevolent or
^pintiul ;inur ' - ^ " \:). There are the uukvrn ((.A'f- /i«\ the p.hv.>eai\ v. - .n .>;\ the tortoi5>e l^fwc^"), and the
drx$v>n {lun^). The unicorn i§ at the head of all quadrupeds, the phoenix of all birvi$, the tv>rtoi5>e of all moUuscis and the dragon of all scaly atiimals. There are other atiimals which enter into the myths of China, such as the craue, the fox, the tiger, but these foiur spiritual ones are of greatest importance.
The \.mia>nx i$ said to ha\e the body of a deer, the tail of an ox, and the hoofs of a horse. It has ojte sv.>ft horn grv>\vit\g out of the centre of the head. It is ttve-cv>loured on it^ back, and wllow on its belly. It eat^ no livitxg vegetation and never walks; on green grass. It has a go^xi disposition toward other animals* It is said to appear at the birth of good s»>nereigns or of sages. Any injury intlictevi upon it is a presage of coniing disasten?. Its earliest appearance >\"as in the garden of the Yel- low Fxiiperor, zo^y ij.c. Later two luiicvrrns took up their abode itx F%xg->-ang, the capital city of the Emperor Yao. Still later one appeared to the mother of Confucius before his birth, whereupon she vomited up a jade tablet on which was an in- scription in praise of the future s;ige. Just before the death of Confucius a charioteer injiured a unicorn, thus foretelling the imminence of his death. The male is called c-A^i and the female, Ihty the combination of the two characters beirig used as a generic term.
The phoenix is a m\'sterious but most beautiful bird. Its plumage is a blending of the five colours, and its call is a sweet
S^fe^»;«»;v/.v^^™
THE AJ.;j>^Ai. J::^]J V£X->ETAM>E -',:-''/ yy
: .. . • . - - ■ ■■ . . . .>^
... . .' -^.^^ _ . . , • ...
■ : ■, ■ , - -^rtd sai t^^r^ Ti'anstasi s^ xs3^'
- • •• '-i^t. Liix tltt , • 2i i^d ts* J^T*
•.•■■-•.■--•.••''., " '-, 2»fl 2J,5.i;> disirj^ tie r*%s -.; ■ • ' ; :4 2^^- ' ■ ^ : -
CHAPTER IX THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE WORLDS
ACCORDING to the Li Ki there are four benevolent or spiritual animals (ssu ling). There are the unicorn {ch^i- lin)y the phoenix (feng-huang), the tortoise (kuei), and the dragon (lung). The unicorn is at the head o£ all quadrupeds, the phoenix of all birds, the tortoise of all molluscs, and the dragon of all scaly animals. There are other animals which enter into the myths of China, such as the crane, the fox, the tiger, but these four spiritual ones are of greatest importance.
The unicorn is said to have the body of a deer, the tail of an ox, and the hoofs of a horse. It has one soft horn growing out of the centre of the head. It is five-coloured on its back and yellow on its belly. It eats no living vegetation and never walks on green grass. It has a good disposition toward other animals. It is said to appear at the birth of good sovereigns or of sages. Any injury inflicted upon it is a presage of coming disasters. Its earliest appearance was in the garden of the Yel- low Emperor, 2697 ^-C- Later two unicorns took up their abode in P'ing-yang, the capital city of the Emperor Yao. Still later one appeared to the mother of Confucius before his birth, whereupon she vomited up a jade tablet on which was an in- scription in praise of the future sage. Just before the death of Confucius a charioteer injured a unicorn, thus foretelling the imminence of his death. The male is called ch^i and the female, lin, the combination of the two characters being used as a generic term.
The phoenix is a mysterious but most beautiful bird. Its plumage is a blending of the five colours, and its call is a sweet
THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE WORLDS 99
harmony of the five notes. It had its origin in the sun and rep- resents the active principle, Yang, or nature j or according to another account it was created in the land of the sages. It bathes only in the purest of water which flows from the K'un- lun Mountains, and it passes the night in the cave of Tan. It can raise its beautiful tail to the height of six feet. Wherever
Fig. 34. The Phoenix
it goes all the other three hundred and sixty varieties of birds assemble to pay it homage. Like the unicorn it is said to have appeared at the time of Huang Ti, and also during the reign of the Emperors Shao Hao and Yao, 2597-2514 b.c. Its ap- pearance is an omen of prosperity, and when it goes away the country is visited with calamities. There are many accounts of its appearance to fortunate monarchs, the last of these being at the grave of the father of Hung Wu, founder of the Ming dy-
100 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
nasty, 1368-99 a.d., at Feng-yang in the Province of Anhul. It was considered a favourable sign for this monarch that the name of his birthplace contained the character jeng, one of the two characters which make the name of the phoenix.
The tortoise was associated with divination from the dawn of Chinese history. Its carapace was heated in a strong fire and from the resultant lines or crackles the fates were foretold. This custom was already in vogue in the time of the Yellow Emperor, Huang Ti. The Great Emperor Yu (Ta Yu) saw a tortoise come up out of the Lo River and on its carapace were prophetic ideographs, as already narrated. There are frequent references to the tortoise in the " Book of Rites " {Li Ki) and other classical writings. It has been honoured continuously from antiquity down to our present times. Dore mentions an Imperial Edict issued to the late Li Hung-chang, ordering him to offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving to the tortoise for its protec- tion of the dykes of the Yellow River. In ancient times a large tortoise (yiian kuei) was considered a symbol of the control of the Empire in the same manner as the ownership of the Nine Tripods. It has been joined in literature with the crane as an emblem of longevity. It has also had another symbolic mean- ing, i.e. of the victory of right. In the Kuei She painting there is a death struggle between a tortoise and a snake in which the tortoise is victor. In this painting the tortoise is the symbol of the power of righteousness, and the snake of the power of evil. On account of its propitious nature it is used as a pedestal (kuei- fu) on which tablets are placed. The earliest tablet of this sort of which there is a record known to me, was created during the reign of Ch'un Hua, 990-995 a.d., of the Sung dynasty, and on it were inscribed passages from the " Classic of Filial Piety " {Hsiao King). Marvellous powers are ascribed to the tortoise. In the " Water Classic " {Shut King), it is said that when the tortoise is a thousand years old it can converse with men. In another book it is narrated that during the life of Sun Ch'iian,
THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE WORLDS loi
181-252 A.D., who became the first Emperor of the Wu dy- nasty there was a man living at Yung K'ang in the prefecture of Chin-hua, in Chehkiang Province, who caught a large tor- toise during his wanderings over the hills. As he was carrying it home he was overtaken by darkness and sought refuge in a boat which was tied to a mulberry tree on the bank of a canal. He was startled during the night by hearing the tree speak to the tortoise and say: " Tortoise, you must surely die! " To this the tortoise replied: " This is on account of my having gone out on an unlucky day." The tortoise also uttered prophecies con- cerning the destiny of the newly-founded Wu dynasty, which were afterwards found to be correct. The name of the tortoise is taken in vain when it is used as a term of vilification. No worse term of abuse can be employed than to call another man a tortoise. The generally accepted explanation of this use of the term is that the outcast class {lo hu), who had no legal status, was obliged during the T'ang dynasty to wear a strip of green cloth tied around the head. The degenerate males of this outcast class lived from the earnings of the prostitution of their wives and daughters. This was the very lowest depth of im- morality. As the head of the tortoise is green, it became a symbol of the green-headed outcasts j and to call a person a tor- toise originally meant to put him in the vilest class of human beings, and also to name him as a bastard. This abuse of a word which generally has an honourable meaning is similar to the use in Western countries of the name of the Deity in swearing. In the account of the rites of divination there is a further discussion of the tortoise.
The last of the four spiritual animals is the dragon, though from the viewpoint of antiquity of origin it should be first in this class. It was a dragon-horse which brought the Eight Diagrams to Fu Hsi in 2852 b.c, and a pair of dragons were seen in the river by the Yellow Emperor. Dragons appeared at opportune times when prosperity was foretold. The dragon
vm— 8
102
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
can render itself visible or invisible at pleasure, and it can also change its appearance in colour and in size. In the spring it mounts to the heavens, and in the autumn it seeks refuge in the water. It is the sign and symbol of Imperial authority. Dur- ing the late Manchu dynasty it was held in especial honour, and the five-clawed dragon was adopted as a royal patent. Every- thing used by the Emperor was described in terms of a dragon
Fig. 35.
The Dragon, Lung
— dragon-throne, dragon-clothes, dragon-bed, dragon-boat. The descriptions and pictorial representations of the dragon vary in details. When Mr. Hatch was hunting for a design for the coins to be issued by the national mints, he found nearly one hundred different patterns of the dragon. There are, how- ever, certain characteristics common to all — a bearded head with horns, a scaly body, and claws on the feet. The dragon controls the clouds and rain. It appears in the black clouds
THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE WORLDS 103
which precede a thunder storm, and from the diflFerent shapes which these clouds assume have arisen the various forms of the dragon. A large horse or a very fast one is called a dragon or sometimes a dragon-in-flight {lung fe'i). This term is in frequent use on the signboards of livery stables, and, in recent years, of public garages. The dragon is always, in short, an omen of good fortune.
In addition to these four animals, there are others which have a large place in early myths. The tiger {hu), was
Fig. 36. The Fox
mounted by Chang Tao-ling when he ascended to Heaven, ac- cording to some accounts J others represent him as mounting a dragon. Lao Tzu made his ascent on a cow. The tiger is often painted on portals where it acts as guardian. It is reputed to live to a great old age. The fox {hu li)y is the symbol of cunning, and associates with fairies. The monkey (hou), has control of witches and hobgoblins. The rabbit (/'^), is said to live in the moon where it pounds out the drugs from which the elixir of life is made. The Shan Hai King mentions many curious animals, such as the heavenly dog {t^ien kou)^ which has a white head and the general appearance of a foxj also
104 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
a water-horse {^shui, ma)^ with striped back and the tail of an ox. There are four other animals with names which have sounds similar to the symbolic meaning with which they are connected. An example of this imitative use of words is the word for lion which is shih. As this is also the sound of the word which means teacher, a lion is the suggestive symbol for a teacher. The sound of the character which means deer is lu; it also is that of the character meaning 'promotion, and thus a deer symbolizes promotion. The word for a bat, juy has the same sound as the word for happiness; an eagle, ym, as that for the answer to prayer; and each suggests its appropriate meaning when used pictorially. The crane, hsien hOy is a sym- bol of longevity, and the rooster a guardian against evil influ- ences. Tseng Ts'an, a disciple of Confucius, spared the life of a wounded crane which flew away and later returned with its mate, each of them carrying in its mouth a pearl. These were presented to Tseng Ts'an as a reward for his kindness. Though there are few ancient myths connected with any of these inferior animals which are spoken of in this paragraph, they appear in the fairy-tales which are narrated later in this volume, and it is well to be familiar with their symbolic mean- ing. They are the creations chiefly of the scholars of the T'ang and Sung dynasties, who used the marvellous tales connected with these animals as a means of impressing the com- mon people with the extraordinary quality of the Taoist doc- trine, in the same way as the Buddhist propagandists gained a hearing through accounts of the miraculous powers of their deities.
In the vegetable kingdom several trees are especially hon- oured on account of their supposed magical influence. The peach-tree is a symbol of longevity. It is said that one of these trees {f^an t'ao) grew near the palace of Hsi Wang Mu and that its fruit ripened only once in three thousand years. This fairy mother bestowed the fruit upon the mortals whom
THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE WORLDS 105
she favoured, such as Mu Wang and Wu Ti. Mingled with ashes of the mulberry-tree it could cure disease and confer im- mortality. According to the Feng Su T^ung, in ancient times the two brothers Shu ,Yu (or Shen Shu) and Yii Lei had great power over evil spirits. They hung an amulet on a peach-tree which would frighten all demons. They could also bind evil spirits with reeds and throw them to tigers for food. It is in memory of these two men, who are called " peach men " (T'ao Jen), that reed grass is hung over the door at New Year time and a tiger painted on the door in order to ward off evil influences. The frunus or plum-tree (mei)y is also an emblem of longevity. Lao Tzu is said to have been born under a plum- tree. Both the pine (sung) and the bamboo (cku) art emblems of longevity. The willow is reputed, like reed grass, to be able to ward off evil influences, and is also hung over the door for this purpose. Several shrubs and plants are also used as symbols. The pomegranate (shih liu), and the lotus (lien hua)j on account of the large number of seeds which their fruit contains, are symbolic of offspring, as is also the date- tree, which is used on account of its name, isao tzu. The two characters for date have the same sound as two other characters with the meaning of " bringing offspring into the world." The symbolic meaning attached to these trees and shrubs has been given to them since the rise of Taoism as an organized religion in the T'ang dynasty, and although they are now commonly used with the symbolic meanings just mentioned, there are no ancient myths attached to them. Their symbolism is of comparatively modern origin.
According to the Pen Ts*ao Rang Mu there are many hun- dreds of medicinal herbs in China, and from their ability to use them for curative purposes, several characters famous in Chi- nese lore have arisen. The most popular of these is Yo Wang, the god of medicines. One of the accounts of his life says that he was a hermit who lived during the reign of Hsiian Ti,
io6 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
827—781 B.C., and that he was a pupil of Ch'iu Chen-jSn. He continually wandered about, and one o£ his most famous en- counters was that with Sun Ssu-miao who died in 682 a.d. Sun was a native of Shcnsi and was a precocious child who studied the doctrines of Lao Tzu while still very young. One day Sun saw a shepherd who was beating a serpent. He took off his own clothes and gave them to the shepherd as a price for allowing it to go free. A few days later, while he was wandering in the fields, he saw a horseman dressed in white approaching him. The man dismounted and saluted Sun say- ing: " My father has ordered me to come to you with the re- quest that you will visit him and receive his thanks." He asked Sun to mount his horse, and soon they were in a won- derful city at the gate of a palace. When Sun entered he was met by a nobleman who greeted him with profuse thanks. Shortly after a young woman brought in a child dressed in blue, and said to Sun: " This child of mine went out to play and a shepherd beat him frightfully. You gave your gar- ments as a price for his liberty, and I desire to thank you." This child was the serpent whom Sun had saved a few days before. Sun found that his host was Ching Yang and that the beautiful house was the "Palace of Waters" (Shui Kung). After this incident Sun returned to his quiet house in the mountains where he spent his time in preparing elixirs of immortality and performing miracles. One concoction would give immunity from pestilence if drunk on New Year's Day. Sun is the reputed author of several books on medical subjects. There is another account of the origin of Yo Wang. When Han Ch'i, 1008— 1075 a.d., the great statesman who opposed the agrarian theories of Wang An-shih, was six or seven years of age he was very ill. He suddenly cried out: " There is a Taoist leading a dog who will cure me." Thereupon he broke out in a violent perspiration and was cured. According to the Lieh Hs'ien Chuariy the person who cured him was Chang
THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE WORLDS 107
Shan-chiin, a native of Peking during the reign of the Empress Wu Hou of the T'ang dynasty, 684-705 a.d. He practised the Taoist magical arts and always led around a black dog which was called "Black Dragon" (Wu-lung). According to this account it is Chang who is popularly spoken of as " King
Fig. 37. HuA T'o, The Great Physician
of Medicines" (Yo Wang). The person who is generally credited with having become Yo Wang is Hua T'o, who died in 220 A.D., the physician of Ts'ao Ts'ao. During his life-time he was able to perform many wonderful cures for internal diseases and also many surgical operations. His supernatural power is now besought by worshippers at his shrine.
CHAPTER X
SUPERNATURAL BEINGS
THERE are three grades of supernatural beings. The highest is composed of "The Holy" (Sheng), These are men of extraordinary ability and perfect virtue. The second rank is that of " The Perfect " (Chen Jen). These are
persons who have perfected their knowledge of the Way, or Tao. Their bodies are ethereal, and they are able to fly through the air on the wings of the wind. They pass on the clouds from one world to another and live in the stars. They are superior to all natural laws and are rulers over the Immortals. The third class is " The Im- ^__^ ^ mortals " (Hsien, or Hsien ^^VXl^ Jen). These are the ascetics with old bodies and eternally young spirits. They enjoy perfect health, free from dis- ease and death, and are for- tunate possessors of all kinds of happiness. It is probable that these three grades of super- natural beings are taken from the earlier classical allusion to the three grades of the " Worthy, the Holy and the Heavenly " (Hsien, Sheng, T'ien).
Fig. 38. The Taoist Trinity T'ien Pao, Ling Pao, Shen Pao
SUPERNATURAL BEINGS
109
At the head of the Holy beings are " The Three Purities " (San Ch'ing) who compose the Taoist Trinity. This Trinity is not an imitation of the Buddhist Trinity, but was probably also taken from classical tradition. The Tso Chuan refers to " The Three Venerable Ones " (San Lao, i.e. Kung Lao, Shang Lao, Lung Lao). The Li Ki mentions " The Three Officials "
Fig. 39. Yuan Shih T'ien Tsun
(San Kuan) ; the Sku King speaks of " The Three Notables " (San Kung, i.e. T'ai-shih, T'ai-fu, T'ai-pao)j and there was also the tradition of "The Three Emperors" (San Huang). " The Three Purities " are also frequently interpreted as " The Three Heavens," viz., Yu ("jade"), Shang ("superior"), and T'ai ("highest"). In the Taoist pantheon the "Three Purities " are (i) Yiian Shih T'ien Tsun, the " Eternal," popu- larly known as T'ien Pao, (2) Tao Chiin, chief of all super- natural beings, who is popularly known as Ling Pao, and (3)
no
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
Lao Tzu, who in this connection is popularly spoken of as Shen Pao. The first of these is sovereign of the "Jade Heaven " (Yii Ch'ing) the second is sovereign of the " Supe- rior Heaven " (Shang Ch'ing), and the third is sovereign of the "Highest Heaven" (T'ai Ch'ing). In enumerations of this Taoist Trinity the place of the first Divinity, Yuan Shih,
Fig. 40. Tao Chun
is frequently taken by the Jade Emperor, Yu Huang. With the San Ch'ing are associated " The Four Guardians " (Ssii Wei), otherwise known as "The Four Heavenly Kings" (Ssu T'ien Wang). Though this Trinity of " Three Purities " was an invention of the scholars of the T'ang dynasty, it was not until the Yuan dynasty that the myth assumed its present form.
According to the Shen Hslen T^ung ChleUy the first of the Trinity, Yiian Shih, was a son of the " Great Creator " (P'an Ku). After the work of creation was completed, P'an Ku de-
SUPERNATURAL BEINGS
III
sired to see what he had done. His spirit transported itself on the wings of the wind to Fu Yii Tai where he met " The Holy Woman" (T'ai Yuan), "The Great Original." She was a virgin who had attained the age of eighty years and lived as a recluse on the mountain of Ch'o Wo. She sub- sisted solely on air and clouds, and in her own person com- bined both the active and passive powers of nature. P'an Ku was charmed with her purity and made an oc- casion to enter her body in the form of a pure ray of light. The woman became preg- nant and remained in this condition for twelve years, when she gave birth to Yiian Shih, who was able to walk and talk from the time he was born. A cloud of five colours surrounded his body. The deity Chen Wu is a reincarnation o f Yiian Shih. He is the ruler of the abode of
Fig. 41. Chen Wu
darkness, and his full title is Hsiian T'ien Shang Ti. He is also called " god of the North Pole " (Pei-chi Chen Chun) . While he does not take the place of Yiian Shih in the Trinity, he is given a shrine to himself in large Taoist temples. The second person of the Trinity is said to have been a man who fought for the tyrant Chou Hsin, the last sovereign of the Shang dynasty. He is represented as wearing a red garment richly brocaded, and riding a one-horned monster, k*uei niu. It is recorded in
112
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
the Feng Shen Yen I that he was succoured by Lao Tzii in his unsuccessful warfare, and that he devoted the rest of his life to study and meditation. The third person of the Trinity is the philosopher Lao Tzu, whose ethical teachings are entirely over- looked in the accounts of supernatural powers which were con- ferred upon him by the last Emperors of the Sung dynasty, as well as by all the Emperors of the Yiian dynasty. Among
these tales of Lao Tzii the most popular is that of his journey to the west mounted on a white don- key.
In a class by himself, in- ferior to the Trinity but with great prestige, is Wen Ch'ang, the god of literature, who is supposed to reside in the Great Bear constellation. There are many differing accounts of his earthly life, but the most usually accepted is that he was one Chang Ya- tzii who lived during the Chin dynasty in the third or fourth century a.d. The Emperor Hsuan Tsung, 713-756 a.d., conferred upon him the retrospective title of President of the Board of Rites. Dur- ing the reign of Chen Tsung, 997-1022 a.d., of the Sung dy- nasty. Wen Chiang appeared to the general Lei Yu-chung, who had been appointed to suppress a rebellion, and called himself the " Deity of Tzu-t'ung " (Tzu-t'ung Shen). This name was taken from the tradition that Chang Ya-tzu lived in the Tzu- t'ung district of the Province of Szechuan. During the Yiian
Fig. 42. Wen Ch'ang, God of Literature
SUPERNATURAL BEINGS 113
and Ming dynasties the place of Wen Ch'ang as the god of lit- erature became solidly established. He has a separate shrine in large Taoist temples, and in many places separate temples are built in his honour. In front of his image is a black horse, saddled and bridled, attended by two servants who are called T'ien-lung ("the celestial deaf one"), and Ti-ya ("the earthly mute"). The explanation of the names of these two attendants is that there are great secrets in literature which no one can penetrate even if he be gifted with the greatest intelli- gence. In its deepest meanings literature is deaf to appeals for explanation and is dumb in its attempts to make men under- stand.
The term " Perfect Ones " (Chen Jen) is taken from the philosopher Chuang Tzu (third century b.c), who speaks of Kuan Yin and Lao Tan as " Very Great Perfect Beings " (Po Ta Chen Jen). The same philosopher gives a definition of the word " perfect " {chen) as meaning " thoroughly sincere," {ching ch^en chih chih). During the flourishing periods of Tao- ism several individuals have come to the high state of perfection. The most notable of these " Perfect Ones " are Sun, whose birthday is celebrated on the third day of the first moonj Liu, born on the first day of the second moon; Tu, who ascended to Heaven on the twenty-sixth day of the third moon ; the twins Lang, whose birthday was the twenty-sixth day of the sixth moon, and Hsii Hsiin, 240—374 a.d., of whom the following incidents are related. He was appointed magistrate of Hsuan- yang in Szechuan Province, but did not retain his office for any length of time. He preferred to resume his studies of occult subjects to which he had devoted his youth. Returning to his home at Hung-chow (modern Nanch'ang) in Kiangsi Province, he retired to the mountains. Here he perfected himself in the occult arts as taught by Wu Meng, by means of which he was able to do much good to the people of the neighbourhood. He slew dragons and caused water to gush from a rock. At the
114 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
age of one hundred and thirty-four, he gathered his family of forty-two souls together and with them all was translated to Heaven. He is known as Hsii Chen-jen.
" The Immortals " (Hsien) are the most interesting of the three classes of spiritual beings. Two different Chinese char- acters are used for the word " Hsien," one with the meaning of "a mountain-man " and the other with the meaning of "a frolicking capering being." These Immortals or Fairies are primarily persons who retire to the mountains for study and meditation. The ideograph Hsien, meaning " mountain- man," is not found in any books written previous to the Han dynasty, and it is probable that it was invented during the reign of the Emperor Shih Huang of the Ch'in dynasty who was a devoted patron of the magical arts. The Immortals have the appearance of human beings and wear ordinary clothes. They live to a good old age, and when they die their material body is scattered and the soul rises into the immortal ether. Other accounts of them say that their bodies never grow old, and that after a thousand years they have still the appearance of youth. They have fixed abodes in the known universe, but are able to move about from place to place at pleasure.
There are two official abodes of the Fairies. The one for male Fairies is called Tung-hua. This is under the control of Tung Wang. His disciples are called " Gentlemen of the Wood " (Mu Kung). The fairyland for females is Hsi-hua, and it is under the control of Hsi Wang Mu. Other places of residence are spoken of as the " Nine Palaces " (Chiu Kung), or as the " Mountains of the Immortals," (Hsien Shan), or as the "Territory of the Immortals," (Hsien Ching), where everything is obscure and quiet, and where there is no disturbance by the surrounding earth or air, or as Tung Fu. Another abode is stated to be Chiu I, a mountain which, according to the " Water Classic," has nine peaks, the second of which is Hsien T'an, " The Altar of the Fairies." The most
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delightful abode of the Immortals is, however, " The Three Isles of the Blest " (San Hsien Shan). These three " Island Mountains " are P'eng-lai, Fang-chang and Ying-chou. These islands were supposed to be in the Eastern Sea, and it was to them that the Emperor Shih Huang of the Ch'in dynasty, on the advice of An-ch'i, sent a sea-expedition to secure
Fig. 43. Tung Wang Kung and Hsi Wang Mu
from them the plant of immortality. The expedition was led by Hsii Shih and Lu Sheng. It is said that the Emperor sent in his ships three thousand youths and maidens, together with all manner of seed grain and skilful artisans. The ships were all lost in a fierce storm. These Isles are frequently spoken of as part of the "Happy Land" (Fu-ti). The " Huai-nan Wang " song tells of the abode of the King of Huai-nan in these Isles of the Blest, where he lived as a
ii6 CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
companion of the Eight Immortals. This is a ballad of great popularity.
There are two rulers among the Immortals. The first of these is the Fairy Queen, Hsi Wang Mu, who reigns over all female genii, and with her