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Notes on ew Testament Grammar

BURTON

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Notes on New Testament Grammar

BY ERNEST DEWITT BURTON

PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT LITERATURE AND INTERPRETATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

REVISED EDITION

WITHDRAWN FROM UNIVERSITY OF REDLANDS LIBRARY

CHICAGO

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 1904

8-

PREFATORY NOTE

The following pages have been prepared and printed for the use of classes entering, with a knowledge of classical Greek, upon the study of the Greek of the New Testament. They are not intended to enable the student to dispense with the published Grammars, but aim simply to emphasize, by thus singling them out, certain points to which experience has shown it is desirable for the student to give special attention at the beginning of his study of New Testament Greek. The only proportion observed is that suggested by practical needs. The relatively full treatment of the article, for example, finds its occasion in the unsatisfactory treatment of this subject in the Grammars and the necessity of some knowledge of it as a basis for New Testament interpretation. Under the syntax of the verb only Voice is treated of, with the thought that those who use this pamphlet will probably have access to the author's work on the Moods and Tenses in New Testament Greek.

CONTENTS

PAGE

A. HISTORICAL RELATION OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

TO CLASSICAL GREEK - - n

B. NEW TESTAMENT FORMS 17

C. NEW TESTAMENT SYNTAX - 22

LIST OF WORKS AND AUTHORS REFERRED TO BY ABBREVIATION

B, = Alexander Buttmann, A Grammar of -the New Testament Greek.

Translated by J. H. Thayer. Andover, 1873. j?.MT.= Ernest DeWitt Burton, Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in

New Testament Greek. Chicago, 1893. BL= F. Blass, Grammar of New Testament Greek. Translated by Henry

St. John Thackeray. Macmillan & Co., 1898.

G.= W. W. Goodwin, A Greek Grammar. Revised edition. Boston, 1892. HA. — James Hadley, A Greek Grammar for Schoolsand Colleges. Revised

by F. D. Allen. New York, 1884. WM.— G. B. Winer, A Treatise on the Grammar of New Testament Greek.

Translated by W. F. Moulton. Third edition. Edinburgh, 1882. IVS.= G, B. Winer, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms.

Achte Auflage, neubearbeitet von Paul Wilh. Schmiedel. Gottingen,

1894 — (in process of publication).

W.= Winer, the above-named work in various editions. WH.— Westcott & Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek, the

text revised by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort. Two volumes.

Cambridge and New York, 1881. Ttsc/i.= Constantius Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum Graece. Eighth

edition. Two volumes. Leipzig, 1869-72. Greg.= Caspar Rene Gregory, Prolegomena to the above. Three parts.

Leipzig, 1884—94. T/i.=J. H. Thayer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament.

Being Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testament}, translated, revised,

and enlarged. New York, 1886.

A. HISTORICAL RELATION OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK TO CLASSICAL GREEK

1. THE PRE-ARISTOTELIAN DIALECTS. — The classical stu- dent is familiar with the fact that between the eighth and the fourth century B. C. the Greek language was written and spoken in various dialects usually distinguished as ^Eolic (Alcceus and Sappho, 600 B. C.), Doric (Pindar, 470 B. C. ; Theocritus, 270 B. C.), Old Ionic or Epic (Homer and Hesiod, before 700 B. C.), New Ionic (Herodotus and Hippocrates, fifth century B. C.), and Attic (Xenophon, Plato, etal.). See Introduction to HA. and to G. For a different classification see Brvgmann, Griechische Grammatik, pp. 16-21 ; Jannans, Historical Greek Grammar, pp. i, 2.

In the days of Alexander the Great the Attic had become the prevalent dialect, though the others had not wholly ceased to be used. From this point we may conveniently trace the rise of the later Greek dialects and idioms, as distinguished from the earlier classical dialects mentioned above.

2. THE COMMON DIALECT. — As the Attic Dialect became, partly as the result of the conquest made by Alexander, more widely prevalent, it suffered a consequent modification by the introduction of elements from the other dialects and of pro- vincialisms. This modified form of the Attic, dating from about the time of Aristotle (384-321 B. C.; cf. Alexander's date, 356-323), is known as 17 KOLVTJ SiaAeK-ros, the Common Dia- lect. It is also sometimes spoken of as Hellenic Greek; also Later, or Post-Aristotelian, Greek ; see Th., Appendix ; and by Deissmann, Thumb, and Blass is called Hellenistic Greek; see § 4, Remark. Aristotle marks the transition from Attic to Common Greek. Polybius, 140 B. C.; Strabo, i A. D.; Plutarch, TOO A. D., are writers of the Common Dialect, as

ii

iz NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

also Arrian, Dio Cassius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Lucian.

REMARK. — Some writers apply the term "Common Dialect" and KOiv-f] only to the common literary language of the Post-Aristotelian period, excluding, on the one side, the colloquial speech and, on the other, the language of those writers who endeavored to reproduce the Attic of the classic period. So, for example, Winer-Schmiedel and Kennedy. Accord- ing to this usage, Arrian, JDionysius of Halicarnassus, Lucian, and perhaps Dio Cassius should be called "Atticists" rather than writers of the KOIVT?/. The term is employed in these pages, however, in its broader sense, as denoting the Greek of the post-Aristotelian period, whether written or spoken, and whether used with or without effort to conserve the niceties of the Attic speech. See Deissmann in Hmick, Kealencyclopadie, Vol. VII, p. 630.

3. THE ALEXANDRIAN DIALECT.— Of the more or less dis- tinct types of the Koivrj used in various parts of the Greek- speaking world, none is of more importance for the student of the Greek of the New Testament than that used in Alexandria. Of this dialect in its colloquial form there have been preserved to us various fragmentary remains, such as the Rosetta Stone, and the Egyptian Papyri, of which so many have been discov- ered in recent years. (See WS., § 3, i, f.n. 5.) Of the Alex- andrian literary style, as it was written by cultured Hellenists, 2, 3, 4 Maccabees, though of Jewish authorship, are said by Swete (Int. to O. T. in Greek, p. 312) to be pure examples.

REMARK. — Winer, Swete, and Kennedy, use the term "Alexandrian Dialect "of the colloquial Greek of Alexandria. Deissmann uses the term " Egypto- Alexandrian " or " Egyptian" of the Greek written or spoken in Alexandria and other parts of Egypt. The fact of local peculiarities of the language is sometimes ignored and the name '* Alexandrian " given to the entire language which is here called the Common Dialect. So, <?. g., by Schaff. The term "Alexandrian," as used above, includes both the literary and spoken language.

4. THE GREEK USED BY GREEK-SPEAKING JEWS IN NEW TESTAMENT TIMES. — Broadly speaking, this was the KOLVYJ. Yet,

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 13

since the Jews learned Greek chiefly as a spoken language, those who made use of it for purposes of writing probably employed for the most part the colloquial rather than the liter- ary language. And as they learned it in various places, each doubtless represents the particular type or dialect current in the community from which he came. How greatly the various colloquial forms of the Common Dialect differed from one another, the evidence is insufficient fully to indicate. The Alexandrian influence is that which through the Septuagint (cf. § 5) was of most importance and of which we know most.

Writers like Josephus and Philo, who wrote a literary Greek nearly or quite as free from colloquial influence as their non-Jewish contemporaries, were enabled to do so by a knowledge of Greek literature probably quite exceptional among Jews.

REMARK. — Because Greek-speaking Jews were called Hellenists, it has been common to speak of their language as Hellenistic Greek. So IV., WS., Kennedy et al. Deissmann, however, maintains that alike the general similarity of the language of Jewish and non-Jewish writers of the same region and the variation of the Jewish writers among themselves forbid the predication of a Jewish-Greek idiom at once somewhat homogeneous and distinct from the Greek of other contemporary writers. Thumb, while recognizing that the verb eXXyvifav originally referred to the Greek of foreigners, and the noun 'E\\rjvi<TTris to the Greek-speaking Jews, yet regards all Late Greek as so far homogeneous that he includes under the one word " Hellenism " all the literary activity of that period in which the culture of the world was becoming or was Greek, and employs " Hellenistic " as synonymous with KOLV-T). Deissmann and Blass also use the term in the same sense. Amid this diversity in the usage of terms the facts to be noted are, on the one side, that the present tendency of investigation is to show that some usages once regarded as Hebraisms are in reality idioms of the Koivr/, and that the erection of Jewish-Greek into a distinct idiom probably exag- gerates the differentiation of the Greek written by Jews from that of their contemporaries; and, on the other hand, that most Jewish writers were affected by influences that did not to the same extent affect non-Jewish writers.

i4 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

5. THE GREEK OF THE SEPTUAGINT. — The Greek transla- tion of the Old Testament commonly known as the Septuagint was made at Alexandria, the translators employing the Alex- andrian dialect, but carrying over from the Hebrew many peculiarities of that language which would not have appeared in a work composed originally in Greek. This version, though not truly representing a living language or dialect, yet undoubtedly exercised in turn an influence, especially in the use of religious terms, upon the Greek used by subsequent Jewish writers.

REMARK. — The difference between the Greek of a translation from the Hebrew and the Greek used by one writing at first hand in Greek is illus- trated by comparing I and 2 Maccabees — the former a translation of a Hebrew work, the latter composed in Greek ; and still more strikingly by comparing the Prologue to the Book of Sirach with the body of the work, since in this case the same writer who translates the body of the book writes the Prologue in .Greek of his own composing.

6. THE GREEK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT WRITERS. — This again is, broadly speaking, the Koivrj. Yet respecting it four facts should be borne in mind. First, like the Greek of Greek- speaking Jews, it represents for the most part the colloquial rather than the literary language. Secondly, the various writers of the New Testament, acquiring their knowledge of Greek in different lands, and subject in varying degrees to the influences tending to modify the Common Dialect, differ not a little from one another. Thirdly, all the books of the New Testament are affected by the Old Testament, predominantly through the Septuagint, though some at least of the New Testament writers also knew Hebrew. The Semitic influence thus affecting the New Testament books is manifest in different degrees and forms in the different writers. Fourthly, the vocabulary of all New Testament writers is affected to some extent by the distinctly Christian ideas which they held and

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 15

sought to express, this influence appearing chiefly in the meaning which certain religious terms bear.

7. The Latinisms of the New Testament writers are not due to the special influences to which these writers were subject either as Jews or as Christians, nor, probably, to the KO(.VT\ in its literary form, being rather a reflection of the influence of the Roman dominion upon the colloquial speech of the empire. Of the nearly thirty Latin words that occur in the New Testament, none occur in the Septuagint, and but two have been pointed out in Polyb- ius. Plutarch uses Latin words more frequently than Polybius, but for the most part not those employed in the New Testament.

8. A comparison of the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Synoptic Gos- pels will illustrate the extent and character of the differences that exist among New Testament writers, all of whom are subject in some way to Semitic influence. The former, though affirmed by tradition to have been written originally in Aramaic and afterward translated into Greek, in fact gives clear evidence of having been written originally in Greek by an author who possessed a cpmmand of literary Greek exceptional among New Testa- ment writers, and who evinces both by his vocabulary and by his quotations a familiar acquaintance with the Septuagint, but little or no influence of the Aramaic or Hebrew. Wherever written, the book evidently in no small measure reflects Alexandrian influence. The Synoptic Gospels, on the other hand, show a considerable Aramaic influence, which is suggestive of con- nection with Palestine ; the precise nature of this connection does not call for discussion at this point.

9. If the Greek of the New Testament writers is compared with the Attic Greek of Plato or Xenophon, for example, it is possible theoretically to classify the varying elements by which the former is differentiated from the latter as (a) Common, this term covering the characteristics which distinguish Later Greek in general from that of the pre-Aristotelian period ; (b] Alex- andrian, to which might perhaps be added other local idioms, if we possessed the means of identifying them; (c] Semitic, including Hebrew and Aramaic; (d] Septuagint, which is itself a compound of Hebrew and Alexandrian ; (e) Latin.

In practice, however, it is impossible perfectly to carry out such an analysis. A grammar of the Alexandrian Dialect, as distinguished from the Common, has not been produced and is perhaps impossible for lack of sufficient data. Even of the Common Dialect no complete Grammar has been published. Upon the usages of the Septuagint much work has been done, but no complete treatise as yet exists. The work of distinguishing

1 6 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

the Semitic elements of the New Testament language from those which are Common or Alexandrian is still in progress.

LITERATURE.— See j9/.,§ 2; £.,p. i; W.,§§II-IV (*FS.,§§ 2-4); HA., Introd.; G., Introd. ; Simcox, The Language of the New Testament ; Sophocles, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods, Introd.; Ken- nedy, Sources of New Testament Greek ; Immer, Hermeneutics of the New Testament (Eng. Tr.), pp. 124 ff . ; Westcott, art. "New Testament," IV, in Smith, Diet. Bib. ; Donaldson, art. " Greek Language," in Kitto, Cyclo- pedia of Biblical Literature ; Schaff, Companion to the Greek Testament and Revised Version, pp. 19-80; Thayer, art. "Language of the New Tes- tament," in Hastings, Diet. Bib. ; Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalterdes Hellenismus, especially chap. 5; Za/m,"Die griechische Sprache unter den Juden" in Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 2d ed., I, pp. 24-51; Viteau, Syntaxe des Propositions : Le Verbe, pp. iii-lxi ; Deisstnann, Bible Studies (Eng. tr.),pp. 63-85 ; Deissmann, Art. " Hellenistisches Griechisch," in Hauck, Realencyclopadie, 3d ed., Vol. VII; Ramsay, "Greek of the Early Church and Pagan Ritual," Expository Times, Vol. X ; /. H. Moid- ton, "New Lights on Biblical Greek," in Biblical World, Vol. XIX, pp. 190-96 ; Jannaris, Historical Greek Grammar, pp. 1-20.

B. NEW TESTAMENT FORMS

10. The following sections do not undertake even an approximately complete presentation of the facts respecting the peculiarities of New Testament forms, but aim only to call attention in a general way to some of the more important facts. For fuller information the student should consult the lexicons and grammars, especially WS., §§ 5-16, pp. 31-44, and Th. under particular words.

WRITING AND SOUND (B., pp. 5-11 ; W., §§ V-VIl; BL, §§ 3-6)

11. In all the matters pertaining to the alphabet, contrac- tion, elision, accent, etc., the rules given in the classical gram mars hold also in general respecting the Greek of the New Testament. The MSS. of the New Testament, however, like those of Greek authors, exhibit no little variation, and the editor of the New Testament text must often make choice among conflicting authorities. The following points may be mentioned :

12. Through the influence of Itacism, /. e.t the practice of giving the sound of iota (i) to rj and v and to the diphthongs ei, y, 01 and vt, the MSS. of the New Testament exhibit various interchanges of vowels, of which one of the most frequent is that of ei and t. See, e. g., ctSea for tSe'a, Matt. 28 : 3.

13. Respecting terminal letters the usual Greek rules hold except in the case of foreign names introduced without assimi- lation. Cf. § 22.

14. MSS. and editors vary greatly respecting the addition of v movable. Tisch., following the usual practice of the

• MSS., generally retains it before both vowels and consonants, but occasionally omits it before a consonant on MS. authority, in nearly all the latter cases following the reading of a group

17

1 8 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

including J$- See Greg., Part I, pp. 97 /. WH. omit it wherever the omission is vouched for by either Codex Sinaiti- cus (Jfc) or Vaticanus (B), supported by either Codex Alexan- drinus (A) or Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (C).

Nearly the same statement may be made respecting the s of OUTCDS. Mexpts and a^pis, on the other hand, generally con- form to the usual rule.

15. *Ev€Ka occurs before a consonant only : CI/CKO/ and tiveKtv stand before either a vowel or a consonant. See B., p. 10, and ff. BL, p. 20.

1 6. Most words which in earlier Attic were written with o-<r, in later Attic with TT, have in the New Testament era-.

The combination pp is used interchangeably with pa:

17. Rough mutes are found standing before words which, in classical Greek at least, usually had a smooth breathing. See e. g., Rom. 8 : 20, e<£ cA.7ri8i, which Tisch. writes e<£' Airi'St, but WH., €<£' cAirt'Si; Phil. 2 : 23, d<£ioV See B., p. 7; BL p. 15.

The MSS. frequently give 00 instead of r6 which the gram- marians prescribe. Later editors incline to follow the MSS.

1 8. The rule that "v before a labial becomes /x, before a palatal becomes y-nasal, before A, p is assimilated, before or is dropped," is not followed at all uniformly in MSS. of the New Testament in words compounded with o-w and h. Such forms as (rvvoT/xxTiw'nygj crvvKaXeu), etc., are found in the MSS. and adopted by recent editors. Cases of assimilation, however, as in o-vXXa/x/?avw, also occur.

19. Crasis and elision occur in the New Testament, but much less frequently than in the MSS. of classical writers.

20. The whole matter of punctuation, breathing, and accentuation, including accent of enclitics and proclitics, is one of editorship rather than of manuscript authority, since the oldest MSS. are written without accents. Modern critics follow in general the rules of the ancient grammarians. See detailed discussion in W., §§ VI, VII ; BL, pp. 13-17.

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 19

DECLENSION OF NOUNS (A, pp. 11-25; W., §§VIII, IX ; Bl., §§ 7-10)

21. There is no dual number in the New Testament.

22. Foreign proper names which on being transferred into Greek undergo no change of form are not declined, e. g., 'lept^w (Matt. 20:29; Mark 10:46), Bcvta/xiV (Acts 13:21). See other examples, B., pp. 15-19. Those which on being transferred into Greek change their form are declined accord- ing to Greek analogy, e. g., 2tS<ov, SiSwvos ; ^At^, S^AIKOS. Some nouns have both a declinable and indeclinable form : thus Mapia/x, or Mapt'a, Mapt'as. The declension of Mcovcn/s is as follows : N. Mwucnjs, G. Mtouo-etoSj D. Mcovtret or M<ou<ny, A. Mtovcrea or Mcovtri/v. See Bl., p. 29.

23. Some foreign names ending in -as, -T/S, -cos, -ovs are declined according to a special declension called the weak or mixed declension. The following is the table of terminations as given by B., p. 19 :

N.	as	775	cos	ovs
G.	a	77	(0	ov
D.	a	V	<i>	ov
A.	ov	r)V	cov	ovv
V.	a	V	CO	ov

Examples in as are especially numerous, 'l^o-ovs is the only instance in ous. See also BL, p. 31.

24. Jewish names of festivals usually have the plural form ; e.g., TO. a£vfj.a (Mark 14 : i). The word crdpfiaTov is used in both numbers with the sense of the singular. The usual dative plural is o-a^acrtv, as if from the third declension. B., pp. 23, 24.

25. Some words fluctuate between the masculine and neuter genders or between different declensions. This is called meta- plasm. See BL, p. 28, and WS., § 8: 12.

20 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS (B., pp. 31, 32 ; ^/.,§I3)

26. The simple personal pronoun of the third person singu- lar and plural, ov, ol, etc., does not occur in the New Testament.

27. The interrogative pronoun Trorepos does not occur in the New Testament, n's being used instead.

CONJUGATION OF VERBS (B.t pp. 32-53; W., §§XII-XV; Bl.t §§ 14-23)

28. The syllabic augment of the pluperfect is usually omitted. Thus, TreTrotTJ/ceio-ai/, Mark 15:7; cf. 15 : 10.

29. Double augmentation in compound verbs occurs in the New Testament as in other Greek writers. Thus, aTreKareoTatfr;, Mark 3:5; ^vew'x^o-av, John 9:10 (cf. Luke i : 64).

30. McAAa> and Swa/xat frequently have the augment rj as in late Attic writers. See Mark 6 : 19 ; John 4 : 47.

31. Instances of a second aorist with a are not infrequent; e.g., ijAtfa/xei/ (Acts 21:8), efSav (Matt. 13 : 17), evpa/xo/og (Heb. 9:12), etc. These forms are sometimes called Alexandrian aorists. They are, however, entirely similar to the forms yjveyKa and el?™ used by Attic writers. Regular second aorist forms from the same stems occur side by side with the " Alexandrian " forms. WS.j § 13: 13.

A similarly formed imperfect of the verb *x<a> (^xav) occurs in a few passages. See Mark 8:7. See JBL, p. 46 ; WS., §13:13.

32. The termination -o-av instead of -v for the third person plural, which occurs frequently in the Septuagint in second aorist forms, occurs in the New Testament very rarely. See 2 Thess. 3:6, WH., marg. In John 15:22, 24, occurs the imperfect form et'xoo-ai/, these two instances being quite without parallel elsewhere.

33. The third person plural of the perfect indicative active sometimes ends in -av instead of -ao-t. See John 17:7, eyvw/cav.

34. Several verbs which in classical Greek are of the

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 21

/mi-inflection have forms of the w-inflection in use in the New Testament side by side with the regular /u-forms. In some instances the stem is at the same time modified, in others it remains unchanged. Hence arise such forms as UTTCU/W, Sei/o/uets, o/xfueiv, 81801, Sot (the two latter not opt., but subj., as if from 8iS6a>), and yvol (subj.). Peculiarly complex are the various forms of ?»7/zi. See B., pp. 45-51 ; BL, pp. 48-52.

C. NEW TESTAMENT SYNTAX THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF NEW TESTAMENT SYNTAX

35. What has already been said in general about the language of the New Testament writers applies also to the Syntax. Broadly speaking, the writers of the New Testament follow the syntactical usages of the Koivrj, but in syntax as in other respects are affected to a certain extent by those special influences already named to which they were in varying degrees subject. Cf. §§ 6-9. The divergence of their lan- guage from that of classical writers in respect to syntax is greater than in reference to forms of words, and less than in respect to the meanings of words, both the Jewish and the Christian influence affecting more deeply the meanings of words than either their form or their syntactical employment. As respects the variations of New Testament writers among themselves, this is probably greater in syntax than in any other respect. Yet in the great majority of syntactical usages they agree, and the student of syntax finds no difficulty in framing statements of New Testament usage in general, which only occasionally require qualifying statements covering the usage of particular writers.

REMARK. — It should be clearly recognized that departure from clas- sical standards does not imply capriciousness or lack of established usage. Late Greek is not classical Greek, as the Greek of Plato is not that of Homer. But Late Greek in general, and New Testament Greek in particu- lar, have recognized usages which are as reducible to definite statement as those of Plato or Homer.

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 23

SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE GENERAL RULES

36. The use of the article and the effect of its omission are substantially the same in the New Testament as in classical Greek.

a) The article is in general either (i) Restrictive (demon- strative), or (2) Generic.

b} Nouns without the article are either (i) Indefinite, or (2) Qualitative (adjectival).

COMMON NOUNS

37. With common and class nouns the restrictive article may designate the object which it denotes, as

a) Identified by the context (Mark 2 : 5), or I)) The well-known bearer of the name, the one to whom it belongs by pre-eminence (John 15 : 26).

REMARK. — It should be distinctly observed that the article does not itself identify the object referred to, but only indicates that the noun refers to a person or thing which is identified by the context or otherwise. A noun which, even with the article, itself identifies its object is virtually a proper noun.

38. With common and class nouns the generic article may designate,

a) The whole class conceived of as a unity (Mark 2 127), or

b) Any member whatever of the class (Acts 10 : 35).

39. Common nouns without the article are either

a) Indefinite, when the word designates the object as belonging to the class indicated (i Cor. 9: i, aTrooroXos ) , or

b) Qualitative, when it characterizes the object as possessing the attributes denoted by the noun (Eph. 5 : 23).

REMARK i. — The indefinite force always involves the qualitative more or less distinctly, since to assign an object to a class is to attribute to it the qualities which are the mark of the class. The qualitative force, on the

24 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

other hand, does not necessarily involve the indefinite, since the qualities denoted by a noun may be attributed to an object without thought of any other members of the class, or even when there are no other members.

REMARK 2. — A noun in the predicate, since in the nature of the case it is commonly indefinite or qualitative, is most frequently without the article. This is probably all the truth there is in the rule that predicate nouns do not take the article. A noun in the predicate referring specifically to an individual as such takes the article. Mark 8:29; John 3 : 10; 9:20.

PROPER NAMES

40. With proper names the article is always restrictive, the generic use being in the nature of the case impossible.

41. With names of persons the article designates the per- son as

a) The person of this name indicated in the context, espe- cially if previously named (Gal. 3:8; cf. vs. 7), or

I)} The well-known person of this name (John 9 : 28).

42. In general, a personal name without the article simply names the person as one bearing that name. Yet since a per- sonal name is itself relatively definite, the article is much more easily omitted than in the case of a common noun. Whether it shall be used or omitted is often a matter of choice on grounds slight in themselves and difficult to detect. In case of inde- clinable names the necessity of marking the case is sometimes influential.

43. Names of countries, islands, and rivers, being in most cases originally adjective in character, commonly have the article. Names of cities usually omit it. Yet individual terms have to some extent their own usage.

APPELLATIVES

44. The article with appellatives approximating to proper names, such as 0cos, *upios, xpto-rog, etc., is usually restrictive, designating the well-known bearer of the title. The title is

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 25

used either in a purely official sense, not conveying in itself any implication as to the personal identity of the bearer of the name (Matt. 2:4; 22 : 42); or with tacit implication respecting personal identity (Matt. 11:2); or finally almost as a personal name, the appellative force being lost sight of or receding into the background (i Cor. 1:13).

45. Appellatives without the article are

a) Indefinite, marking the person as belonging to the class denoted by the noun (i Cor. 8 15), or

^) Qualitative, attributing to the person referred to the attributes, relations, etc., which the name expresses (Rom. 10:9), or

c] Definite, after the analogy of true proper names. Thus Ku'ptos, standing as the equivalent of the Old Testament Jehovah, is usually without the article in all constructions ; and X/OKTTOS often occurs without the article as a name for Jesus. But in this matter the usage of every such word must be determined for itself.

REMARK. — In compound appellatives, i. <?., appellatives consisting of a noun limited by another noun, it is usually the case that both nouns have the article or both omit it (Mark 2 : 28 ; John 5 : 27 ; Rom.i : 4 ; Mark 3:11).

ABSTRACT AND VERBAL NOUNS

46. With abstract and verbal nouns the restrictive article may be used to designate the quality or action, as

a] The instance identified by the context (Gal. 5 : 13), or

b) The pre-eminent and well-known instance (Rom. 9:4).

47. With abstract and verbal nouns the generic article makes the noun refer to the quality or action as such (i Cor. 13:4; Rom. 5 : 12).

48. Abstract and verbal nouns without the article may be a) Indefinite, when the word designates the act or quality

referred to as belonging to the class of acts or qualities denoted by the noun (i John 5:16, afJLapriav, a/xaprta; Rom.

26 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

8:240). Verbal nouns in the plural without the article are always indefinite.

<£) Qualitative, when they merely characterize that which is referred to as having the quality denoted by the noun (Matt. 21:32; Rom. 8: 24^).

NOUNS IN FIXED PHRASES

49. In general phrases and standing formulas, especially in those consisting of a preposition and its object, the article is frequently omitted, even when the noun is quite definite in its reference, and in many other cases where fhe noun, though in reality indefinite, requires the definite article in English. The usage of each word and phrase, however, requires to be separately determined. (Luke 13:29; Matt. 27:45; Luke 11:50; Acts 5:41-)

POSITION

50. The classical rule that when the article and an attribu- tive belong together to a substantive, the attributive always stands in attributive position, /. e., between the article and noun, or after the article following the noun, holds good in the New Testament when the attributive is an adjective or par- ticiple. Thus TO ayioi/ Trvev/xa, or TO Trvev/xa TO aytov.

But when the attributive is a preposition and its object, or an adverb, it may stand either in attributive or (as occasionally in classical writers) in predicative position. Thus 6 Seoyuos ei/

When the attributive is a genitive, it may, as in classical writers, stand in either position. Cf. § 54, e), and B. MT. 427.

THE ARTICLE AS DEMONSTRATIVE

51. The article is used as a demonstrative in the New Testament only in the phrases 6 fteV, 6 8e, and in these only in the four forms 6, 17, oi, at. Elsewhere, /. e., in the neuter nomi-

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 27

native and in all the oblique cases, the forms of the relative take the place of the article. Thus we have o> 8e, oV 8e, ov? 8c, instead of roJ Se, rov Se, TOVS 8e. Even in the nominative os sometimes appears. This use of the relative pronoun is found as early as Demosthenes, but only in oblique cases. HA., 654, d.

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS (#., pp. 103-21; W., §§ XXI-XXV)

52. The pronoun euro's is of very frequent occurrence in the New Testament. It has four uses:

a) As in classical Greek, preceded by the article and mean- ing "the same": 6 airros Kv'pios, the same Lord.

b) As in classical Greek, in predicative position, as an in- tensive, meaning "self": cdrros 6 /cvptos, the Lord himself.

In pnrases of time Luke uses avro? before the article with nearly the force of a slightly emphatic eVetvo? or OVTOS. Luke 2:38, avrfj rfj a>pa, at that very hour. See also Luke 10:21; Acts 16:18; cf. Th., s. v. I. 2, c.

f) As a simple personal pronoun. This also is classical usage, but is extended in the New Testament in two directions. First, it occurs not only in oblique cases, as in classical writers, but also in the nominative, where classical Greek would use OUTOS or o8e, or would omit the pronoun altogether (Mark 8: 29; Luke 1:22; £., p. 107. Contra, IV., § XXII, 4 (£), Rem.). Secondly, the redundant use of the pronoun, repeating what has already been expressed by a noun, pronoun, or phrase, is more common than in classical writers, doubtless under the influence of the Hebrew idiom (Matt. 8:23; 25:29; Mark 1:7; Rev. 2:7; cf. W., §XXII, 4).

d) As equivalent to the reflexive. In the New Testament this usage is more frequent than in classical Greek (Matt. 1:21; Mark 3:9; Luke 9:24, and very often).

53. Reflexive Pronouns.

a] Reflexive pronouns, when used, conform to classical usage. But simple personal pronouns are often used instead

28 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

of the reflexives. This occurs in classical Greek, but not so frequently as in the New Testament. Cf. 52, d], above, and see HA., 684.

b] Respecting the forms avrov, avrw, etc. (without breath- ings in the older MSS.; hence ambiguous) there is still differ- ence of opinion. The Textus Receptus gave many of them the rough breathing, thus making them shortened reflexives— avrov, etc. Most of the more recent editors and text critics have given them all, or very nearly all, the smooth breathing, making them simple personal pronouns — avrov, etc. — though falling in many cases under the preceding rule of personal pronouns used for the reflexive. See the reasons for this course, B., p. in. The result of this, of course, is to make the reflexive appear in the New Testament only in the longer form — kavrov, eavro), etc. WH. have in about twenty instances given these forms — avrov, avrw, etc. — the rough breathing, thus returning in part to the usage of the Textus Receptus. See WH., Vol. II, Appendix, pp. 143, 144; and cf. Luke 12:17, 21; John 2:24, 13:32; Rom. 1:27; 2 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 2:15; i John 5:10, in Tisch. and WH. See also W., § XXII,

5,*

c] The form tavrov is generally, but not always, in the New Testament an emphatic reflexive. Emphatic, Matt. 16:24; 18:4; i Cor. 13:5, etc.; unemphatic, Mark 8:14; Luke 19: 13; Rev. 10:3, etc.

d] The reflexive of the third person plural, ecumov, is regularly used in the New Testament for all three persons. About seventy instances of its use for the first or second per- son occur. See, e. g., Matt. 3:9; 23:31; Luke 12:57; Rom. 8:23; 15:1; i Cor. 11:31; etc. When so used it is almost always emphatic.

54. Possessive Pronouns and Possessive Genitives. a) Possessive limitations are much more frequent in the New Testament than in classical Greek.

NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 29

b) Possessive pronouns are used less frequently than in classical Greek, the genitive of the personal pronoun being used instead.

c) "iSios is used as an emphatic possessive instead of eoumn) or the possessive with avrds (John 4 : 44).

d) The article is sometimes omitted with possessive limita- tions where classical Greek would require it (Luke 2:32; James i : 26, etc.).

e) When the article occurs, the position of the pronoun is in general regular, viz., the personal pronoun stands in predi- cative position (yet occasionally, mostly in the epistles, it stands in attributive position); reflexives usually stand in attributive position (Luke 11:21; 13:34; Matt. 8:22: contra, Matt. 18:31; 25:1); possessives invariably so.

SYNTAX OF THE CASES

55. The use of the cases is nearly the same in New Testa- ment as in classical Greek. The following matters require to be specially noted in the study of New Testament Greek :

56. The Nominative is frequently used as the case of address in the New Testament, usually with the article (Matt. 1 1 : 26 ; James 5:1; i Cor. 15 : 36 ; cf. B., p. 140).

57. The Genitive of Designation, denoting the same object as that which is denoted by the noun it limits, chiefly poetic in classical writers, is not uncommon in the New Testament (John 2:21; Acts 1 6 : 14; Heb. 12:11).

58. The Genitive of Characteristic (sometimes called quali- tative), which scarcely occurs at all in classical authors, is not infrequent in the New Testament (Matt. 21:32; Luke 16:8). It is probably of Hebraistic origin, though a nearly similar idiom is found also in Latin.

59. The Genitive limiting a noun is often used in the New Testament to indicate a relationship between the two objects of so general a character that it cannot be assigned to any of

3o NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR

the usual genitive relations. Such instances may be classed under the general head of Genitive of Connection (Matt. 1:17; Mark 1 : 4, /xeravotas ; John 7:35).

60. The Dative of Time is sometimes used in the New Tes- tament to denote, not point of time, but duration (Luke 8:27; Acts 8 : 1 1 ; Acts 13 : 20).

61. Prepositional constructions are very frequent in the New Testament, often occurring when classical Greek would employ a case only. Some of the most common constructions are illustrated in the following examples : Acts 13:22; Matt. 21 : 46 ; Acts 2:16; John 2:11; 16 : 8.

THE VOICE OF THE VERB

62. The Aorist Passive is sometimes used in the sense of the Middle. This occurs in the New Testament much more frequently than in classical writers (Mark 5:21; Matt. 2:21; James 4 : 7).

63. Certain tenses of deponent verbs are sometimes used in a passive sense (Matt. 6 : i ; Mark 5 : 29; Rom. 4 : 4, 5 ; cf. vss. 6, 8). See B., p. 52..

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