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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1949

VOL. LXI.

ISSUED 30th DECEMBER, 1950

PRICE : TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS

Printed for the Society by WATSON, FERGUSON and COMPANY, Brisbane

The Royal Society of Queensland

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY LIEUT. -GENERAL SIR JOHN D. LAVARACK, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., C. de G., K.B.E.

OFFICERS, 1949

President :

DOROTHY HILL, D.Sc., Ph.D., A.N.C., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents :

Professor H. C. WEBSTER, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.P., F.R.M.S. Professor M. F. HICKEY, M.A., M.B., B.S.

Hon. Treasurer :

DOROTHEA F. SANDARS, M.Sc.

Hon. Secretary :

MARGARET I. R. SCOTT, M.Sc.

Hon. Librarian : BETTY BAIRD, B.Sc.

Hon. Editors :

S. T. BLAKE,, M.Sc, G. MACK, B.Sc.

Members of Council :

O. A. JONES, D.Sc., E. M. SHEPHERD, B.E., A. L. REIMANN, D.Sc., Ph.D., J. H. SIMMONDS, M.Sc., M.B.E., Professor L. J. H. TEAKLE.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., Professor W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc., and E. O. MARKS, M.D., B.A., B.E.

Hon. Auditor :

L. P. HERDSMAN.

Bankers :

COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA.

CONTENTS

Vol. LXI.

No. 1 — Presidential Address : Energy and the Future of Mankind.

By H. C. Webster, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P. (Issued separately, 30th December, 1950)

No. 2 — Contributions to the Geology of Brisbane, No. 1 — Local Applications of the Standard Stratigraphical Nomen- clature. By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc., and O. A. Jones, D.Sc. (Issued separately, 30th December, 1950)

No. 3 — Marine Insects. By I. M. Mackerras, F.R.A.C.P. (Issued separately, 30th December, 1950)

No. 4 — A New Ergot from Queensland. By R. F. N. Langdon, M.Agr.Sc. (Issued separately, 30th December, 1950)

No. 5 — Revision of Bregmaceros with Descriptions of Larval Stages from Australasia. By Ian S. R. Munro, M.Sc. (Issued separately, 30th December, 1950) ...

No. 6 — Additions to the Flora of Arnhem Land. By C. T. White. (Issued separately, 30th December, 1950) ... ...

•^No. 7 — Heavy Mineral Beach Sands of Southern Queensland.

Part II. — Physical and Mineralogical Composition, Mineral Descriptions, and Origin of the Heavy Minerals. By A. W. Beasley, Ph.D., D.I.C., F.G.S. (Issued separately, 30th December, 1950)

No. 8 — F. M. Bailey : His Life and Work. By C. T. White. (Issued separately 30th December, 1950)

Report of Council

Abstract of Proceedings

Changes in Membership

Pages

1-1 1

13-18

19-29

31-35

37-54

55-58

59-104

105-114.

v.-vi.

vii.-xi.

xii.

50*o9^0

PROCEEDINGS

i

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1949

VOL, LXL

ISSUED 30th DECEMBER, 1950

PRICE : TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS

Printed for the Society by WATSON, FERGUSON and COMPANY, Brisbane

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author’s name, degrees and official address.

2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when com- municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible.

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Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Roy. Soc. B., vol. 104, p. 207.

Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., Vol. 1, p. 309.

The corresponding references in the text should be :

“ Keilin (1929) ”, “ Lesage (1895) ”.

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Vol. LXI., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland

Presidential Address

ENERGY AND THE FUTURE OF MANKIND

By H. C. Webster, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P.

(Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th March, 1949.)

Of all the abstract concepts of science, there is none which can compare in importance with the concept of energy. There is little need for me to explain to this Society the significance of the term energy, but I should perhaps remind you of the well-known forms which energy takes, viz., the forms of light, heat, sound, electricity, and the even more familiar mechanical forms of kinetic energy (the energy of motion — exemplified by a moving bullet), and potential energy (the energy of position— exemplified by a wound clock spring). Then, too, energy can assume a chemical form, such as the energy contained in fuel ; and, finally, we have of recent years received startling evidence of the existence of atomic energy.

The various things that happen on the earth, all actions, whether of man, animals or of plants, all involve a conversion of energy- from one form to another. The explosion of an atomic bomb, the eruption of a volcano, a lightning flash, all represent well-understood types of energy conversion. At the other end of the scale, the ticking of a watch, the uttering of a word, vision, hearing, even the reception of a sensation and the thinking of a thought, all imply energy conversions.

In all these conversions, there is no new energy created and no energy destroyed. The energy which was in the universe at the beginning is still in existence ana no new energy has appeared. New forms appear and old forms disappear, but the gain always balances the loss. This law is undoubtedly the most important law of science. It is really this law which gives significance to the idea of energy ; without it the concept would be meaningless.

This law refers to the total energy in the universe, not the energy actually contained in or on the earth. The earth’s energy is not neces- sarily constant in quantity ; in fact it is almost certainly varying all the time. Energy is being added to the earth by the light and other radia- tions received from the sun (and to a less extent from other celestial objects), and energy is being lost by invisible radiations and in other ways. The gain and the loss nearly balance out, but usually there is not an exact balance.

The standard of living of the human race, even its survival depends on the energy possessed by the earth. But the possession of energy alone is not sufficient. The energy must also be in a form capable of conversion to other forms, that is the energy must be available. Without

fUl ir

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

such available energy nothing can be made to happen, not even the minor actions necessary for living. Unfortunately, energy can easily — too easily, in fact — become converted into a form where it is no longer available. Energy in the form of heat, i.e., the energy associated with temperature, is never completely available. Only that part of the heat of any material object which corresponds to a difference in temperature between it and its surroundings can in practice be converted into other forms of energy. The hot gases in a motor car cylinder have available energy ; when they are cooled to the temperature of the cylinder they have none.

Unfortunately, energy has a tendency to become converted into heat. All energy conversions carried out on the earth, with or without our direction, result in a certain proportion of the energy going into the form of heat. There is, so to speak, a heat tax on all conversions. While at first this heat energy may be still partly in available form, the processes of conduction, etc., soon equalize the temperatures and render the energy unavailable and therefore virtually useless. One might think that there would be a possibility of obtaining energy on account of the temperature difference between the surface of the earth and the cold empty space within the shadow of the earth. Actually, this temperature difference does allow the heat energy of the earth and air one important energy conversion, the conversion into infra-red radiation. This con- version is the ultimate fate of the heat energy. As a result of it there is a continuous emission of radiation into empty space ; this is the main way in which the earth loses energy. We can scarcely contemplate making use of the temperature difference to obtain other forms of energy, since, apart from the difficulties involved, to do so would lower the average air temperature and human life can only be maintained over a certain very limited range of temperature.

We have then on the earth two sorts of energy, useful energy, that is, energy available for the operation of our machines, available for making things happen, and useless energy, that is, unavailable energy. When useful energy becomes converted into useless energy we can speak of it as becoming degraded or consumed, as it is no longer available.

The most important of the machines is, of course, man himself. I have already mentioned that the slightest action of the body, breathing, the beating of the heart, even the transference of sensation, all represent energy conversions. A high heat-tax is imposed on all these conversions, so that the processes of life inevitably result in the consumption of energy. To maintain life, therefore, an intake of energy is necessary. This intake is in the form of chemical energy associated with the food we eat.

The amount of energy intake depends on the sort of life a man is leading, but a representative value for the average rate is about 150 watts ; this means 3.5 kilowatt-hours each day. (These units are the most familiar of the energy units ; a kilowatt-hour is the unit ordinarily used in selling electrical energy- — 150 watts is about a fifth of a horse-power.)

As a result of the generation of heat within the human body, par- ticularly within the trunk, the temperature of the interior of the body is, under most climatic conditions, higher than that of its surroundings. This interior temperature is subject to a system of automatic controls. These regulate the way in which the body loses heat, and thus maintain

ENERGY AND THE FUTURE OF MANKIND

3

the interior temperature closely constant. For example, if the tempera- ture of the surroundings increases somewhat, certain mechanisms increase the ease with which heat passes from the interior of the skin ; if the surroundings become colder, they decrease it. (Other mechanisms also are involved, but details do not concern us.)

Man is assisted in this adjustment of his temperature by the fact that the average air-temperature at sea-level is not very far removed from the temperature at which the human body functions. This air- temperature depends on the amount of radiation received from the sun. As the average temperature of the earth increases, the rate at which it loses energy to empty space also increases, and since loss and gain must roughly balance, the greater the amount of energy the sun provides, the higher the temperature of the earth.

The actual air-temperature at any place may vary quite considerably. Over a certain range of conditions man’s regulating mechanism can cope with the situation, but towards the limits of this range the adjustment involves considerable strain and discomfort. At the lower end of the temperature range the wearing of clothing and the use of houses assist materially in this adjustment. They even permit life under conditions in which otherwise it would be possible only by undertaking continuous strenuous muscular exercise ; such exertion, of course, increases the heat evolution within the body.

In his quest for comfort man has resorted to other measures, more important from the point of view of my discussion to-night. He can produce in a limited region such as the room of a house, a modified climate, hotter or colder than the external climate, as may be required. This modification of climate always demands the consumption of energy,

the conversion of energy from a useful form into a form of heat which is useless. The actual steps in this degradation will differ in different cases, but it always occurs. The amount of energy consumed depends not only on the temperature differences maintained, but also on such things as heat insulation, etc. Considerable technical develop- ment has been devoted to reducing this wastage of energy. Even now, however, a man may consume more energy keeping warm on a winter evening than he consumes as food during the day.

If man’s needs were limited to food and warmth his energy require- ments would be relatively easily met. But modern man demands far more. He requires to cook his food to render it more palatable ; in so doing he may expend almost as much energy as the food itself represents. The growing of his food is no longer a matter which occupies merely his own muscular effort. He requires all sorts of implements, many of them requiring additional sources of energy, particularly fuel, for their operation.

To obtain these and other implements man occupies himself in manufacturing, making not only implements, but also houses and the attributes of comfort, and making amusements and luxuries. All manu- facturing involves the consumption of energy. Energy is consumed at the mine where the ore is obtained, energy is consumed at the smelters where the metal is extracted, energy is consumed on the railways when the metal is taken to the factory, and energy is consumed at the factory itself and in the subsequent journey to the user. Mostly such energy is the result of the burning of fuel, coming from the chemical energy of

4

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

wood and coal and oil. But energy must also be provided to the men who work in these occupations, energy to provide them with the necessary food and warmth and the other requirements of modern civilization.

There is a link between the cost in money of a manufactured article and the amount of energy consumed in making it. They do not correspond exactly, for often there are other factors involved, but it is possible to estimate roughly the comparative cost of articles if we know the energy involved in making them. Of course we have to make the machinery used in making the articles, and we must include part of the energy-cost of the machinery when we estimate the energy-cost of its product.

Among the most important products of man’s labour are the fuels themselves ; coal and coal products, petroleum and its products, forest products, etc. The relative energy-profit on such operations is a matter of the greatest concern to any community. To find the relative energy profit, we add together the fuel energy expended in mining, transport, refining, etc., and the food, etc., expressed in terms of energy, required by the personnel employed. Then we subtract the result from the energy provided by the fuel. This gives the profit, and we can express it as a percentage in the usual way. If the total cost per ton is, say, 3,000 kw.-hrs., and if the energy we obtained from a ton is, say, 10,000 kw.-hrs., the relative energy profit is 230 per cent. It is not a coincidence that the United States, which has plenty of easily-won fuel, is the richest country in the world. On the other hand, England’s post-war financial difficulties are related to the increasing difficulty of winning coal in a country whose best coal-seams have already been exhausted.

The manufacturing activities of a modern industrialized country may consume energy at the rate of more than 1,000 watts per head of population, compared with the 150 watts per head required as food. This does not, of course, represent the whole requirements of the popula- tion ; it requires energy for artificial lighting, for transport, for radio and other entertainment. As the use of motor cars becomes more widespread, as the devices for providing entertainment become more elaborate, the demands on energy increase. A petrol consumption of 100 gallons per annum, a quite modest figure in pre-rationing days, represents an average energy consumption at the rate of around 500 watts.

Average energy consumption rates for a typical person are somewhat as f dIIows : —

Food ... ... ... ... ... ... 150 watts

Warmth ... 200

Manufacturing ... ... ... ... 2000

Transport ... ... ... ... ... 200 ,,

Miscellaneous ... ... # ... ... 450

Total ... ... ... 3000 ,,

Total Daily Consumption — 72 KW-hrs.

My estimates are based on peace-time requirements. In time of war, energy is consumed at a rate many times greater than in peace, and with tfie introduction of new weapons the consumption rises hugely. The dropping of a single atomic bomb each day alone corresponds to a consumption at the rate of forty thousand million watts, about 20 watts per head of the world’s population.

If the spirit of man throughout the world is to be freed from the chains of poverty, drudgery, and discomfort, if the standards of luxury

ENERGY AND THE FUTURE OF MANKIND

5

enjoyed among communities such as ours are to be shared by all mankind, the average consumption of energy, food and fuel must inevitably increase, and increase by a considerable factor. If war, disease and famine decrease their toll, as we hope will be the case, the number of energy consumers will also increase ; again we will require more energy. How then are we to maintain and increase our present supplies of available energy ?

Let us first examine the sources from which we obtain the energy we consume at the present day. The most important group of these sources, and the only absolutely indispensable one, is the food supplies. We eat many things, some animal, some vegetable. Since the animals, however, depend on vegetation as their source of food, we can regard vegetation as the ultimate source of all our food. We must remember, of course, that the energy we obtain from eating the flesh of animals is- but a very small fraction of the energy those animals have consumed.

The growth of plants represents, in general, a storage of energy, This energy is obtained from the light which the plant receives from the sun by a photosynthetic process. This most important process occurs chiefly, if not entirely, in the green leaves of the plant. To be precise, it occurs in the chloroplasts , organs which contain the pigment chlorophyll together with other pigments which may or may not participate in the process. Under the influence of the light absorbed in the chloroplasts, carbon dioxide is synthesized into sugar and energy is thereby stored as chemical energy. This is the principal photosynthetic process, but others also occur with which I shall not deal in detail. The overall efficiency of the process is unfortunately very low. It has been estimated that, of the solar energy falling on a green leaf, only two-thirds of one per cent, is actually stored as chemical energy.

Production of Useful Energy.

Mechanism	Uses that part of the Sun’s Energy which falls on	Efficiency of use
Plants (photosynthesis in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll) ...	Green leaves and green vegeta- tion generally	0.66%
Hydro-electricity (rain on mountains)	Ocean and other water	0-001% (?)
Winds (heating of tropical regions) ...	All earth	perhaps 0.00001%
Photo- voltaic effect	Photo-voltaic cells ...	0.3%

The efficiency is not the same for all parts of the light spectrum, though this seems to depend to some extent on the species of plant involved. The energy of the infra-red radiation, which makes up about half of the energy in sunlight, is not stored at all by plants.

Plants are of many kinds, not all of which contribute to our food supplies either directly or indirectly. Among the non-food-producing plants, however, are many which can still be regarded as useful ; for constructional timber, for example, or for fuel. The fuels we are using at the present day, chiefly wood, coal and oil, were all derived from vegetation which, in the past, grew with the aid of sunlight. Coal and oil have suffered many chemical changes but have still preserved the chemical energy given to them by the sunlight. Oil may, in fact, have

6

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

acquired additional energy, derived perhaps from the residuum of the large heat energy which the earth possessed before it became a cold star.

In spite of the low efficiency of the photosynthetic process, it is of vital importance, since it represents virtually the only one which is replenishing those stocks of available energy which we are at present using in such a prodigal fashion. Needless to say, the rate of exploitation far outreaches the rate of restoration ; I doubt if there is any country in the world which is actually increasing its reserves of energy in the form of food and fuel.

These considerations bring home to us the seriousness of the tragedy involved in the loss of arable land owing to wasteful farming transforming it into a desert or dust-bowl. This has been stressed in relation to the growing shortage of food — of which Sir John Boyd-Orr rightly warned the peoples of the world — but this food shortage is but one aspect of the more serious problem. Possibly, by using some of the areas at present devoted to forests for food production, the food position could be corrected, at least for some years, but this would aggravate the general energy shortage. On the other hand, if ample supplies of dis- posable energy become available, if the general energy problem is solved, there would probably be no need for anxiety regarding the food position, for I have little doubt that organic chemists will be able to discover efficient processes (perhaps some new photosynthetic processes) whereby foodstuffs can be made from carbon dioxide in factories in much the same way as they are now made naturally in plants.

Incidentally, calculations which have been made of the extent of coal and oil reserves in various countries may be misleading, for upon the completion of exploitation of the richer and more accessible deposits the energy costs of mining and transport will rise, perhaps sharply. Without a serious drop in the standard of living, exploitation of the remaining deposits may thus be impracticable. It is well known that for technical and economic reasons, few coal-seams are ever completely removed, and the cost of removing the residues at a later date may well be prohibitive.

Fortunately, we do not depend entirely on fuel for the energy we require for domestic heating, manufacturing and transport. A second process initiated by the solar radiation provides us with a second source, that of hydro-electric energy. The primary effect of the solar radiation in this case is the evaporation of water, principally from the surface of the oceans, but also from moist land, lakes, etc. The air thus moistened may be carried by the winds, which are themselves a product of solar radiation, over mountains and highlands and there, by cooling, the moisture is deposited as rain. The water collecting at the high altitude possesses energy, potential energy, and by suitably directing the water- stream as it flows towards the sea, we can convert some of this potential energy into other useful forms. In modern times, electricity is usually the form of energy produced.

This energy is not produced without cost, i.e., without an initial energy-outlay. Energy must be used in constructing dams, canals, pipes, turbines, dynamos, etc. Most of the hydro-electric schemes which have been installed in different parts of the world, however, have proved highly profitable undertakings. The energy-cost of construction has been covered by the energy produced within a relatively small number of years. Probably there are still many possibilities for highly profitable

ENERGY AND THE FUTURE OF MANKIND

7

installations of hydro-electric schemes throughout the world, and many others which, with care, would eventually return a profit in energy, but only after many years.

Unfortunately there are conflicting demands on the available streams of water in many countries, particularly in Australia. We have frequently to choose between the utilization of the water for stimulating an increase in food-production, thereby employing usefully more of the sun’s radiation, or obtaining electric power from it directly. Sometimes it is very difficult to determine which of these alternatives will give the greatest overall energy-profit.

I have tried to obtain an estimate, for comparison with the plant- growth method of utilizing solar radiation, of the average overall efficiency of the production of electric power by evaporation from the oceans. I can find no published figures, but on very rough assumptions, I arrive at a figure of one part in 100,000 of the energy falling upon the ocean being potentially convertible into hydro-electric energy. This is probably a considerable over-estimate. Continental Australia with its low rainfall, and small areas of high lands, is rather worse off than most countries in relation to its size, as far as possibilities of hydro-electric generation is concerned.

Other -means of utilizing solar energy have also been used to a limited extent. Perhaps the most important of these is the use of wind-power which was developed at one stage in the earth’s history to a considerable degree, but recently tending to be abandoned on account of its unreliability. It is extremely difficult, in fact impossible, to estimate the overall efficiency of the wind-power method of using solar energy, but it must be extremely low.

An interesting method for converting solar radiation into available energy which has been suggested is the application of the photo-voltaic effect. In the photo-voltaic cell, a comparatively simple electrical device, electrical energy is generated when energy in the form of light falls on the cell. Photo- voltaic cells are in fairly general use as illumination- meters, photographic exposure-meters, and so on. It has been estimated that the overall efficiency of the ordinary selenium photo-voltaic cell is about one-third of one per cent. This method of utilizing energy would thus be only about half as efficient as the utilization by plants. It would have the advantage, however, that a supply of water, salts, etc., would not be needed, so it might be quite convenient for use in desert and semi-desert areas, such as exist in parts of this country. It has been estimated that 4,000 watts of power could be obtained from an acre covered with such cells. Unfortunately, the cost in energy of the manufacture of the cells is so high that it would be quite uneconomic to proceed with large-scale projects on this basis.

Claims have been made by certain Russian investigators that a much more efficient form of photo-voltaic cell has been discovered. If these claims are substantiated, the invention may prove a very valuable one, especially to countries like Australia. Maybe in the future, when ruthless agriculture has denuded our mountains of all but solid rock and converted our plains into deserts, the countryside will be covered with photo-voltaic cells instead of forests, and maintenance engineers will take the place of tillers of the soil.

It should not be thought, of course, that the methods already known for utilizing the sun’s energy are necessarily the only or even the best

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

methods available. The total average rate at which energy is received from the sun works out at about two hundred million watts per head of population. Compared with this figure our most extravagant require- ments appear trivial. Our difficulties arise only from the extraordinary inefficiency of all our methods of using sunlight. The situation is actually somewhat worse than would appear from what I have said, for only a small fraction of the sunlight actually falls upon green vegetation ; only a part of the potential hydro-electric power can actually be obtained because of cost of installation, and so on.

It is perhaps surprising that so few deliberate searches are being carried out for new methods of converting solar radiation into com- mercially useful energy. The reason is the absence of any obvious lead, save the photo-voltaic cell scheme I have already mentioned. Other possible schemes, such as the use of the thermo-electric effect, for example, have been shown to be completely unprofitable. In the circumstances, the solution of the problem is more likely to arise out of discoveries in a completely unrelated field of physical or biophysical research than from the results of investigations designed specially to. this end.

At the present time, the problem of the world’s energy deficiency is being tackled along rather different lines. To understand this work, we must enquire into the actual source of the solar radiation ; we must determine why the sun retains its temperature, in spite of the enormous amount of energy it is continually pouring out, mainly into the unbounded vastness of interstellar space. The rate at which the sun loses energy is nearly four hundred quadrillion watts (4 x 1026 watts), and some process of energy-conversion must necessarily be occurring within the sun for such an emission to continue without decreasing temperature.

It now seems fairly certain that the sun derives its high temperature from the continuous conversion of its atomic energy into heat. The existence of atomic energy has been recognized for a comparatively few years. Its nature can be approximately explained in the following way :

Atoms are the building-blocks out of which matter is built, but an atom itself is built up of smaller bits, rather in the way that the solar system is built. Most of these sub-atomic particles are unimportant for our present purpose, but there is in each atom one nucleus which is, so to speak, the real body of the atom. This nucleus possesses most of the mass of the atom, and with the nucleus is associated a certain amount of energy. This energy is termed atomic energy. Atomic energy is then really nuclear energy. It is conceivable that a nucleus might go out of existence, in some sort of catastrophic process, in which case the atomic energy would be converted into another form, probably into radiation. Naturally, the mass would disappear with the disappearance of the nucleus. On modern views, mass is really a measure of total energy and, if a nucleus or anything else loses energy, it loses mass in proportion.

Such catastrophic disappearance of a nucleus has never been detected. We do know of cases, however, in which part of the nuclear energy becomes converted into other forms, and consequently the mass, the energy indicator, becomes reduced. For example, it can happen when a nucleus splits up into two separate nuclei ; the atomic energies associated with two separate nuclei, added together, being in certain cases less than the atomic energy associated with the single nucleus. This disintegration process can occur spontaneously in radioactive

ENERGY AND THE FUTURE OF MANKIND

9

elements such as radium ; in fact, the value of radium as a method of treating diseases is closely bound up with its ability to disintegrate and thereby set free some of its atomic energy.

In the atomic bomb also there is a conversion of atomic energy due to the splitting-up of nuclei ; in this case the nuclei of plutonium. This reaction is not spontaneous, like the disintegration of radium, and consequently we can control its initiation.

The process occuring in the sun is of quite a different nature. Although the splitting-up of heavy nuclei, such as those of plutonium and radium, can lead to the conversion of atomic energy into other forms which can be used, the splitting-up of many light nuclei, notably the breaking-up of a helium nucleus into four hydrogen nuclei, actually involves the production of some atomic energy out of other forms of energy. (Atomic scientists will realize, of course, that the manufacture of hydrogen nuclei from a helium nucleus actually implies more than a mere splitting-up, but I do not want to complicate the argument.) If we reverse the process by building up helium from hydrogen, it should be possible to set free some atomic energy, that is, convert it into other forms which we can use. It may perhaps seem paradoxical that while in one. case disintegration lowers atomic energy, in the other case it leads to an increase. Nevertheless, by considering the structure of nuclei in detail it is quite possible to arrive at a consistent explanation. However, this is too long a story to enter into now.

This synthesis of helium from hydrogen is, we believe, continually operating in the sun. It is scarcely feasible that this synthesis should occur simply through four hydrogen atoms coming together. Rather it would appear to take place in stages, a carbon nucleus acting as an intermediary in the process. The details are. still somewhat speculative. The present theory postulates a chain of six nuclear reactions, which incorporate the hydrogen nuclei one at a time and set the carbon nucleus free again at the end, the net result being the combination of the four hydrogen nuclei into helium. We can equally well regard the process as beginning with nitrogen instead of carbon, but this is a matter of detail.

Adopting this theory of the sun’s activity, it is not difficult to provide a reasonable account for the approximate constancy of the sun’s tempera- ture and energy output. -I say approximate because disturbances of the sun’s surface, notably sunspots, eruptions, etc., are of comparatively frequent occurrence, and appear to influence the amount of radiation. It seems likely that the sun’s output will change relatively slowly over the next few millions of years. It will probably slowly increase at first but, after the lapse of many millions of years, it will drop and continue to drop until the sun is a cold star like the earth and all life is extinct. It is possible, of course, that at some earlier stage the sun will explode, as some stars have been known to do, and life would then be destroyed in a more sudden and spectacular manner. The sun is, after all, a large-size atomic bomb.

The energy that results from the synthesis of helium is very great, far greater than any ordinary burning of a comparable mass of fuel can produce.

The energy-output of the sun is obtained at a cost of less than a quarter of an ounce of hydrogen per thousand kilowatt-hours. The total consumption is large, amounting to three thousand billion tons (3 X 1015 tons) each year, but this is only about one billionth part of the

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Energy Derived from Fuels.

Fuel	Form of Energy- Utilized	Energy Obtained (KW-hrs per Kgm.)
Wood	Chemical	say 5
Coal	Chemical	say 10
Oil	Chemical	say 12
Plutonium	Atomic	say 30,000,000
Uranium-235	Atomic	say 25,000,000
HYDROGEN	Atomic	150,000,000

sun’s total mass. We do not know precisely what proportion of the sun consists of hydrogen, but there is evidence that hydrogen must constitute an appreciable fraction of the total, so there is no need to fear the hydrogen supply running low for a few million years or so.

Since the earth, like the sun, is composed partly of hydrogen — about one per cent, of the earth’s crust consists of this element — one is led to consider whether there is any chance of setting-up, on the earth and under our control, a machine in which hydrogen, in relatively small quantities, could be converted into helium. Such a process could not be made to occur spontaneously, for there are decisive factors which prevent this, but it is conceivable that some process might be devised. We should want one different from the solar process ; it could not be considered because of the enormous temperatures involved. We want then some other process leading to the synthesis of helium from hydrogen.

Such a process, if successful, might provide us with all the energy we need at a comparatively small cost in hydrogen. Taking a figure of ten thousand million kilowatts as the outside estimate of our demands, this corresponds to a consumption of somewhere about a ton of hydrogen per day. As the oceans alone contain about a hundred thousand billion tons (1017 tons) of hydrogen, this consumption could scarcely be regarded as excessive. In fact, nearly as much hydrogen is probably being wasted at the present time by the escape of hydrogen gas resulting from the electrolysis of water.

Naturally we could hardly expect 100 per cent, efficiency from our machine, i.e., we could hardly expect all the atomic energy-reduction to appear as useful energy. Further we should have to employ a consider- able amount of useful energy in making the machine itself. Even if we had an overall efficiency of only one per cent., however, the con- sumption of hydrogen could scarcely be regarded as serious.

You may wonder why, when we have a source of energy ready to hand in the plutonium bomb and the nuclear fission pile used in making it, I have stressed the importance of the hydrogen process. The fact is that while the first development of atomic energy machines, using uranium and thorium as the raw materials, may provide an immediate solution to the pressing problems of fuel shortages, it cannot be regarded as anything but a temporary solution. This is due to the fact that the high-grade ores of uranium and thorium will almost certainly be rapidly exhausted ; in fact, the atomic bomb manufacturing programme of the United States will probably exhaust them before the end of the century. Low-grade ores may still be used — they almost certainly will be used for atomic bombs unless a better bomb is invented in the meantime — but their use will not be profitable in terms of energy. Precisely at

ENERGY AND THE FUTURE OF MANKIND

11

what stage the process will cease to provide an energy-profit cannot of course be predicted.

If the long-term solution must lie in a hydrogen-helium process, how are we to discover a suitable process ? There is no obvious line of attack. For this reason the Atomic Energy Establishments of Britain, France and the United States, together with University and other research laboratories, are devoting their activities very largely to quite general researches into nuclear physics. Only by the process of slow compilation of information concerning nuclei and their behaviour, only by the elucidation of their fundamental properties and the phenomena connected with them, can we hope to make progress. The solution, when it comes, is more likely to result from some apparently quite irrelevant research than from a straight-forward attack on the problem.

This is the reason why physicists are impressed with the importance of nuclear research ; this is the reason why they are sometimes somewhat impatient of the apathy, even obstruction, with which their proposals are often received. Those who, because of the belief that nuclear research necessarily means military research, or for personal or political advantage, oppose or obstruct nuclear research, are doing a very real disservice to mankind. If all the peoples of the world are to possess and maintain a standard of comfort and luxury such as the more fortunate peoples now enjoy, the energy supply problem must be solved, and must be solved soon.

Vol. LXI., No. 2.

13

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE

No. 1. — Local Applications of the Standard Stratigraphical

Nomenclature.*

By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc., and O. A. Jones, D.Sc. University of Queensland.

(Received 17 th May, 1949 ; read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 31s£ October, 1949 ; issued separately 30 th December, 1950).

In the following proposals an attempt has been made to conform to the Australian Stratigraphical Nomenclature suggested recently by Glaessner and others (1948). In accordance with rule III f of the Code as there set out the new names now introduced are explicitly defined, the geographical features from which the names were taken are stated and the specific type localities cited. Where changes are proposed the reasons are concisely stated.

Rocksberg Greenstones. — A formational name introduced to replace the term “ Greenstone Series ” of Denmead (1928). The forma- tion consists almost entirely of metamorphosed andesitic and basaltic lavas and tuffs. The name is taken from the village of Rocksberg, near Caboolture, where Mr. R. T. Mathews, who is working on the formation, reports it is typically developed.

The reason for the proposed change in name is the absence of certain knowledge of its age and range in time, which precludes it from any more precise category than that of a formation. It is now ranked as such and named accordingly.

Bunya Phyllites. — A formational name introduced to replace the term “ Bunya Series ” of Denmead (1928). The formation consists essentially of pelitic rocks such as mica phyllites with some quartz-mica schists ; psammitic rock types are well represented only in the eastern part of the area, and even there they are restricted to the uppermost part of the formation. As here redefined, the formation excludes certain cherts and quartzites (which were included in the uppermost part of Denmead’s Bunya Series) and places the top of the formation immediately below the lowest of these, the Kenmore Quartzite, which outcrops near the mine at Gold Creek and can be followed in a direction S. 30° E. to Fig Tree Pocket and thence in a more easterly direction to the Carrington Rocks at Corinda. The formation conformably succeeds the Rocksberg Greenstones, and is conformably overlain by the Neranleigh- Fern vale Group. The name is based on Bunyaville, an outer suburb within the area of Greater Brisbane, where the formation is well developed.

The reason for the proposed change in name is the absence of certain knowledge of its age and range in time.

*For several years the authors have been collecting material for use in a book to be published under the title o “The Geology of Brisbane.” Following a study of the relevant literature and alter considerable work in the field they have come to a number of conclusions that differ importantly from those now generally accepted. These conclusions will be set out as such in the book, but it would seem that the arguments on which they are based would be more appropriately stated in the Proceedings of this Society.

14

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.— A new composite name which incorporates in the one term both the “ Neranleigh Series ” and the “ Fernvale Series ” of Denmead (1928) and at the same time changes the category from series to group. As here redefined the Group includes certain cherts and quartzites which were originally included in Denmead’s Bunya Series and the lowest of which, the Kenmore Quartzite, is regarded as the base of the group. The name Neranleigh was originally taken in part from the village of Neranwood and in part from the town of Beenleigh, both to the south of Brisbane, while the name Fernvale was derived from a township in the Brisbane Valley to the west of Brisbane. The type locality for the Group as such, now selected by the authors, is the valley of Moggill Creek, within the area of Greater Brisbane.

The reasons for the amalgamation of these two “ Series ” are : The absence of any structural break within the group and the recurrence of similar lithological types throughout the group. For many years grey- wackes had been regarded as characteristic of the lower (Neranleigh) part of the group and radiolarian jaspers as equally typical of the upper (Fernvale) part, but the Moggill Creek section shows some of the jaspers occurring at relatively low horizons within the group and some of the greywackes at relatively high levels. The group is highly variable lithologically and includes, in addition to the greywackes and jaspers (which have been over-emphasised in the past), such rocks as phyllites, quartzites, both thin-bedded and massive, impure limestones and calc-epidote rocks.

The Group conformably succeeds the Bunya Phyllites.

Neither the age nor the range of the Group is known sufficiently accurately to enable the use of a more precise term than “ group.”

Brisbane Metamorphics. — A name introduced to replace the term “ Brisbane Schists.” Although of uncertain origin the latter designation has been widely used for many years as a comprehensive name covering the immense thickness of metamorphosed marine sediments, tuffs and lavas made up of the Rocksberg Greenstones, the Bunya Phyllites and the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group as defined in the preceding paragraphs. (See Bryan and Jones 1944, p. 13.)

The geographical portion of the proposed name is taken from the city of Brisbane within and near which the Metamorphics are typically developed.

The reason for changing the second part of the name from “ Schists ” to “ Metamorphics ” is that although schistose rocks of several types are present they are by no means as dominant as the original name would suggest.

The term “ Brisbane Metamorphics ” is not in strict accordance with the Stratigraphical Code, but the authors feel that some additional and more comprehensive designation is warranted to indicate the unity in general characters which distinguishes the Brisbane Metamorphics from all later stratigraphical units and which overrides those less funda- mental differences which have led to the recognition within the Metamorphics of two distinct formations and one group. The term “ Brisbane Complex ” was considered as an alternative, but was rejected as being at odds with this essential unity and, moreover, as likely to lead to confusion.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE

15

Brookfield Volcanics. — A name proposed for a succession of flows, tuffs and agglomerates of varied character but predominantly rhyolitic. The name is taken from the village of Upper Brookfield in the western part of Greater Brisbane. The Volcanics are typically developed near this locality on top of the divide between Moggill and Pullen Vale Creeks.

The age of the Brookfield Volcanics has not been determined but they rest unconformably upon steeply dipping beds of the Neranleigh- Fernvale Group.

Brisbane Tuffs. — This name represents a reversion from the term “ Brisbane Tuff ” now in common use to Dunstan’s (1916) original designation for the accumulation of tuffaceous materials of a rhyolitic nature occurring within, but almost at the base of the Ipswich Coal Measures as developed at many points within the city of Brisbane. The Tuffs have been assigned to the Middle Triassic. ( See Bryan and Jones 1946, p. 52.)

The use of the plural is advocated as an indication that the tuffaceous material is of several different kinds, including water-laid tuffs, wind- blown tuffs and welded tuffs (Ignimbrites) , and that these do not all occur on precisely the same stratigraphical horizon.

Ipswich Coal Measures. — It is recommended that this name be selected from the several synonyms now in common use ( see Bryan and Jones, 1944, p. 41) for the freshwater shales and sandstones, some of them coal-bearing, that with conglomerates and some tuffs make up a succession of 4,000 feet of strata, the lower limits of which occur on the right bank of the Brisbane River near Mt. Crosby where they rest unconformably on beds of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group, and the upper limit of which is immediately beneath the Aberdare Conglomerate at Denmark Hill, Ipswich. They have been assigned to the Middle Triassic ( see Jones and de Jersey 1947d, p. 82 ; Bryan and Jones 1946, p. 54). The place-name is based on Ipswich, and the Measures are typically developed within and to the north, east and south of that city. With rather more precise knowledge of the range of these Measures, it may be possible to promote them to a Series in the sense of the Code.

Bundamba Sandstones. — A formational name proposed in place of the Bundamba Series of Cameron (1907), for coarse fresh-water grits and sandstones, often showing cross-bedding with thin interbedded shales which are commoner towards the base, near which one thin coal-seam occurs. The base is marked by the Aberdare Conglomerate which succeeded the Ipswich Coal Measures after a short erosion interval. The Sandstones have been assigned to the Upper Triassic (see Bryan and Jones 1946, p. 54). The place-name is based on an outer suburb of Ipswich, where the Sandstones are typically developed.

The reason for the proposed change is that, in the absence of certain knowledge of their age, these sandstones do not form a “ Series ” in the sense of the Code.

Brighton Beds. — A name first proposed by Woods (1947), and supported here, for fresh-water micaceous sandy shales often white in colour, but sometimes biscuit brown, together with red and white sand- stones and including a curious and easily recognizable horizon of oolitic character. The beds are horizontal and the base and thickness are as

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

yet unknown. They have been assigned to Lower Jurassic ( see Jones and de Jersey 1947b, p. 11), and are unconformably related to the nearby Ipswich Coal Measures.

The place-name is taken from Brighton, near Sandgate, where the Beds are typically developed.

Redbank Plains Formation. — A name introduced to replace the term “ Redbank Plains Series ” of Jones (1927). The formation consists of fresh-water clays, mudstones, shales and soft micaceous sandstones together with interbedded basalts on 'several horizons. The formation

THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE

Comparison of Proposed Stratigraphical Terms with those now

COMMONLY IN USE.

European Record	Names now in use	Names now proposed;
Recent	Lone Pine Gravel	Pinkenba Beds Lone Pine Gravel
Pleistocene . . .
Pliocene		-
Miocene
Oligocene	Petrie Series	Petrie Formation
Eocene	Redbank Plains Series	Redbank Plains Formation
Cretaceous
Jurassic	Brighton Beds	Brighton Beds
Triassic	Bundamba Series Ipswich Series Brisbane Tuff	Bundamba Sandstones Ipswich Coal Measures Brisbane Tuffs
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian	Fernvale Series	Neranleigh- Fernvale ^ o Group § S rD lT'
Ordovician . . .	§ 42 Neranleigh Series aj c/3
r ^ . (H •£ ^ Bunya Series	.<2 o Bunya Phyllites ^ g M-l
Cambrian
Greenstone Series	-4-> <v Rocksberg g Greenstones

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOCxY OF BRISBANE

17

overlies the Ipswich Coal Measures unconformably and has been assigned to the Eocene (see Bryan and Jones 1946, p. 67). The name is taken from and the formation typically developed on the Redbank Plains, near the township of Goodna.

The reason for the proposed change of name is that this succession does not constitute a ” Series ” in the sense of the Code, the range in time being as yet uncertain.

Petrie Formation. — A name proposed to replace the term Petrie Series of Jones (1927). The formation consists of fresh- water ferruginous quartzite-breccias, fine-grained micaceous white and red sandstones and some oil-bearing shales. The formation rests with a slight unconformity upon the Ipswich Coal Measures and has been assigned to the Oligocene. (See Bryan and Jones 1946, p. 67.) The name is taken from the township of Petrie, to the north of Brisbane, where the formation is typically developed.

The reason for the proposed change in name is that the succession does not constitute a “ Series ” in the sense of the Code, the range in time being as yet undetermined.

The Lone Pine Gravel. — A name first proposed by Bryan (1938) and supported here for semi-consolidated quartzitic conglomerates of fluviatile origin found at relatively high levels on the margins of the lower part of the Brisbane River. The gravel is of late Kainozoic age.

The name is based on a tourist resort on the left bank of the Brisbane River some fifteen miles by water above the city, where the gravel is typically developed.

Pinkenba Beds. — A name now proposed for semi-consolidated sands, silts and sandy clays of marine and estuarine origin which are well developed under, the low-lying flat areas about the mouth of the Brisbane River. The Beds are of late Kainozoic Age.

The name is based on an outer suburb of the City of Brisbane, where the Beds are typically developed.

LITERATURE CITED.

Bryan, W. H., 1938. — “ The Pebbles on my Garden Path.” Oueensl. Nat. 10, 83-93.

Bryan, W. H., and Jones, O.A., 1944. — “A Revised Glossary of Queensland Stratigraphy.” Univ. Queensl. Papers, Dept. Geol. 2 (N.S.) No. 11.

— ,1946. — ‘‘The Geological History of Queensland.” Univ. Queensl. Papers, Dept. Geol. 2 (N.S.) No. 12.

Cameron, W. E., 1907. — Second Report on the West Moreton (Ipswich) Coal- field.” Geol. Surv. Pub. No. 204, 37 pp., 2 maps, 1 plate, 8 figures.

Denmead, A. K., 1928. — ‘‘A Study of the Brisbane Schists.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl., 39, 71-106, pis. vi-x and text-figs.

Dunstan, B., 1916. — “ Queensland Geological Formations. Appendix.” School Geography of Queensland. G. Harrap.

Glaessner, M. F., Raggatt, H. G., Teichert, C., and Thomas, D. E., 1948. — ‘‘ Stratigraphical Nomenclature in Australia.” Aust. Jour. Sci. 11, (1) , pp. 7-9.

18

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Jones, O. A., 1927. — “ The Teitiary Rocks of the Moreton District, South-East Queensland.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl., 38, pp. 23-46, pis. 6-8, 4 text figs. 2 maps.

Jones, O. A., and de Jersey, N., 1947a. — “ The Flora of the Ipswich Coal Measures.” Univ. of Queensl. Papers, Dept.Geol., 3 (N.S.) No 3.

, 1947b. — “ Fertile Equisetales and other Plants from the Brighton

Beds.” Univ. Queensl. Papers, Dept. Geol., 3 (N.S.) No. 4.

Woods, J. T., 1947. — “ Stratigraphical Notes on the Brighton Beds.” Univ. Queensl. Papers, Dept. Geol., 3 (N.S.) No. 4, pp. 12-16.

\

Vol. LXI., No. 3.

19

MARINE INSECTS*

By I. M. Mackerras, F.R.A.C.P., Queensland Institute of Medical

Research, Brisbane.

(Received 4th April , 1949 ; read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31 st October, 1949 ; issued separately 30 th December, 1950).

Insects are highly successful and widely distributed animals, which have established themselves in many environments and come to dominate many ecological associations, and yet there are comparatively few records of their occurrence in the seas. This review has been stimulated by Wassell’s (1948) most interesting discovery of Pontomyia natans Edw. in Australian waters and by a few observations we made on a coral cay. It has been necessary to draw largely on information from other parts of the world, because Australian records are for the most part scattered in the literature and rarely accompanied by details of habitat or behaviour.

THE EVOLUTION OF INSECTS.

It is necessary, in the first instance, to remember that insects evolved as terrestrial animals (Tillyard, 1930 ; Tiegs, 1949). They arose, apparently, in the Palaeozoic from primitive terrestrial Myriapods. The Aptera came first, and Collembola have been found in the Devonian, where they lived “ in peat bogs along with Acarids, Crustacea and the most primitive types of vascular plants/’ a terrestrial, if damp, situation. There was a great evolution during the Carboniferous ; winged insects appeared, and the ancestors of many existing Orders became differentiated. Progressive reduction in loss of water through the cuticle was undoubtedly an important factor in this adaptive radiation, but some insects, such as the stoneflies and the dragonflies, were already becoming adapted to an aquatic existence during part of their life-cycle.

From this time, and still more in the Permian, representatives of more and more Orders invaded the fresh waters of the earth, so that the aquatic insect fauna became an abundant and varied one, which showed many remarkable adaptations to life in ponds, streams and lakes. It is from these that most, though not quite all, of the marine insects arose.

The insects that live in fresh waters are many, but they only represent a portion of the Orders and a fraction of the families of all the insects. So, too, the marine insects only represent a fraction — - indeed, a small fraction — of the groups which have invaded fresh water.

ADAPTATIONS TO AQUATIC LIFE.

There are two quite different basic adaptations to aquatic life. The first is shown by those insects which are insulated against the water, frequently by means of a close pile of hairs or scales, the result being that they are not actuclly in contact with the water. Water-beetles and such bugs as the water-skaters are examples of this type. They may run upon the water, they may even dive teneath the surface, covered with a film of air and carrying their bubble of air for respiration, but they are not wetted. They do, however, live in a saturated atmosphere, and the film of air may play an important part in respiration beneath the surface.

Presidential address to the Entomological Society of Queensland, 14th March, 1949.

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

The second group is truly aquatic. Their bodies are wetted, and they cannot survive out of the water in the aquatic stage of their life- history. They show many special adaptations, of which the most important are : —

1. They no longer need protection from loss of water through the body’s surface ; but they do need means to regulate ionic exchange between their body-fluids and the external environment.

2. They require special means to cope with respiratory exchange, either by breathing-tubes which pierce the surface (or some- times the tissues of aquatic plants), or by blood or tracheal gills, or by increased cuticular permeability to dissolved gases.

3. As water exchange between the insect and its environment is unrestricted, there is no need for any mechanism for storing insoluble excretory products.

4. Wings are obviously useless impediments during the aquatic stages of an insect’s life.

Marine insects show the same basic adaptations but they meet special difficulties.

1. The atmosphere surrounding the hydrophobe insects is not quite saturated, and therefore these insects may need more efficient means to control evaporation from the body-surface than their fresh-water relatives.

2. Whether on the surface or beneath it, marine insects face conditions of turbulence which are not usually found in the fresh waters except on the margins of large lakes. Even in swiftly flowing streams, the inhabitants only have to align themselves with the direction of flow, and do not need to cope with changes in direction due to tides, currents, winds, and so on. Buxton (1926) drew attention to this factor, and regarded it as an important though not a vital one in limiting invasion of the sea.

3. In addition to movement, bottom-dwelling insects must be able to withstand changes in hydrostatic pressure due to the rise and fall of the tide.

4. The turbulence-factor determines that insects living below the surface cannot depend on respiratory tubes for their gaseous exchange. Thus, it is well known that mosquito larvae cannot survive in waters where there is splash and wave motion, and it is significant that the larvae of marine Chironomidae have cutaneous respiration and their pupae lack breathing trumpets.

5. Of even greater importance is the need to regulate the exchange of water and ions, and to cope with a reversed osmotic gradient. Morphological evidence of this factor is seen in the reduction of anal papillae in mosquitoes and Chironomidae which live in saline waters.

6. The food factor may also be important. There are so few higher plants in the sea that invasion by phytophagous insects would be extremely difficult. Those which live on Algae, diatoms, etc., in fresh water find less violent change required, and so also do those which live on animal food.

MARINE INSECTS

21

7. A further hazard is probably found in the predatory life. The numbers and variety of predators one sees in ponds and streams are impressive, but those one encounters on rocky foreshores and coral reefs are even more impressive, and they differ, too, in their methods of finding and seizing their prey.

Collectively these are formidable barriers. That they are real is indicated by the fact that almost the only insects to become established in the sea are hydrophobes, which skate on the surface, or shelter in rocks or weeds when submerged, and the larvae of certain Diptera, which have cuticular respiration and efficient means of hiding from their enemies. It may be noted, too, that marine insects are nearly always small (Miall, 1903).

Invasion of the sea probably occurred by two routes : gradually from streams through their estuaries, and by more abrupt changes from pools and swamps to the littoral zone and the reefs. The open ocean appears to have been reached only once by each path. These lines are indicated in Table 1, as well as the rapid decrease in the variety of Orders as one proceeds seaward.

TABLE ].

Orders of Insects in which Aquatic Species are Known.

Order	Fresh	Estuarine	Littoral	Pelagic
Collembola (H)	X		X
Ephemeroptera (A)	X
Odonata (A)	X		(x)
Perlaria (A)	X
Hemiptera (H, A)	X	X	X	X
Coleoptera (H, A)	X	X	X
Hymenoptera (A)	x(b		X
Neuroptera (A)	X
Diptera (A)	X	X	X	X
Trichoptera (A)	X	X	X
Lepidoptera (A)	x(2)
Orthoptera (? H)	,x(2)

H = Hydrophobe adults (sometimes all stages when there is no metamorphosis).

A = Aquatic early stages.

(1) Parasitic on aquatic insects.

(2) A few genera only. Siphonaptera also occur on marine mammals.

ESTUARINE FAUNA.

The change from fresh water to salt in river estuaries is fairly gradual, so one would expect to find an equally gradual decrease in the fresh water insect fauna as one approaches the sea, and an associated appearance of forms showing progressive adaptation to life in salt water. Such an area should be one of evolutionary change and speciation. Actually, this may not be true, and Buxton quotes evidence that in saline lakes of Europe there is a critical salt concentration which bars colonisation. In waters with a saline content of less than 2.5% species of Odonata, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Diptera and Trichoptera were found, but only Diptera in those with a salt content greater than 2.5%.

It is difficult to compare these findings with what happens in estuaries because few accounts of estuarine insect faunas have been available to me. Lindberg (1937) gives detailed records of the Hemiptera and Coleoptera of a Finnish bay opening into the Baltic. The salt content of the water

22

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

was very low (from 0.1% to 2% at different stations), and both Orders were well represented, the Hemiptera by the families Hebridae (1 species), Gerridae (5), Mesoveliidae (1), Veliidae (1), Corixidae (7), Notonectidae (2) and Nepidae (2), and the Coleoptera by Haliplidae (6), Dytiscidae (31), Gyrinidae (5), Hydrophilidae (17), Dryopidae (1) and Chrysomelidae (1). Only 10 species of beetles and 2 of bugs were taken in the most saline

(seaward) station. The Plymouth workers ( , 1931) record a

caddis fly (Leptocerus) at the top of the tidal region in the Tamar R. We have seen Gerrids in the tidal part of the Mary R., and wondered whether they indicated the path taken by the ancestors of Halobates on their way to the sea. Chironomid larvae, apparently of two different subfamilies, have been dredged from muddy bottoms at considerable depth (e.g., Orthocladius oceanicus Pack, from 30 fathoms in Salem Harbour, U.S.A.).

All this is very meagre. A large and interesting field clearly awaits the naturalist, who will work in the lower reaches of our Queensland rivers and make salinity records in parallel with his insect collections.

LITTORAL FAUNA.

The insect fauna of the shore-line is more varied and better known. The types of situation also vary greatly, and we may consider five very different environments separately.

Mangrove swamp.

It is difficult to know whether to class this environment as littoral or estuarine. I have chosen the former because the Diptera at least have extended to it from the pools and swamps of the land rather than from the streams which flow past its edges. This is well shown by the mosquitoes, nearly all of which can breed — and sometimes do so freely — in water of all gradations from perfectly fresh to brackish or even con- centrated sea water, for example Anopheles punctulatus farauti Lav. in water from 0 to 1.4% and A. amictus hilli Edw. from 0 to 4.2% saline content (Lee and Woodhill, 1944).

The best known insects of the mangrove swamp are Nematocerous Diptera. Mostly they breed in the temporary pools of the inner mangrove zone, left by the high tide and more or less diluted by rain or seepage. Among the Australian mosquitoes, there are, in addition to the Anophelines mentioned, Aedes vigilax Sk., A. alternans Westw., A. longirostris Leic., Culex ' sitiens Wied., C. vishnui Theo. and C. fraudatrix Theo. (Lee, 1944). It is interesting to observe how com- pletely these forms are restricted to situations which are cut off from direct contact with regular tidal waters. Other occupants of the same environment are Chironomidae (Chironominae) and Ceratopogonidae. Adult Culicoides are extremely abundant, and have been found breeding in mangrove swamps in other parts of the world, but the only larvae so far found in this country live in fresh water (Marks, 1947).* The Dolichopodid, Thinophilus wasselli Hardy, is plentiful on uncovered tidal mud (Hardy, 1935).

* Since this was written, Lee (Aust. J. Sci ., 12 ; 74, 1949) has found the early stages of a pest species in the Salicoinia zone above ths mangroves in New South Wales.

MARINE INSECTS

23

Open salt marsh.

The insect fauna of the salt marshes in low-lying country behind the sea-front illustrates the effects of salinity referred to by Buxton, most of the species being restricted to brackish waters. It is, however, richer than the estuarine fauna, doubtless due to freedom from tidal action and better shelter from predators. In Hawaii, Williams (1936, and later papers of the series) recorded water-beetles (Enochrus) , a small, active Corixid bug, and occasionally a dragon-fly (Anax) from such brackish waters. Lispine flies, Acalyptrates (chiefly Ephydridae) and Dolichopodidae frequent the margins of the pools.

In Australia, several of the mosquitoes mentioned above breed also in salt marshes. In addition, Aedes camptorhynchus Thoms, is a salt- marsh species in southern Australia, where it replaces A. vigilax, and Lee has recorded Cut ex annulirostris Sk., usually a typical fresh- water species, as breeding in brackish water.

Sandy beach.

The beach fauna of Australia is interesting, and again is largely dipterous, although Cicindelids (C. ypsilon Dej.) are common, and various other beetles occur in cast-up masses of seaweeds or sometimes under rocks. The Cicindelids typify the adult insects of the beaches, for they are pale-coloured and fast-moving, difficult to see and exceedingly difficult to catch. The Diptera-Brachycera have similar habits. At least two robber-flies ( Clinopogon maritima Hardy and Stichopogon minor Hardy), two Apiocerids ( Apiocera maritima Hardy and A. pallida Norris), one Therevid ( Anabarrhynchus maritima Hardy), one Empidid (unidentified) and a Tabanus ( T . vetustus Walk.) frequent our beaches and, in spite of their capacity for strong flight, seem to have a very restricted habitat. Another pale Tabanid of the north (T. leucopterus Wulp), however, ranges widely out to sea and has been taken on ships many miles from the land. The Tabanidae, There vidae and Apioceridae may be classed as truly littoral, for Miss English (1947) has recently discovered their larvae and pupae in the sand between tide-marks, and has given a full description of the early stages of Apiocera maritima A All these larvae are predatory, but they obviously cannot live exclusively on each other (though they will do so if given the opportunity), and one imagines that their major sources of food must be the Annelids and small Molluscs which are common beneath the surface in the same situation.

An interesting beach-fly described from Hawaii by Williams (1938) is the greyish Dolichopodid, Asyndetus carcinophilus Par., which mounts guard at the entrance to the burrows of the sand-crab, Oxypode ; its larvae live in the sand and are predacious.

Nearer the sea, in fact running at the very edge of the wash, are the smaller but equally agile flies of the Muscid sub-family Lispinae. They are not restricted to the open beach, but have a predeliction also for seaweed masses and the margins of pools, both salt and fresh. Acalyptrate Diptera are also associated with seaweed, living mainly in the decaying material at or above high tide mark. These, with Sarcophaga and Carabid and Staphylinid beetles, constitute the “ jetsam fauna.” The Plymouth workers list seven species, and doubtless as many occur in Australia ; at least Phycodromiidae, Ephydridae and

Also (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 74 ; 153, 1949) of Tabanus orarius Eng.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Sciomyzidae are known here. Finally, one must mention Womersley’s (1937a) discovery of the males of Pontomyia cottoni Worn. (Ghironomidae) in small depressions at the edge of the water on a beach in South Aus- tralia. He has also taken them with a light around jetty piles, and thinks that they probably skim on the surface of the water (personal communication). Those on the beaches may have been washed up with the waves. The same species has been taken in Gunnamatta Bay, New South Wales (Lee, 1946). We shall have more to say about this remark- able genus later.

Rocky coast.

This is the richest in species and the best collected of the littoral environments ; it may be taken to include the rocky shores and reefs of sheltered waters, as well as those exposed to the open ocean. Dakin et al. (1948) have made a detailed study of the zonation of the latter in New South Wales, and their findings may be tabulated as a basis for marking the distribution of the insects, although most of the records to be considered will not be Australian, and the indications can only be rough approximations (Table 2).

Collembola live both on the surface of supra-littoral pools and in crannies among the rocks between tide marks. When the tide -rises, they bury themselves in the sand ; they appear to be completely unwettable. Womersley (1936b) described Isotoma pritchardi Worn, from the edge of a reef in South Australia.

TABLE 2.

Ecological Zones of Rocky Coasts.

Tide	Belt	Zone	Insects*
High-tide	Supra-littoral	V. Littorinid	Thysanura (Allow achilus) .Collembola Coleoptera (various) Chironomidae, Culicidae
Littoral	IV. Barnacle III. Galeolaria	Collembola Hemiptera (Aepophilus) Carabidae, Staphylinidae Parasitic Hymenoptera Trichoptera ( Philanisus ) Tipulidae, Chironomidae, Dolichopodidae Spiders (Desis) and mites (Pontarachnidae)
Zero low tide ...	Littoral-sub- littoral fringe	II. Pyura I. Kelp	Chironomidae Halobates

* Arranged systematically, not in sequence of occurrence.

There are few Hemiptera. Aepophilus, a small bug with a family to itself near the Gerridae, is found in Europe in company with Carabid beetles under stones and in fissures in rock not far from low water (Miall, 1903). Species of Halobates occur in the lower zones as well as at sea, H. whiteleggei Sk. being common in Sydney Harbour (Skuse, 1891).

Coleoptera are relatively numerous, to judge by the Plymouth Report. Of 116 species listed from coastal Devon, 69 were classed as coastal,” 40 as “ feub-maritime,” and 7 as “ maritime,” the last two

MARINE INSECTS

25

groups including representatives of seven Sub-orders (10 species of Geodephaga, 4 Palpicornia, 23 Brachelytra, 4 Clavicornia, 1 Lamellicornia, 3 Rhynchophora, and 2 Heteromera). The notes under the species suggest that “ sub-maritime ” corresponds with zones IV and V, and “ maritime ” with zones I-III of the Table. Mostly the beetles occurred under stones and seaweed or among barnacles, and only Carabids and Staphylinids appear to extend far into the lower zones. Miall (p. 375) has an interesting note on Aepus, one of the Carabidae : “ They run about on stones, seaweed, sponges, etc., at low water . . . they cannot avoid the rising tide. As soon as it reaches them, they creep under stones and remain motionless. The body is flattened, and covered in every part with hairs which entangle air (Audouin). There is a large pair of air-sacs in the abdomen . . . which are no doubt useful during prolonged submersion.” Tillyard (1926) notes three maritime Staphylinids [Staphylinus huttoni Br., Cafius littoreus Br. and C. maritimus Br.) as occurring in New Zealand. Though numerous in species and showing some special adaptations, the beetles can hardly be regarded as more than tentative intruders from the land.

Even Hymenoptera occur, Miall noting a small Proctotrupid as having been found under stones in company with marine Crustacea on the coast of France. Its host was not known.

There are also a few Trichoptera, the best known being Philanisus plebejus Walk, from Australia and New Zealand. “ Its larva feeds on coralline seaweed in rock-pools between tide-marks, and appears to be generally distributed round the coasts of both countries. The sub- cylindrical case is cunningly contrived from small pieces of the food-plant and other objects, so that the larva is most difficult to detect. The imago frequents rocky coasts and is very active.” (Tillyard, p. 394.)

Five families of Diptera are represented in addition to the jetsam fauna mentioned above. The Culicidae are restricted to the supra-littoral zone, where they breed in rock-pools containing various concentrations of salt water. In New South Wales, Aedes alboannulatus Macq. only occurs when the salt content is low (0.2-0. 7%) and Anopheles annulipes Walk, is occasionally taken in water containing up to 1.6% salt, but Aedes concolor Tayl. is specially adapted to these conditions, and its larvae have been found in water with a saline content from 0.1 to 7.4% (Woodhill, 1936). The adults are also restricted to this zone, the females biting freely at dusk while the males hover overhead in a pre-nuptial dance. A remarkable aberrant Culicine, Opifex fuscus Hutton, occupies a similar niche in New Zealand (Miller, 1922) and a Ceratopogonid (Dasyhelia) in Hawaii (Williams, 1944).

The Tipulidae occur lower in the series, their larvae being found “ among algae on sea-rocks, submerged by the tide ” (Alexander, 1931). Almost all belong to four subgenera of the great genus Linionia, and their adaptations seem to parallel to some extent those of the Chironomidae (Tokunaga, 1933). Adult Dolichopodidae live in the same zone, haunting the surf and breakers in search of their prey, and even flying over reefs at low tide 100 yards from the shore (Miall, Plymouth Report).

The Chironomidae are the most interesting group in this environ- ment, and show the most complete series of progressive adaptations to a marine existence. Stuart (1942) has described the supra-littoral species of Scotland. The Chironominae live in, and the Tanypodinae on, the

26

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

mud in brackish pools apparently similar to those described above for the Culicines in this country. They possess haemoglobin and reduced tracheal trunks. The Orthocladiinae occupy pools of varying salinity in the same zone, but extend also into the upper littoral. They lack haemoglobin, have large tracheal trunks, feed on algae, and some species are adapted for quick emergence and oviposition ; one secretes a him of air in the pupal case like Simuliidae. Edwards (1926) follows this group further into the inter-tidal belt, where the larvae live among seaweed and the adults congregate on the wet rocks. In C amptocladius thalassophilus Goet., the females do not rise into the pre-nuptial swarm, but wait' on the rocks for the males to descend to them. Skuse (1889) has described C. crassipennis Sk., apparently from similar situations, in Sydney Harbour.

In the Clunioninae, the larvae occur in the intertidal zone, sometimes deep in pure salt water at the outer fringe, sometimes near the mouths of streams, where there is some admixture , with fresh water ; they live in, and mostly feed on, various species of Algae. Emergence of the adults takes place when the tide is out. They mature quickly, and are usually active after dark, scampering half-running, half-flying, over the wet rocks exposed at low tide, sometimes rising in the air over the sweep of a wave (Tokunaga, 1935), sometimes clinging submerged to the rock. They mate on the rocks, and appear to be unwettable.

These species show progressive reduction of adult structures. Telmatogeton and Thalassomyia have well-developed wings in both sexes, but the males have lost the antennal plumosity, possibly associated with loss of aerial mating. In Halirytus and Eretmoptera, there is more or less reduction of the wings. In Clunio, the wings of the male are short and rounded but functional, while the females have lost wings and halteres, and are carried round attached to the males like miniature Thynnid wasps. Recent revisions of these genera have been published by Wirth (1947a, Thalassomyia ; 1947b, Telmatogeton) and Stone and Wirth (1947, Clunio). Womersley (1936a) has described Telmatogeton austr aliens Worn, from South Australia and given an account of its biology, while Dakin et al. record Clunio pacificus Edw. from the littoral- sublittoral fringe on the New South Wales coast.

The final step in adaptation to marine life is reached in the genus Pontomyia, which properly belongs to the next section. Its larvae and pupae live in delicate mud tubes among the fronds of Halophila ; the females lack antennae, mouth-parts, wings, halteres, and all but the stumps of the mid and hind legs ; they probably remain in the tubes where they emerged ; while the males have reduced, distorted wings, and swim actively in the plankton beneath the surface.

It is not to be inferred that the steps described consecutively here represent a single line of evolution. There were three, possibly more, lines, represented by the three subfamilies. The Orthocladiinae probably came down via the supra-littoral pools ; the Clunioninae may have entered the turbulence of the sea from the turbulence of rapids and waterfalls, though Wirth suggests that the fresh-water species of Telmatogeton are derived from marine forms ; while Pontomyia represents an entirely different line of evolution, being derived, according to Edwards, from the Chironomine genus T any tarsus with which it is associated in the Halophila.

MARINE INSECTS

27

A brief note on marine Arachnida in Australia may be given to complete the account of this region. Dakin et al. record the spider, Desis crosslandi Poc., as building its webs in the Galeolaria zone, and note its occurrence from Queensland to Victoria. We have seen what is probably the same species on the outer part of coral reefs, nesting in crevices inside the Lithothamnion platform at Hayman Id., and Heron Id., Queensland. Womersley (1937b), records two Hydrachnoid mites (Pontarachna halei Worn, and Litarachna denhami Loh.) from the littoral zone in South and Western Australia respectively, and has also found Halacharidae among seaweed (personal communication).

Coral reef.

The fauna of this region is an impoverished outlier of the littoral fauna described above, its interest lying in its frequently wide detach- ment from the land and the purity of the sea-water as indicated by the presence of living coral. I have references to only three groups of insects and a spider.

Collembola (Axelsonia littoralis Monz. and Pseudachorutes sp.*) occur in the outer parts of the reef inside the rampart in similar situations to Desis. They were not uncommon at Heron Id. The marine bug, Halobates, lived in the same zone, and seemed more inclined to hide in the coral than to skate on the water. In the Chironomidae, Edwards described four species from Samoa, Clunio pacificus Edw., T any tarsus halophilae Edw., T. maritimus Edw., and Pontomyia natans Edw., and additional Clunioninae have been recorded from other Pacific islands. The last three of Edwards’ species are particularly interesting, as they represent the only truly marine Chironomine genera known, and they were associated with Halophila, which is one of the few higher plants to invade the sea (Buxton) .

PELAGIC FAUNA.

We have followed an ever decreasing insect fauna from the shore to the verge of the littoral belt and to the coral reef. Now we come to the last and smallest group. Only two kinds of insects can be described as pelagic, the Halobatinae and the Chironomine genus Pontomyia.

Halobates and related genera skate on the surface of the oceans, often far from land, feeding on animal remains, and laying their eggs on floating detritus. They are unwet table, and live on, not in, the water.

Pontomyia was discovered by Buxton at Samoa. The early stages and the female belong to the reef fauna, but the males are as truly pelagic as the zooplankton among which they live. Buxton collected them with a tow-net, at night, at half to low tide by sleeping the water over the patches of Halophila. Wassell (1948) recently collected swarms of males in a night plankton haul in 8 feet of water half a mile from the shore in Princess Charlotte Bay, North Queensland. They were greatly attracted by the strong light which was used to concentrate the plankton, and swam about rapidly beneath the surface, agitating the water as the light was moved. Many clustered on the side of the vessel at the water- line where the light shone strongest. One could hardly imagine more remarkable behaviour in an insect.

* Determined by Mr. H. Womersley of the South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

CONCLUSION.

This review is admittedly incomplete ; references have been difficult to trace, and some of the literature has not been available in Queensland. Nevertheless, enough has been said to show that the sea is not as devoid of insects as might have been imagined. Naturally, most of the species are littoral in distribution, and the rocky coasts and reefs have proved particularly favourable fob colonization. Among their inhabitants, there are some which can enter the sea simply because they are unwettable and the salt water cannot reach their bodies, but others are truly marine. Only about ten families of half a dozen Orders have survived in the full 3.2% salinity of the open ocean, and of these the Chironomidae have shown the greatest variety and perfection of adaptation and the strongest tendency to populate the deeper waters. A wide field of investigation is open to the Australian worker, for our marine insects are still but little known, our coasts and reefs promise to be prolific collecting grounds, and there is no reason why the fascinating study of shore ecology should remain the exclusive province of the marine biologist.

REFERENCES.

Alexander, C. P., 1931. -The early stages of crane-flies (Diptera). Victorian Nat.. 47 : 195-203.

Buxton, P. A., 1926. — On the colonization of the sea by insects : with an account of the habits of Pontomyia, the only known submarine insect. ; 1 Proc . zooi. Soc. Lond., 1926 : 807-814.

Dakin, W. J., Bennett, I., and Pope, E., 1948. — A study of certain aspects of the ecology of the inter-tidal zone of the New South Wales coast. Aust. J. sci. Res. (B), 1 : 176-230.

Edwards, F. W., 1926. — On marine Chironomidae (Diptera) ; with descriptions of a new genus and four new species from Samoa. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond., 1926 : 779-806.

English, K. M. I.. 1947. — Notes on the morphology and biology of Apiocera maritima Hardy (Diptera, Apioceridae) . Proc. Linn. /Soc. N.S. Wales, 71 : 296-302.

Hardy, G. H., 1935. — Miscellaneous notes On Australian Diptera. III. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 60 : 248-256.

Lee, D. J., 1944. — An atlas of the mosquito larvae of the Australasian Region. Tribes — Megarhinini and Culicini. H.Q., A.M.F. Publn., 119 pp.

Lee, D. J., 1946. — Notes and exhibits. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 71: xxvi.

Lee, D. J., and Woodhill, A. R., 1944. — The Anopheline mosquitoes of the Australasian Region. Univ. Sydney, Dept. Zool., Monograph No. 2, 209 pp.

Lindberg, H., 1937. — Okologische Studien fiber die Coleopteren und Hemipteren- fauna im Meere in der Poio-Wiek und im Scha renarchipel von Ekenas in Siidfinnland. Acta Soc. Fauna Flora fenn., 60 : 516-572.

Marks, E. N., 1947. — Exhibit. Larvae and adults of Culicoid.es spp. Ent. Soc. Queensl., 14 July, 1947, Minutes pp. 3-4.

Miall, L. C., 1903. — The natural history of aquatic insects. London, Macmillan (4th reprint, 1934) : 370-381.

Miller, D., 1922. — A remarkable mosquito., Opifex fuscus Hutton. Bull. ent. Res., 13 : 115-126.

Skuse, F. A. A., 1889. — Diptera of Australia. Part VI. The Chironomidae. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 4 : 215-311.

Skuse, F. A. A., 1891. — Description of a new pelagic Hemipteron from Port Jackson. Rec. Aust. Mus., 1 : 174-177.

Stone, A., and Wirth, W. W., 1947. — On the marine midges of the genus Clunio Haliday (Diptera, Tendipedidae). Proc. ent. Soc. Washington, 49 : 201-224.

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29

Stuart, T. A., 1942. — Chironomid larvae of the Millport shore pools. Trans. R. Soc. Edin., 60 : 475-502.

Tiegs, O. W., 1949. — The problem of the origin of insects. Presidential Address to Section D. Aust. N.Z. Ass. Adv. Sci., Hobart, 13 Jan., 1949.

Tillyard, R. J., 1926. — The insects of Australia and New Zealand. Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 560 pp.

Tillyard, R. J., 1930. — The evolution of the Class Insecta. Pap. Proc. R. Soc.‘ Tasm. for 1930 : 1-89.

Tokunaga, M., 1933. — A marine crane-fly, Limonia ( Dicranomyia ) trifilamentosa, of the Pacific coast of Japan, with special reference to the ecology and the morphology of its immature stages. Philippine J. Sci., 50 : 327-344.

Tokunaga, M., 1935. — Chironomidae from Japan (Diptera). IV. The early stages of a marine midge, Telmatogeton japonicus Tokunaga. Philippine J. Sci., 57 : 491-511.

Wassell, J. L. H., 1948. — Exhibit. Marine insects. Ent. Soc. Queens!., 13 Sep., 1948, Minutes p. 2.

Williams, F. X., 1936. — Biological studies in Hawaiian water-loving insects.

Part I. Coleoptera or beetles. Part II. Odonata or dragonflies. Proc. Hawaiian ent. Soc., 9 : 235-349.

Williams, F. X., 1938. — Asyndetus carcinophilus Parent (Diptera, Dolichopodidae) . Proc. Hawaiian ent. Soc., 10 : 126-129.

Williams, F. X., 1944. — Biological studies in Hawaiian water-loving insects.

Part III. Diptera or flies. D. Culicidae, Chironomidae, and Cera- topogonidae. Proc. Hawaiian ent. Soc., 12 : 149-180.

Wirth, W. W., 1947a. — Notes on the genus Thalassomyia Schiner, with descrip- tions of two new species (Diptera Tendipedidae). Proc. Hawaiian ent. Soc., 13 : 117-139.

Wirth, W. W., 1947b. — A review of the genus Telmatogeton Schiner, with descrip- tions of three new Hawaiian species (Diptera, Tendipedidae). Proc. Hawaiian ent. Soc., 13 : 143-191.

Womersley, H., 1936a. — An interesting Chironomid Telmatogeton australicus sp. n. from a South Australian reef. Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 5 : 439-443.

Womersley, H., 1936b. — Further records and descriptions of Australian Collembola. Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 5 : 475-485.

Womersley, H., 1937a. — A new marine Chironomid from South Australia. Trans. Proc. R. Soc. S. Aust., 61 : 102-103.

Womersley, H., 1937b. — A new species of marine Hydrachnellae from South Australia. Trans. Proc. R. Soc. S. Aust., 61 : 173-174.

Woodhill, A. R., 1936. — Observations and experiments on Aede's concolor Tayl. (Dipt. Culic.). Bull. ent. Res., 27 : 633-648.

— , 1931. — Plymouth .Marine Fauna. Marine Biol. Ass., Plymouth, 2nd Ed., 371 pp. Insects, pp. 223-235.

Vol. LXI, No. 4.

31

A NEW ERGOT FROM QUEENSLAND

By R. F. N. Langdon, M.Agr.Sc., Department of Botany, University of Queensland.

(Received 21th June, 1949 ; read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 31s£ October, 1949 ; issued separately ).

In 1941 an ergot or Hyparrhenia filipendula (Hochst.) Stapf was found a few miles north of Ipswich, Queensland, but attempts to deter- mine the species of Claviceps responsible were not successful (Langdon 1942A). In May7 1948, sclerotia were collected from this host at Conandale, South Queensland. Subsequent germination showed that the ergot was a species previously unknown. It was first brought to notice by the development of the saprophyte Cerebella on infected spikelets. The amount of honey-dew produced is limited, and after mid-morning it usually dries up, at least on the exterior of infected spikelets, leaving a white encrustation about the margins of the glumes. The sclerotia remain hidden within the glumes and can be detected only by the darker and plumper condition of the spikelets. The name of this new species of Claviceps is derived from the unobtrusive symptom-picture shown by infected plants.

Claviceps inconspicua Langdon ; species nova, afhnis C. annulatae Langdon, sed stromatis colore et indumento differt.

Sclerotia fuliginea, subcylindrica vel fusoidea, in spiculis inclusa, 2-5 mm. longa. Stromata in quoque sclerotio 1 vel plures. Stipites 1.5-9 mm. longi, colore Anthracene Purple (Ridgway) vocato. Capitula globosa, papillosa, in superhcie hyphis raris brevibus, in basi annulo hypharum brevissimarum albarum praedita, colore Raisin Black (Ridgway) vocato, 0.3-0. 6 mm. diam. Perithecia 155-180 X 105-125 /x. subglobosa. Asci cylindrici, 140-175 x 4 /jl. Ascospori line ares, hyalini, Conidia hyalina, guttulata vel granulosa, lateribus recta vel leniter curva, hnibus ambobus rotundata, 15-20 X 5-10 /x.

In ovariis Hyparrheniae filipend.ulae (Hochst.) Stapf, Queensland. Prope Conandale, 30th May, 1948, Langdon (425 TYPE) ; prope Ipswich, 28th May, 1941, Langdon (163) ; Grovely, Brisbane, 12th April, 1949 (426).

The sclerotia were kept dry during the winter and subjected to cold treatment (2-4° C. for 28 days). In September they were placed on moist sand in petri dishes. Development of the ascal stage began in mid- November. Germination of the sclerotium begins with the protrusion of a small white papilla which quickly grows out into a globose tuft of white hyphae. The developing stroma is veiled with white hyphae as it pushes up, and at maturity loose hyphal elements persist on the surface of the capitulum. A ring of very short white hyphae is present at the base of the capitulum where it joins the stipe. The tuft of hyphae at the base of the stipe is persistent.

OTHER RECORDS OF ERGOT ON HYPARRHENIA.

Goncalves (1937) reported the occurrence of ergot on Hyparrhenia rufa in Brazil, and noted an association of Cerebella with the sphacelial stage of the disease. There are records of Cerebella and Fusarium as saprophytes in the honey-dew of ergot of Hyparrhenia ruprechtii in Southern Rhodesia (Hopkins, 1947). McDonald (1927) reported the

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

occurrence of C'erebella on Hyparrhenia collina in Kenya. In Sierra Leone, Deighton (1947) has found Cerebella on Hyparrhenia gracilescens, H. rufa and H. subplumosa, but he stated that he did not find it associated with ergot honey-dew. From the work of Langdon (1942B) there seems little doubt that a record of Cerebella on a grass is a safe indication of a prior infection of the host with ergot.

DISCUSSION.

In Queensland a number of native grasses are hosts for indigenous species of Claviceps (Langdon 1942A). A wide search in south-eastern Queensland since 1946 has revealed only two new hosts for ergot, and both of these were infected by Claviceps pusilla. Hyparrhenia filipendula is the only host known for Claviceps inconspicua. There are at present no other suspected hosts of this ergot, i.e., plants which have been found infected with ergot, the perfect stage of which has not been observed. A consideration of the origin of Claviceps inconspicua, whether the fungus is indigenous to Australia or, has been introduced, must take into account the origin of its host. Hyparrhenia filipendula is a plant about which there has been some doubt as to its natural distribution. Stapf (1934) for the genus Hyparrhenia writes : “ Species over 60, almost confined to tropical Africa (including the islands) and subtropical South Africa, three of them extending to tropical America, one to Asia and Australia, one to Mediterranean countries and temperate Africa.” For Hyparrhenia filipendula, Stapf gives the general extra-African distribution as Ceylon, the Philippines, and Australia, but adds that “ Hyparrhenia filipendula is often found on abandoned plantations, and its occurrence in India, Malaya and Australia may possibly be due to casual introduction.”

In Australia, Hyparrhenia filipendula is found as a constituent of the herbage in open forest areas, and it occurs also in induced grassland communities following changes effected by man in the natural plant cover. Blake (1942) found Hyparrhenia filipendula associated with a number of native grasses in an Open Eucalyptus Forest community at Running Creek in south-eastern Queensland. The herbaceous cover was dominated by kangaroo grass, Themeda australis, a species which is amongst the earliest to disappear under grazing conditions. This occurrence of Hyparrhenia filipendula in a mixture of native grasses in what must be regarded as an area carrying almost unaltered natural vegetation is \vorthy of note. That Hyparrhenia filipendula occurs in induced grass- land communities is not evidence that it is an introduced grass as might be inferred from Stapf s remarks on the occurrence of the species in abandoned plantations. Native grasses frequently are dominant in disturbed ground, for example, C apillipedium spicigerum and Bothriochloa decipiens. Imperata cylindrica var. major, a species indigenous to Aus- tralia and south-east Asia, often occupies cultivated land which has been abandoned.

Through the courtesy of Mr. S. T. Blake of the Queensland Herbarium, records of the locality and date of collection of specimens of Hyparrhenia filipendula in various Australian herbaria have been obtained. The earliest collection was by Leichhardt in 1843, the locality being given as “ Eastern Australia.” Other early collections are from the islands of Moreton Bay by Mueller in 1855, from the country west of Rockhampton by Bowman in 1867, from the Clarence River (N.S.W.) by Beckler between 1870 and 1880, and from the Apsley River in the

A NEW ERGOT FROM QUEENSLAND

33

Kimberley district of Western Australia by Crawford in 1887. The distribution of Hyparrhenia filipendula in Australia, as indicated by specimens in various herbaria, is from the Clarence River in northern New South Wales to North Queensland, and in the north of Western Australia. Mount Fraser, near Mossman, is the northernmost area from which the species has been collected in Queensland, and the grass has been recorded from a number of coastal and sub-coastal areas at various places between its known southern and northern limits. Crawford’s collection from the Apsley River is the only record of the grass in Western Australia. The comparatively late collection of Hyparrhenia filipendula in Australia might suggest that the grass has been introduced after colonization of Australia by white men, though its occurrence in places remote from centres of early settlement controverts this idea. If introduced from Africa early in the nineteenth century, the grass might be expected to occur in the south-west of the continent or near Sydney, but it does not. That the climatic conditions in the latitude of Sydney are such that Hyparrhenia cannot develop to maturity there is not a tenable hypothesis. There is in the Queensland Herbarium a fertile specimen of Hyparrhenia (? rufa), grown in the Sydney Botanic Gardens from seed imported from Nairobi. Although a species other than H. filipendula is concerned here, the range of the latter in Africa does cover the territory from which the Sydney grass was obtained. Hyparrhenia filipendula, if it had been introduced in the Sydney or Perth areas, might have established itself there in waste areas where it would be free from competition from native plants. A final point against the possibility of introduction of the grass from Africa is that Hyparrhenia filipendula does not occur south of latitude 30° S., and so is not likely to have been brought over by travellers who visited the Cape of Good Hope area on their way to Australia in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries. Since Hyparrhenia filipendula was not found in the areas serving as bases for those who originally explored or settled in other parts of the continent, it is very likely that the record of the grass by Leichhardt in “ Eastern Australia ” represents the collection of a naturally occurring species. The possibility of the introduction of Hyparrhenia filipendula from south-east Asia direct to the settlement around Moreton Bay prior to 1843 is remote.

In south-eastern Queensland, a smut, Ustilago hyparrheniae Hopkins is common on Hyparrhenia filipendula. This smut was described from the same host from Southern Rhodesia, and a Queensland specimen sent to Southern Rhodesia was reported as being identical with the type collection (Bates 1948). If seed of this grass had been accidentally introduced to this country from Africa in the past, one might reasonably suppose that the smut had come with it.

The occurrence of ergot on Hyparrhenia in Africa has been noted above, but the species of Claviceps affecting the genus there has not yet been determined. Nor is the species of Claviceps affecting Hyparrhenia in South America known. While these ergots are undeter- mined, one cannot say whether all the ergot diseases of Hyparrhenia are the same. But to assume that the Australian ergot has been brought here with an accidental introduction of seed would suppose a rather unlikely series of events, the carriage of sclerotia, with their subsequent develop- ment and release of ascospores at a time when the introduced host was flowering. This view is put forward despite the presence in Australia of Claviceps purpurea and Claviceps paspali, neither of which is indigenous

34

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

to this country. The former was introduced in the nineteenth century, probably with cereal grain or with seed of pasture grasses (possibly in both ways). In any case, an abundance of hosts of more than one species would be available to any germinating sclerotia, for native grasses as well as introduced plants are recorded as hosts of this ergot in southern Australia. Claviceps paspali appears to have been introduced much later. It has been widespread and very common on several species of Paspalum in eastern Australia since the summer of 1935-36, when it was observed for the first time. The quick development of epiphytotics of ergot in Paspalum every year now in coastal Queensland indicates how well local conditions suit this ergot. The first sclerotia to germinate after their introduction (probably in 1935) had available an abundance of Paspalum dilatatum which flowers profusely, and the initial infections should not have been difficult to accomplish. Plants of Hyparrhenia filipendula, unlike Paspalum dilatatum the chief host of Claviceps paspali, are not massed in pure stands over large areas, and are not common as weeds of waste places. Nor is any alternative host of Claviceps inconspicua known. The possibility of infection of Hyparrhenia by ascospores from sclerotia introduced by chance at any time is very much less than for the hosts of Claviceps purpurea and Claviceps paspali. Furthermore, all observed occurrences of Claviceps inconspicua on Hyparrhenia have been light infections, indicating that environmental conditions do not usually favour epiphytotics of this ergot, and that infection under prevailing circumstances is relatively difficult. The enphytotic state of this ergot disease may perhaps be regarded as the result of a long-standing association of host and parasite in this country.

The mycological evidence bearing on the question of whether Hyparrhenia filipendula is a native or an introduced species in Australia is divided. The introduction of a smut with the seed is feasible, but the probability of the introduction of an ergot specific to this host is not easy to accept. One might postulate development of an ergot species, specific to Hyparrhenia filipendula, from some indigenous Australian ergot. Claviceps inconspicua, morphologically, has much in common with Claviceps pusilla, an ergot which infects a wide range of genera in the sub- tribe Andropogoninae, and with Claviceps annulata, an ergot infecting Eulalia of the sub-tribe Saccharinae. Possibly Claviceps inconspicua and Claviceps annulata are Australian variants of the more widely distributed Claviceps pusilla. If one rejects the hypothesis that Claviceps inconspicua is an evolutionary product of the past century, specific to Hyparrhenia filipendula and developed since the time of that grass’s introduction to Australia, the above proposition may still be valid. The host Hyparrhenia filipendula is known from the Philippines (Merrill 1925) and from Ceylon, India and Malaya (Stapf 1934). Possibly it is a species of wide natural distribution, extending from Africa, through Asia, to Australia. If it is a grass of long-standing occurrence in Aus- tralia, an explanation of the presence here of its ergot, having affinities with other indigenous ergots, can be found.

The ecological, phytogeographical and mycological evidence pre- sented here supports the theory that Hyparrhenia filipendula is a species native to Australia. If one accepts the indigenous nature of the host, then Claviceps inconspicua can be regarded as an ergot indigenous to Australia .

A NEW ERGOT FROM QUEENSLAND

35

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I wish to thank Mr. S. T. Blake for his assistance in the preparation of this paper by discussion with me of the plant distribution problem involved and by making available various records of the occurrence of Hyparrhenia filipendula in Australia ; and Professor D. A. Herbert whose constructive criticism of the theories put forward has been most helpful. Financial assistance for this work was granted by the University of Queensland Commonwealth Research Projects Committee, to whom the author is grateful.

REFERENCES.

Bates, G. R., 1948. — Private communication.

Blake, S. T., 1942. — Queensl. Nat. 13 : 4-12.

Deighton, F. C., 1947. — Private communication.

Goncalves, R. D., 1937.— O Biologico 3 : 74-75.

Hopkins, J. C. F. , 1947. — Private communication.

Langdon, R. F. , 1942a. — Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. 54 : 23-32.

Lajntgdon, R. F. , 1942b. — Phytopathology 32 : 613-617.

McDonald, J., 1927. — Ann. Rept. Dept. Agric. Kenya, p. 229.

Merrill, E. D., 1925. — Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants, Vol. 1. Stapf, O., 1934. — In Prain, D.; Flora of Tropical Africa, Vol. 9.

Vol. LXI., No. 5.

37

REVISION OF BREGMACEROS WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES FROM AUSTRALASIA

By Ian S. R. Munro, M.Sc., Division of Fisheries, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.

(With Ten Figures in the Text).

( Received 25th October, 1949 ; tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28 th November, 1949 ; issued separately — — — — — — -).

SUMMARY.

Six species of the genus Bregmaceros are recognised, including B. rarisquamosus sp. nov. from New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. All are described, references to species listed, and the distribution of the genus is given. On the basis of larval and post-larval stages, B. macclellandi is recorded from eastern Australia and B. japonicus and B. nectabanus are recorded from eastern Australia and New Guinea. The larval and post-larval stages are described and figured.

INTRODUCTION.

A large series of plankton collections obtained off the eastern coast of Australia during the period 1938 to 1942 by F.R.V. “ Warreen,” fisheries research vessel of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, has yielded seventy-two larval fishes of the genus Bregmaceros. F.R.V. “ Stanley Fowler,” another survey vessel of this organization, obtained by means of a submarine lamp six specimens from Northern Territory and North-Western Australia in 1949. During 1948 to 1950, M.V. “ Fairwind,” fisheries survey vessel of the Department of External Territories, obtained by means of a submarine lamp fourteen additional specimens in Papua, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.

The identification of Australasian material has necessitated a review of the literature dealing with all described forms. Type material has not been accessible, but the differences between species have been obtained from published descriptions and figures. Compilations of adult characters and complete lists of references have been drawn up for each of the six species recognised. A revised key has been prepared to distinguish at least the adults of the accepted species. The distribution of the genus has been summarised by means of a map (Text Fig. 1).

The genus Bregmaceros was proposed by Thompson (1840, p. 184) for B. macclellandi from the Ganges River. Gunther (1889, p. 24) rightly placed Calloptilum mirum Richardson (1843, p. 46) from China Seas and Asthenurus atripinnis Tickell (1865, p. 32) from Burma (Akyab) in the synonymy of B. macclellandi. Five other forms have since been described, some of which have been considered worthy only of sub-specific or varietal rank. These are B. atlanticus Goode and Bean (1886, p. 165) from the West Indies, B. bathymaster Jordan and Bollman (1889, p. 173) from the Gulf of Panama, B. longipes Garman (1899, p. 191) from western Mexico, B. japonicus Tanaka (1908, p. 42) from Japan, and B. nectabanus Whitley (1941, p. 25) from Darwin, northern Australia.

38

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

The status of the various forms is poorly understood. Parr (1931, p. 48) recognised the need for a revision and presented a key to distinguish four species. On the other hand, Norman (1930, p. 339) followed the simpler course. By ignoring differences, he united all Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean material in a single species. This view is not accepted as larval material from eastern Australia is composed of three species, and three species occur in adjacent localities in New Guinea. This immature material serves to show that authors have been in error in assuming that variations in pigmentation are due to different stages in

KEY TO SPECIES.

I. Less than 70 scales in longitudinal series :

1. Ventral fins half body length without caudal ; less than 50 scales in longi- tudinal series ; body and fins pale and hyaline B. rarisquamosus

2. Ventral fins two-thirds body length without caudal ; more than 50 scales in longitudinal series ; body and fins in part dusky or with numerous black dots :

A. 10 scales in transverse series :

a. Eye 3.0 in head, nearly twice snout ; interorbital less than eye ; body silvery with rows of black dots near bases of dorsal and anal fins B. batKy master

aa. Eye 3.5 to 4.0 in head, equal to or shorter than snout ; interorbital conspicuously wider than eye ; body uniformly dark ... B. atlanticus

A A. 14 to 16 scales in transverse series ; body silvery, minutely dotted with brown; at least dorsal fins black ,... B. macclellandi

II. More than 70 scales in longitudinal series :

1. 13 or 14 scales in transverse series ; eye less than interorbital and snout ;

depth more than 8 in length without caudal, less than height of anal rays ; body dusky ; fins dark B. japonicus

2. 17 scales in transverse series ; eye greater than interorbital and snout ; depth

less than 7 in length without caudal, nearly equal to height of anal rays ; body pale with brown dorso-lateral stripe ; fins pale B. nectabanus

REVISION OF BREGMACEROS : DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES 39

Bregmaceros rarisquamosus sp. nov.

(Fig. 10)

D. (11-14) -I- (7-12) + (14-18), (36-39). A. (12-15) + (7-12) + (15-18), (38-40). P. 15-16. C. 24-26. Lat. sc. 43-50. Trans, sc. 10-12. Depth 5.0 to 6.1, head 5.1 to 5.6 in body length without caudal. Eye very large, 2.7 to 3.5 in head, 0.25 to 0.5 greater than snout, 1.3 to 1.7 in interorbital. Maxilla extends to below the posterior third of the eye, 1.9 to 2.1 in head. Nuchal appendage equal to, or 0.2 greater than head. Dorsal fin inserted slightly in advance of the anal fin. Longest anal ray 0.9 to 1.1 in head. Ventrals 0.45 to 0.5 of body length without caudal, extending to half way along the anterior raised portion of the anal fin. Pectorals 1.4 to 1.6 in head. (See Table I).

Eye black. Flesh glassy transparent in life, white when preserved. Body ornamented with large stellate melanophores. An hour-glass- shaped patch present on the postero-dorsal aspect of the head between the eyes and the nuchal appendage consisting of five small clusters, the three anterior composed of large melanophores and the two posterior of small spidery melanophores. On the dorso-lateral aspect of each side of the body is a weak, sub-horizontal stripe, extending from the upper angle of the operculum to the caudal peduncle, composed of two or more series of melanophores. The cells are largest under the posterior elevated part of the dorsal fin, and smallest under the low middle section of the dorsal fin. The vertebral column is heavily pigmented with large internal melanophores. A single series extends along the ventral mid-line of the trunk between the origins of the ventral and anal fins. Fins hyaline. Rays of posterior part of dorsal fin lightly dotted with minute melanophores.

This species is closest to B. nectabanus Whitley. Both species are similar in coloration, but fin and scale counts differ considerably. The New Guinea species has fewer dorsal and anal rays, and considerably less horizontal and vertical tracts of scales. It has a larger eye and shorter ventral fins.

Based on two sexually mature females (28.5, 33.3 millimetres) from Bostrem Bay (Sek Harbour), north coast of New Guinea (27.12.48) and three young adults (23.0, 24.5, 25.5 millimetres) from Port Moresby Harbour, Papua (2.7.48). Post-larval stages were obtained at Madang Harbour, north coast of New Guinea and Kieta Harbour, eastern Bougainville, Solomon Islands. All were attracted to the surface at night using a submarine lamp. The material was collected on the M.V. “ Fan-wind.” The largest adult female from Bostrem Bay is selected as holotype and deposited at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Division of Fisheries, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.

Larval Stages : — Five post-larval stages are referred to this species.

Length	Locality	Date	Dorsal Fin Rays	Anal Fin Rays
16.4 mm. 17.0 mm. 18.2 mm. 19.7 mm. 215 mm.	Kieta, Bougainville Kieta, Bougainville Kieta, Bougainville Kieta, Bougainville Madang, New Guinea ...	21.10.49 22.10.49 21.10.49 22.10.49 26.11.49	13 + 12 + 14, (39) 14+ 9+15, (38) 14 + 12 + 14, (38) 13+ 7 + 18, (38) 13 + 11 + 15, (39)	14+ 8 + 17, (39) 15+ 9 + 15, (39) 12+ 8 + 18, (38) 14 + 10 + 15, (39) 12 + 10 + 18, (40)

40

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

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REVISION OF BREGMACEROS ! DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES 41

16.4 to 21.5 millimetre post-larvae. — Most of the adult facies present. Depth 6.0 to 7.0, head 4.5 to 5.5 in body length without caudal. Eye relatively smaller than in adults, 4.0 to 4.5 in head, equal or 0.2 greater than snout, 0.2 less than to 0.2 greater than interorbital. Maxilla extends to below posterior border of pupil. Nuchal appendage equal to or 0.2 less than head, not reaching origin of dorsal hn. Dorsal fin inserted above or slightly in advance of anal fin. Ventrals 0.4 to 0.45 of body length without caudal. Pectorals 0.5 to 0.7 of head length. Scales present but difficult to count ; one example from Madang has 11 transverse and 49 lateral series. Flesh white in preserved condition, transparent in life. Pigmentation similar to adults but melanophores are smaller and less numerous. The dorso-lateral stripe is composed of a single series of small melanophores restricted to the caudal region. Pigmentation is insufficient to distinguish these post-larvae from those of B. nectabanus of similar size and development.

Bregmaceros nectabanus Whitley.

Bregmaceros nectabanus Whitley 1941, p. 25, fig. 18 (Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia — Type locality).

Bregmaceros macclellandi (non Thompson) Kent 1889, p. 240 (Cambridge Gulf, NW. Australia). McCulloch 1923, p. 29 (Darwin).

Paradice and Whitley 1927, pp. 81, 97 (Darwin).

D. (12-18) -f (9-16) + (17-23), (40-55). A. (15-19) + (9-12) + (17-24), (42-53). C. 28. Lat. sc. 70-74. Trans, sc. 17-18. Depth 6.1 to 6.6, head 5.2 to 5.9 in body length without caudal. Eye small to moderate, 3.4 to 3.8 in head, equal or 0.1 greater than snout and equal or 0.2 greater than interorbital. Maxilla reaches to below posterior border of eye, 1.6 to 2.0 (1.8) in head. Nuchal appendage 0.1 to 0.4 longer than head. Dorsal fin inserted slightly in advance of the anal fin. Longest anal rays 0.8 to 0.9 of head length. Ventrals 0.5 to 0.6 of body length without caudal, extending to end of anterior raised portion of anal fin. Pectorals 1.4 to 1.7 in head. (See Table II).

Eye black. Flesh yellowish-white in spirits, probably transparent in life. Body ornamented with large, indistinct stellate melanophores. A group is present on the postero-dorsal aspect of the head. An indistinct brownish stripe composed of one or two series of melanophores extends along each side from the upper angle of the operculum to the caudal peduncle. The fins are hyaline. The pigmentation is similar to that of B . rarisquamosus but the melanophores are smaller and more numerous.

Based on the holotype (Australian Museum Reg. No. I A 1719) collected at Darwin in 1923 by Dr. W. E. J. Paradice during survey work by H.M.A.S. “ Geranium.” Additional adult material was obtained by F.R.V. “ Stanley Fowler ” in Northern Territory and North-Western Australia. This consists of four specimens from Marchinbar Island, Wessel Group (18.10.49), one from Timor Sea, 30 miles WNW. of Charles Point, Northern Territory (22.9.49) and one from Mission Bay, Napier Broome Bay, Western Australia (11.12.49). All were attracted to the surface at night by a submarine lamp. Occurrence of this species on the north coast of New Guinea is based on three post-larval stages from Wewak Harbour collected on 23.11.49 from M.V. “ Fairwind ” with the aid of a submarine lamp. The distribution is also extended to the coasts of Queensland and New South Wales, based on sixty-four

Table II. — Fin Ray Counts, Scale Counts and Body Proportions of Seven Individuals of Bregmaceros nectabanus.

f

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

+	Napier Broome Bay 34.0 mm. 15 + 16+22, (53) 17 + 11+24, (52) 71 18 5.4 6.6 3.4 1.1 1.0 1.5 1.8 1.3 1.1 1.8
w	Timor Sea 30.0 mm. 12 + 10 + 18, (40) 16 + 10 + L7, (43) 70 17 5.2 6.1 3.6 1.0 1.0 1.4 2.0 1.3 1.2 2.0
Q	Wessel Is. 30.5 mm. 16 + 12 + 17, (45) 15 + 10 + 17, (42) 70 17 5.5 6.2 3.8 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.8 1.2 1.1 2.2
o	Wessel Is. 39.5 mm. 15 + 15 + 21, (51) 17 + 11+22, (50) 73 17 5.5 6.5 3.8 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.1 2.0
PQ	Wessel Is. 49.8 mm. 17 + 12+22, (51) 18 + 11+24, (53) 74 16 5.5 6.5 3.7 1.1 1.0 1.5 1.8 1.3 1.2 1.8
<	Wessel Is. 54.0 mm. 17 + 15+23, (55) 16 + 12+22, (50) 74 18 5.9 6.6 3.6 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.7
Holotype	Darwin 32.0 mm. + 16 + 20, (50) + 11+23, (53) 73 17 5.8 6.5 3.7 1.0 1.2 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.2 1.6

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REVISION OF BREGMACEROS : DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES 43

post-larval stages from plankton collections made by F.R.V. £< Warreen ” in the vicinities of Lady Elliot Island, Break-Sea Spit, Cape Moreton, Cape Byron, Coffs Harbour, Trial Bay, Crescent Head, Crowdy Head, Port Stephens, Sydney Heads, Jervis Bay, and Bermagui.

Larval Stages. — The immature specimens from Wewak measure 16.5, 19.0 and 19.5 millimetres respectively. The sixtv-four planktonic specimens obtained by F.R.V. “ Warreen ” vary in length from 2.1 to 21.7 millimetres.

Mo. of Speci- mens	Size Range	Station	Position	Date	Net	Depth
1	16.8 mm.	40A/38	26°'54'S. 153° 24' E.	20.9.38	N70	25 m.
12	8.4-21.7 mm.	, ,	,, , ,	, ,	N200	0 m.
1	9.1 mm.	46/38	24° 20' S. 153° 02' E.	19.9.38	N70	25 m.
7	4. 2-9. 8 mm.	, ,	, , , ,	, ,	N200	0 m.
1	14.0 mm.	48/38	27° 02' S. 153° 45' E.	21.9.38	N100	0 m.
2	14.7-16.8 mm.	49/38	28° 37' S. 153° 42' E.	21.9.38	N200	0 m.
1	11.9 mm.	52/38	30° 16' S. 153° 32' E.	23.9.38	N100	0 m.
1	9.1 mm.	128/39	32° 37' S. 152° 22' E.	3.5.39	N100	25 m.
4	4. 2-6. 3 mm.	133/39	28° 38' S. 153° 43' E.	6.5.39	N70	25 m.
2	8.0-10.8 mm.		, , , ,	, ,	N100	25 m.
3	15.4-16.1 mm.	136/39	27° 03' S. 153° 31' E.	14.5.39	N70	25 m.
1	16.8 mm.	, y	,, , ,		N100	0 m.
7	14.7-16.8 mm.		■ a	. .	N100	25 ,m.
1	11.9 mm.	137/39	30° 55' S. 153° 08' E.	16.5.39	N70	25 m.
1	14.0 mm.	, ,	, , , , ,	, ,	N100	25 m.
3	16.1-19.6 mm.	139/39	31° 51' S. 152° 50' E.	17.5.39	N70	25 m.
9	14.0-18.9 mm.		, , , ,	, ,	N100	25 m.
1	8.4 mm.	196/39	24° 15' S. 153° 03' E.	7.7.39	N200	0 m.
2	2. 1-4.2 mm.	203/39	Off Crescent Head ...	18.7.39	N100	9-200 m.
1	3.9 mm.	31/40	24 miles SE. of
			Sydney Heads	25,4.40	N70	0-200 m.
1	7.0 mm.	33/40	15 miles ENE. of
			Jervis Bay	30.4.40	N70	0-200 m.
1	4.9 mm.	, ,	, , , ,	,,	N100	0-200 m.
1	11.2 mm.	73/41	12 miles ENE. of
			Bermagui	12.10.41	N100	0-50 m.

3.9 millimetre post-larva. — (Fig. 2). Yolk completely absorbed. Mouth and intestinal tract functional. Body short relative to depth. Head and visceral cavity disproportionately large. Eye black ; choroid fissure incompletely closed. Maxilla extends to below middle of pupil. 39 or 40 myomeres. Fins little differentiated. Nuchal appendage present. Ventral fins represented by rudiments divided into 3 unequal rami. Pectoral present, consisting of an undivided fold and a muscular base. Dorsal, anal and caudal fins represented by a continuous fin fold in which rays of each fin are incompletely differentiated. Pigment entirely lacking.

8.0 millimetre post-larva.— (Fig. 3). Considerable increase in develop- ment of body form and differentiation "of fins. Body more elongate than in 3.9 millimetre larvae. Head 4.5, depth 5.0 in body length without caudal. Eye has lost choroid fissure ; 3.5 in head, slightly less than snout. Maxilla extends to below pupil. Branchiostegal rays plainly visible. Pectoral fin 0.75 of "head length. Nuchal appendage

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

I.S.R. MUNRO Del. ^

Text Figs. 2-4. — Fig. 2: Bregmaceros nectabanus Whitley, 3.9 millimetre postlarva from “ Warreen ” station 31/40 (off Port Hacking). Fig. 3: Bregmaceros nectabanus Whitley, 8.0 millimetre postlarva from “Warreen” station 133/39 (off Cape Byron). Fig. 4: Bregmaceros nectabanus Whitley, 16.1 millimetre postlarva from “ Warreen ” station 136/39 (off Cape Moreton).

REVISION OF BREGMACEROS ! DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES 45

extends to origin of dorsal fin ; slightly exceeds head length. Ventral fin rays (3) extend to the end of anterior part of anal fin ; reach 0.4 of the body length without caudal. Rays completely differentiated in all fins. Dorsal and anal separated from caudal. Caudal rounded or slightly pointed. In specimen figured D. 43, A. 45, C. 26. Anal and dorsal fins not differentiated into high and low parts. Eye black. Body otherwise unpigmented. First appearance of chromatophores is at 9.0 millimetres, when a few large stellate melanophores develop on the caudal base.

16.1 millimetre post-larva. — (Fig. 4). Typical of series which range from 14.0 to 21.7 millimetres. Most of adult facies present. Head 4.8, depth 7.0 in body length without caudal. Eye small, 4.5 in head, less than snout or interorbital ; equipped with an adipose lid and pig- mented black. Maxilla extends to below posterior border of pupil. Nuchal appendage equal to head length, does not quite reach to origin of dorsal fin. Ventrals reach anterior tip of anal but less than 0.5 of body length without caudal. Anal and dorsal fins with elevated anterior and posterior sections as in adults. In specimen figured, D. 14 -f- 11 -f- 17, (42), A. 17 + 12 + 18, (47). In the Wewak specimens D. 18 + 12 -f- 17,

(47) ; 14 + 10 + 18, (42) ; 14 + 10 + 19, (43) and A. 18 + 9 + 21,

(48) ; 16 + 10 + 18, (44) ; 16 + 10 + 17, (43). Caudal now slightly emarginate. Pectorals 0.6 of head length, with 15 or 16 rays. Scales present but difficult to count ; one example has 17 transverse and 70 lateral series. Body white or pinkish in preserved condition, probably transparent in life. Several series of stellate melanophores present. A patch of small melanophores on postero-dorsal aspect of head. An oblique row of single series extends from angle of operculum to origin of dorsal fin. A few large melanophores between bases of pectoral and ventral fins. An internal cluster lines the upper surface of the visceral cavity. Four to six large, stellate chromatophores on caudal peduncle. A single series continues forward above the lateral mid-line to the origin of the posterior elevated portion of the dorsal fin. Some internal melanophores invest the vertebral column in the caudal region. All fins hyaline.

Bregmaceros macclellandi Thompson.

Bregmaceros macclellandi Thompson (ex Cantor’s MS) 1840, p. 184, fig. 6 (Ganges Delta). Gunther 1862, p. 368 (China Sea ; Philippine Islands). Day 1865, p. 171 (Malabar and Bengal Coasts). Day 1875-1878, p. 418 (India). Day 1889, p. 433, fig. 151 (Bombay Coast, Burma, Andaman Islands). Gunther 1889, pp. 22-25, pi. 3, figs. A, B (Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Amboina, Indian Archipelago). Alcock 1893, p. 181 (Bay of Bengal). Alcock 1899, p. 75 (Bay of Bengal, Andaman Islands, Malabar Coast). Weber 1913, p. 174 (Madura Sea, Bima Bight, Molo Straits, Borneo Bank, N. Celebes (Kwandang Bay), Molucca Passage, Halmahera Sea, Waigeu, W. Ceram (Kawa Bay), Sula-Besi (Sanana Bay), Banda Sea, Wowomi-Buton, Buton Straits, S. Celebes-Saleyer, Ambon, Kei Islands, Savu Sea, N. Soembawa (Salah Bight), Flores Sea). Gilchrist and Thompson 1914, p. 87 (Cape Natal). Gilchrist and Thompson 1917, p. 320. Barnard 1925, p. 325 (Agulhas Bank ; Natal). Weber and Beaufort 1929, p. 6, fig. 2 (N. Java, Samarang Road). Smith 1933, p. 53 (Siam). Delsman and Hardenberg 1934, p. 32, fig. 23.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Calloptilum mirum Richardson 1843, p. 95, pi. 46, figs. 4-7 (China Seas). Asthenurus atripinnis Tickell 1865, p. 32, pi. 1 (Bay of Bengal off Akyab).

Bregmaceros atripinnis Day 1869, p. 522. Day 1875-1878, p. 418, pi. 91,

fig. 1.

Bregmaceros sp. Wood-Mason and Alcock 1891, p. 29 (Bay of Bengal,

off mouth of Kistna River).

D. (15-20) +. (10-17) + (13-22), (41-57). A. (18-22) + (10-16) -f (15-26), (43-63). Lat. sc. 54-71. Trans, sc. 13-16. Depth 5.5 to 7.0, head 5.5 to 7.0 in body length without caudal. Eye moderate, 3.5 to 4.5 in head, equal to or slightly less than interorbital and snout. Maxilla extends to below middle of eye, 2.1 to 2.5 in head. Nuchal appendage 0.4 to 0.5 longer than head. Dorsal fin inserted slightly in advance of anal fin. Longest anal rays 0.25 greater than head. Ventrals 0.63 of body length without caudal, extending past end of first section of anal fin. Pectorals equal to head without snout. Nape and back brown. Cheeks and flanks silvery or greenish, minutely dotted with small brown chromatophores. Dorsal, pectoral, anal and caudal fins blackish. Ventrals whitish. In young, fins hyaline with peripheral portions blackish. Pharyngial and abdominal epithelia black. (Compiled).

The Australian Museum has a single example (Reg. No. B 7536) from Bombay, 79 millimetres total length, procured from Dr. Francis Day in 1885 as B. atripinnis. D. 20 + 19 + 23, (62). A. 20 + 16 4- 25, (61). Lat. sc. 76. Trans, sc. 14. Head 6.5, depth 6.5 in body length without caudal. Eye 3.0 in head, equal to interorbital, 1.4 in snout. Maxilla extends to below posterior edge of pupil, 2.0 in head. Nuchal appendage twice head. Dorsal fin inserted slightly in advance of anal fin. Longest anal rays 0.25 greater than head. Ventrals 0.5 of body length without caudal. Pectorals 0.9 of head length. Colour brownish ; skin minutely dotted with brown specks, about 3 to 5 under each scale. Pectoral and caudal fin dusky. Dorsal dark distally. Ventrals and anal white. Pharyngial epithelium black.

Distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific, including eastern Africa, India, Burma, Andaman Islands, China, Philippine Islands and Nether- lands East Indies. Former records from Australia (Darwin and Cambridge Gulf) refer to B. nectabanus. Although adults are unknown from Australian seas, larvae have been obtained in plankton nets by F.R.V. “ Warreen ” from Queensland (Break-Sea Spit) and New South Wales (CofLs Harbour and Narooma).

Larval stages— 1 prolarva and 4 post-larvae are included in the plankton collections and they are identified as B. macclellandi on the basis of pigmentation and body proportions.

Specimens	Station	Position	Date	Net	Depth
11.2 mm.\ 13.6 mm./	52/38	30° 16' S.	153° 32' E.	23.9.38	N100	0 m.
12.6 mm	144/39	36° 15' S.	150° 24' E.	31.5.39	N200	100 m.
6.6 mm.	195/39	24° 2L S.	153° 22' E.	7.7.39	N100	0-200 m.
5.8 mm.	30/40	30° 18' S.	153° 32' E.	22.4.40	N100	0-200 m.

5.8 millimetre prolarva. — (Fig. 5). Yolk almost completely absorbed Mouth large, functional. Intestine of several clearly defined coils. Eye black, choroid fissure not closed. Pectoral and ventral fin rudiments.

«

REVISION OF BREGMACEROS ! DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES

47

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

present. Unpaired fins represented by a continuous fin fold. No fin rays differentiated. Nuchal appendage either undeveloped or detached. Ventral fins represented by a single elongate process, not differentiated into rays. About 45 myomeres. Four dorsal and two ventral large, stellate melanophores at junction of myomeres and fin folds. Smaller melanophores on caudal part of fin fold, fleshy base of pectoral rudiments, intestinal loops and supracephalic sinus. General facies of this prolarva, especially the elongate ventral fin rudiment, indicate identity with the genus Bregmaceros. The large melanophores which are carried over into later stages, indicate this particular species.

6.6 millimetre post-larva. — (Fig. 6). Body short relative to depth. Head and visceral cavity disproportionately large. Eye lacking choroid fissure ; black. Operculum and branchiostegals clearly differentiated. All radials of dorsal, caudal and anal clearly visible. D. 50. A. 52. C. 26. Caudal fin rounded. Both dorsal and anal fins elevated anteriorly and posteriorly. Nuchal appendage present but probably broken. Ventrals divided into 3 unequal rays. A reticulum of small, stellate melanophores invests the dorsal aspect of visceral cavity. A few are scattered over cheeks and base of pectoral fin. Four dorsal and four ventral giant, stellate melanophores on trunk. They are internal to the musculature and probably represent those on the fin folds of 5.8 millimetre larvae.

11.2 to 13.6 millimetre post-larvae'.— { Fig, 7). Advanced larvae measuring respectively 11.2, 12.6 and 13.6 millimetres, agree closely in all characters and appear to be later stages of the 5.8 and 6.6 millimetre larvae described above. Body form more closely approaches that of adult B. macclellandi . Head 4.5, depth 5.75 in body length without caudal. Eye 4.0 in head, equal to snout, slightly less than interorbital. Maxilla extends to slightly behind centre of eye. D. 47-48. A. 10 + 22 -f 17, (49). C. 30, slightly emarginate. Ventrals 0.5 of body length without caudal. Pectorals 0.6 of head length ; with 15 rays. Scales developed in largest specimen ; 14 transverse series ; lateral series indeterminate. Body pigmented with numerous small, stellate melano- phores as noted by previous authors in the young of B. macclellandi. They are larger and arranged differently from those of B. japonicus larvae. In the region of the anterior parts of dorsal and anal fins are 5 or 6 longitudinal rows. Under the posterior part of the dorsal fin and on caudal peduncle are 7 or 9 such rows. Others are present on nape, cheeks, lips, breast, belly and fleshy base of pectoral. Unpaired fins heavily pigmented, especially the posterior parts of dorsal and anal and caudal base. Fin pigmentation consists of series of elongate melanophores distributed along the fin rays. They are packed closehT together and partly cover membranes of posterior parts of dorsal and anal fins. Larvae of this species are shorter and greater in cross-section than larval B. japonicus of similar size and development.

Bregmaceros japonicus Tanaka.

Bregmaceros atlanticus japonicus Tanaka 1908, p. 42, fig. — (Sagami

Sea, Japan — Type locality). Parr 1931, p. 49.

Bregmaceros japonicus Tanaka 1913, p. ISO, pi. 51, fig. 197 (Sagami Se?,

Toyama Bay, Kagoshima). Jordan, Tanaka and Snyder 1913,

p. 406. Tanaka 1933, p. 332 and fig. — . Okada 1938, p. 270.

REVISION OF BREGMACEROS : DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES 49

D. (15-17) + 20 + (20-23), (55-60). A. (23-32) + (2-6) -f (23-24), (52-58). Lat. sc. 72-75. Trans, sc. 13-14. Depth 8.5 to 8.6, head 6.8 to 6.9 in body length without caudal. Eye 3.3 to 5.0 in head, less than interorbital and snout. Maxilla extends to posterior border of pupil, 2.3 in head. Nuchal appendage 0.6 longer than head. Dorsal tin inserted directly above anal tin. Longest anal ray 0.5 longer than head. Ventrals 0.6 of body length without caudal, extending almost to end of low part of anal fin. Pectorals equal to distance from centre of pupil to posterior end of head. Body dusky1 ; back very dark. Dorsal, caudal and pectoral fins dark. Ventral and anal tins dusky. Inner lining of operculum black. (Compiled).

Hitherto known only from Japan. Although adults are unknown from Australian seas, planktonic larvae have been obtained by F.R.V. “ Warreen ’’ from off the coast of New South Wales (Coff’s Harbour, Crescent Head and Port Hacking). The species is known also from northern New Guinea on the basis of a 25.0 millimetre specimen from Madang Harbour, collected by M.V. “ Fairwind ” (26.10.49) using a submarine lamp. Considered by some to be a form of B. atlanticus.

Larval stages.— There are 3 post-larvae which differ from those of B. macclellandi in pigmentation and proportions. Their elongate bodies and more numerous fin rays identify them as B. japonicus.

Specimens	Station	Position	Date	Net	Depth
1 1.5 mm.	50/38	28° 37' S. 153° 54' E.	22.9.38	N200	0 m.
21.0 mm.	104/38	34° 3' 30" S.15 1° 39' E.	15.12.38	N200	0 m.
22.4 mm.	203/39	Off Crescent Head	18.7.39	N100	0-200 m.

11.5 millimetre post-larva. — (Fig. 8). Development is slightly less advanced than in the largest post-larva of B. macclellandi, from which it differs in having a more elongate body, greater numbers of dorsal and anal fin rays, and a pigmentation of smaller and more numerous melanophores. Head 5.5, depth 7.5 in body length without caudal. Eye equal to snout, 4.0 in head. Dorsal fin inserted slightly behind anal. Caudal fin rounded, whereas larval B. macclellandi of equal length has emarginate fin as in adult. Ventrals less than 3.0 in body length without caudal. D. 52-53. A. 17 -f- 12 -f- 28, (57). Numerous small stellate melanophores are scattered over the entire body and comprise 8 to 10 irregular horizontal rows. Visceral region is unpigmented except for a mid- ventral series of melanophores between the breast and anus. Others are present on supracephalic sinus, snout, preoperculum and mandible. Unpaired fins hyaline except for a few small melanophores on the basal parts of the posterior rays of dorsal and anal, and a few scattered on the caudal rays.

21.0 to 22.4 millimetre post-larvae. — (Fig. 9). Form and proportions are similar to adults of B. japonicus. Head 5.6, depth 7.0 to 9.0 in body length without caudal. Eye 1.0 to 1.5 in snout and interorbital, 5.0 in head, black and equipped with an adipose lid. D. 14 -J- 16 -f- 23, (53). A. 20 + 11 + 25, (56). Dorsal fin inserted noticeably behind anal origin. Ventrals extend 0.36 to 0.5 of the body, length without the caudal. Pectorals 2.5 in head, with 16 to 17 rays. Maxilla reaches almost to hind border of eye. Nuchal appendage short but may be broken. Body pigmented with numerous, small, stellate melanophores

50

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

I S. R. MUNRO Del

Text Figs. 9 and 10. — Fig. 9 : Bregmaceros japonicus Tanaka, 21.0 millimetre postlarva from “ Warreen ” station 104/38 (off Sydney Harbour). Fig. 10 : Bregmaceros rarisquamosus sp. nov., 33.3 millimetre female from Bostrem Bay, Sek Harbour, North Coast

of New Guinea. Scale tracts not shown.

REVISION OF BREGMACEROS ! DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES 51

scattered irregularly over most of head and trunk. Cheeks and posterior part of visceral region unpigmented. Interorbital region with a pro- minent cluster of melanophores. A few small melanophores present on lips and fleshy bases of pectoral and ventral fins. Dorsal, anal and caudal fins hyaline, distinct from the heavily pigmented unpaired fins of B. macclellandi . At most, a few melanophores on the basal parts of the anterior dorsal rays. The 25.0 mm. post-larva from Madang has D. 17 + 20 + 22, (59) and A. 22 4- 12 4- 25, (59). There are 75 lateral and 14 transverse scale rows and the pigmentation is similar to that of Australian specimens.

Bregmaceros bathymaster Jordan and Bollman.

Bregmaceros bathymaster Jordan and Bollman 1889, p. 173 (Gulf of Panama — Type locality).

Bregmaceros longipes Garman 1899, p. 191, pi. 43, figs. 6-9 (Mexico, Pacific coast near Acapulco). Parr 1931, p. 49.

Bregmaceros macclellandi {now Thompson) Jordan and Evermann 1896- 1900, p. 2526.

D. 18 -f 10 + 19, (44-47). A. 19 + 10 + 19, (44-48). Lat. sc. 60-62. Trans, sc. 10. Depth 6.6 to 7.0, head 5.0 to 5.6 in body length without caudal. Eye large, 3.0 in head, greater than interorbital and approximately twice snout. Maxilla extends to or beyond middle of eye, 2.2 in head. Nuchal appendage 0.3 longer than head. Dorsal fin inserted slightly in advance of anal fin ; longest ray 0.75 of head length. Ventrals 0.66 of body length without caudal, extending to end of first section of anal fin. Pectorals shorter than head. Nape and back brown. Several rows of dark dots along front part of back and near base of anal fin. Flanks, cheeks and iris silvery. Dorsal fin dusky. Caudal fin pale, dusky at base with narrow white cross bar. Other fins pale. (Compiled). Restricted to the Pacific coast of Central America.

Bregmaceros atlanticus Goode and Bean.

Bregmaceros atlanticus Goode and Bean 1886, p. 165 (West Indies, off Grenada and Nevis — Type locality ; Gulf of Mexico). Goode and Bean 1895, p. 389, pi. 95. Jordan and Evermann 1896-1900, p. 2527. Borodin 1928, p. 13 (Caribbean Sea, off Rancador Reefs). Parr 1931, p. 49. Parr 1937, p. 62 (West Indies, off Cuba and Bahamas).

Bregmaceros macclellandi {non Thompson) ? Norman 1930, p. 339 (Western Africa off Cape Lopez and Sierra Leone). ? Norman 1935, p. 9 (Angola, off St. Paul de Loanda). ? Fowler 1936, pp. 1254, 1355.

D. (15-16) + x-+ 16, (48). A. (15-16) + (7-8) -f (21-22), (43-50) or 20 -p 9 + 37, (64). Lat. sc. 65. Trans, sc. 10. Depth 7.6 to 8.0, head 5.0 to 5.75 in body length without caudal. Eye moderate, 3.5 to 4.0 in head, 1.3 to 1.5 in interorbital, equal to or slightly less than snout. Maxilla extends to below posterior edge of eye, 2.0 in head. Dorsal fin inserted directly above anal fin ; longest ray 0.2 greater than head. Ventrals 0.6 of body length without caudal, extending to end of first section of anal fin. Pectorals shorter than head. Nuchal appendage 0.5 greater than head, but according to Borodin (1928) twice body length in young. Body uniformly dusky. Young with many small, dusky stellate melanophores scattered over body. (Compiled).

An Atlantic Ocean species from Western Indies, Caribbean Sea and probably the west coast of Africa.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

REFERENCES.

Alcock, A. W., 1893. — Natural history notes from H.M. Indian marine survey steamer “ Investigator.” Ser. II, No. 9. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 62 (2) : 169-184, pis. 8-9.

, 1899. — A descriptive catalogue of the Indian deep-sea fishes in the

Indian Museum, collected by the Royal Indian Survey Ship “ Investi- gator.” Calcutta. 220 pp., 1 map.

Barnard, K. H., 1925. — A monograph of the marine fishes of South Africa. Ann. S. Afric. Mus. 21 : 1-418, pis. 1-17, 18 figs.

Borodin, N. A., 1928. — Scientific results of the yacht ‘‘Ara ” expedition during the years 1926-1928, while in command of William K. Vanderbilt. Fishes. Bull. Vanderbilt Oceanogr. Mus. 1 (1) : 1-37, pis. 3-5, 1 map.

Day, F., 1865. — The Fishes of Malabar. London. 293 pp., 20 pis.

1869. — Remarks on some fishes in the Calcutta Museum. Proc.

Zool. Soc. 1869 : 511-527.

1875-1878. — The Fishes of India. London. Text and Atlas, 778 pp.,

198 pis.

1889. — The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma

(W. T. Blandford). Fishes, 2. London. 509 pp., 177 figs.

Delsman, H. C., and J. D. F. Hardenberg, 1934. — De Indische Zeevisschen en Zeevisscherij. Batavia. 388 pp., 273 figs., pis.

Fowler, H. W., 1936. — The marine fishes of West Africa based on the collection of the American Museum Congo Expedition, 1909-1915. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70 (2) : 607-1493, figs. 276-567.

Garman, S., 1899. — The Fishes. Reports on an exploration off the west coasts

of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos Is

“Albatross,” 1891. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard 24 : 1-431, pis. 1-97.

Gilchrist, J. D. F., and W. W. Thompson, 1914. — Descriptions of fishes from the coast of Natal. IV. Ann. S. A fric. Mus. 13 : 65-95.

1917. — A catalogue of the sea fishes recorded from Natal. II.

Ann. Durban Mus. 1 : 291-431.

Goode, G. B., and T. H. Bean, 1886. — Reports of the results of dredging in

the Gulf of Mexico (1877-78) and in the Caribbean Sea (1879-80), by U.S. Coast Survey Steamer “ Blake.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard 12 (5) : 153-170.

— — 1895. — Ocean Ichthyology. Smithson. Contrib. 981 : text and Atlas,

553 pp., 123 pis.

Gunther, A., 1882. — Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum. IV. London. 534 pp.

1889.— Report on the Pelagic Fishes. Repts. Sci. Res. “ Challenger,”

31. London. 47 pp., 6 pis.

Jordan, D. S., and C. H. Bollman, 1889. — Descriptions of new species of fishes collected at the Galapagos Islands and along the coast of the United

States of Colombia, 1887-88 “Albatross.” Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.

12 : 149-183.

Jordan, D. S., and B. W. Evermann, 1896-1900. — The Fishes of North and Middle America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 47 : 1-3313, pis. 1-392.

Jordan, D. S., S. Tanaka, and J. O. Snyder, 1913. — A catalogue of the Fishes of Japan. Journ. Imp. Coll. Sci. Tokyo 33 (1) : 1-497, figs. 1-396.

Kent, W. Saville-, 1889. — Preliminary observations on a natural history collection made in connection with the surveying cruise of H.M.S. “ Myrmidon ”

at Port Darwin and Cambridge Gulf in 1888. Proc. R. Soc. Queensl.

6 : 219-242.

McCulloch, A. R., 1926. — Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 8. Rec. Aust. Mus. 15 (1) : 28-39, pi. 1.

Norman, J. R., 1930. — Oceanic Fishes and Flatfishes collected in 1925-1927. Discovery Repts. 2 : 261-370, pi. 2, figs. 1-47.

1935. — Coast Fishes. Part I. The South Atlantic. Ibid. 12 :

1-58, figs. 1-15.

REVISION OF BREGMACEROS : DESCRIPTIONS OF LARVAL STAGES 53

Okada, Y., 1938. — A Catalogue of Vertebrates of Japan. Tokyo. 412 pp.

Paradice, W. E. T- and G. P. Whitley, 1927. — Northern Territory Fishes. Mem. Queensl. Mus. 9 (1) : 76-106, pis. 11-15, 3 figs.

Parr, A. E., 1931. — Deepsea fishes from off the Western coast of North and Central America with keys to the genera Stomias, Diplophos, Melamphaes and Bregmaceros, and a revision of the Macropterus group of the genus Lampanyctus. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 2 (4) : 1-53, 18 figs.

1937. — Concluding report on fishes. Ibid. 3 (7) : 1-79, 22 figs.

Richardson, Sir J., 1843. — Ichthyology. The Zoology of the voyage of H.M.S.

“ Sulphur,” under the command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, during the years 1836-42 (R. B. Hinds). London : 51-150, 30 pis.

Smith, H. M., 1933. — Contributions to the Ichthyology of Siam. VI. Jouvn. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 9 : 53-87.

Tanaka, S., 1908. — Descriptions of eight new species of fishes from Japan. Annot. Zool. Japon. 7 (1) : 27-47, 2 figs.

1913. — Figures and descriptions of the fishes of Japan including

Riukiu Islands, Bonin Islands, Formosa, Kurile Islands, Korea and Southern Sakhalin. II. Tokyo : 187-198, pis. 51-55.

1933. — Fishes. Illustrations of useful, harmful and ornamental

aquatic fauna and flora. Tokyo.

Thompson, W., 1840. — On a new genus of Fishes from India. Charleswovth’s Mag Nat. Hist. 4 : 184-187, fig.

Tickell, S. R., 1865. — Description of a supposed new genus of the Gadidae, Arakan ( Asthenurus atvipinnis). Jouvn. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 34 (2) : 32, pi. 1.

Weber, M., 1913. — Die Fische der Siboga-Expedition. Leyden. 710 pp., 12 pis., 123 figs.

Weber M. and L. F. de Beaufort, 1929. — The Fishes of the Indo- Australian Archipelago. 5. Leiden. ■ 458 pp., 98 figs.

Whitley, G. P., 1941. — Ichthyological notes and illustrations. Austr. Zoologist 10 (1) : 1-50, 32 figs, pis. 1-2.

Wood-Mason, J. and A. W. Alcock, 1891. — Natural history notes from H.M.

Indian Marine Survey Steamer “Investigator.” Ser. II, No. 1. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 6) 8 : 16-34.

Vol. LXI., No. 6.

55

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF ARNHEM LAND

By C. T. White, Government Botanist, Brisbane.

(Received 28 th October, 1949 ; read before the Royal Society of Queens- land, 28 th November, 1949 ; issued separately ).

I recently had the pleasure of examining the rich ethno-botanical collections made in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory of Australia, by Dr. Donald F. Thomson in 1935-6-7 and in 1941-2-3. The specimens are preserved in museum jars in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Melbourne, and in many cases in addition as dried specimens. In making the determinations I found several species which, so far as I know, had not previously been collected in Arnhem Land or other parts of the Northern Territory and two which seem previously undescribed. A classified account of these new records is offered here- with. Types of the proposed new species have been deposited in the Queensland Herbarium.

Family Palmae

Corypha elata Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. 2, 2 ; 176 (1832).

Arnhem Land : Glyde River, D. F. Thomson (photograph only) June, 1937, only seen growing on watercourses in the valley of the Glyde River, north-central Arnhem Land (palm 50-60 ft.).

This palm, a native of Bengal and Burma, is widely cultivated throughout tropical south-east Asia and the Malay Archipelago. It has been recorded from the , lower Gilbert River, Cape York Peninsula, Queensland (Beccari ex Ewart and others in Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet, n.s. 24, pt. II.: 256 (1911) ) but not previously so far as I know from Arnhem Land. It is probably of Malayan introduction. The deter- mination is based on a photograph only. It is undoubtedly a Corypha and I have determined it as above rather than as C. umbraculifera L., the Talipot palm, firstly because, as mentioned above, C. elata Roxb. has already been recorded for Australia and, secondly, because the photograph shows the spiral furrows on the stem that Blatter (Palms of British India p. 70) says at once distinguish this species from C. umbraculifera L.

Family Araceae

Amorphophallus galbra F. M. Bail, in Dept. Agric. Brisbane Bull. 21 (Bot. Bull. 7) : 68 (1893); Queensl. FI. 5 : 1696, PI. LXXVI (1902).

North-West Arnhem Land : D. F. Thomson 49, in dry jungle associa- tions which occur sporadically in suitable pockets near water and among hills (aroid, approx. 2 ft. high ; fruit orange and bright red in colour ; very astringent and regarded by natives as poisonous).

Typhonium angustilobum F. Muell. Fragm. Phytogr. Austr. 10: 66 (1876).

North-Central Arnhem Land, near Cape Stewart : D. F. Thomson 39 bis, savannah forest, preferably in fairly damp locations (aroid, 6-12 in. high ; rootstock eaten by the natives).

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This was included in the same jar (No. 39) as the more widely spread and better known T. Brownii Schott, of which, when better known, it may prove to be only a form or variety.

Family Zingiberaceae

Curcuma australasica Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 5620 (1867).

Arnhem Land : D. F. Thomson 12, jungle associations generally near water and in sandy soil (flowers during wet season about January, colour of flower, tinged purplish).

Family Leguminosae Teptirosia arnhemica sp. nov.

Herba perennis, caulibus paucis humifusis debilibus ca. 0.5 m. longis simplicibus vel pauciramosis tenuiter pubescentibus. Folia petiolata, 19-21-foliolata, rachi cum 1-1.5 cm. petiolo 5-8 cm. longa ; foliola linearia vel lineari-lanceolata, subtus tenuiter pubescentia, apice apiculata, basi leviter cuneata, breviter petiolulata, nervis praecipuis ca. 5. Racemi gracillimi, elongati, remotiflori, ad. 18 cm. longi ; flores pedicellati, pedicellis 2-3 mm. longis, dense strigoso-pubescentibus ; calyx 2 mm. longus, dense albido-pubescens, lobis acutis ; vexillum extus dense albido-hirsiitum, unguiculatum, 7 mm. longum et 5 mm. latufn ; alae glabrae 5 mm. longae et 2 mm. latae ; carina aequilonga ; ovarium albido-hirsutum. Legumen (immaturum) rectum 3.3 cm. longum, dense alb: do-hi rsut um .

North Arnhem Land : D. F. Thomson 15, open savannah especially in sandy soil (herb, 12 in. high ; flowers small, pink or purplish in colour ; rootstock about the size of a small parsnip, used to poison fish).

Very' close to T. remoti flora F. Muell. ex Benth., but the two can be distinguished as follows :

Upright shrub or subshrub, leaflets 7-11, oblong-cuneate, lateral veins numerous

and close together T. remotiflora

Herb or subshrub, several weak diffuse stems from a common stock, leaflets 19-21, linear or linear lanceolate, lateral nerves distant about 5 on each side of the midrib T. arnhemica

Family Anacardiaceae

Buchanan? a arborescens Blume Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 1 : 183 (1850).

North-East Arnhem Land : D. F. Thomson 113, chiefly in higher rainfall areas where the vegetation has a rain-forest appearance (tree 15-20 ft.).

Distribution : Burma, Malay Archipelago, Philippine Islands and tropical Australia.

Buchanania obovata Engler in DC. Monogr. Phan. 4 : 187 (1883). Far-eastern Arnhem Land : South of Melville Bay and vicinity of

Port Bradshaw ; D. F. Thomson 2, 20 and 81.

Distribution : Confined to Australia.

There has been considerable confusion regarding the. species of Buchanania in Australia. B. arborescens Bl. as I understand the species is common in Queensland. According to Dr. Thomson, in Arnhem Land it grows in the jungle (monsoon forest or light rain-forest) whereas B. obovata Engl, is a savannah-forest tree. It is rare in Queensland.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF ARNHEM LAND

57

Family Sapindaceae

Ganophyllum falcatum Blume Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 1 : 230 (1850).

Arnhem Land : North coast, D. F. Thomson 4, on raised area above sand beach on fringe of dry jungle (tree 30-35 feet, fruit reddish orange, matures in December, eaten by natives).

Distribution : Andaman Islands, Philippines, Java, New Guinea and tropical Australia.

Family Combretaceae Terminalia carpentariae sp. nov.

Arbor 10-13 m. alta, ramulis densissime velutino-pubescentibus- Folia subchartacea oblonga vel rarius elliptico-oblonga plerumque obtusissima et interdum leviter emarginata, rarissime breviter acuminata, basi obtusa vel rarissime brevissime cuneata, utrinque dense et molliter pubescentia, nervis praecipuis ca. 7 in utroque latere, reticulatione utrinque prominulo vel subtus interdum plus vel minus prominenti ; petiolus 2-4 cm. longus ; lamina 8-12 cm. longa, 6-9 cm. lata. Spicae fructiferae 6-8 cm. longae, densissime velutino-pubescentes. Drupae dense velutino-tomentosae, 3 cm. longa6, 1.7 cm. latae, 1 cm. diam., ellipsoideae, rostratae compressae vel plano-convexae, lateribus acute angulatis.

Northern Territory : Arnhem Land : north coast, Crocodile Islands, D. F. Thomson 111 (type), chiefly in zone fringing the sea-front (tree 30-40 feet, cambium layer used for caulking canoes). Settlement Creek, L. J. Brass 236, October, 1922, hill country (small tree, fruit said to be excellent eating when stewed. Local name “ Plum Tree ”).

Queensland : Burke District : Gulf of Carpentaria, Mornington Island : J. F. Bailey, June 1901 ; E. W. Bick 236, October, 1922 ; Lawn Hill : H. I. Jensen 94, May, 1940.

This tree grows in several parts of the “ Gulf ” country of Queens- land and is apparently common and widely spread in the Northern Territory, as in addition to the specimens quoted above it is represented by several sheets in the Blake (Northern Australia Regional Survey) and Specht (Australian-American Arnhem Land Expedition) collections. It is undoubtedly very closely allied to T. platyphylla F. Muell., with which it has been confused in the past. Another very closely allied species is T. aridicola Domin.

The Australian species of Terminalia are notoriously difficult to delimit, but I think we are dealing with three distinct species here which can be keyed out or rather summarised as follows :

Leaves mostly cuneate, rarely subobtuse at the base, more or less densely pubescent on both surfaces, petiole 1-2 cm. long, lamina 4-8 cm. long, 2-5 cm. wide, lateral nerves about 6 on each side of the midrib ; drupe broadly and shortly ellipsoid, not rostrate, not compressed but with sharp angles almost developed into lateral wings in the younger stage, dis- appearing and only remaining as a sharp edge in the mature fruit, densely pubescent, 2.5 x 2 x 1.5 cm. T. aridicola

Leaves mostly cuneate, very rarely obtuse at the base, glabrescent above or at most thinly pubescent, petiole 2-3 cm. long, lamina 10-17 cm. long, 6-10 cm. wide, lateral nerves 8-10 on each side of the midrib ; drupe rostrate, narrowly ellipsoid without any angles or wings, not compressed nor inclined to be plano- convex, thinly pubescent, 3xlxl cm T. platyphylla

58

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Leaves mostly obtuse, , very rarely indistinctly and very shortly cuneate at the base, densely velvety pubescent on both faces, petiole 2-4 cm. long, lamina 8-12 cm. long, 6-9 cm. wide, lateral nerves 7 on each side of the midrib ; drupes rostrate, ellipsoid, more or less compressed or plano-convex (or at least very slightly convex on one face and markedly so on the other), acutely angled on the sides, densely tomentose, 3 x 1.7 x 1 cm T. carpentariae

Family Thymelaeaceae

Phaleria blumei Benth. var. latifolia Benth. FI. Austr. 6 : 38 (1873).

Arnhem Land : Caledon Bay, D. F. Thomson 57, August 1936, near the beach (shrub, used as a fibre plant).

Distribution : Malay Archipelago, tropical Australia.

Family Rhizophoraceae

Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. Prodr. 311 (1834).

North Arnhem Land : Crocodile Islands, D. F. Thomson 28, Septem- ber 1935, mangrove zone (tree 20-25 feet, wood used by natives for canoe paddles).

Distribution : India, Malay Archipelago, tropical Australia.

Vol. LXI., No. 7.

59

HEAVY MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF

SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND.— Part II.

PHYSICAL AND MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION, MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS, AND ORIGIN OF THE HEAVY MINERALS.

By A. W. Beasley, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C., F.G.S., c /- Department of Geology, University of Queensland.

(With Five Text-Figures and Six Plates.)

(Received ZQth August, 1949 ; tabled before the Royal Society of Queens-

land 28 th	November, 1949 ; issued separately — - — - —	- )•
	CONTENTS.
		Page
Summary		59
I.	Introduction		60
II.	Places of Collection of the Beach Sand Samples		60
III.	Mechanical Composition of the Natural and Panned	Heavy
	Mineral Beach Sand Concentrates		62
IV.	Mineralogical Methods ... ... ...		72
V.	Mineralogical Composition of the Heavy Mineral Beach Sand
	Concentrates		75
VI.	Description of the Minerals		78
VII.	Geographic Distribution of the Heavy Minerals		83
VIII.	Origin of the Heavy Minerals		84
IX.	Conclusions and Outline of Geological History of the Heavy
	Minerals ... ...		101
X.	Acknowledgments ...		103
XI.	Bibliography		104

SUMMARY.

The physical and mineralogical composition of 50 samples of heavy mineral sands, collected from along a 300-mile stretch of the Eastern Australian coast, are described. Results of sieve analyses of the samples of natural concentrate, and of the panned heavy mineral concentrate obtained from them, are presented. The median diameter, coefficients of sorting and log skewness of the heavy mineral concentrates are given, and the values plotted against distance of the samples along the coast from south to north. Descriptions and comparisons of physical com- positions are based mainly on these measures, and they are shown to be of use in suggesting places of heavy mineral addition and direction of transport along the coast. The percentage of heavy minerals in the natural concentrates ranges up to 95.2% by weight. Mineral analyses of the heavy mineral concentrates are given in weight percentages, and 20 species are listed. The minerals are described and the geographic distribution along the coast is discussed. Over 90% of the heavy minerals in all the samples consist of zircon, rutile and ilmenite. Decreases in the degree of zircon abrasion around the major coastline breaks and about the headlands of Mesozoic sandstone suggest that heavy mineral material has been added to the shore at these points. The geology of the region, and study of the heavy mineral assemblages of 20 selected rock samples and 1 1 river sand samples indicate that Mesozoic freshwater sandstones are the immediate source rock for most of the heavy minerals in the beach sands. The main primary sources are Permian granitic

60

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

rocks, but some of the ilmenite in the sands has been derived from Tertiary basalts. An outline of the geological history of the heavy minerals is presented.

I. INTRODUCTION.

From 1945 to 1947 an investigation was carried out into the nature, distribution, extent, and manner of formation of the heavy mineral sand deposits of the S.E. Queensland coast. The results of this have already appeared in these Proceedings (Beasley, 1948).

During the field work samples were collected from places of heavy mineral concentration on the beaches and the adjacent dunes. These, together with a number collected by the Queensland Geological Survey, form the material on which the present work is based. The samples were obtained from the 250-mile stretch of Queensland coastline between the New South Wales border in the south and Indian Head on Fraser Island in the north. A small representative collection was obtained from Northern New South Wales for comparison with the Queensland sands. These were collected along the coast from the State border southwards for 50 miles to Ballina.

The black sand deposits of commercial importance in Eastern Australia occur between Ballina and Moreton Island. From Moreton Island northwards to Fraser Island the deposits are small and widely separated.

Almost all sand samples were obtained by boring with a 4-inch post-hole digger. Samples of black sand seams and composite samples of entire bores were taken as previously described (Beasley, 1948, p. 118). A small number of samples was obtained from cased bores put down with hand and power-driven plants, and a few were obtained from the faces exposed in the workings of operating companies.

The main objects of the present work have been to determine the physical and mineralogical constitution of the sands, particularly the heavy mineral content, to describe the heavy minerals, and to enquire into their origin. For economic reasons, weight percentages of the heavy mineral species have been determined in preference to mineral grain number percentages.

II. PLACES OF COLLECTION OF THE BEACH SAND SAMPLES.

The localities given are numbered consecutively from south to north. Unless otherwise stated, the samples are from black sand seams in bores. The first six samples are from Northern New South Wales.

1. Top of beach just S. of mouth of Richmond River, Ballina.

2. Immediately in front of foredune on S. side of Lennox Head.

3. Seam exposed in workings on Seven-Mile Beach, just S. of Byron Bay.

4. Seam exposed in beach workings near mouth of Crabbe's Creek, 4 miles N. of New Brighton.

5. Behind foredune, £ mile S. of Norries Head.

6. Top of beach, 3 miles S. of Cudgen Headland.

7. Top of beach 4 chains N. of Tugun Surf Pavilion.

8. Seam exposed in beach workings at Flat Rock, Tugun.

9. Seam exposed in beach workings £ mile S. of South Nobby Headland and opposite Fifth Avenue, Burleigh.

10. Composite sample of 6 feet in bore in most landward of Recent coastal dunes, \ mile inland, at South Nobby.

11. Immediately behind third dune ridge inland from beach, £ mile N. of North Nobby.

TEXT- FIGURE I.— LOCALITY MAP, SHOWING PLACES OF

MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, Part II. 61

12. Hollow between two dupe ridges £ mile inland, 1 mile S. of Broadbeach Surf Pavilion.

13. Seam exposed in workings immediately behind foredune, £ mile S. of Broad- beach Surf Pavilion.

14. Immediately in front of foredune, on Southport sandspit, 2 miles S. of Nerang River mouth.

15. Seam exposed in vertical wave-eroded scarp at top of beach, £ mile N. of southern extremity of South Stradbroke Island.

16. Composite sample of 3 ft. bore containing thin black sand seams, immediately in front of foredune, 3^ miles N. of southern extremity of South Stradbroke Island.

17. Top of beach, 5 miles N. of southern extremity of South Stradbroke Island.

18. Seam exposed in deep hollow immediately in front of foredune, miles N. of southern extremity of South Stradbroke Island.

19. Top of beach near extreme southern end of North Stradbroke Island, just N. of Jumpinpin Break.

20. Foot of foredune, 15 miles S. of Pt. Lookout, North Stradbroke Island.

21. Foot of foredune, 12 miles S. of Pt. Lookout. North Stradbroke Island.

22. Seam exposed in deep hollow or “ blow-out ” in foredune, 9£ miles S. of Pt. Lookout, North Stradbroke Island.

23. Composite sample of 10 ft. bore sunk through wind-concentrated heavy mineral sand, just seaward of crest of Pleistocene foredune, i mile S. of mouth of Blue Lake Creek, North Stradbroke. Island.

24. Composite sample of 18 ft. bore sunk through wind -concentrated heavy mineral sand, in high Pleistocene dunes 1 mile inland from present strandline and \ mile S. of Blue Lake Creek, North Stradbroke Island.

25. Composite sample of 18 ft. bore sunk through wind-concentrated heavy mineral sand near Blue Lake, in region of Pleistocene dunes, miles inland from present strandline.

26. Composite sample of 36 ft. bore in Eighteen Mile Swamp adjacent to western margin, \ mile N. of Blue Lake Creek, North Stradbroke Island.

27. Composite sample of 18 ft. bore sunk through wind-concentrated heavy mineral sand, at elevation of 280 feet, near crest of Pleistocene foredune, 1^ miles N. of Blue Lake Creek, North Stradbroke Island.

28. Top of beach, £ mile S. of Pt. Lookout, North Stradbroke Island.

29. Top of beach, 1 mile E. of Rocky Point, on northern side of Stradbroke Island, just W. of Pt. Lookout.

30. Surface accumulation of black sand on beach at Amity Point Wharf, Strad- broke Island.

31. Top of beach, miles N. of southern end of Moreton Island.

32. Top of beach, 10 miles N. of southern end of Moreton Island.

33. Top of beach, 14 miles N. of southern end of Moreton Island.

34. Top of beach, 4£ miles S. of Cape Moreton, Moretop Island.

35. Top of beach, 1£ miles S. of Cape Moreton, Moreton Island.

36. Top of beach, \\ miles W. of North Pt., near Yellow Patch, Moreton Island.

37. Top of beach, 1 mile E. of Comboyuro Pt., Moreton Island.

38. Immediately in front of foredune, 3 miles S. of northern end of Bribie Island.

39. Black sand surface accumulation on beach adjacent to Caloundra Head.

40. Black sand surface accumulation at top of beach near Alexandra Headland.

41. Immediately in front of foredune, J mile S. of Pt. Arkwright.

42. Immediately in front of foredune, 1 mile S. of Paradise Caves, Noosa, along Coolum Beach.

43. Black sand surface accumulation on beach, 10 chains S. of mouth of Noosa River.

44. In front of foredune, 3 miles N. of mouth of Noosa River, along Laguna Beach

45. On Laguna Beach, 10 miles N. of Noosa.

46. Immediately in front of foredune, £- mile S. of Double Island Point.

47. Black sand surface accumulation on beach, 1£ miles S. of Inskip Point.

48. Black sand surface accumulation on beach, 1 mile N. of Hook Point, Fraser Island.

49. Black sand surface accumulation on beach, immediately S. of Poyungan Rocks (recently cemented beach sand).

50. Immediately in front of foredune, 1 mile S. of Indian Head, Fraser Island.

The localities are shown in Text-figure 1.

62

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

III. MECHANICAL COMPOSITION OF THE NATURAL AND PANNED HEAVY MINERAL BEACH SAND CONCENTRATES.

Mechanical analysis of the samples of natural concentrate was carried out to obtain knowledge of their size distribution. As the grains generally have diameters greater than 0.062 mm. (1/16 mm.), it was possible to separate them into fractions with sieves.

Sieve analysis of samples of the heavy mineral concentrate obtained from the natural concentrate by panning also was carried out. Know- ledge of the size distribution, sorting, and skewness of these samples was considered desirable for purposes of comparison. Satisfactory comparisons could not be made from the mechanical analysis of the natural concentrate owing to the marked difference in specific gravity between the light and heavy minerals and the local variations in the degree of natural, heavy mineral concentration. However, as in all the samples of panned concentrate over 90% of the minerals was found to consist of zircon, rutile and ilmenite, which have similar specific gravities and have been naturally concentrated in grains of very similar size, it has been possible to compare and describe these concentrates using statistical measures derived from the cumulative frequency , curves. An interpretation of the mechanical analyses in terms of heavy mineral supply and transportation along the coast has tlius been possible.

From Ballina to Indian Head the ocean coastline consists of a series of arc-shaped sandy beaches separated by rocky headlands. These coastline curves are broken in places by river mouths and breaks between the coastal islands, and between the islands and the mainland. The beaches are gently sloping, ranging in width up to 200 feet at low tide, and are bordered by a belt of coastal dunes. A detailed account of the physiography has been given elsewhere (Beasley, 1948, pp. 111-116). In the southern half of the area the headlands are chiefly composed of Lower Palaeozoic slates and greywackes and Tertiary basalts ; but from Cape Moreton northwards they are largely of Mesozoic sandstones, except for Indian Head, which is composed of Tertiary basalt. Throughout and beyond the area, the prevalent wind is the South-East Trade, and close to the land there is an inshore ocean current setting in a northerly direction with a rate of from a quarter to one knot. In the summer months south-east gales are not infrequent and, with the powerful waves striking the beach obliquely, the sand is drifted along the beach. Under these influences, combined with the longshore ocean current, it would seem that the direction of sand transport is mostly northward.

Mechanical Analysis.

In the laboratory, the samples of natural concentrate, usually of the order of several hundred grams, were washed free of salt, dried, and split by a rotary sample-splitter to approximately 40 grams. The sample- splitter consisted of a turntable with a tin mounted on it containing a number of glass tubes, into which the sand was discharged from an overhead funnel. The split samples were weighed, then shaken in a nest of sieves with a Ro-tap mechanical shaker for 30 minutes. The sieves used were numbers 60, 85, 100, 120, 150 and 200 of the British Standard Series, the apertures respectively being 0.251, 0.178, 0.152, 0.124, 0.104 and 0.076 mm. Distortion of the mesh due to wear was negligible. The resulting size fractions were then weighed, percentages calculated, and the results tabulated (Table I).

(The abbreviations “ Nat.” and “ Pan.” immediately after the sample numbers in the following Table refer respectively to the natural concentrate and the panned concentrate derived from it. In a few cases the panned concentrate only was sieved.)

MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II.

63

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MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II.

65

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66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

To obtain heavy mineral samples from the natural concentrates for sieve analysis, panning was found to be satisfactory as the heavy minerals are abundant and over 95% of them differ markedly in specific gravity from the light minerals. The samples of natural concentrate were weighed and panned ; porcelain evaporating dishes were used in the final stages instead of prospecting dishes as the heavy minerals remaining showed up more plainly against the white background. The panned

Table II. — First and Third Quartiles, Medians, Coefficients of Sorting and Log Skewness of the Panned Concentrates.

No.	Qi	M Millimetres	Q3	So	Log Sk
1 . .	.120	.115	.108	1.05	.004
2	.120	.115	.108	1.05	.004
3 . .	.118	.112	.104	1.06	.004
4	.120	.115	.108	1.05	.004
5 . .	.120	.113	.106	1.06	.000
6	.122	.114	.106	1.07	.000
7 . .	.122	.114	.106	1.07	.000
8 . .	.122	.114	.107	1.07	-.001
9	.120	.113	.106	1.06	.000
10 . .	.190	.149	.112	1.30	.000
11 . .	.124	.115	.107	1.08	-.001
12 . .	.120	.111	.103	1.08	-.001
13 . .	.122	.114	.107	1.07	-.001
14	.122	.113	.105	1.08	-.001
15	.192	.124	111	1.31	-.080
16	.136	.115	.105 ’	1.14	-.017
17 ..	.120	.110	.100	1.10	.000
18	.149	.118	.110	1.16	-.036
19	.160	.120	.111	1.20	-.048
20	.147	.133	.118	1.11	.004
21	.155	.114	.108	1.20	-.055
22	.120	.111	.100	1.10	.004
23	.120	.110	TOO	1.10	.000
24	.120	.110	TOO	1.10	.000
25	.121	.110	TOO	1.10	-.001
26	.123	.112	.104	1.09	-.005
27	.120	.110	TOO	1.10	.000
28	.120	.111	TOO	1.10	.004
29	.154	.117	.107	1.20	-.042
30	.160	.116	.106	1.23	-.052
31 ..	.180	.151	.119	1.23	.009
32	.123	.115	. .108	1.07	-.001
33	.148	.116	.106	1.18	-.034
34	.123	.113	.104	1.09	-.001
35	.166	.123	.111	1.22	-.046
36	.164	.122	.111	1.21	-.046
37	.153	.118	.110	1.18	-.043
38	.190	.153	.120	1.26	.005
39	.230	.200	.171	1.16	.000
40	.139	.114	TOO	1.18	-.034
41	.217	.180	.151	1.20	-.008
42	.172	.150	.118	1.21	.019
43	.164	.128	.113	1.20	-.030
44	.121	.114	.106	1.07	.004
45	.124	.115	.106	1.08	.000
46	.150	.118	.110	1.17	-.038
47	.173	.140	.114	1.23	— .006
48	.151	.118	.109	1.17	-.037
49	.120	.111	TOO	1.10	.004
50 . .	.131	.117	.110	1.09	-.011

MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II. 67

heavy mineral concentrate was then dried and weighed, and the weight percentage of heavy minerals in the sample of natural concentrate was determined (see Table I). Each sample of panned concentrate was split by the rotary sample-splitter to approximately 40 grams, and the split samples were weighed and screened as described for the natural concentrates. The resulting size fractions were weighed, percentages calculated, and the results tabulated (Table I). Cumulative frequency curves were constructed from this information, and from them the first ,and third quartiles and the median diameter were tabulated (Table II).

Comparison of the samples is based on the median diameter and the coefficients of sorting and log skewness, following Trask (1932). Where Q1 and Q3 are the first and third quartiles, respectively, and M the median, the coefficient of sorting, is -y/Ql/QS. It expresses the measure of the average quartile spread. Thus perfect sorting equals unity, and the larger the value the more poorly sorted is the sample. The coefficient of skewness, a measure of the dis-symmetry of the size distribution with respect to the median, is derived from the expression log Q1 x log Q3/(log M)2.

For convenience the logarithm of the skewness is used. Thus a minus value indicates that the mode or peak of the simple frequency curve is on the coarse side of the median, while a positive value indicates the opposite. The coefficients of sorting and log skewness of the panned concentrates were calculated and tabulated (Table II).

Graphical Representation and Discussion of Results.

From an examination of the mechanical analyses of the natural and panned heavy mineral concentrates shown in Table I it will be seen that the light constituents (essentially quartz) occur in coarser grains than do the heavy minerals. This may be explained by the fact that for a certain size of quartz there is a smaller size of heavy mineral which is deposited with it, because they have the same “ hydraulic value ” or the same settling rates. Generally, the greater the weight percentage of heavy minerals in the natural concentrate, the less the amount of material retained on the two coarsest sieves, B.S.S. Nos. 60 and 85. In all except three of the samples of panned heavy mineral concentrates, the maximum sieve-fraction percentage, which ranges from 32% in No. 31 to 72% in No. 4, lies in the 0.124 to 0.104 mm. grade size. The three exceptions are samples No. 38, 39 and 41, all of which have the maximum sieve-fraction percentage, ranging from 30.4% in No. 38 to 6,3% in No. 39 in the 0.251 to 0.178 mm. grade size.

In Text-figures 2, 3 and 4 the median diameter, coefficients of sorting and log skewness, respectively, of the samples of panned con- centrate have been plotted against distance along the coast, from south to north.

Median Diameter. — Table II and Text-figure 2 show that the median diameter of the panned heavy mineral concentrates ranges from a minimum of' 0.110 mm. (Stradbroke Island) to a maximum of 0.200 mm. (Caloundra).

From Ballina northwards to the South Passage the trend is for a slight decrease in the median values, apart from abrupt increases around the two major coastline breaks in this stretch (Nerang River mouth and Jumpinpin Break). These increases are much more pronounced

68

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

on the northern side of the breaks, but on neither side are they main- tained for any great distance. The general trend for a slight decrease in median values northwards in this region suggests that the material has come mainly from the south. The decrease is in the direction of the beach drift. The sudden, temporary increases around the Nerang

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River mouth and the Jumpinpin Break suggest that heavy mineral material is added at these points. The fact that there is much less increase on the southern side of these two major breaks appears to be due to the northward direction of sand transport. In this 106 mile-long stretch of coast the median diameter of the panned heavy mineral concentrates ranges from a minimum of 0.110 mm. to a maximum of 0.133 mm.

MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II. 69

It is of- interest to find that the median diameter of one of the five dune sand concentrates, sample No. 10, is as large as 0.149 mm. This may be because the heavy minerals of this sample from a low, inland dune have not been through the surf zone as often, and have not been subjected to as much abrasion by water, as those in the more recent beach sand deposits adjacent to the present strandline. Some 40 miles further north, the median diameter of the other inland dune sand concentrates, samples 23, 24, 25 and 27 is only 0.110 mm. These four concentrates, however, are from the phenomenally high dunes of North Stradbroke Island, and were collected from bores sunk at elevations ranging from 50 to 280 feet above present sea-level, and from as far as 1J miles inland from the present strandline. The much smaller median diameter than that of sample 10 apparently is related to the stronger winds which formed these unusually high dunes. Greater distance from the source of the heavy minerals may also be a contributing factor. Alf five of these concentrates are from fixed dunes in which there has been no sand-movement for many years. They have been included in this study for comparison with the 45 beach sand samples, as they are from low-grade dune sands which are at present attracting some commercial interest.

From the South Passage northwards to Indian Head the median diameter shows marked increases in samples from most of the headlands, as well as just north of two major coastline breaks (South Passage and North Passage). In this region, the headlands of Cape Moreton, Caloundra Head, Point Arkwright, Noosa Head and Double Island Point are made up largely of Mesozoic sandstones* while Indian Head is com- posed of Tertiary basalt. As the black sand deposits from the South Passage northwards are of small extent and are usually restricted to the vicinity of the headlands, it seems that the source of these heavy minerals with large median diameter is comparatively local in most cases. No general trend in median values is apparent for this 190 mile-long stretch of coast. From Caloundra Head northwards, however, the amount of increase in median diameter at succeeding headlands generally diminishes.

Sorting. — The heavy mineral concentrates are well sorted, the coefficient of sorting ranging from 1.05 to 1.31 (Table II and Text- figure 3). The least well-sorted heavy minerals usually occur just north of major coastline breaks and about the headlands of Mesozoic sandstone. It will be noticed too that the degree of sorting increases markedly away from these coastline breaks and sandstone headlands.

From Ballina to the mouth of the Nerang River, an area in which there are no headlands of Mesozoic sandstone and no major coastline breaks, there is a slight decrease in the degree of sorting (that is, an increase in the coefficients of sorting). This is unexpected, for throughout the area the direction of sand drift is northward under the influence of the prevailing SE. winds and northerly longshore current. Although the decrease is only a very small one, sorting was expected to increase in the direction of drift.

With reference to the five dune sand concentrates studied, sample number 10, which has a comparatively large heavy mineral median, is the least well-sorted, while samples 23, 24, 25 and 27 (those from North Stradbroke Island), which have small median diameters, are all very well sorted. However, the dune sand concentrates do not have the highest degree of sorting of the samples studied. Text-figures 2 and 3

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

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MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II.

71

TEXT- FIGURE 4.— LOG SKEWNESS OF PANNED CONCENTRATES PLOTTED AGAINST DISTANCE ALONG COAST.

72

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

show that poorer sorting of the individual samples is often paralleled by a large median, and greater sorting by a smaller median. That is, the sorting generally improves with increase in fineness (decrease in median diameter).

Skewness. — The values for skewness (Table II and Text-figure 4) range from — .080 (just north of the Nerang River mouth) to -f .019 (at the Noosa end of Coolum Beach). The sample with the highest negative skewness is the least well-sorted of all the samples studied. Text-figure 4 indicates the very small values for skewness in the region from Ballina to the mouth of the Nerang River. Thus there are nearly symmetrical simple frequency curves for the concentrates from this stretch of coastline, with the mode very close to the median and actually corresponding with it in five samples.

From the Nerang River mouth northwards to Indian Head the mode usually is on the coarse side of the median. In this area there are only eight samples with positive values for log skewness. Four of the five dune sand concentrates examined show no skew, while the remaining one (sample 25) has a very small negative skewness of —.001. Apart from the above, no general trends are apparent in the skewness values. The fact that the mode usually is on the coarse side of the median north- wards from the Nerang River mouth again suggests that the heavy minerals have been contributed more recently to the beach than those in the southern part of the region.

IV. MINERALOGICAL METHODS.

The methods adopted in determining the mineralogical composition of the sand and rock samples studied in this investigation are described below, as well as the methods of determining abrasion and grain size measurement under the microscope. River-sand and rock samples were examined in connection with the enquiry into the origin of the beach sand heavy minerals. In all cases the rotary separator already described was used for sample splitting, and bromoform of specific gravity 2.86 was employed for the initial heavy liquid separation.

Sand Samples.

A small sample of the natural concentrate, split from the bulk sample, was submitted to bromoform separation in a nearly cylindrical funnel to. minimize adherence of particles to the sides. After washing with industrial methylated spirits and drying in an oven, the heavy mineral concentrate was split in size to approximately 5 grams and weighed. As it was desired to distinguish between magnetite, ilmenite, chromite, and “ black ” rutile grains, the highly magnetic and moderately magnetic minerals were separated from the samples with an electro- magnet. A number of black and nearly black rutile grains was found in all the samples, identification being established definitely by chemical analysis of hand-picked grains. The highly magnetic fraction (magnetite) was extracted first with the electromagnet calibrated for the purpose, and its weight percentage determined. An aluminium shield was placed under the pole-pieces to make removal of the magnetite grains easier after the current was switched off. The moderately magnetic minerals (ilmenite, chromite and garnet) next were removed with the electromagnet precisely calibrated, and the weight percentage of this fraction was determined. The garnet (almandine) was separated from the ilmenite

MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II.

73

and chromite with concentrated Clerici’s Solution of specific gravity 4.25 and, after washing with water and drying, the weight percentages of both the garnet and the ilmenite-chromite fractions were determined. In the case of the beach sand samples, the small amount of chromite present was separated from the ilmenite with concentrated Clerici’s Solution heated to 42° C. (at which temperature its specific gravity is about midway between that of the chromite and the ilmenite), and the percentage of each of these minerals in the sample was calculated. In the river sand samples, however, the small amount of chromite, where present, was not separated from the ilmenite.

The quantity of weakly magnetic minerals was very small and they were not separated from the non-magnetic minerals in the sample. The combined weakly magnetic and non-magnetic fraction of the sample was weighed, and then divided into two size fractions by shaking in a B.S.S. No. 120 sieve (aperture size 0.124 mm.) until particles ceased to pass through the mesh. The weight percentages of the resulting size fractions were calculated, and each fraction was then split to about one to two thousand grains and mounted entirely on a glass slide. In most cases permanent mounts were made in Canada balsam, Twenhofel and Tyler’s (1941, p. 168) technique being followed. Temporary mounts in eugenol (clove oil) were also made. The grains of each mineral species were then counted in some 8 to 12 different fields across different parts of the mount, the number of grains usually being of the order of 800 to 1,000. The number of grains of each mineral species was multiplied by the specific gravity of the mineral in order to obtain a figure in terms of weight. The specific gravity of the zircon, rutile, monazite and cassiterite was determined with a pycnometer as 4.68, 4.21, 5.19 and 6.90 respectively. For these determinations, small quantities of the com- mercial mineral concentrate, after handpicking under a binocular micro- scope to obtain purity, were used. The specific gravity of the tourmaline- leucoxene, epidote, spinel, corundum, hypersthene, andalusite, horn, blende, sphene, staurolite, and kyanite was taken as 3.1, 4.0, 3.4, 3.6, 4.0, 3.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.5, 3.7, and 3.6 respectively. The percentages of the various mineral species in each of the size fractions were then calculated. These figures were each multiplied' by the weight percentage of the size fraction divided by 100, and the results for like species in both size fractions were added. The percentages of these various minerals in the entire sample were then determined from multiplication by the weight percentage of the weakly and non-magnetic mineral fraction divided by 100. Because of the small spread of all the weakly-magnetic and non-magnetic minerals present, it was possible to take the grain size variation into account by division into two fractions with the B.S.S. No. 120 sieve in the determination of the weight percentages of these minerals.

Rock Samples.

In most cases the size of the samples of metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks taken for breaking down was about one-quarter the size of a normal rock hand-specimen.

Metamorphic and Igneous Rocks. — The samples of metamorphic and igneous rocks were mechanically disintegrated, first by cracking in a jaw-cracker, and then by hammering in an iron mortar with closely fitting pestle, similar to that figured by Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938, p. 313). Disintegration was continued until the particles obtained were

74

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

monomineralic. To avoid the formation of a large amount of fine rock- flour and total destruction of the original form of the grains, the material was sieved at intervals, the oversize being crushed until it was reduced to grains consisting of single minerals. With the plutonic rocks the sieve used to separate the composite from the monomineralic particles was B.S.S. No. 52 (aperture size 0.295 mm.), while B.S.S. No. 85 (aperture size 0.178 mm.) was used with the met amorphic and volcanic rocks. After the removal of the rock-flour by washing with distilled water and decanting, the material was dried, split to about 50 grams, and weighed. The heavy mineral particles were separated in bromoform and, after weighing, the index-figure was calculated. This is the weight percentage of mineral grains of specific gravity greater than 2.86 obtainable from the crushed rock material which has been washed free from rock-flour. The magnetic minerals were then separated with the electromagnet. Because of the variety and large bulk of magnetic minerals in the igneous rocks and the difficulty of effecting clean separations, the weight per- centages of highly magnetic, moderately magnetic, and weakly magnetic mineral fractions were not determined individually. In most cases, however, a rough separation into these three magnetic groups was made as it facilitated the identification of certain of the minerals and assisted in estimating the relative abundance of the minerals in the samples. The magnetic and non-magnetic heavy mineral fractions were examined under the microscope in permanent and temporary mounts. Because of the disintegration of the rocks entirely by mechanical means, it was considered impracticable to determine the mineral percentages by any method employing grain counting. The relative abundance of the minerals, accordingly, were determined by estimation and recorded by symbols in the Milner (1929, p. 386) Scale.

Sandstones. — The sandstone samples were broken into small pieces in the jaw-cracker, and then heated to a high temperature. While hot they were dropped into a beaker of cold water, and allowed to remain in it for several days. In some cases the material thus became partly broken down, and the individual particles were freed by gentle crushing with a pestle or with the fingers. In other cases the rock was disintegrated by warming with a 20% solution of HC1. To restrict the time of acid treatment, the material was disturbed and partly broken down with a pestle at intervals during the digestion. Vigorous crushing was avoided, however, so that the grains would be as nearly as possible in the same condition as before disintegration. After the sample was completely disintegrated, the mineral particles were washed and weighed, the heavy minerals separated in bromoform, and the weight percentages determined. These correspond to the index-figure of the other rocks. Because of the small bulk of the heavy minerals obtained from each sample, it was impracticable to divide it into fractions with the electromagnet. In some cases the bulk was such that the heavy minerals were mounted entirely on a glass slide. In other cases, where the bulk was greater, part of the fraction was' mounted on a glass slide and the remainder was kept unmounted for supplementary study. The grains of each mineral species were then counted in the same way as that described above for the weakly magnetic and non-magnetic fraction of the sand samples, and the weight percentages of the various minerals were deter- mined. Unfortunately, it was impossible to distinguish with certainty between the black iron ores under the microscope. However, examination of the unmounted material showed the iron ores to be moderately

MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II.

75

magnetic. From this fact, combined with an examination of these grains by reflected light, it would appear that they are almost entirely ilmenite, although very small amounts of chromite and magnetite are sometimes present. In this work the iron ore grains were all multiplied by the specific gravity of the ilmenite concentrate, determined with a pycnometer as 4.69, and the specific gravity of each of the various other minerals was the same as that used for the sand samples. Because of the small bulk of heavy minerals, allowance was not made for the varia- tion in size of the mineral grains in the determination of the weight percentages. However, it was observed under the microscope that the variation in size of the heavy mineral grains was not great. Accordingly, it is felt that a fairly high degree of accuracy can be assigned to the mineral weight percentages calculated from the number of grains of each mineral species and its specific gravity.

Abrasion.

For each of the sand samples and the metamorphic and sedimentary rocks a quantitative determination of abrasion was carried out by calculat- ing the number percentage of rounded zircon grains as distinct from euhedral and subhedral grains. The total number of zircon grains examined and counted in each, sample was of the order of 300. Euhedral grains are those with all visible crystal faces and edges intact, while subhedral grains are those with only some faces and edges recognizable, and rounded grains those with no faces or edges identifiable. Zircon was chosen as a standard for this quantitative abrasion work because of its great stability, its abundance in the samples, and the wide range in the degree of its abrasion due to a hardness greater than most of the other heavy minerals present.

Grain Size Measurement.

As the bulk of heavy minerals obtained from the rock samples was insufficient for sieve analysis, measurements were made with an eyepiece micrometer of the zircon grains in each of these assemblages. For this work the intermediate diameter of 100 zircon grains in each sample was determined and a mean taken in each c,ase, following Allen (1944, p. 73). The intermediate diameter is the dimension at right angles to the long axis of the grain, as seen in a microscope slide the cover slip of which has been pressed firmly down during mounting (in which case the grains come to lie with their shortest axis vertical and their longest and inter- mediate axes in the plane of the slide). It is a particularly useful measure of size, since it is the same dimension as is estimated by sieving.

V. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE HEAVY MINERAL BEACH SAND CONCENTRATES.

The weight percentage of heavy minerals in the samples of natural concentrate ranges up to 95.2%, and in most cases it is greater than 50% (Table I). The light mineral fraction was composed almost entirely of quartz grains ; very little felspar is present.

In the accompanying Table the numbers indicate weight percentages, and the symbol “ x ” that the mineral is present in amounts less than 0.1%. The more common species are on the left, and the rare ones to the right. For convenience, the degree of abrasion of the sands, calculated as the number percentage of rounded zircon grains in each sample, is incorporated. The following abbreviations are used : —

Table III. — Mineral Analyses of Heavy Mineral Samples in Percentages by Weight, and Abrasion Grain Number Percentages.

76

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

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MINERAL BEACH SANDS OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND, PART II

77

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