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ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE WESTERN COASTAL TRIBES OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
By Herspert Basepow. [Read October 2, 1906.] Puatas,)—. "to, a0b x.
The following facts, relative to the characteristics and customs of several native tribes of the Northern Territory, I gathered while acting as Assistant to the Government Geo- logist, Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, on geological explorations dur- ing 1905. The accompanying figures are reproductions of my original field-sketches.
The tribal distribution, and, simultaneously, the extent of tribal territory, of the native population of the north- western coastal districts of the Northern Territory vary directly as the natural resources of the particular locality.
CORRIGENDUM.
By. request of the author (who is absent from Australia) de- lete, on page 23, line 30, and on page 25, line 31, Ceratodus, as one of the fishes obtained by the natives in the rivers of the Nor-
thern Territory —Ep.
THICUUIL UL UNG WIGUHKIMUIC LUiver ait LULA vie HU UUs boundary at about twenty-five miles inland. The Larrekiya further separate themselves into coastal and inland groups, the former being called the Binnimiginda, the latter the Gun- majerrumoba.
* This is how the pronunciation appears to me. I am aware that other authors have alluded to the tribe, and adopted slight variations in their spelling. Vide Foelsche: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. v., 1882 (Larrakeah:'); Coppinger: Voyage of the ‘Alert,’ 1883 (Larikia); Curr: The Australian Race, 1886, vol. i. (Larrakia and Larragea); Mackillop: Trans. Roy. Soec., S.A., vol. xvii., 1898 (Larrikiya); Parkhouse: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xix., part 1, 1895, and Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi., 1895 (Ldrrakv’a, Larrakiha, Larrikia, Larrakeeha, and Larree- keeyah ).
A
2
They are joined on the west by a coastal tribe, the Wogait,* who claim country across the Daly River to about Cape Ford, and on the east by the Wwulnat tribe. Between the IVogait and Larrekiya, and passing south of the former to the Daly River mouth, lies the country of a small tribe, the Sherait, or ““Paperbark natives,’”’ closely related to the Larrekiya. East of the Sherait border the Gunerakan. The Ponga-ponga tribe lives to the south of the Jloga:t, on the Daly River; and still further south the Mulluk-Mulluk,? a powerful tribe, holds a large area, which is subdivided and allotted to individual dependent clans, as the Vjiramé, on the west bank of the river, south-west of Mount Litchfield, and the Aomorrkir, living on the same bank, south of the Dyiramé. With a more local distribution, the Marranunga, another strong tribe, occupies the country around Hermit Hill.
The [logaits are bordered on the west by the Berrin- gin, whose domain extends from Cape Ford to a point about 183 miles north of Point Pearce, known to them as Allait- perra. They are bordered on the south by either a distinct tribe or subdivision of their own, known as the Awjera, who were not seen personally. The Ginmw are the next on the west, extending, roughly, to the boundary of Western Aus- tralia.
Southwards from Port Darwin, along the mining centres, the original tribes have been disarranged by European and Asiatic interference, and it is difficult to secure authentic information concerning their former possessions and rites. One large tribe, called the Awarrai,g has existed south of the Larrekiya, extending from Mounts Charles and Gun south to about the latitude of Mount Wells. To the south-east, beyond the Mary River, are the Agiwallem, the valley in which Burrundie now stands forming neutral ground.
The tribes east of the Adelaide River were not visited ; but through the kindness of Mr. F. E. Benda, Secretary to the Hon. Minister controlling the Northern Territory, I have received the names of tribes of the MacArthur River district, which were collected by the late Cornelius Power, Corporal of Police, stationed at Borroloola. The majority of these names, _ allowing for slight phonetic variations, have
* Various synonyms fae this heibe exist, such as JWaqqait. Waaqgite, Worgite, and Waqqote.
* Sometimes written JVoolner.
~ Knut Dahl spells this name Mollak Mollak: Trans. Roy. SacS.A,.,. vole xite.,, 1895, 9. 129,
§ Awarra of Parkhouse: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xix., 1895; and Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi., 1895.
3
already been published by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen,* but I, nevertheless, reproduce them here, in confirmation of the statements of these writers. In this list I adhere to the original spelling by Power, which is according to the English pronunciation ; while the names in parentheses, immediately following, are those given by Spencer and Gillen in the system of orthography established by the Royal Geographical Society of London.
The Anyoola tribe (Anula) inhabits the McArthur River district, from about Borroloola to the coast, as well as the Pellew Islands at the river mouth.
The Korrawa (Karawa) is a very large tribe, living about the watersheds of the Robinson and Calvert Rivers.
The Binhinga (Binbinga), a peaceful tribe, occupies the McArthur River district for forty miles south of Borroloola.
The Godangce (probably a branch of the Gnanji), adjoins the Binhinga on the east.
The Yumpia (Umbaia) lives in country extending south of the Binbinga, to the tablelands. Both this tribe and the former are noted for cattie-killing.
The Alowa (Alaua) territory lies west of the Binhinga, in the Limmen River district.
The Marra (Mara) is a large tribe, occupying the Lim- men River, north of the A//ava, to the coast, and west of the Anula. .
The Wilongera (Wilingura) is a small and peaceable tribe, to the south of the Mara.
The Anger and Anga (no doubt branches of the Vganji) are small, hostile tribes, living south and west of the 4 llaua, at the head of the Wickham River.
The Chingaleet (Tjingilli) holds territory to the west, and the Laytha to the south, of the Umbaa.
The Goonanderry is distributed along the Robinson and Calvert Rivers, south of the Aarawa; and, lastly, the IVanee tribe borders the Goonanderry, on the south, and extends to the head of the Nicholson River.
Although the dialects of the Larrekiya, Wogait, and Sherait are distinct, it is usual for members of any one tribe to be familiar with the languages of the other two, the Wogaits, in addition, having a fair knowledge of that of the Berringin. The Mulluk-Mulluk dialect is that most gene- rally understood among the various tribes grouped near the
* The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, London, 1904. + See also A. G. B. Ravenscroft: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xv., 1892, p. 121. A2
4
territory of the latter. Short comparative vocabularies of four tribes are appended.
The Larrekiya and \Vogait are, so far as my observation went,* friendly with one another, and tribal intermarriage is not infrequent.
Amongst the Larrehiya, given that a man marries the daughter of his mother’s sister—the husband of this (his aunt) is unnya to him, she being nga//ing to him, and halle- dik to his unnya. The daughter of his ngalling then becomes his hailedik, and he is ngau to her. If by the union of wnnya and /alledik the offspring is a female, she is wllmiirruk to the former and ngalle to the latter. This w//miirruk becomes the ° property of the corresponding male offspring of his sister, and is to him nugganyi; ullmiirruk of wnnya thereby becom- ing halledik of unnya’s nugganyi. The female offspring of this union is allitmit to unnya, and may be given to the cor- responding offspring of the male child of the nugganyi’s sis- ter. T
According to the legends of the Larrekiya it happened many years ago that a baby boy rose suddenly from the ground out of the burrow of a bandicoot (Perameles sp.). He was seen by the people of the Larrekiya, who invited him to come to their camp, but he refused. Some time after, when he had become a man, they again met him. Again he -was asked to join the Zarrekiya men in camp, but once more he declined. Thereupon the men became angry, and dragged him to a waterhole, and threw him into it. The stranger immediately sank, and five bubbles of air arose to the sur- face as he disappeared. The men sat down and watched the water, when suddenly the face of the man reappeared. The Larrekiya hurled a spear at him, and he was killed, because he had no father and no mother, but was an accomplice of the evil spirit, who, it is asserted by the old men of the Vogait, makes a big fire, from which he takes an infant and places it at night in the womb of a lubra, who must then give birth to the child.
In the ordinary course of events, if a man, when out hunting, kills an animal or collects any other article of diet, he gives it to his gin, who must eat it, believing that the re- spective object brings about the successful birth of a picca- niny.
* Of., “ . . . the Waggait, whom both the Ladrrak?’a and Awdrra detest . . .’’ T. A. Parkhouse: Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi, 1895, p. 638.
+ Parkhouse pple this apparent marriage within the blood-tie, by stating that the relationship is not so close, the line of descent only and not the a ae of degrees being indi- cated: Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. _ 1895, p. 641.
5
In other words, conception is not regarded as a direct result of cohabitation. The child, on no account, must par- take of the particular food until it has successfully teethed.
At childbirth the navel cord is twisted off. What may be the consequence of this treatment is the fact that abnor- mal swellings were frequently seen in the region of the navel in grown-up individuals.
During the menses of a woman the man must not re- ceive any food from her, or she from him; otherwise it is believed that a serious illness will result on either side, which no medicine-man could alleviate. If, however, by accident or misunderstanding, food has passed from man to woman, or vice versa, the medicine-man may be summoned, who removes the pain by gestures and by pre etending to remove an offend- ing body by sucking, eventually shewing a piece of meat covered with blood to the sufferer.
If a medicine-man has a bad case of sickness to deal with, he pulls out a few hairs from his armpit, burns them, and places the ashes in the nostrils of the patient, over which he holds his hands in the shape of a funnel and blows thereon.
When a dugong has been captured by the men, all women are kept at a distance, and not allowed to witness the cutting- up of the spoil; but they may subsequently take part in the feast. If they were present all the flesh would pass from their bodies, and they would become barren.
The aborigines make the statement that when they kill a dugong (which is said to be often done by forcing small rods into its nostrils) it wails and whines pitifully like a human being. The female animal, further, is said to carry her young on her fin like a lubra carries her infant,* and, swimming with the other fin, suckles it. When tired, she changes about from one fin to the other.
According to their traditions, long ago a _ blackfellow ate a certain berry, when some of the juice squirted into his eves. The pain was intolerable, and he became blind. In his agony he tossed himself about until he fell, and began to rolf down the hill-slope on which he had been sitting. His body continued rolling over and over until he reached the cliffs on the coast, and fell into the sea. The rolling motion continued until he was graaually converted into the form of a dugong.
* Cf. Keppel’s Sotianks on the mipteeale eae of the fe- male Gugong: A Visit to the Indian Archipelago, 1858, vol. 11.,
p. 179
6
FUNERAL CEREMONIES.
When a man dies, the corpse is kept for a day, and paint- ed over with ochre. The fat of the deceased is rubbed over the bodies of the mourners, the gins included. In former days the general custom, now only retained by the furthest-out tribes, was to construct a platform of boughs and bark in the forks of trees, upon which the body was left until all the soft parts had been re- moved by birds of prey.* See pls. v. and vi. A _ bonet (radius) of the left arm of the deceased is then taken, tied is a necklace, and worn round the neck of a relative, who thereby is supposed to acquire the strength and qualities of the deceased. The remaining bones of the skeleton are wrapped up in paper-bark (Melaleuca leweodendron) and buried.
The. bodies of old men and old gins are buried in the ground without having been previously placed in a tree.
The interment is carried out by four men, who stand above the grave (which is about 5 feet deep), and hand the corpse to two men down below. The latter place it in a recumbent posture on its right side, with the legs tucked upwards, and the head resting upon the hands. The female mourners gash their scalps with the points of yam-sticks, and scar the backs of one another. See pls. iil. and vu. The men cut their upper arms and thighs transversely with stone knives, or gash their foreheads with the sharp edges of their spear-throwers. Both parties cover their bodies and hair with pipeclay and ashes. Songs of wailing are sung by both males and females, those of the women resembling the sounds expressed by : —
Nee e n’ Ho ho un un.
s ae Sh a Soyo Discoveries in Australia, 1846, vol. lil., p. 295, et seq., and plate; EK. J. Eyre: Journs. Expeditions of Diseases into Central Australia, 1845, vol. ii., p. 345, and plate; H. Keppel: A Visit to the Indian Archipelago, Las, FO)... it. Dy pol.” (and plates ds «ie Woods: Trans. Phil. Soe., Bean, rene p. 84; P. Foelsche: Trans. Roy. Soc., S. ie vol. v. 1882. pv. 5; Curr: The Australian Race, 1886, vol. i., pv. 255 and 272: W. G. Stretton: Trans. Roy. SOc. e-as vol, xvii), 1898. 9; 937 : T. A. Parkhouse: Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi., 1895, np. 6483: W. E. Roth: Ethno- logical Studies among the N. W.. Central Queensland Aborigines, Brisbane, 1897, p. 165, pl. xxili., fig. 406; T. Worsnop: The Pre- historic Arts, Manufactures, Works, Weapons. etc., Adelaide, 1892, p. 66, pl. xxxiv.
+ Cf. Spencer and Gillen: The Northern Tribes _ of Central Australia, 1904, cap. xvii. The Port Essington natives
are said to have carried all the bones about with them in baskets. Foelsche: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. v., 1882, p. 6.
T
The response on part of the men is equivalent to long-drawn: He e 6, He e 0, He-e 6;
the nm’ and wn, above, and the 6, below, sounding like sobs.
Seeds of the Cycas media* are collected, and stored in water
for three days, when the mourners congregate and feast upon them.
After the body has been interred a sign-post is erected at some distance from the mound upon which the spear- thrower of the deceased is stuck into the ground. It consists of an upright pole,+ to the top of which a bundle of grass is fixed; just beneath it is fastened a cross-piece, projecting to unequal lengths on either side, round each end of which is wrapped a bundle of grass; the whole resembling in appear- ance a scarecrow with outstretched arms. The longer of these horizontal arms has inserted into it a rod which points directly to the site of the grave. Suspended from the end of the opposite arm are feathers or paper-bark, in such a way that they swing in the wind, and so serve to attract the atten- tion of passers-by, who can recognize the spot, and pay their respects to the departed. In the meantime the main camp has removed from the locality.
During the mourning ceremony the spears of the de- ceased are placed across a frame, consisting of two branches of trees resting in the forks of two pairs of upright stems driven in the ground.
In the Mulluk-Mulluk, when a man dies outside his tribal country he is buried immediately. A circular space is cleared for a radius of about eight feet, mm’ the centre of which the deceased is interred. Over this a mvund of earth is made, which is covered with sheets of paper-bark, kept in place by three or four flexible DA “See Oe wands stuck into the ground at gts x ed eae: ences wice their ends, and passing over the Fi fee mound transversely to _ its
length. Stones are laid along the border of the grave. and one or two upon the mound. See ao dh
~ Foelsche mentions the eating of yams dane the mourn- ing ceremony of children: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. v.. 1882, icone + Similar, no doubt, to the baled pole described by Foel- sche: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. v., 1882, v. 5.
8
The corpses of well-nourished children up to the age of two or three years were primarily disposed of by eating them,” but this custom is not at the present day strictly adhered to by the semi-civilized peoples.
Every native believes in his re-incarnation after death in the form of some living being which is always held in respect t by him. This belief, however, did not appear to be general amongst the Larrekiyas that were questioned.
PERSONAL MUTILATIONS.
Female infants are subjected to mutilation by removal of two joints of the right forefinger.t In the western tribes, Ginmu, the finger is cut off with a stone knife. Elsewhere it is amputated at a later age by binding tightly round the joint a ligature made of cobwebs of a spider that lives in the mangroves, the limb withering away gradually. It appears, also, that in certain instances the joints are removed by biting, and in the Il’ogait the amputated segment 1s buried in an anthill. The operation takes place without cere- mony, and does not seem to be strictly adhered to by the lat- ter tribe A singular case came under notice in the Ginmu tribe, where a young girl had had the two joints of her finger imperfectly removed, and upon the mutilated stump a horny growth, which resembled a diminutive finger-nail, had grown.
When a child of either sex has reached the age of about six years its nasal septum is perforated. The operation is performed by an old man, who seizes the septum with thumb and forefinger, draws it forward, and pinches a hole through it with the nails. Through the perforation a small, sharpened bone of a kangaroo is inserted, and the hole made larger by gradually expanding it with a peg. During the operation another man holds his hands firmly over the ears of the child, which is thus not supposed to perceive the pain. When the hole is large enough, a single small smooth segment of bamboo is inserted by passing it over the kangaroo bone. The child must sleep upon its back until the wound has healed. The bamboo is replaced from time to time by a larger one, and if, by chance, the rod should become fixed by clotting of blood or otherwise, a strong blade of grass is inserted between the
* Cf. Foelsche: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. v., 1882; p. 5:
t Cf. Parkhouse: Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi., 1895, p. 640, second paragraph. .
ft. Cf. Foelsche: Trans; Roy.) Soe, S.A.,) vol. vs 1888, pute Mackillop: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xvii., 1898, p. 257. Dr. W. E. Roth informs me that the practice of mutilating the little finger is still in vogue in Queensland, and in early days was preva- lent down the coastline, certainly as far south as Sydney.
9
rod and edge of the hole, and, being held by either end, drawn round the rod circumferentially to scrape or saw through the adherent parts. The operation takes place without any particular ceremony, and men and women, alike, may be present. The nose-stick is not usually worn except during corrobborees, and when neighbouring tribes are visited.* See pl. ii.
Bamboo nose-stick: Zar., Damorrenelle; Il'0g., Widja- dol; Sher., Yinnung delluk.
Wooden nose-rod: Lar., Mamaloilma; Il’og., Barrong nget.
Bopy Scars
As a very general rule, the raised cicatrices are less pro- nounced than in Central Australia, and are, except in certain cases, developed to a less extent in the coastal than the inland tribes. In the Larrekiya low cicatrices are favoured; abnor- mally-developed scars being associated with an early death. Among the Larrekiya and Wogait it was noted that the chest incisions, particularly in the case of the younger gene- ration, were not treated, as is generally the custom, by the application of ashes into the wound.
The scarring of a Il ogait boy is for the purpose of pre- paring him for the rite of initiation. If he can endure the cutting or scarring of his chest with fortitude, and without showing signs of pain, he is ready for the ceremony of circum. cision.
In the Ginmu tribe the scarring (7qgeri) of a boy is done at an early age by degrees, commencing on the upper arm, and ending, on the chest, with the same object in view as amongst the MW ogarts, viz., to make him hardy before circum- cision. Among members of this tribe were noted one initi- ated vouth with upper-arm scars and two chest incisions, another with four of the latter, a man with two chest and ten abdominal scars (the latter being interrupted centraily), a warrior with twenty-five abdominal and chest scars, and red-ochred bands across either shoulder. A girl about eight or nine years of age was cica- tricised in the manner shown in fig. 2. The asymmetrical character of the abdominal scars is possibly related to the age and sex Fig. 2. of the child. Two joints of her right index
finger had been removed.
* Stokes mentions that the Port Darwin blacks “had a piece of bamboo, eighteen inches long, run phrouck the cartilage of the nose.”’ Discoveries in Australia, vol. ii., p. 19.
10
Another form of self-mutilation which men or women may inflict upon themselves at any time is produced by the application of the heated end of a fire-stick four or five times to the upper arm, and diagonally down the middle of the chest from either side. See pl. ii. This also gives rise to elevated scars.
First INITIATION CEREMONY OF THE LARREKIYA YOUTH— Tue BO.LuiEr.
When the Larrekiya boy is to be initiated, his body is decorated with bands of white that are made by sticking on to him vegetable down from the seed-pods of a large tree, locally called the silk-cotton tree (Bombatt malabatrica), and feathers. A horseshoe-shaped band is thus formed, pass- ing from ear to ear, down the cheeks, and below the chin; the upper ends of this figure being connected by a horizontal band passing across the nose below the eyes. A similar band extends in front from shoulder to shoulder, above the nipples, and from this, two bands pass downwards over the abdomen and thigh to the knee, where each unites with a circle round the jcint. From both shoulders a white line is drawn along the upper arm to the plaited arm-girdles at the elbow; additional bracelets being worn at the wrists.
Round nis forehead is tied a band, known as galambaua, made of numerous twisted strands of opossum-fur, woven closely together, and coated with pipeclay. See pl. 1. The ends of the strings of this band are tied together at the back of the head by means of human-hair twine. Underneath the galambaua, at the centre of the forehead, is inserted a plume of feathers of the Nankeen night-heron ( Vycticonax caledoni- cus) or emu, attached to an ironwood stick, the plume being downwards, while from either side of the head a fur-tassel (Gwiydrum gauliipmagga) is hung by string. Identical appen- dages are fastened to the armlets. A necklace made of seg- ments of grass stems threaded together (mangulma) is worn, and a broad belt (danbidjulu) of stringybark (Hucalyptus sp.), which, by virtue of its coiled form, can be adjusted to a waist of any size. The latter is made secure by tying the outer overlapping end with fur string, which is then wound con- tinuously and spirally round the belt for its whole length and back again, thus producing a lattice-like effect. See pl. 1i. The usual human-hair belt (bere/gma) is tied over this, and from it the pubic tassel (doi-ira) is hung.
The boys—several pass through the ordeal at the same time—are separated, and made to sit in a row before the old men, holding their eyes shut with their right hand. The war- riors, with the variety of spear afterwards to be described as
ur
malligurrima poised, stamp their feet in front of the boys uttering harsh cries of drr-re! arr-re! and géra! On the con- clusion of this performance the boys, upon a given signal, look at the men. This finishes the first part of the ceremony.
For the next few months the boys, who are now styled Béllier, are kept away from the women and camp. They are led away into the bush by the men, whom they must assist by gathering food, and in other ways. At intervals they are submitted to severe blows between the shoulders by the old men in charge, and given to understand that they must, on peril of death, preserve strict silence as to all that has passed. Upon his return to camp, the Bdéd//ier usually has additional cicatrices inflicted upon his upper arm and thigh.
The Larrekiya does not circumcise, though they say that in early days the rite was practised until, at one ceremony, a subject died from the effects. Their belief is, now, that if anyone of the Larrekiya were to be circumcised he would die.* The Melville Island natives, also, do not circumcise.+
THE INITIATION CEREMONY OF THE WoGait YOUTH.
At the initiation of a ]Vogait, after his fortitude has been tested by scarring the chest, he is thrown on his back over the legs of four men, who sit close together two and two, facing one an- other, with their legs alternately spaced, so that the toes of one are next to the buttock of the man oppo- site; the legs of the four men form- ing, collectively, a continuous plat- form. } This stage is shown in fig. 3. A fifth man then sits upon the vic- tim’s chest, facing the operator; while another holds his head. The boy is gagged with a bundle of fur, which further serves the purpose of allowing him to bite upon it during his pain; his ears are stuffed, and his hands kept at his sides. The operator, smeared all over with pipe-clay, approaches from behind, and, kneeling upon the boy’s thighs, draws the prepuce well for- ward, and cuts it off with a quartz flake. The wound is
* Cf., ‘‘A reason was given for the custom falling into desuetude that the skin became too tender.’? Parkhouse: Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi., 1895, p. 643.
+ Vide Foelsche: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. v., 1882, p. 17.
ft ‘‘In the ceremony of the Aggrakundi, a tribe south of the Awarrai, eight men lay on the ground, their faces in their folded arms, head and feet alternating, the backs forming a platform. Upon the buttocks the boy was laid. . . .’’—Park- house, op. cit., p. 645.
12
covered with paper-bark and ashes,* and the sufferer, who usually faints during the operation, is led away to the bush for about three weeks. Upon his return to camp he shows the operated part first to his mother, and then to the girl who has been selected as his wife; these scar their heads with a pointed yam-stick. The excessive degree of excitement and fear apparently makes the lad practically unconscious to pain, and after the event he is usually quite oblivious to what has happened.
‘The detached prepuce (garijet barre) is held against the bellies of those who have been present at the operation, then placed in a small dilly-bag (garad), and worn round the neck of the operator until the wound has healed, when it is thrown into the fire. The cutting-flake used for the operation is em- bedded at one end in the wax of wild bees, which is heated and moulded round a bamboo. Into the groove thus pro- duced the stone is thrust, and firmly embedded by squeezing the wax with the hand.
Although the Larrekiyas do not circumcise, yet when a performance of this nature is about to take place amongst the !Vogaits, invitations to be present are sent to the former tribe, and the members of the two hold a joint corrobboree.
The following are some of the chants of this joint corrob- boree : —
1. Narraya injala, bannaya injala, bannaiyaka injala bana; injala bannaiyaka injala, bannaya injalé bana.
2. Narraya kaninba, larrambana kanimba, larranbar- raya kaninba, larrambana kanimba.
3. Anna yan na na ranga bana na ya ni ba, en kara bana, kara gan dorne, di di di di.
The corresponding accompaniment that is blown into the wooden trumpet or kanbi of the Wogaits, sounds, in the first chant, like: —
Didnodidd6 diduadu didnadiddé diduadu - - - - - - - - -
~----- didnarib ;
in the second : — Diajuadeldo, didjuadeldo - - - - - - didjnadelrip ;
and in the third : — Tid ja ru du, tid ja ru du, tid ja ru du - -- -
None of the north-western coastal tribes cited practise the rite of sub-incision, but it is well known that the tribes border-
* Cf. Knut Dahl: Trans. Roy. Soe. SA, WOly) crime 1895, p. 122.
12
ing the Gulf of Carpentaria,* such as the Anula, Mara, and Binbinga, do sot to the same extent as in the Central Austra- lian tribes. The rite was not observed in the tribe at the mouth of the Victoria River.{
Tur INITIATION CEREMONY OF THE LARREKIYA GIRL.
Although the girls of the Larrekiya and \ogaits are given away to men at a very early age, no cohabitation must take place until after the “smoking ceremony” of the girl, which is known as Mdnniugu by the Larrekiyas, and Nitkur- rum by the Wogaits.
When the menses have commenced she must undergo the following ceremony, which takes place at night-time, and at some distance from the main camp, though not necessarily out of sight of it. Men do not attend, but may witness the proceedings from the camp at a distance.
The girl, being decorated after the fashion of the Béllier, 1s seized from behind by an old gin (under whose care she has been), who places her
hands upon the novice’s shoulders. See fig. 4. Another woman places her hands upon the shoulders of the old gin in a similar manner, and the same thing repeated by the array of females taking part in the function, one stand- ing behind the other
) A chant, a long-drawn, continuous
1 / “Ya, Ya, Ya,” is commenced ; the old
LAK Mt gin at this stage, stamping on the
aS oa ground with her feet, moves forward
and pushes the girl in front of her,
Fig. 4. while all the other women respond simi- larly, and follow in a line.
This chant suddenly ceases, and is replaced by another sounding like “Yen da min,” the old gin stopping at this stage and imparting three smart blows upon the girl’s back.
aan W.G. Stretton: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xvii., 1893, p. Zod.
+ Cf. Foelsche: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. v., 1882, p. 17. Tribes inhabiting the western coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria, between the Rovner and Nicholson Rivers, have a practice of slitting the penis along the urethra; Spencer and Gillen: The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 1904, p. 133. From the Urabunna in the south, right through the centre of the continent to the western shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, sub-incision is practised upon the young men. ae Cf. MacKillop: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xvii, 1893, p. :
14
The stamping motion, and the “Ya, Ya, Ya,” are com- menced afresh, to be again changed to “Yen da min” and three blows on the girl’s back. This procedure is kept up for the greater part of the night.
At the first glimpse of day the second item in the pro-
gramme is started; it consists of the washing of the girl in the sea.* She is led to the water, and all taking part in the ceremony wade out with her to some depth. On gaining deeper water the whole party go through a grotesque “‘goose- waddle-like” dance, flapping their arms, which are kept bent at the elbows, alternately at either side, and, in so doing, splashing the water up over their bodies with the production ot a peculiar hollow-sounding noise. , Another refrain is now chanted: ‘‘A-/é-l6-16,” and when the last syllable has sounded all the bathers dip under the surface of the water, the same thing being repeated many times.
The third part of the programme, following directly upon the washing, is the smoking of the young gin. A fire is made on shore, and when a good blaze has been secured, a large heap of green grass and _ leaves, previously steeped in water, is piled upon it. On this the old gin seats herself, and on her lap, with legs astride, the young gin. More grass and leaves are piled on the heap, and the vast volumes. of smoke that are generated com- pletely hide both women from view. The object is that the smoke shall thoroughly play upon the genitalia of the girl, the process being facilitated by the manipulation of the old gin upon whose lap she is seated. This event finished, the principal ceremony of initiation is concluded, and the novice is led into the bush by the old women, returning with them to camp the same day. Through the period the girl’s diet is restricted during the pleasure of the old gm. She is not allowed to eat snake, dugong, monitor (Varanus sp.), turtle, etc., but may have crab.
No cohabitation takes place between the young gin and her husband for about four months after her initiation, but at each recurrence of the menses she cleanses herself with water, without repetition of any ceremony. The man must not receive food from her during these periods, as otherwise he would become subject to severe pains in the stomach, and become readily susceptible to injury. If, for instance, in their excursions hostile blacks were encountered, he would
* It is interesting to note a similarity of these proceedings recorded from the western islands of North Australia: Reports Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, Torres Straits, vol. v., 1904, chap. vi., pp. 201 et seq.
15
be certain to become the victim of any spear thrown by them.
A subsequent secret corrobboree of initiation, about which very little is known, takes place several years later, and cor- responds to the JMollinya ceremony of the men, which is described below.
In conformity with the absence of sub-incision among these western tribes, the corresponding mutilation of the female is not in vogue.
SECOND INITIATION CEREMONY OF THE LARREKIYA YOUTH— THe MOoLuINyA.
Some years after the Béllver ceremony comes the Mol- linya, after which the subject becomes entitled to join in the discussions of the old men. On this occasion the youth is under the care of an old man, and is decorated in a somewhat similar way as in the first ceremony. The broad, white fore- head band, or’ galambaua, marked transversely with four stripes of red ochre, and the similar appendages from head, elbow, and waist are worn. He carries, in addition, a plume of cockatoo feathers, known as biamérre, in his hair. See pl. 11. The performance—at which only the old men (all initiated Mollinyas) are present, while no mention of the ceremony is made to the women—commences soon after sundown, and ends before midnight. The youth, in the presence of his guardian, must remain silent, and with downcast eyes. <A wailing chant is sung in low, broken accents: “Makoldr manga, mekoldr, G dr, maklar, immanga.’ No beating of sticks or hands accompanies the tune, and no definite ceremonial dance follows.
After the Mollinya ceremony, cicatrices may be added on either side of the abdomen, each cut extending to under half- way across the front.
During the time between the Béllier and Mollinya rites, bustard, flying-fox, and yam are forbidden as articles of diet, but at the latter corrobboree he is invited by the old men to eat. The man believes that even if he ate one of these foods secretly during the forbidden period, the medicine-man would, on his returning to camp, at once detect it in his stomach. And having thus disobeyed, the medicine-man would have perfect right to run a spear through him, or com- pel him to eat certain things, from the effects of which he
would die. But, although he must not eat the forbidden foods, the youth is not forbidden to hunt them, so long as he delivers up the spoil to the old men. These rules are
strictly observed, and, whenever privileged members have eaten flying-fox, the bones. are carefully collected and burn-
16
ed, to make certain that no boys could possibly have access
to them. CorROBBOREES AND FRIENDLY MEETINGS.
At ordinary corrobborees, other than those connected with the initiation ceremonies, a tall, conical headgear is made with grass, bound round with fur-string, the outside being smeared with pipeclay, to which vegetable-down is made to adhere with viscid sap. This conical structure fits over the hair, which is drawn up into a point and smeared with pipe- clay; over it the grass-binding fits like a helmet. A small, pointed stick, or bone, carrying a plume of emu feathers, is inserted into the top, and the whole of the wearer’s face, with the exception of the eyelids and lips, is covered with vege- table-down. The helmet is known under the following names in the different tribes : —
Larrekiya—medlemo.
Wogait—tirak.
Sherait—wennu.
Berringin—nu7o6.
The plume at the apex as gurrumberring, murun, mokul- ling, and ngodeji, respectively.
At various friendly gatherings of groups and _ tribes, chants imitative of other events, sounds, and objects form a prominent feature. Of these a few typical cases will be mentioned. A corrobboree of the wailing of women is one of the most popular amongst the Larrehiya and Wogaits. It runs : —
Arada kadjye mara uda kayan yan; arada kadji mara uda kayan moélle ulpululu mélle, gangap karra kanjin mada da nga la ulmin ja jandadbi karra kun kun mukale la enbulukdi bana mélle mara kanjinmada da buluk di bélle arada kadj balla.
Li—e 16 li—e lé—é lé—6 la Kanjin mada dané wiidningi quan mady karra kunkul mukana mélle enbuluk di bana mille kanjin mada.
In the above, the line commencing with /6—e is sung in a plaintive manner, and is strongly suggestive of the wailing of women at a mourning ceremony, which, indeed, it is in- tended to represent. As a marked contrast to these seem- ingly solemn proceedings, the termination is one of merri- ment and laughter, in which there are many interjections and criticisms as to the imitative skill of one another in the pro- duction of effeminate sounds.
An accompaniment is performed by one member on the
wooden trumpet,* into which he makes droning sounds that
* See description p. 48 and fig. 63.
17
may be represented by the syllables, “7b bu, tib bu, tib
bu a.” Other performers beat time with their ‘“‘music-sticks,”
one long beat being followed by three short taps in quick suc- cession.
In the corrobboree of the frog the following un- usually pleasing chant is frequently repeated* : —
Iwoggiama wogien, woggiamana wogien, immanyana jeller- rima wogien. Imbaka kwuerakwa wogien. Imbelluolu- odé wogien.
Yi kwaekwa, yi kwaekwa. I wogien. Immangana jeller- rima wogien. Imbak kwuerakwa wogien. Imbalualuodé wogien Up to the second repetition of ‘“‘wogien” the syllables are
uttered with subdued voices, then all members join in heart- ily. The verse is sung and immediately repeated; with the omission of the initial Zwoggiama wogien and the final wogien, the voices, moreover, subsiding to almost inaudible softness at the finish.
The “Yi kwa e kwa” is sung in imitation of the croaking of a frog, the following ‘7 wogien” being extended to five syl- lables by reduplication of the final syllable.
The accompaniment on the trumpet is “Tip bu, tip bu, tip bu, tip pau a, tip pau a, tip paw a,” the last of which sounds something like a “Hoop la!” Music-sticks are used by all, the taps being equally spaced and of uniform strength.
Corrobboree of the arrival of a boat :—-
Ima di mana, ima di mana, ima di mana, ima di mana nga kara ra ungéni di ma di.
Corrobboree of the visit to a strange tribe or country : — Ana ni lai, ni lai; ana li lai, ni lar lace 6 khondin linmai endo;
di-di, di-di, di-di, di-di, di-di, dia.
The latter chant is accompanied on the “trumpet” with “Tidjnaror tebor,”’ ad infinitum. It is succeeded for some considerable time by the clnking of the musical sticks alone.
To become gifted with a sonorous voice is one of the ambitions of native youth. The large Cvcade are admired for their vocal powers and endurance in song. They are, at times, caught and sucked, in the hope that similar virtues may in this way be acquired.
When a man who has been absent on a mission returns to his camp, or arrives at that of a friendly group, he sits isolated from the men for some time, everyone present main-
* Cf. Report Government Geologist : Parl. Paper No. 55, Ade- laide, 1906 (Journal by L. C. E. Gee, p. 28).
‘
18
taining strict silence. Eventually the most influential mem- ber begins conversation in a low voice, in which other mem- bers join one by one. The event culminates in singing and dancing.
Often the visitor displays, for the information of his friends, the emblem of his mission, or person, painted in pipeclay and ochre upon his chest. If, for instance, he has been about on a turtle-hunting expedition, he returns ornamented with a large design re- presenting a turtle. A striking dif-
Fig. 5. Fig.6. ference of design is made in distin-
guishing between a fresh-water (fig. 6)
and a salt-water turtle (fig. 5). The annexed figures are facsimiles of native sketches.
Superstitious Belief in a Nocturnal Monster.—All the tribes encountered believe in the existence of a creature that roams about, principally at nighttime, and is the terror of the blacks, stealing upon them in their sleep and squeezing their ribs from behind. The term ‘‘devil-devil” has been generally assigned to this being by the whites, and has be- come of common use among the semi-civilized tribes. Among themselves, they speak of it as “Birrawulidda” in the Larre- kiya, “Winmallon” in the Wogait, “Barang” in the Sherait, and “Ngawt’ in the Berringin. The “devil-devil” is sup- posed to possess no nose, two blanks for eyes, and two addi- tional, powerful visual organs at the back of the neck, by means of which he can see a very great distance. When he makes a corrobboree with his companions, he is supposed to use his shinbone as a wooden trumpet, which, after the cere- mony, he replaces in its proper place. At daytime he usually camps in holes, or caves, and his tracks are often found by the blacks, who, when they imagine he is near, become stupi- fied, as though intoxicated. When a man has been visited by the evil being, and has had his ribs squeezed, the medi- cine-man is summoned. The latter ties a stick along the suf- ferer’s back, and requests him to remain lying on the ground until the pain has passed away.
Some of the powerful old men of the tribes profess to have stood face to face with the spirit, away from camp, and to have asked him his name, whereupon he replied, ‘Me devil-devil,” and disappeared.
When a blackfellow has been visited, imaginatively, dur- ing the night by the spirit, he does not inform his camp mates of it until the morning. At times the magic influence exert- ed by the monster over the blacks has the effect that they
19
fall into a stupor, during which they cannot recognize men of their own clan; and, if such a one were to endeavour to enter the camp of a man in that condition, the latter would threaten to kill even his father, unless awakened from his fit.
Meeting Strangers.—The approach of a tribe to a party of strangers, such as white men, is made in a definite and formal manner, that is also in practice in Central Australia, and appears generally adopted throughout the continent.* One or two of the most influential old men draw near to the strangers, and, in so doing, push before them a defenceless child, upon whose shoulders both men place a hand, as though guarding their bodies behind the exposed figure of an innocent.
Wilson, in 1835, wrote+ that Captain Barker used every endeavour to induce the natives to come into the camp at Raffles Bay, but without success, until a little child, belonging to one of the soldiers, went and led in the chief, who was evidently under great alarm, by the hand.
While out on a flying trip in the Tomkinson Ranges, in Central Australia, our party came unexpectedly upon three women, who were busily engaged in cooking a snake, and had not heard the approaching camels. On seeing them in close proximity, two gins immediately fled. The third, with an expression of most pitiable terror in her face, seized her breasts, one with each hand, and forcibly squirted her milk in the direction of the white men.
Asking later the meaning of this strange act, we found that she wished thereby to demonstrate that she was the mother of an infant, in the hope that the white men would not, under such circumstances, do her any harm.
As an important geographical extension, I add that Dr. Roth and Mr. Chas. Hedley have informed me that when they traversed Mornington Island, in the Gulf of Carpen- taria, they also came suddenly on a camp. All natives fled, except some helpless pregnant women, who immediately began to squirt milk from their breasts, as I have described. It, too, was evidently an appeal for mercy, and an advertise- ment of their condition. Apparently, therefore, the custom is widespread.
HUNTING. When hunting, the ochred bodies of the persons act as a protective colouration. The “black boys’? employed by
bushmen well know the value of the inconspicuous colour
* Cf. T. L. Mitchell: Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia, vol. i., pl. xii., p. 194. + Narrative of a Voyage Round the World, 1835, p. 74.
20
of their skin when trying to creep within range of game, and they always take the precaution to remove any articles of civilized clothing. The effect is increased by smearing their bodies with the mud of the adjoining country.
The assimilation of the colour of their natural skin to that of “‘rust-coloured” boulders of granite and other rock is marked, not only in these tribes, but throughout the conti- nent. At Opparinna Spring, in the Musgrave Ranges, one day, had it not been for the alertness of my camel, I should have ridden over the huddled figure of a girl who was hiding from her mates among the numerous rocks, which she endea- voured to resemble by assuming the recumbent position and tucking her head and arms between her knees. The colour and form of her back corresponded so nearly with those of the rocks, that it required more than a casual inspection to recognize a living human figure.
A hunter often awaits his prey in ambush in a water- hole by concealing every part of his body under water, except his head, and, when occasion requires, with nothing but his nose visible above ‘the water. When pursued by foes, he seeks refuge in a similar manner, and in that case takes every care that his breathing does not betray his presence by caus- ing a ripple upon the surface of the water. After the Daly River massacre* the few natives that escaped the rifle-bullets of the avenging whites saved their lives in this manner.
The kangaroo is hunted with the spears, known as mal- ligivrima and dawingwa. Four or five men post themselves in concealment along a well-known and frequented pad that is utilized by the game on its way to a waterhole, or cover. A large party, including men, women, and children, disperse in the direction where kangaroos are known to be grazing. On drawing near to the animals, all the beaters begin to sing and shout, “Yé-woo-ho, yé-wo-o-ho,” as they dart along through the bush, and continue until a kangaroo is sighted, which is immediately pursued with excited cries of ‘“Yakéu, yakdu.” On hearing this shout, the men in ambush become alert, and as the prey leaps by, along the pad, the nearest of them instantly rises to hurl his spear. .
If he is successful in his aim he raises a loud and shrill shout of “Adu,” as a signal to the driving party, who then assemble at the spot.
A native considers that the most effective part in which t9 wound a kangaroo is in the hind leg, particularly if the bone should be broken. If struck in the upper part of the
* See Report Government Geologist: Parl. Paper, No. 55, Adelaide, 1906.
21
body the animal travels for some distance, and requires track- ing to secure it.
The large frugivorous bats (Pteropus gouldi), known as flying-foxes, which are nocturnal in habit, are fond of con- gregating during the daytime in very large numbers in the foliage of bamboos and mangroves, where they hang, head downwards, until dusk. It is an easy matter for the blacks to approach them, and fell a sufficient number with sticks and stones to make a feast. The animals that fall stunned to the ground are gathered and bitten, one by one, in the neck and rump, by the hunters—in the former spot to kill, in the latter as a preliminary test of condition. The restric- tion of this diet from the uninitiated has already been men- tioned.
Emus are most readily killed by climbing into the branches of a tree, the fallen seeds of which are known to be eaten by the birds. The blackfellow ascends the tree in the early hours of morning, and awaits his chance, keeping per- fectly silent and motionless when an emu draws near. A special, heavy spear, of the malligirruma type, known as nimmerrima, is held in readiness. If the bird comes to a spot immediately below the concealed native, the weapon is thrown (without a spear-thrower) in the manner depicted in fig. 7; if, however, it is at some distance off, the spear is held in a slightly different manner, as is shown in fig. 8.
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
Large flocks of wild semipalmated geese (Anseranus melanoleuca) visit the same localities periodically. The blacks have got to know these localities well, and, during the absence of the birds, make an excavation in the ground, and cover it over with twigs, paper-bark, grass, and soil, leaving only one or two small lookouts open. A couple of natives sit in this hole and await the return of the geese. As soon as a head or leg of a goose comes near to the window, it is seized, drawn below, and its neck wrung. In this way many birds may be secured.
22
After the first appearance of wild geese at the billabongs and lagoons, the women are not allowed to eat of their meat, believing that if they did so the geese would become lean and bony.* Only after the geese have settled for some consider- able time in a certain locality are the gins allowed to par- take of this food.
The clever imitation of the cries and calls of these birds, a “ngd ngdng, ngdng-ngdng-nging” induces large numbers of them to be attracted, at dusk, close to the native, who sits in the branches of a tree, and kills the birds with a stick.
These birds can also be lured, by imitating their call, so close to a native seated motionless in high grass that they can be actually grasped by hand.
The note of the whistling duck (Vendrocygna eytoni) is also accurately reproduced, by which flocks of them are at- tracted and killed with a throwing-stick while hovering round the hiding native. Cockatoos, plovers, and other birds are se- eured in a similar manner.
The presence or whereabouts of crocodiles ((’. porosus) and dugongs (Halicore australis) in water is traced by the swirl and bubbles produced at the surface, and they are spear- ed from a raft or canoe. A dugong is further detected, when feeding below the surface of the sea, by noting the nibbled portions of seaweed rising to the top. Young crocodiles are caught by hand from the bows of a _ canoe by cautiously drifting upon them as they float in the water.
The natives explain that the teeth of young crocodiles have not hardened sufficiently to do harm, and they even show no fear while swimming about among full-grown in- dividuals.
When a dugong has been killed by being speared from a canoe, the craft is submerged, the occupants swimming alongside and pulling it under the floating carcass of the prey. The water is then bailed out of the canoe, which rises, and lifts the dugong with it, and it is rowed ashore by the hunters.
A turtle is caught by diving after it from a canoe, with a lime, and passing a slipknot round one of its paddles, when it is hauled to the surface. If the head of a swimming turtle be seized and held upwards towards the surface of the water it is helpless so far as escape by diving is concerned. Har- pooning is also widely practised.
In the folklore of the Larrekiyas the fresh-water turtle, known to them as pennimell, once lived in the sea; and the
* Cf. Stretton’s remarks on the eating of flying fox: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xvii., 1893, p. 240.
23
salt-water species, which they call dorl-lurre, in fresh water. One day the long-necked pennimel/ came out of the sea, and said to the then fresh-water dorl-lurre, “I can find nothing to eat,” to which the latter replied to the same effect. A mutual exchange of territory was therefore agreed upon.
FISHING.
Fishing is one of the principal occupations of these coas- tal tribes, consequently a variety of methods are in use.
Fish are caught by building barriers* of rock across the entrance to small, shallow bays, which, upon recession of the tide, retain at times large numbers of fish, either high and dry, or in very shallow water. Such structures were noted particularly at Cape Ford and Hyland’s Bay, in Berringin territory. As a modification of this device, barriers of paper- bark and branches, stayed by vertical rods driven into the sand at short distances apart, are erected across the beds of temporarily-flowing waters, such as the McKinlay and Cul- len Rivers. After the passing of flood-waters many fish are retained by the obstruction. It may be mentioned that these fish, which are often of very considerable size, live, during the dry seasons, in the permanent waterholes that occur at intervals along the river courses.
Those fish which are left behind in comparatively shal- low holes are captured by a party of natives, who enter the pool at one end and, as they move in a body towards the other end, with much splashing, shouting, and beating with sticks, drive the fish to the shallow water there. Then, with a sudden rush, and before the fish can regain deeper water, many are retained by mud and captured. See pl. viii.
When the water becomes very turbid by this agitation the barramundi (Ceratodus) has the peculiar habit of rising to the surface and throwing itself upon the mud banks, to fall a prey to the native. This turbidity is very apparent after a mob of wild cattle have visited a comparatively small water, when these fish can be gathered in large numbers, or else they fall victims to numerous birds of prey.
In the holes left along the seashore they are caught in a slightly different manner. Several natives sit at one end in shallow water, with their legs bent at the knee, spread apart, and feet drawn in under their buttocks. Another party walk towards them from the opposite side, driving the fish before them in the manner described. The fish endea- vour to pass or hide underneath the limbs of the sitting
* Cf. W. E. Roth: Ethnological Studies, p. 95, pl. xi., fig. 224: aad W. G. Stretton: Trans, Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xvii., 1893, p. 241.
24
party, but as soon as one comes in touch with the naked body it is cleverly caught by the native’s hands, killed by crushing its head between his teeth, and thrown on to dry land. This method was observed among the Ginmus.
When sawfish (Pristis sp.) are seen in shallow water off the beach, the natives cleverly seize them by the tail with their hands, and before any harm can be done hurl them high on to shore.
Fishing-nets are made by first forming a ring, about five feet in diameter, from the long shoots of Spinifex grow- ing in the sand-dunes on the coast. Two pairs of these shoots are twisted, two-and-two, one about the other, and bent into semi-circular shape, the two ends of each twisted pair being tied together with vege- table string, thus completing the circle (as shown in fig. 9). Round the inside of this hoop is tied a circular
i net, which is made of long vegetable Bis. 9. strands, usually derived from hybis- cus bark. The knitting of this meshwork is done by hand, without the aid of tools. The successive stages in the manufacture of the net are most readily explained diagrammatically, and are given in the fol- lowing figures, the knitting in the last case being repeated indefinitely from mesh to mesh, until the required dimen- sions have been attained.
_ Ney h
Fis. 10.
When this net is employed for fishing, two natives, usually females, seize a side of the rim each with one hand, wade out to a suitable depth, pulling the net along between them, its mouth being inclined at an angle so that the lower side projects beyond the upper. See fig. 14. The natives all the while beat the water on either side to drive the fish into the net, the mouth of which, as soon as one is noticed to have entered, is quickly turned up into a horizontal position, and the fish bagged.*
* Cl, W. EB, Roth: Bthaolowioal Br adicn. Pp. 9
Two types of fish-hooks are employed, but their use is becoming more or less obsolete from the use of metal hooks obtained by barter. The simpler form is cut from a flat bone of kangaroo, or from pear! shell, and has a slight notch at its upper end to permit of the string being securely tied to it.
In the other pattern two bones are tied at an acute angle with vegetable string secured with resin or wax. See
fig. 15. The shorter piece is previously pointed at _ its free end; the longer possesses an enlargement at one extre- mity, to which the line is // fastened, usually as follows: —The string is folded at one end into a loop, through which the bone is passed (see fig. 16), and it 1s kept in place by binding another string, as shown in fig. 17. The line is
attached to a long rod. The common form of fish- spear measures from ten to Fig.16. Fig. 17. eleven feet in length, and con- sists of a single shaft of bam- boo, tapered slightly at its thicker end, into which three slen- der, pointed rods of ironwood (Lrythrophlaeum laboucheri) (or, in the semi-civilized tribes, fencing-wire) are inserted, the attachment being tightly bound round with string. Large fresh- and salt-water fish are speared with this weapon, includ- ing the barramundi (Ceratodus) and stingray (Trygon sp.). No spear-thrower is employed, the spear being held poised
until the prey comes within close range.
26
As a convenience in carrying large fish some distance to camp, special carriers are constructed by bending five or six dry reeds into loops, and binding the free ends together cir- cumferentially into the form of a handle. The fish is inserted lengthwise into the loops, which are spread apart to receive it. See fig. 18. Shell-fish and crustaceans form daily meals.
Vises
as i! A
Fig. 18. Fig. 19.
An ingenious device is resorted to for collecting the honey of wild bees from inaccessible fissures in rocks aid hollow tree-trunks. A long, thin rod is chosen, and to one of its ends a tassel of vegetable- strands is tied. See fig. 19. Hold- ing the stick at the opposite end, it is inserted into the cleft
27
or hollow containing the honeycomb, and worked about in it until an appreciable amount of honey has been absorbed by the fibres, when it is withdrawn and the honey eaten, after which the process may be repeated.
Wilson observed* a native of Raffles Bay squeeze into a basin of water honey out of a meshy, fibrous bundle, formed from the inner bark of young trees, then dip the bundle into the water and suck it. No doubt this bundle of fibres was a modification of. the form I have just described, and is known as galmarrua to the Larrekiyas. It was observed on the Vic- toria River.
When about to burn down tracts of dry grass and reeds to obtain snakes, lizards, and other small game, the men cut a stick from a tree, with a branch at one end cut short so as to form a hook. Into this hook they wedge a little straw and set fire to it; then, holding the burning end to the dry grass, they run along, pulling the stick after them, the hook being held so that it continually gathers fresh fuel as he proceeds.
CooKING oF GAME.
The legs of an animal to be cooked are broken and tied together in pairs with hybiscus fibre. The carcass is opened at the side to remove the entrails, and an incision made in the anus to clear it. In the case of a kangaroo, the tail is cut off and cooked separately in ashes. When thus prepared, the carcass, the skin of which is not removed, is placed in an oven constructed as follows: —A fire is burnt over a shallow excava- tion in sand, and upon the red-hot coals are placed lumps of ant-hill earth to be heated. On them the animal is laid, covered first with paper-bark, then with sand, when it is allowed to cook.+
FIRE- MAKING.
When by accident, such as a sudden tropical deluge, the “fire-stick” becomes extinguished, a fresh flame is kindled by the ordinary frictional process of twirling a rod of dry wood between the palms, with its lower, slightly-pointed end against another piece of wood held to the ground with the feet, the operator Bante in a seated even: See fig. 20. A little
* Mantnive: és a dine oyage iRewia thes Fverld, 1835, p ) 99. See a loi A Visit to the Indian Archipelago, 1853, vol. i1., p. 168.
t A similar method is reported to have been used by the extinct Adelaide tribe. J. P. Gell: Tasmanian Journ. National Science, ete., 1841; reprinted in pamphlet form.
28
A
4 YW
¥y “BN (Y | $4 fA Mae
/ Za < —
powdered material is usually strewn upon the hole in the basal piece of wood. Seeing that this method of producing fire depends upon friction, I was surprised to notice a curious practice amongst the Larrekiyas. When, with the twirling stick, the operator had bored out the depression in the hori- zontal piece, he squeezed the tip and sides of his nose with the finger and thumb, by which means a quantity of greasy matter was expressed from the sebaceous glands. This he scraped together under the nails of his index and middle fin- gers, and placed the mass upon the ankle of his left leg. Then, after resuming the rotating movements, so soon as the end began to smoke, he touched this against the greasy lump on the ankle, and continued the twirling.
The “sawing process,’’* in which the edge of a flat piece of wood is worked by hand backwards and forwards along a groove, transversely to the length of a split piece, in the cleft of which easily ignited material is packed, is also in practice. See pl. x., fig. 1. A peg passing through the cleft pins the basal part to the ground at one end, while the other is held
* See W. E. Roth: Ethnological Studies, p. 105, pl. xii., fio. 245. H. Basedow: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xxviii., 1904, p. 27.
29
by the operator’s foot. The method is very apparent in pl. x., fig. 2, the original of which was given to me by Mr. W. Holtze.
SMOKING.
The habit of smoking in these districts, as elsewhere in Australia, has become a passion among the tribes that come into contact, directly or indirectly, with Europeans and Asiatics. When the original supply of tobacco has run out the pipe of one of a group of men is crushed between two stones, and the powder and ashes thus obtained smoked in other pipes. This is repeated down to the last pipe, when it, too, is crushed, and the powder rolled up in dry palm-leaf and smoked like a cigarette.
They have also invented a pipe of their own by breaking off the protocone of Twrritella cerea, and filling tobacco into the mouth of the last body-whorl of the shell. The smoke is then inhaled by suction through the convolutions of the shell.
Opium pipes are made out of empty bottles. Having secured a bottle, a native will patiently tap round a certain spot with a pointed implement until he has drilled a small hole through its side. A little opium (usually the third-hand remnants from the pipe of a Chinaman) is placed beside the orifice, ignited, and the smcke drawn into the mouth through the neck of the bottle.
HABITATIONS.
As in Central Australia, habitations are only used under extreme climatic conditions.
The usual plan is to construct a dome-like framework or skeleton of flexible branches as depicted in the sketch (fig. 21), the joints at each intersection being made secure with strands of hybiscus bark. This structure* is covered with paper-bark and grass, leaving the one side open for access. See pl. ix. The floor of the interior, too, is carpeted with the same
Heo is: material, with the exception of a small space left for the fire. The
structure measures 5 ft. by 5 ft. by 4 ft. high, and is called
“ Stokes found similar structures at Cape Hotham, and also at King’s Sound: Vide Discoveries in Australia, 1846. vol. i.. p. 406. Wickham observed huts on Depuch Island, off the north- west coast of Australia, which ‘‘were constructed by fixing boughs and twigs in the ground in a cireular form, and joining the smaller ends overhead in the form of a beehive’: Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc.. London, vol. xii.. 1842. See also W. E. Roth: Kthnological Studies, pp. 105 to 107: pl. xii.
30
albirrek pin by Larrekiyas, bijiglkminit by Wogarts, and enduk by Sheraits.
In camping-places where mosquitoes are very troublesome the dome is completed by bending the rods down to earth on all sides, and covering the whole surface with bark. Four small openings are left along the base to serve as doors, and a hole made in the top to allow passage of the smoke that is accumulated in the hut for the purpose of keeping out the insects.
Provisional shelters against rain are made by cutting a big sheet of bark from the stringy-bark. To do this the bark is chopped through cir- cumferentially in two places about seven or eight feet apart, and slit longitudinally between the two incisions, after which it is easily removed by lever- fe) CSeeieagea The sheet is folded transversely along ts centre, and stood on sand in tent-like fashion.
Sun-shades are formed by erecting two vertically- forked poles, in the forks of which a horizontal rod is_ placed. Against the latter, green branches are piled at an incline of about 45 degrees, and the fires lit beneath.
As a variety may be mentioned that found by Stokest north of Roebuck Bay, and described as a slight. rudely- thatched covering, placed on four upright poles, between three and four feet high.
Stokes writes of natives covering their naked bodies with sand for warmth. A more usual method is to lie upon, and cover themselves with, paper-bark. I have, however. noticed them cover their naked forms with sand as a protection against the attacks of mosquitoes.
WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS.
The spears that were observed in use by the North- western coastal tribes will be considered under the scheme
* Cf. R. Brough Smyth: Aborigines of Victoria, 1878, vol. i., fig, 239, p. 409. + Discoveries in Australia, 1846, vol. i., p. 101, figured.
31
of classficeation of main types of Australian spears, as de- scribed by Spencer and Gillen.*
Type (4).—Single-pronged, multi-barbed spears, with the barbs on one side only. The shaft of heavy or light wood :
This is one of the most common types, and usually has the shaft of light wood. See fig. 23. The variations in length
of the barbs are marked; the longer they are the less effec- tive is the weapon for hunting purposes, but the more prized as an article of show on special occasions. They measure from a fraction of an inch to several inches, while the length of the spear is from ten to eleven feet, of which the barbed head occupies about two feet.
The shaft is almost invariably made of bamboo, the head being of heavy dark wood, the latter being inserted into the cavity of the thicker end of the shghtly-tapering rod up to a small shoulder cut into the head as a short, blunt barb. A firm attachment is effected with beeswax. At the opposite end a small hole is left by cutting the reed a short distance beyond a septum. Sometimes this end is coated with a thin layer of beeswax, and wound round with vege- table fibre or fur-string. In the Ilogat and Berringin the hole is lined on the inside with paper-bark, which is further firmly pressed down into it. This acts as a cushion, saving the point of the spear-thrower from wear. The Larrekiya do not take this precaution, but, on the other hand, make the points of their spear-throwers blunt; the former two tribes using a Sharp one.
The spears are covered with red-ochre, and during special ceremonies are ornamented with white and vellow patterns.
Type 5.—Single-pronged, multi-barbed spears, with shaft of light wood or reed. The barbs are arranged along two or more sides of the head.
Spencer and Gillen, in describing a form of this type. state that it has evidently been derived from an original form with a long, simple-pointed head. This evolution is apparent
“The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 1904, pp. 671 et seq. Cf. also the types described by Etheridge, from the Alli- gator River tribe: Macleay Mem. Vol., Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1893, pp. 229-235.
32
in the following figured specimen (fig. 24) which may be the next stage to an unbarbed spear, with separate head, as defined by the above authors in type 3.
Type 6.—Multi-pronged, multi-barbed spear, with shaft of light wood or reed.
Fig. 26. | Fig, 27.
A spear eleven feet in length, with three equally-cut barbed prongs of ironwood attached to a reed shaft with resin and paper-bark.* The barbs are comparatively small, each prong containing from eight to eleven. See fig. 25.
An allied weapon is used by the Larrekiya and Port Essington natives, but it possesses only two prongs, which are of equal length, barbed on one side, the heads being so attached to the shaft that the sets of barbs point in opposite directions.t See fig. 26. The prongs measure fifteen inches in length, possess thirteen barbs, and are fastened to the shaft with beeswax and vegetable-fibre string.
Type 8.—Stone-headed spear, with the head made of flaked quartzite, and the shaft of reed.
This type is common. The spear is eleven feet long, the stone head varying in length from two to six inches. The stone is chipped from Ordovician quartzite that occurs in extensive outcrop on the Victoria River and elsewhere. The stone is attached with beeswax, resin, and vegetable string.
Type 11.—Short, light spears, with a thin, tapering point of hard wood and a reed shaft.
Common among all tribes on the north-west coast. Those of the Larrekiya and JWogait are decidedly more neatly finished than those of the Berringin and Ginmu. See
* Cf. E. J. Eyre: Journs. Expeds. of Discov. Centr. Austr., vol. i1., p'. vi., fig. 2; and R. Etheridge: Macleay Mem. Vol., ann: Soe. N.SeW.* 18038, ple eear fig. ‘6.
T Of. Ed. Hiyre: Op. cit. pl. v., mg. 3.
33
fig. 27. The spear measures five feet in length; the head or prong is made of mangrove wood.” It is employed principally for settling minor quarrels between two individuals, in which the opponents skil- fully dodge the missiles, each dancing grotesquely in defiance to his opponent, by jumping from foot to foot, and holding the arms half-erect and bent at elbow and wrist, while the body is thrown for- ward and the head back.t See fig. 28. A “close shave” is greeted with a pro- nounced “irr.” {
This light spear, on hitting the ground, skips along the surface, and may be re- covered uninjured. A large number of these spears is always available, owing to their easy construction.
Messrs. Spencer and Gillen state that this form of spear “‘is thrown by the hand, and never with a spear-thrower.”’§ This must not be regarded as applying to all tribes alike. So far as my observations went, spear-throwers of the type described on page 35 were used specially for spears of this type by all the north- western tribes, with the exception of the Gimmu, but there is no reason to doubt that these also use them.
Two varieties of this type must be added:
One is identical with the above in shape and design, but twice as large; the reed shaft measuring four feet and the mangrove head five feet in length. It is used for hunting and fighting; in the latter case, particularly, when a lubra is concerned.
* Macgillivray defines this type as spears, shafted with reeds, the smallest of which are no bigger than arrows: Narrative of a Voyage of H.M.S. ‘‘Rattlesnake,’’ 1852, vol. i., p. 147
+t Cf., ““A single black would hurl his spears one after ano- ther at an opnvosing blackfellow, who would as adroitly avoid them, ducking his head, bending ‘his back, or shifting stightly to preside Parkhouse: Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi., 1895, Dp. 642.
t This exclamation seems general. Stokes records it of the Port Darwin natives as indicative of fright; also of the King’s Sound tribe. Cf. Discoveries in Australia, vol. iy pe 22s and ‘““Muttered signs of approval . . . were given at any good throws or a particularly clever avoidance of the spears.’’ Park- house: On. cit., p. 642. See also H. Basedow: Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., vol. xxvill., 1904, -p. 24, ‘‘a subdued arr,’ partly expressing pain, and partly ‘disgust or temper.’
§ The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 676. B
34
In the second variety, a rare form, used by the Mullwk- Mulluks, the reed shaft and hardwood head are repeated, with the addition of a small, chipped chalcedony blade fixed with resin to the end of the latter.
Shafts of spears, if crooked, are straightened by hold- ing the bent portion over a block of heated ant-hill earth, on which water is thrown to generate steam.
Fig. 29.
SPEAR-THROWERS.
The prevailing type of spear-thrower among the north- western coastal tribes is that shown in fig. 29. It is cut out of light wood, measures four and a-half feet in length; is flat and of uniform thickness (about an inch), both sides being slightly convex. Its breadth is over two inches at the handle, and tapers off to half-an-inch at the end to which the wooden peg is attached with resin. The haft is formed by rounding off the edges, and cutting into the sides of the blade at about four or five inches from the end; round this “grip,” kangaroo tendon is often wound. The whole surface of the spear-thrower is coated with beeswax, charcoal, and red-ochre.
The implement is used in throwing all the larger types of spears, with the exception of No. 11, the thrower and spear being clasped by the right hand in such a way that the spear-shaft passes, and is held, between thumb and fore- finger, the remaining fingers holding the handle of the thrower. See figs. 30 and 31.
’
: wee Fig. 30.
Fig. 31.
A similar though smaller pattern, cut out of light, soft wood, is not uncommon. It is not painted over with ochre or other material.
Another type is four feet in length, two inches wide, and very thin and flexible; the side that rests adjacent to the
35
spear being flat, the opposite slightly convex. The peg that, in throwing, fits into the pit at the end of the spear is pear- shaped, and made of hard wood, being attached to the blade with vegetable string and beeswax. The handle is thick, circu- lar in transverse section, tapers, and is covered with resin or wax, applied while warm. It is ornamented with rows of small holes pricked out with a fish-bone or small stick, as shown in fig. 32. Experienced men only use this type of “thrower.”
Fig. 32.
The next form is used exclusively for throwing the small reed spears of type 11. It is known as billiloa ( Larrekiya), dun (Wogait), or jun (Berringin). It consists of a rod of hard wood, four feet in length, tapering slightly at either end. At one end a lump of resin is attached, and, while warm and soft, it is worked by hand into a blunt point, which fits into the hole at the end of the spear. At about five inches from the handle end a rim of resin is fixed, and from it towards the adjacent extremity a decreasing thickness of similar material. See fig. 33.
Fig. 34.
When throwing a spear, the hand is placed above the resin rim in the position indicated in fig. 34, the shaft in this case being held by the thumb upon the outer surface of the middle fingers, without the aid of the index finger. The handle end is frequently used to produce fire by the usual rotation process.
The type of spear-thrower described* by Spencer and
* The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 670 and Gel, fie. 224. B2
36
Gillen as belonging principally to the Gnanj and Umbaia tribes, and consisting of a straight stick, with a human-hair tasse! as a handle, is comparatively rare among the Larre- kiyas and W'ogaits, but has been reported to occur also at Port Essington by Macgillivray.*
C47 {ck rr Fig. 35.
NaTIVE Sworp.
A weapon whose function may be compared with that of a modern sword. is constructed of hard-wood in the shape shown in fig. 35. It is flat, with sides slightly convex, and the edges sharp, the length being about four feet. The con- stricted portion, serving as the haft, may be bound round with vegetable fibre and covered with beeswax to prevent the hands from slipping. This weapon is used both to strike and to ward off blows. When about to receive a blow, a combatant takes the precaution to keep his elbows down close to his body, as otherwise the force of his antagonist’s blow may be sufficient to break his guard and cut his arm. His legs, too, he draws in to underneath his body. If his opponent strikes at his hands, he quickly shifts his weapon sideways to receive and guard off the blow.
This is, no doubt, the weapon described from Port Essington by Macgillivrayt+ as a club of compressed form, resembling a cricket bat, with sharp edges, and used only at close quarters.
A fighting-stick, used as a two-handed weapon, from four to five feet in length, circular in section, and tapering
towards the handle end, is also used. See fig. 36. It is made of heavy wood, and covered with red ochre and various designs in white. The Larrekiyas call this weapon gwanda, the Wogaits wangurre, the Sheraits jendénn, and the Ber- ringins mileri.
* Narrative of a Voyage of H.M.S. ‘‘Rattlesnake,’’ 1852, Vina, ‘Dt lays
+ Narrative of a Voyage of H.M.S. ‘‘Rattlesnake.’’ 1852, vol. i., vp. 147. See also Brough-Smyth: Aborigines of Victoria, 1878, vol. i., p. 308; E. J. Eyre: Journs. Expeds. Discov. Centr. Austr., 1845, vol. ii., pl. vi., fig. vi; and R. Etheridge: Macleay Mem. Vol., Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1893, p. 238, pl. xxx.
37
Although boomerangs are not known to these tribes, a small throwing-weapon (damatha) of a flat, spatulate shape, with small handle and sharp edges, is made of heavy iron- wood, from six to twelve inches long. It is gripped by the handle with the right hand, and hurled edgeways, when it flies through the air with revolving motion, to hit its mark with either end; it is capable of making a severe wound on the victim. It is also sometimes used for killing game.
Foop AND WATER VESSELS.
The strong coolemans or pitchis of Central Australia, made of wood or bark, are not used by these coastal tribes, but are replaced by less durable articles made of paper-bark. Boat- shaped vessels of simple design are common. Sheets of paper- bark are folded once along ie centre longitudinally, and the ends tied up with vegetable string.* See fig. 37.
Fig. 37.
In a more permanent type, made of stringy-bark, the ends are sloped and stitched together with cane, the sides stayed by three inverted hoops of flexible twigs, and bound crosswise by an equal number of vegetable-fibre ropes. The sides are kept rigid along their central edge by stitching rods to them. See fig. 38.
Fig. 38.
Provisional carriers are fashioned out of a long piece of bark by folding it once upon itself longitudinally, then twice across its length into the shape indicated by fig. 39. The women carry “this implement either under their arms or by means of the sling described and shown on page 26. _ In it are stowed the catherings of the day, such as roots and seeds.
: -LGR Wi. Roeth North Mucsnsland Hihnosreahy. Balletin No. 7, Brishane: by sughortee: 1904, p. 30, fig. “990,
38
Small articles are rolled up in paper-bark, the roll folded in its centre and tied together at the open ends with grass or fibre.
Infants, too, are wrapped in paper-bark and carried under the arms of their mothers.*
| | Bs = Fig. 39 Fig. 40. Fig. 41.
Water-vessels and baskets are constructed out of the leaves of the fan-palm. A leaf is folded at the edge oppo- site the stalk in the manner shown in figure 40, the overlap- ping folds 4 and 6’ being stitched together along the outer edge. The opposite side, containing the stalk, is treated simi- larly. The stalk is next bent round, and its end passed through the gap «, formed by the union of 4 and 6’, when the end is turned back and tied to itself higher up, thus form- ing a convenient handle. See fig. 41. A similar type has been recorded from Port Essington by Macgillivray, t+ and a basket containing water from Luxmore Head by King. {
Large shells of Melo diadema and Megalatractus arua- mus§ are generally employed for drinking cups, small water vessels, and for bailing purposes ; in the last-named case, both for scooping the water from a native well, and for removing it from their small canoes.
A hole is knocked in the body-whorl of these, and may be subsequently enlarged by grinding, so that part of the hand can pass through and grip the columella as a handle. The latter go by the names maraba (Larrekiya), jinbi (Wo-
* Of. W. E Roth: Ethnological Studies, p. 183, pl. xxiv., fig. 436.
+t Narrative of a Voyage of H.M.S. ‘‘Rattlesnake,’’ 1852, Vo 4.7 p..:146: 1 Survey of the Intertropical Coasts of Australia, 1827, vol. i:, pp: 111 and 112.
§ Cf. W. E. Roth: North Queensland Ethnography, Bull. No. 7, Brisbane: by authority, 1904, p. 29.
39
gait and Berringin), and jinbiwa (Sherait); the former by malarinda (Larrekiya), ngaremang (Wogait), ngaremuk (Sherait), and Ounga ( Berringin).
Domestic UTENSILS.
An implement used for cracking the nuts of ('ycas media consists of a piece of hard wood, about one foot in length, shaped like a cricket-bat. The nuts are held against some resisting surface, such as a rock or tree-root.
Pointed yam-sticks, similar to the Central Australian type, are among the belongings of the women of all tribes.
Open-mouthed, cylindrical baskets, with straight sides and curved bases, projecting upwards to a blunt cone in- wardly, are plaited of flexible twigs after the pattern repre- sented in fig. 42. The edge of the mouth is strengthened on the inside by a stouter twig, and by several vegetable strands on the outside, the upright bars of the pattern terminating between the two series. to which they are attached by cross-
oes
42
backwards and forwards three times, having its ends fixed at either side by separate ties. The intervening spaces between the teeth are interwoven and filled with beeswax. Thus the white enamel-surfaces only are exposed at the base of the black band, their roots being embedded in the wax. See pl. i. Single teeth of the kangaroo are utilized somewhat simi- larly. After cleansing the enamel face as described, a lump of beeswax and a tooth are warmed at a fire; then the requisite amount of wax is scooped up with the root of the tooth, and worked with the fingers into a small globular mass round that end; the fingers during this process being kept greasy by rubbing them over the nose, thus preventing the wax from sticking to them. A little charcoal is next crumbled between two fingers, and pressed into the surface of the wax. A central lock of hair is squeezed into the wax of the ornament, Fig. 47. which is worn over the forehead. See fig. 47. The curls of warriors are at times partly em- bedded in beeswax and ochre, the head thereby becoming covered with numerous cylindrical bodies, from the lower ex- tremities of which the ends of the bundles of hair spread out and curve upwards. Necklaces.—Reference has already been made to the — grass necklaces worn during initiation ceremonies (page 10). ty They are made by thread- Z ing short segments of dry flower-stalks of grass upon thin fur* strings. About ten of — such threaded strings, about eight inches in length, and bearing loops at the ends, are tied together at both ends by _ single pieces of human-hair string, which serve to tie the ornament round the neck. See fig. 48 and plik Closely allied forms are Fig. 48. made by substituting the grass segments by trun- cated shells of Dentaliwm, when as many as twenty-six strings are grouped together.
* Of. J. Macgillivray: Narrative oF Vieapeen H.M.S. ‘Rattlesnake,’ 1852, vol. i., p. 146: and W. E. Roth: Ethnolo- gical Studies, p. 3, pl. xiii., fig. 264.
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Chest-bands.—About forty thin vegetable-fibre strings are wound into a skein, like that used in the head band pre- viously described. The circumference of each circle thus produced measures from three and a half to four feet, a cer- tain proportion of which (nine to twelve inches) is bound round, circumfer- entially, so that it be- comes a solid cord. The strings are divided into two lots, each of which is tied round near the main rope at either end for a length of about one inch, to keep the two halves separate. (See fig. 49.) The ornament is worn principally by women in the manner shown in figs. 50 and 51. The bound portion rests vertically along the back, and each of the two halves passes over one shoulder, diagonally across the chest and under the opposite arm, to meet the lower end of the vertical cord.*
Smaller forms of this ornament are worn round tne neck, most often by men. (See pl. i.)
+/G}. R. Etheridge: Macleay Mem. Vol., Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1893, p. 247; and Spencer and Gillen: The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 1904, p. 694.
42
backwards and forwards three times, having its ends fixed at either side by separate ties. The intervening spaces between the teeth are interwoven and filled with beeswax. Thus the white enamel-surfaces only are exposed at the base of the black band, their roots being embedded in the wax. See pl. i.
Single teeth of the kangaroo are utilized somewhat simi- larly. After cleansing the enamel face as described, a lump of beeswax and a tooth are warmed at a fire; then the requisite amount of wax is scooped up with the root of the tooth, and worked with the fingers into a small globular mass round that end; the fingers during this process being kept greasy by rubbing them over the nose, thus preventing the wax from sticking to them. A little charcoal is next crumbled between two fingers, and pressed into the surface of the wax. A central lock of hair is squeezed into the wax of the ornament,
Fig. 47. which is worn over the forehead. See fig. 47. The curls of warriors are at times partly em- bedded in beeswax and ochre, the head thereby becoming covered with numerous cylindrical bodies, from the lower ex- tremities of which the ends of the bundles of hair spread out and curve upwards.
Necklaces.—Reference has already been made to the grass necklaces worn during initiation ceremonies (page 10). They are made by thread- ing short segments of dry flower-stalks of grass upon thin fur* strings. About ten of — such threaded strings, about eight inches in length, and bearing loops at the ends, are tied together at both ends by _ single pieces of human-hair string, which serve to tie the ornament round the neck. See fig. 48 and plist.
Closely allied forms are Fig. 48. made by substituting the
grass segments by trun-
cated shells of Dentaliwm, when as many as twenty-six strings
* Of. J. Macgillivray: Narrative of a Vance in H.M.S. “Rattlesnake,’’? 1852, vol. i., p. 146: and W. E. Roth: Ethnolo- gical Studies, p. 3, pl. xiti., fig. 264.
43
Chest-bands.—About forty thin vegetable-fibre strings are wound into a skein, like that used in the head band pre- viously described. The circumference of each circle thus produced measures from three and a half to four feet, a cer- tain proportion of which (nine to twelve inches) 1s bound round, circumfer- entially, so that it be- comes a solid cord. The strings are divided into two lots, each of which is tied round near the main rope at either end for a length of about one inch, to keep the two halves separate. (See fig. 49.) The ornament is worn principally by women in the manner shown in figs. 50 and Ol. The bound portion rests vertically along the back, and each of the two halves passes over one shoulder, diagonally across the chest and under the opposite arm, to meet the lower end of the vertica! cord.*
Fig. 51.
Smaller forms of this ornament are worn round tne neck, most often by men. (See pl. il.)
iad OF id 8m Hihorides. Macleay Mem. Wale laa Roan N.S.W., 1893, p. 247; and Spencer and Gillen: The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 1904, p. 694.
44
Armlets.—Reeds are split longitudinally into long, thin strips, which are scraped into pieces of uniform breadth with stone knives. In the latter process, one end of the strip is tied round the great toe of the right foot, from which it is passed between that toe and the next of the left foot, and the other end held in the left hand. The right hand is thus free to do the scraping. See fig. 52. The prepared strips
v4 Ve <
SE oS: rw/f 4 F
, tf / Of ‘
YE\\\ 7 ; ‘ AN Wy Sty VI/ jj
aid t ii i ‘ \ Me dy
are neatly plaited into armlets that are worn by male and female round the upper arm above the elbow. See pl. il. With age, these armiets become very tight-fitting, often press- ing deeply into the flesh, and at times have to be cut on this account. The armlet has the following tribal names : —Mir- rakma (Larrekiya), tchellérra (Wogat and Berringin), and pinbin (Sherart ).
A broader armlet is used during certain ceremonies. It is one and three-quarter inches broad, and consists of about twelve narrow series of five plaited strips of cane, subse- quently knitted into one by a close meshwork of opossum-fur strings, passing transversely from one series to the other, alternating over one and under the next.
Waist-girdles.—Waist-girdles are worn by men, and are made of twisted human-hair string. About thirty string circles are tied together at opposite ends of a diameter, thus forming, when pulled out, a bundle of sixty parallel strings. These are loosely twisted together to form a coil about two feet in length, which is tied round the waist by a similar
45
piece of string. This article serves, not only as an ornament, but is also used age“a belt, in which~ various’. unple- ments and weapons re _ carried, by thrusting them between belt and_ body. A warrior owas observed carrying a stone tomahawk in this manner, and, in order | to stop the swinging of the dependent handle | in his movements, it was made to rest in the
\:
cleft of his buttocks. See fig. 53. The spiral belts of stringy-bark have already been alluded to. Their length, when uncoiled, Fig. 53. measures up to eight feet, their width three inches. See pl. 11.
Pubic Tassel.—In the description of various ceremonies the pubic tassel has been mentioned. It consists of a great number of twisted strands of opossum fur, bound to a central piece, which is tied to the waistband, either by two separate ter- minal strings, or by means of a thick, single one, passing from the top of the tassel. See fig. 04. In the latter case, the string ends in a large knot, that is simply tucked under- neath the waistband.
The tassel is, at times, replaced by the shell of the pearl oyster (Meleagrina mar- garitifera), two holes being, for this purpose, drilled near the hinge-line, to receive a string, whose ends are attached to a thick
Fig. 54. knot or small rod, passed under the belt.
The shell is usually worn with its edge and rough exterior surface ground smooth.
TRIBAL COMMUNICATIONS.
“Message-sticks.”—A tribe, desirous of carrying on strife with its rival, sends to them a well-known message-stick by a -messenger. Among others, two types prevail that are used according to whether the trouble is the result of disagree- ment between the men from sundry causes, independently, of the women, or whether it has been caused by a woman— é.g., a case in which a man has stolen a wife from a strange tribe, and the rightful owner wishes to avenge the theft.
In the former case, the ‘‘message-stick’”’ consists of two equal internodes of reed, about one inch in length, squared off at the ends by cutting and subsequent burning on a red- hot piece of charcoal. These are tied together, side by side, with fur-string, which passes through the length of both reeds, and is knotted into a loop at one end. See fig. 55.
46
Fig. 55.
In the second case, where a woman is concerned, the “stick” is so far similar; but, in addition, has a longer and thinner internode passed through one of the other two, fitting securely into it. See fig. 56.
The messenger, dispatched by the tribe, fastens the stick underneath his forehead-band by its loop, and hurries to the party concerned. After it has been noticed by all present, he hands it to him who should receive it.
Other “message-sticks” that are known, at least to the Larrekiyas, Wogaits, and Berringins, serve principally for the summons and invitations to initiation ceremonies. One form (fig. 57), measuring from three to four feet in length, tapers to a point at one end, while at the other it has a piece of fur-string attached. The other (fig. 58), about eighteen inches long, consists of two segments, the base of one being made to fit into the other. They are both made from wood coated with red ochre, upon which designs are painted in white, in the patterns figured.
The call to initiation ceremonies of the /!’ogazts is the “dell” (or diya of the Berringin)—a message-stick of bam- boo, from four to five feet long, painted transversely with alternate bands of red ochre, the glossy surface of the bam- boo having been previously scraped in the parts that are to take the paint.
SILENT CORRESPONDENCE. A conventional system of signalling and communicating with one another, at distance, by gestures, is understood by all the tribes.
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Firstly, when the attention of a person a long way off is to be attracted for parley, the native stands erect, with his legs astride, throws his arms outwards, and continues wav- ing them from a position in which, with elbows bent, the hands rest on the head, to that in which the arms are ex- tended down either side of the body. While he is executing these movements the native keeps up a shrill, piercing shout, no matter whether the other party be within hearing dis- tance or far beyond it.
Next, if he wishes him to approach: Maintaining the erect posture, both hands are thrown up above one shoulder, then swept, in extended condition, before his body to well be- hind it on the opposite side, and, in so doing, he bends his head and body forward from the hips.
If he means to indicate that he intends going to the stranger, the arms are thrown outwards from his chest in the direction of the latter person. Lastly, if the stranger is to remain where he is, both arms are held, bent at the elbows, with the open palms, which are directed towards the distant party, resting at about the same level as his head, or slightly above it. They are then swept round in a vertical plane to a position directly below the starting-point.
In every case the actions are repeated until the distant man has responded.
Fig. 60. Fig. 62.
MusicaLt INSTRUMENTS.
The music-sticks that are used to beat the accompani- ment of corrobboree chants consist of two pieces—one, about nine inches long, flat, rounded off at one end and notched at the other, is made of ironwood (Hrythrophlaeum laboucheri ).
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See fig. 59. This is held in the left hand, as shown in fig. 60. The other, the beating-stick, is simply a smaller rod of cir- cular section, made of mangrove-wood (Ithyzophora sp.). See fig. 61. It is clasped by the right hand in either of two ways: In one, the end of the rod is pressed against the little finger, all other fingers holding it, with the thumb under- neath. See fig. 62. In the other, the end rests against the side of the middle finger, the thumb and index finger only holding it.
In performing, the ironwood is struck by the mangrove rod at about two-thirds its length from the notched end, pro- ducing a loud, ringing note.
Fig. 63.
The bamboo trumpet, or drone-pipe, is made by cutting a fairly thick bamboo (Lambusa arnhemica), either curved or straight, into a length of from four to five feet, and breaking out its diaphragms, while green, with a rod and _ heavy stone. What remains of the septa is subsequently burnt out with a fire-stick. The outer surface is decorated by scratch- ing designs upon it with a stone knife. See fig. 63.
When a bamboo is not available, a provisional “trum- pet” is constructed by breaking the stem of a hybiscus and carefully removing the bark intact, in the form of a long pipe. This form does not last for more than a night.
The instrument is used as an accompaniment for cor- robboree chants, the operator blowing into one end with a vibratory motion of his lps. Examples of the sounds pro- duced are given on page 12. A droning, mournful succes- sion of notes is emitted, and kept up without a break, the performer breathing all the time through the nostrils, as when a blowpipe is used. Before play, the pipe is usually moistened on the inside with water, which is said to improve its tone.
It is interesting to note that Wilson, in 1835, in refer- ring to a native dance at Raffles Bay, wrote* that the music on that occasion was produced by one of the performers from a hollow tube.
Stokes found the instrument, referred to as “ebroo,” in
“ Narrative of a Voyage round the World, 1835, oe Bee
49
use among the natives at Port Essington in 1838, and wrote* that they blow through it with their noses. This, in all pro- bability, is a mistake.
Leichardt also found it at Raffles Bay in 1845. He callst+ it “eboro,’ and describes it as a long tube of bamboo, by means of which the natives variously modulated their voices.
The same instrument is also recorded from Port Essing- ton by Macgillivrayf as the “ibero,” a piece of bamboo, three feet in length, which, by blowing into it, is made to produce an interrupted, drumming, monotonous noise, and by Kep- pel§ as a bamboo tube through which a monotonous sound is transmitted by the performer’s breath; and Coppinger,{) in the vicinity of Port Darwin, observed a hollow reed, about four feet in length, that was used like a ‘‘cow-horn,”’ with the production of a rude burlesque of music.
More recently, Etheridge has described|| these bamboo trumpets from the Alligator River tribes, of the Northern Territory.
The instrument is known to the various tribes as mamul- lima (Larrekiya), kanbi (Wogait), molk (Sherait), and kanhi (Berringin ).
MANUFACTURE.
The shells** of large helices (Xanthomelon pomum) are much used in the making of weapons and implements. A hole is carefully tapped into the main whorl, leaving the edges of the fracture as sharp and abrupt as possible.
For rasping and smoothing surfaces of wood, the shell is held, by the little finger of the right hand, at the open end of the body whorl, so that the made aperture rests below the finger. Held in that position, the lower edge of the hole
* Discoveries in Australia, Voyage H.M.S. ‘‘Beagle,’’ 1857- 1843 (London, 1846), vol. i., p. 3 :
+ Journ. Overland Exped. in Australia from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, 1844-1845 (London, 1847), p. 534.
t+ Narrative of a Voyage of H.M.S. ‘‘Rattlesnake,’’ 1852, Vole Ls pL lol
§ A Visit to the Indian Archipelago, vol. i1., 1858, p. 163.
I Voyage of the ‘‘Alert,’’? 1883, p. 204.
| Macleay: Mem. Vol., Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1893, p. 242, pl. xxx., fig. 7, and pl. xxxi., tig. 6. See also T. Worsnop: Pres. Address Sect. Ethnology, Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1895, vol. vi., p. 145, and ‘‘The Prehistoric Arts, Manufactures, Works, Weapons, etc., of the Aborigines of Australia,’’ Adelaide, 1897, p.. Loo. ** Of W. E. Roth: North Queensland Ethnography, Bull. No. 7, 1904, p. 21, and figs. 109 to 115.
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forms the rasping surface, which is only worked upwards. The main portion of the shell during this process, therefore, lies against the outer side of the palm. See fig. 64.
Seti
Fig. 64.
When the point of a spear or other weapon is to be sharpened, the prepared shell is held by the index and middle finger of the right hand, so that the puncture is underneath. The point of the weapon is then placed between the shell and thumb, which latter presses the point against the shell, the rasping being done only towards the body, in the direction indicated by the arrow in fig. 65.
A strong bivalve shell (Cyrena essingtonensis) is also used in the final process of chipping stone spearheads and knives. The umbonal portion of the shell, with the convex surface outwards, is held firmly by all fingers of the right hand, in such a way that the ventral edge is away from the palm of the hand. The latter border is pressed against the chipped edge of the stone head, gripped by the left hand, and by a careful wrenching of the right hand, in such a direction that the thumb moves downwards, the requisite chipping is accomplished.
For this final process, a fragment of quartzite or flint is often used, instead of the shell—that is, after the preliminary flaking of the stone. This is used in the same way as the shell.
A bivalve shell is also used for cutting wood. For this purpose the shell is held, dorsal surface upwards, between thumb and middle finger, the index finger passing round the umbo and convex surface. The ventral edge is placed against the piece of wood, which is held with the remaining two fin- gers. By combined pressure and _half-circular forward motions of the right hand the wood is cut through. See fig. 66.
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Fig. 67. Fig. 68.
It is curious to note that if a native be given a steel knife, it will be used for cutting in much the same manner as the shell. The handle of the knife is held by the thumb against the base of the index finger, while the blunt edge of the blade rests against the palm. All fingers grasp the rod and help to press the stick against the cutting edge, and im- part the upward, half-circular motion to the hand. See fig. 67.
So, too, when chipping a rod, not the handle, but the blade of the knife is held in the hand, the weight of the former giving momentum to the movements of the knife. See
fig. 68. MISCELLANEOUS.
The most general mode of carrying an infant is to sit it astride on its parent’s shoulder, the child holding on to the parent’s head for support. On the march, a child often falls asleep in this position, and then the bearer may be seen holding one of his hands up as a cushion, upon which the child may rest its head.
Less frequently to be seen is the method usually adopted by whites, in which the child is held by both arms. The fact that the hands are thus preoccupied no doubt accounts to some extent for the limited use of this method, which is rarely seen further south. See fig. 69.
It has already been stated that infants are wrapped in bark of trees, and carried under the arms of their mothers.
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Fig. 69.
Fig. 70.
As among other primitive people, the strange habit of
standing at ease on one foot prevails.
One leg is bent, and
its foot placed with its heel above the knee of the other, while the body is steadied by a stick or spear-thrower, held in the hand. See fig. 70. It may be mentioned that a man is rarely encountered without this implement. To be without
it is not regarded as correct.
When a waterhole or billabong is reached, a decidedly animal-like method of drinking is often resorted to. The
pouring water on to his head.
native wades into the water for some depth, then, plac- ing his hands on the knees, he stoops down, places his mouth to the water, and drinks. See fig. 71. On a
‘hot day, after he has
quenched his thirst, he will usually cool his body by
53
Rivers have frequently to be crossed by swimming, not- withstanding the numerous crocodiles that abound. Any per- sonal belongings, that are not to be wetted, are wrapped in paper-bark, and the parcel held high and dry in the left hand, while the right arm propels. When long stretches of water have to be crossed, a log of wood is pushed along in front of the swimmer, and on it the belongings are carried.
With conditions so favourable, it is surprising that these coastal tribes have not developed greater power of naviga- tion® and become capable of fashioning more seaworthy crafts than were observed; and, indeed, the tribes that have come into contact with Europeans and Asiatics have proved them- selves to be well adapted for the art. But it is very doubtful whether the well-shaped dug-out canoes of the Larrekiyas near Port Darwin and those of the Ilogaits beyond Point Charles are of native origin. Probably their manufacture is a product of the contact with Malays or some other race.
Macgillivray, in 1852, wrotet that ‘formerly bark canoes were in general use, but they are now completely superseded by others, hollowed out of the trunk of a tree, which they procure ready-made from the Malays, in exchange for tor- toise-shell and in return for assistance in collecting trepang.”
Both Flindersf and King§ have described bark canoes from the north coast of Australia.
Stokes relates{[]how Captain Wickham, when he discoy- ered Bynoe Harbour, found, opposite the small projection of land he subsequently called Raft Point, ‘‘a raft carrying two women and several children, which was being towed by four or five men swimming alongside and supporting themselves by means of a log of wood across their chests.” By buoying their body with the same means, several natives attempted to swim out, against a strong tide, to our lugger, the “Venture,” when at anchor in Treachery Bay. The same has been re corded by His Excellency the Governor, Sir George R. Le Erante, || from Treachery Bay, also. His Excellency points out
* Professor Rlaatech, Hee Peeeeed ube entire ateones of e knowledge of navigation among the north-western tribes of West- ern Australia: Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1906, p. 794.
+ Narrative of a Voyage of H.M.S. ‘‘Rattlesnake,’’ 1852,
vol. 1., pp. 146 and 147. t Vovage to Terra Australis, 1814, vol. ii., p. 198. § Survey of the Intertronical Coasts of Australia, 1827, vol.
tp. 90. J] Discoveries in Australia, vol. ii., p. 15. Rep. Visit to Northern Territory: Parl. Paper, No. 49,
f Adelaide. 1905, p. 4. See also P. P. i Survey of ‘the Tnter- tropical Coasts of Australia, 1837, vol. i., p. 38.
54
that the Fijians in a similar way employ the trunks of banana- palms to assist them in their swimming.
NATIVE ART.
Rock Drawings.—In 1841 Sir George Grey published* reproductions of drawings he found in sandstone caves on the Glenelg River in the north-west of Australia, and about these much discussion; has taken place as to whether they were the work of aborigines or not. The recent discovery, however, of similar designs, in the Kimberley district, by F. 8S. Brock- mani and party places the question beyond dispute. The drawings certainly demonstrate a greater development of talent than the average Australian blackfellow is usually credited with; and that this fact may be originally due to contact with shipwrecked sailors is supported, among others, by Dr. F. M. House§ and Professor Klaatsch.{
As a very general remark, the drawings of the natives under consideration in the present paper, though of the same type as found throughout Australia, may be classed a step in advance of those of the central and southern tribes, so far as they have been placed on record. In the same way, the music and rhythm of the chants of the northern tribes may be said to be a little more pleasing to the ear than those of the Central Australian.
At Blunder Bay, on the Victoria River, east of Endea- vour Hill, a low cave, or rock shelter, was discovered in the quartzite range on the river frontage. The numerous mortars fashioned on the slabs of rock for grinding ochre, utensils, soot-covered walls, and food remains showed that this cave has been, and is still, a frequent meeting-place of the blacks. The sides and roof of the cave were covered with many rock drawings, the most conspicuous of which are represented on pls. x1. and xii.
eon of arr Ren ediuions of Devers in Nort West and W estern Australia, London, 1841. Plates republished by T. Worsnop, Presidential Address, caver Ethn. and Anthrop., Austr. Association Adv. Science, vol. 1895: and Lhe Prehis- toric Arts, Manufactures, Works, W thes ete., of the Aborti- gines of Australia, Adelaide, 1897.
+ Vide Remarks on the Probable Origin and Antiquity of the Aboriginal Natives of New South Wales, by a Colonial Magistrate (Hall), 1846: Brough-Smyth: The Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i. 1878;-p:; 28925 0 Matthew: ‘Ihe Australian Aborigines: Journ. Roy. Bae N.S.W., 1889, vol. xxiii., p. 414.
ea Kep. Expl. NW. Rarriesiey, 1901, Perth: by authority, § Appendix C, of Rep. Expl. N.W. Kimberley, 1901. Zeitschrift fir Ethnologie, 1906, p. 787.
55
Of this series, perhaps, the most striking is fig. 1 of pl. xi., which measures about twelve inches in height, and is painted in white pipeclay, such as is used for personal orna- mentation at ceremonies. It represents a woman in a pecu- liar attitude, with her arms thrown apart, and one leg in a position strongly suggestive of the stamping movement of corrobborees. "The arms and hands, too, look as if the artist had intended them to convey the same idea ; for, as has been already alluded to on page 41, in the cor robboree dance of the gins, a long skein of vegetable strings is often held be- tween the hands and worked backwards and forwards in a way which, from a distance, resembles the action of a fiddler’s bow. No facial or other detailed features were discernible on the figure, and it is, therefore, doubtful whether the draw- ing is intended for a front or back view. The extraordinary large breasts suggest that it represents an adult. It will be noticed that three fingers only are given to each hand, while the toes are not differentiated.
Large drawings of crocodiles are plentiful. The best finished is shown in fig. 2 of pl. xi. It measures five feet three inches in length, and is drawn in red ochre, while its outline is defined with white pipeclay, made into a paste with water, and dabbed on with the finger. The head and tail are decidedly apparent, the latter tapering, the former being marked by a bulge on the upper surface to indicate the prominent frontal bone of those reptiles. The limbs are not divided into separate segments, but are shown as straight, outwardly directed members of unequal length, and termin- ating in each case in five claws, this number being correct for the fore, but one too many for the hind, limbs.
Fig. 3 of the same plate delineates the same animal in red ochre only, but it is more crudely drawn. The limbs are without claws, and resemble more the paddles of a turtle in shape.*
Several other forms of a similar type, with very slight modifications in design, and varying in length from three to five feet, are among the group. Figs. 1 and 2 of pl. xii. are identical with that last described, except that, in the latter, transverse bars have been drawn in yellow ochre, probably to represent the rows of horny scutes. The alternate placement, too, of the forelimbs of this design suggests motion.
ies 3) of pliatt. represents. two foryeatiles the smaller, done in yellow, being placed within the outline of the latter, which is in red.
*~ A> “Saurian nee of figure in red ochre on granite has been recorded from Cloncurry. Queensland. by W. EF. Roth: Ethnological Studies, p. 116, pl. xiv.. fig. 280.
56
In fig. 4 of the same plate we have a sketch, three feet in length, in red, of what is no doubt intended for the head, body, and tail of a crocodile, with transverse bars across its length, as in fig. 2. The legs, however, are missing.
Fig. 5 of pl. xii., measuring two feet in length, is drawn in red ochre, and depicts the lower portion of a limb of a crocodile, which, if the number of claws is correctly drawn, is a hind leg.
Fig. 4 of pl. xi. is of doubtful nature. It is painted in yellow ochre, while at its lower extremity, a peculiar subsi- diary design in red surrounds it. The red portion may have belonged to a previous, and, now, partly obliterated, drawing. I am unable to offer any suggestion as to its meaning. A Larrekiya youth traced its resemblance to a frog, and, no doubt, the general squat shape and broad, round end does suggest this view.
In fig. 6 of pl. xii. we may find an interest in spite of the design having become considerably obliterated through long exposure, from the fact that the radial markings of the little that remains remind one slightly of a feature in some of the paintings figured by Grey.* The only other explana- tion I can offer is the small ornament constructed of fur and beeswax, worn under the forehead-band of the men.
On the walls of this cave, also, are numerous reproduc- tions of negative imprints of hands, made in the manner that has been previously recorded. The palm of the hand is held flat against the rock-surface, the mouth filled with a thin paste of pipeclay, or ochre, suspended in water, and these contents squirted around the hand. The result is that a patch of rock is stained red or white, as the case may be, except where it has been protected by the hand. In many instances the imprint is subsequently tinted with a different pigment, or in some cases a ground colour is given to the rock before the imprint is made.
Figs. 7, 8, and 9 of pl. xii. demonstrate these productions, which show that imprints are made both from the right and left hand.
Fig. 10—a long yellow, sinuous curve—may possibly have been suggested by the form of a serpent; but it is doubt- ful. As to the remaining figures on this plate, Nos. 11 and 12, I have no suggestion to offer.
I am indebted to Mr. W. Holtze for photographs of an- other group of rock-drawings, secured from the Katherine River. These are all drawn in pipeclay.
* Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia, London, 1841, vol. i.
57
A creditable design of a lizard is the best preserved of the group (pl. xiu.). It is well proportioned, and from the long, slender head and neck of the figure, one might safely refer it to the monitor (Varanus sp.), which is there plentiful and forms an object of their hunts. <A decided differentia- tion between head, body, and tail has been attempted, the last-named tapering to a long, fine end. A long, bifurcated tongue is extruded, which is in conformity with a frequent habit of these animals. The left forelimb, only, possesses the correct number of claws.
On pl. xiv. are shown two drawings, which may probably be meant for representations of the archer fish (Toxotes sp.) that inhabits the waters of _ this region. This fish is noted for its habit of cap- turing insects resting on the leaves of water-plants by shooting a stream of water upon them from below. The general shape, position of the fins, straight antero-dorsal contour, and strong dorsal spines support the above inference. The lateral line in both drawings seems indicative of the row of dark circles usually ornamenting the local species; if that be so, the band is too central in the figure, and should be nearer the dorsal border.
The next, and different, variety of fish shown on plate xv. may be referred to a species of Therapon, on grounds of general similarity of shape. The species inhabiting the loca] waters is characterized by the short, square-cut tail, and the long, low, spiny, postero-dorsal fin that, it is clear, the figure means to represent. The sketch, at first sight, gives the im- pression that spines are distributed over the greater part of the body. The effect is very likely due to streaking of the pigment by the weather, rather than to design.
Drawings on Bark and Implements.—Reference has al- ready been made to the emblems painted on the chests of messengers and visitors to another tribe, or of those who are returning after a long absence.
Somewhat allied to these are the pictorial representations of familiar objects upon implements and pieces of bark.
A very instructive series of pipeclay drawings on bark was obtained from the Katherine River, for the photographs of which I have again to thank Mr. W. Holtze.
The most true to nature, and perhaps the best-executed figure of the series is that of a kangaroo in profile (pl. xvi.). The sense of proportionate size of the various parts is not bad, as are also their details. From the attitude of the kan- garoo it is probably intended to be dead; this is suggested mainly by the drawn-up tail and clutched fore-claws.
58
The figure on plate xvi. represents an emu. Its pecu- liar feature is the upturned position of the head, which is rot very clearly delineated. The strong, muscular, upper portions of the legs have been rather exaggerated by the artist. The plump body of the bird is true to nature, and the correct number of toes has been assigned to each leg.
The following design (pl. xviii.), which is less favourably preserved, depicts either a bustard (Hupodotis australis) or a crane, in a rather unnatural attitude, which also may be that of a dead bird. The long, thin neck is more sugges- tive of a crane than a bustard. A portion of another bird is also indistinctly visible.
Fig. 72.
A group of drawings on a single piece of bark was found by Mr. P. Foelsche at Port Essington, and is represented in fig. 72.
One of the figures repeats the salient features of the kangaroo already described.
The figure on the right-hand side illustrates the method of hunting the turtle by harpooning it from the bow of a canoe, the rope that is attached to the harpoon being plainly visible and connected with the canoe.
The figure of a human being adjacent to this group may or may not belong to the former. It is of a character simi- lar to the drawing described from Blunder Bay; while the long breasts suggest a woman, the opposite sex is also clearly indicated in the sketch. The hands and feet are crudely represented, the latter being abnormally large.
The largest figure, on the left hand, is that of a boat with a mast and tackle, and three men aboard. These are not nude, but clothed, and consequently not in- tended to be aborigines. The boat, which is quite different from the native canoes, may be intended for one of the
59
Malay proas that have been in the habit of visiting the north coast of Australia for many years past.*
A photograph of similar bark drawings said to come from east of Port Darwin (possibly the Roper River), is in the local museum: at Palmerston. By kind permission of the Curator, Mr. N. Holtze, I have made the tracings reproduced on pl. xix. Practically the same objects as those figured in the preceding plates are represented.
The kangaroos of figs. 1 and 2 are not unshapely, and the attempt to reproduce a bird of prey perched upon the one in the former figure is unusual. Wickham, in his “‘Notes on Depuch Island;t figures a group in which a similar occur- rence is depicted. In the explanation he writes that it “appears to be a bird of prey having seized upon a kan- garoo-rat.” |
The remaining drawings of fig. 2 are, no doubt, intend- ed to represent turtles.
Figs. 3, 4, and 5 are well-finished designs of fish of seve- ral species.
Fig. 6 clearly represents a saw-fish (Pristis sp.); fig. 7, a group of dugongs (Halicore australis); fig. 8, two turtles; and fig. 9, a crocodile. Judging from the position of the eyes, the last-named figure is intended to represent the dor- sal surface of the animal, but it will be seen that the artist also clearly drew the anus.
Fig. 10 is an unusually bold design of a snake.
In conclusion, I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to Messrs. P. Foelsche and N. and W. Holtze for the instruc- tive series of photographs, and to Professor E. C. Stirling, C.M.G., F.R.S., for kind assistance with my manuscript.
* Cf. Flinders: Voyage to Terra Australis, 1814, vol. ji., p. 228.
+ Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., Lond., vol. xii., 1842, p. 79, fig. 71. Stokes subsequently published it in his ‘‘Discoveries in Australia,’’ 1846, vol. ii.; and more recently Worsnop: Pres. Ad dress, Sec. Ethnology and Anthropology, Austr. Assoc. Ady. Science, vol. v., 1895, 1, et op. cit.
60
APPENDIX,
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61
EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. TO XIX.
Prats I.
Larrekiya man, about 28 years of age, with body scars ex- ceptionally well defined, wearing forehead band of kangaroo teeth.
Puate II.
Larrekiya man, about 35 years of age, wearing plume of cockatoo feathers, forehead band, nose-stick, necklace made of threaded segments of grass-stems, armlets, and broad coiled belt of stringybark; the circular scars produced by the firestick along the upper arm and diagonally across the chest are also visible.
Prate III.
Larrekiya woman, about 30 years of age, showing scars made on her back during the mourning ceremony at the death of her husband.
Pratt IV.
Kunandra woman, about 23 years of age.
Puate V. Tree burial. Lifting the corpse to the platform of boughs constructed in the forks of trees. Puate VI. Tree grave, near Knuckey’s Lagoon.
Prats VII.
Woman in mourning, showing gashed scalp with ashes rub- bed in. She is in the act of collecting wood for the camp fire, and is wearing a white forehead band.
PratE VIII. Natives driving fish, to be trapped in shallow water, Kather-
ine River. Pratt IX. Native hut.
Puate X. Fig. 1.—Implements for making fire by the ‘‘sawing process.” Fig. 2.—Native making fire by ‘‘sawing process.”’
Prats XI. Rock drawings, Blunder Bay, Victoria River.
Prats XII. Rock drawings. Blunder Bay, Victoria River.
Prats XIIT. Rock drawing, monitor, Katherine River.
Puate XIV. Rock drawing, fish (Toxotes sp.), Katherine River.
62 Pratt XV. Rock drawing, fish (Therapon sp.), Katherine River.
Pirate XVI. Bark drawing, kangaroo, Katherine River.
PuateE XVII. Bark drawing, emu, Katherine River.
Prate XVIII. Bark drawing, bustard, Katherine River.
Puate XIX. Bark drawings, east of Port Darwin.
63
A NEW MICROTIS. By R. 8. Rocers, M.A., M.D. LRead November 6, 1906. | PLATE ken. BIG. cls,
Although the genus Microtis is widely distributed throughout Australia, it is represented by only a few species. In this and the eastern States three have been recorded, wiz., M. porrifolia, M. parviflora, and WM. atrata. Of these, the second has been regarded by Baron von Miieller and others merely as a variety of the first. M/. porrifolia is found in all the States and in New Zealand.
M. parviflora is a rarer form, but occurs in all the eastern States, though not in South Australia.
Both these species were discovered by Robert Brown in 1802.
M. atrata is a minute species, rather sparsely distributed in this State and in Victoria. It was named by Lindley in 1839.
The discovery of a totally new species in this State is therefore of more than usual interest. I found this plant on November 2, growing in a swamp at Myponga, a place situated about thirty-seven miles south of Adelaide. It was not rare in this locahty, and I was able to collect a large number of specimens without difficulty.
Because of its round tongue, I have named it “Muzcrotis orbicularis.”
Microtis orbicularis, nov. sp.
The plant varies from about 7 to 12 inches in height.
Its stem is rather slender, with a marked and character- istic angulation, or shoulder, where it emerges from the sheath. This divergence from the vertical often makes an angle of 45 degrees, and is present in over a hundred specimens which I have preserved. There seems to be a marked uniformity, too, in the distance between the fistula in the leaf and the beginning of the inflorescence. This is about half-an-inch.
The /eaf rarely reaches more than halfway up the spike
The spike varies in my specimens from # in. to 34 in. It presents a generally flatter appearance than in “J. porrifolia,” and the flowers are not so crowded as in that species, varying from 5 in the shortest specimens to 30 in the longest.
The flowers are minute, sessile, and subtended by a wide, obtuse, clasping bract, which covers in the greater portion of
64
‘the antero-lateral aspect of the ovary. The dorsal sepal is obtuse and galeate; the lateral ones are flat and linear, lying behind the labellum, which completely hides them in a front view of the flower. Lateral petals are transverse, fairly wide, shorter than the labellum, and slightly re-curved.
The /abellum is orbicular, with entire margin. There is no appearance of crenulation in fresh specimens. Upper sur- face is somewhat concave.
The column is very minute, with distinct linear auricles. The rostellum is protuberant, and shows as a dark dot below the galea of the dorsal sepal. The anther-case is galeate and bi-loculate, the caudicle is long.
Two varieties were observed, one green, and the other a reddish-brown, the colouration apparently not depending on the age of the plant.
Tt will be seen that it differs from all Australian species of Microtis in the shape of the labellum; and from all but atrata and pulchella in the absence of recurved lateral sepals. From atrata, which is the most minute species recorded, it turther differs in point of size, colour (the colour of atrata being very constant in this State—a yellowish-green), and in the fact that the lateral sepals are not hidden by the labellum in this pigmy form. 4J/. pulchella has broad lateral sepals, and a contraction in the middle of its oblong labellum, which readily distinguish it from the new species.
On account of the inadequate descriptions of VW. parviflora, this is indeed the only form with which it is likely to be confused. Here, however, the lateral sepals are recurved and not hidden by the labellum; the labellum is rectangular, generally with crenulate margins; the flowers are not sessile, and the large clasping bract is absent. MM. orhicularis fur- ther differs from this, and, indeed, all eastern species, in the marked angulation in the upper part of the stem.
Description or Prats XX., Fie. 1.
A. Front view, showing :—d.s., dorsal sepal; /.p., lateral petals; /., labellum; b., bract (shown rather large in this figure) ; 0., ovary.
B. Side view, showing, in addition to the above :—/.s., late- ral sepals (hidden by labellum in 4A).
65
THE PHOSPHATE MINERALS FROM ELDER ROCK. By D. Mawson, B.E., B.Sc., anp W. T. Cooke, D.Sc. [Read November 6, 1906.]
Puate XX., Fie. 2.
ContTENTS.
SECTION. PAGE I. Introduction ... R. i. a ; 4c. 21GB II. Local Geological Features ... oe ws 1, 0UGS
IlI. Elder Rock 1 be bi te we . BO IV. Origin of the Epigenetic Fertilizer Contents ... 67 V. Chemical Composition and Physical Characters
of Paratooite e. iv ba ne a” Oke VI. Summary Ae wid es fs ye fe.
1. INTRODUCTION.
Elder Rock is situated ten miles south-east of Paratoo Railway Siding, and, roughly, 160 miles north of Adelaide, on the Broken Hill line.
The occurrence of nitrogenous phosphatic rock from this locality was announced by Mr. J. G. O. Tepper at the last November meeting of this Society. Specimens of a red, porous, ochreous rock, said to contain quantities of nitrogen, ammonia, and phosphoric acid, were exhibited.
Shortly afterwards several smaller occurrences were reported, distributed at intervals in an east-north-easterly direction from the original discovery.
The “Elder Rock Nitrates Development Company” pro- ceeded to exploit the deposit, but soon proved beyond doubt its limited nature, and ceased operations.
Il. Locat GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.
The route from Paratoo Railway Siding lies across two ranges of hills with flat land intervening. The first of these is met one mile out, where the road follows a deeply eroded creek-bed, cutting across the strike of the range, and expos- ing strata of a familiar character. In conversation with Mr. W. Howchin, who had already visited the locality, these rocks were described as belonging to the middle division of the South Australian Cambrian series; according to the same authority they are described as “corresponding to the Tapley’s Hill slates and impure siliceous limestones and true limestones of the Brighton series, with a general strike to the
C
66
north-east and a dip south-east at about 35°.” The strata flatten out further to the south-east, where an almost hori- zontal impure limestone 1s conspicuous, leading up to the Grampus Range, which latter is crossed within a mile or two of the fertilizer claims.
The Grampus Range is a jagged tent-hill ridge of quartz- ite, flanked on either side by softer and more readily denud- ing slaty strata. The main quartzite bed is about 25 ft. thick (striking about N. 74° E., and dipping 69° to the north). It can be traced for some fifteen miles on either side boldly out- cropping across the plains in an almost linear direction. At the trigonometrical station on top of Grampus Hill, a. re- markable view is unfolded. From that high point the dreary prospect of barren saltbush plains is relieved, and the effect of arid weathering on the rocky pedestal itself correspondingly accentuated.
On the south side of Grampus Creek is a broad belt of limestone, apparently part of the same series. At several places examined this limestone is much metamorphosed by silication, and is intersected by manganiferous and micaceous- iron lode formations. It is in close association with this belt that the hardened breccia, forming Elder Rock and the other outcrops bearing the fertilizer further to the north- east, occurs.
Owing to its soft character also, denudation has here pro- gressed rapidly and fostered the main drainage lines of the district, developing Grampus Creek and a wide belt of low—at one time, when the rainfall was heavier, evidently swampy—land in its course.
III. ELpER Rock.
Elder Rock rises from this low-lying level area with almost shear sides 30 ft. in height (see pl. xx., fig. 2). When viewed from a distance it reminds one of a ruined fortress. Its horizontal dimensions are, roughly, 25 yards by 30 yards. A coarse breccia composes a large part of its mass, and Js usually dark-coloured, due to the presence of much iron, as magnetite and hematite; other parts are formed of ferrugi- nous quartzite. Case-hardening, due to arid conditions, has produced a superficial weather-resisting shell with much softer rock a few feet within.
On top, in depressed areas, several inches thick of hard yellowish phosphate was discovered. It is likely that at one time this material was more abundant, as traces of it appear over all the top of the rock, and at several places down the sides where showers of rain have transported it in solution. All cracks and fissures were found occupied by the same substance.
67
On the west side an adit has been driven in towards the centre of the rock 30 ft.; and in the floor of a chamber, excavated 10 ft. in from the mouth, a winze has been sunk a distance of 16 ft., and again from the bottom of this a drive put in about 18 ft. to the west.
Near the mouth of the adit, some 30 ft. below the top of the rock, a fissure was observed, lined with a phosphate similar to that on top of the rock. Within the rock, in chim- ney-like pipes, a foot or more in diameter, and closed at either end, a dark chocolate-coloured substance was observed in crustified layers; this substance chiefly consists of ferric oxide, with abundance of ammonia and nitrate, and a small quantity of phosphate. In the vicinity of these chimneys the whole body of the rock, which is a porous, ferruginous sandstone, is charged with these fertilizers. More remote from such chan- nels, the valuable contents diminish in amount until traces only can be detected in the rock. Nuitrogenous rock was met in the lower drive, indicating a considerable vertical extension of impregnation.
ITV. ORIGIN OF THE EPIGENETIC FERTILIZER CONTENTS.
A careful consideration of the nature of the occurrence leaves no other conceivable explanation of genesis than that this peculiar combination of substances originated from a guano deposit. | We surmise that a considerable accumula- tion of bird-droppings have, in not remote times, been de- posited on Elder Rock, and since largely removed by rain water. As already remarked, there is evidence of one-time swampy conditions in the vicinity, along the course of Grampus Creek, favouring the possibility of abundant bird life. In any case, its prominence determines it a natural resting-place for flying creatures, and so present conditions, even, are favourable to accumulations of bird guano. Con- firmation of this latter argument, as well as the bird-derived origin of the phosphate, is had in a similar, though smaller, deposit, encrusting the summit of a lofty quartzite peak, about one mile west of the Ajax Mine, near Beltana. At this latter locality, when visited last January, recent bird-droppings were found passing into material identical with that at Elder Rock ; moreover, a large eagle took flight from the spot as we approached.
The residuary yellow phosphate on top of Elder Rock has resulted by various chemical changes effected in the guano; the more soluble compounds having passed away in solution and the comparatively insoluble iron and aluminium phos- phates remaining. This latter owes much, in a_ genetic
sense, to arid climatic conditions. Though not a simple mine- c2
68
ral compound, we will, for the sake of brevity, refer to this residuary phosphate as parutooite. No similar substance has, to our knowledge, been previously recorded from South Aus- tralia, though it is likely distributed in scattered occurrences where the physiographic conditions are similar.
The paratooite from near Beltana encrusts quartzite and contains only small quantities of iron. That from Elder Rock contains abundance of iron, which has evidently been derived by chemical changes from the underlying ferruginous breccia.
Part of the soluble salts in the guano has been lost by torrential rains; much appears to have sunk deep into the porous rock below, and is specially concentrated, as already remarked, on the walls of the. crevices and chimneys.
Samples of rock taken at intervals in depth below the paratooite showed, when tested qualitatively, a regular decrease in phosphate contents and gradually increasing ammonia and nitrate. Three chief zones were recognized: At the surface, puratooite containing no appre- ciable amount of ammonia or nitrate; below, the rock was found charged with phosphates and ammonia, and but mere traces of nitrate ; at greater depths, for example, in the lower drive, 46 ft. below the top of the rock, ammonia and nitrate were found in the rock, and only traces of phosphate.
The ammonia content of the intermediate zone is regard- ed as existing chiefly in the form of ammonium phosphate (stercorite molecule). In the lowest zone it is likely com- bined as ammonium nitrate. The possibility of the presence of more than inappreciable amounts of the nitrates of sodium and potassium is eliminated by the absence of these elements in notable quantities, as proved by an analysis of a bulk sample of the rock. The better quality of this impregnated rock bulked about 5 per cent. of ammonium nitrate.
The chimneys met with in excavating operations had no connection with the exterior, and as no trace of bat guano or bones was found, the main responsibility is thought to lie with birds.
V. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF PARATOOITE.
The substances examined are mixtures of several phos- phates, with much mechanically-admixed sandy matter. <A petrological examination revealed two main distinct mineral forms in the paratooite, readily distinguished by being iso- tropic and anisotropic respectively.
Two samples were selected for analysis. One of these chiefly composed of the isotropic variety, the other mainly
69
anisotropic phosphate. The former of these, a light yellow en- crusting form, returned the following composition :—
Bulk Re-calculated Analysis. (less impurity). SiO, (sand impurity) a) 17°30 —
Al,O, pes L Hake 20°70 Fe,O, 6°78 8-20 CaO 2-06 2°49 MeO 0:92 eld EO Wad 35°22 42°59 H, Oo (loss ea 120° en “ae 16°94 20°49 Ignition an 4h) 2°65 3°20 By diff., chiefly Aliewhied 1:01 1°22 100-00 100: 00
The second column is a readjusted statement of the analy- ‘sis after subtracting the silica present as sandy impurity.
On calculation, this result is found not to represent any definite molecular combination, nor was it expected that any such could be deduced after the foregoing petrological obser- vations. It is evidently a mixture of several substances, whose exact nature cannot be determined.
The second variety occurs in depressions on the surface of the rock, and masses 20 cms. thick were obtained. It is found as an aggregation of tiny globules about 2 mms. dia- meter, appearing yellowish-brown on broken surfaces. Frac- ture, smooth. Hardness, 5°5. Lustre, dull. In sections under the microscope the spheres are seen to be composed of aggregated doubly-reiracting matter of a yellowish-brown colour. An indistinct radial arrangement is observable especially towards the outer margin, where it is also usually of a somewhat lighter tint. A little foreign sandy matter is present. Double refraction, probably about 0°023. Re- fractive index, much above quartz.
Bulk Re-caleulated Analysis. (less impurity). Si0, (sand as Hee ae 36°72 — Al,O, ve fa 7:06 11:19 Fe,O, AS ae 24°25 38°43 CaO Dae, 3°68 50; ae Gey 27°53 H., 0 (loss at 120° i, oe 10-36 16°41 Ignition OA oe ane L74 2-76 99-82 100-00
The second column is a re-statement of the analysis, after deducting 36°72 per cent. of sand.
70
Again, in this case, also, no definite molecular compo- sition meeting both the petrological and chemical require- ments can be assigned.
The salient fact demonstrated by the analyses is that, in the case of the first mineral, the light yellow encrusting iso- trepic phosphate is a mineral of the evansite type; the other variety, found in globular aggregates, and appearing aniso- tropic, is distinctly of the beraunite type, perhaps closely related to globosite.
VI. Summary.
1. Elder Rock is a prominent, abrupt mass, standing in a level plain in the arid northern districts of South Australia.
2. A hard yellow phosphate encrusting the top of the rock is the remnant and more insoluble part of a larger deposit of guano, chiefly bird-derived.
3. The soluble salts of the guano have, to some extent, saturated the rock for a depth below; in a favourable spot this impregnation has been effective for at least 46 feet in the vertical. These compounds are chiefly nitrates of am- monia, with some fixed alkali and phosphate. The more soluble compounds have percolated to greater depths.
4. The hard yellow phosphate on top of the rock is a mixture of minerals, chiefly iron and aluminium phosphates, and has no definite composition ; it is, however, here referred to as paratooite. Two widely-divergent types are described, the commoner near to evansite, and a scarcer globular phos- phate related to beraunite.
5. Paratooite probably has a wide distribution, as small scattered occurrences in the arid northern parts of South Australia.
So far as we are aware, no similar phosphate has ever previously been described from Australia.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XX., FIGURE 2.
Elder Rock, seen from the east; barren saltbush plains in the foreground.
7]
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PART OF EYRE PENINSULA.
By D. Mawson, B.E., B.Sc. [Read November 6, 1906.]
ContTENTS.
SECTION. PAGE. 1) Imtroduction ©... a at ss sig ry II. Physiography ... ae ey a 43 era |
IIL. Geological Features ... it7 ee es SATE ee
(a) Recent. (b) Miocene(?) (c) The Pre-Cambrian Complex. IV. Economic Mineral Resources Es if. Te
I. INTRODUCTION.
The following remarks on the geological features of southern Eyre Peninsula are but cursory, the data having been collected during several short visits only. The publi- cation of such hasty observations, however, seems amply justified, as no geological reports,* so far as I can ascertain have yet been furnished on this area.
The field examination was conducted from two centres, Port Lincoln and Tumby Bay.
Il. PHyYSIOGRAPHY.
The topographical features in the neighbourhood of Port Lincoln tend to a north-and-south development, conforming to the trend of the strata. Hilly country, of varying width, skirts the Gulf shores from Port Lincoln to Lipson’s Cove on the north, a distance of forty miles; at some distance to the south, also, precipitous sea cliffs are developed.
It is the Port Lincoln to Lipson Cove belt that has come under immediate observation. The hills in this stretch of country reach a fairly uniform height of 800 to 1,000 feet. Beyond the coast range, two miles west of Port Lincoln, the country falls steeply into a low swampy area, running paral- lel with the high ground. Pinch Swamp occupies the mest depressed portion of this belt, which extends towards the Southern Ocean.
* A few odd statements referring to this region may be culled from the reports of the Mines Department of South Australia, but they do not pretend to geological detail.
72
West, again, level, seemingly barren country, support- ing sheaoak, yacca, and heath, forms a peneplain, elevated several hundred feet, and extending far towards Coffin Bay. In that direction, the Marble Ranges stand out in the dis- tance as solitary imposing ridges; only minor undulations modify the intervening expanse.
On the Gulf side, commencing some two miles north of Port Lincoln, a narrow aggraded peneplain extends north- wards at an elevation of some 20 feet above the sea. As it proceeds up the coast, it broadens out considerably to a maximum width of 10 miles at Red Cliff, above Louth Bay. It also varies considerably in elevation. In part, especially where it is broadest, this surface owes its planation to degra- dation. Some of the cliff exposures in the aggraded areas show mottled clay-beds, quite similar to those classed as freshwater Miocene in the vicinity of Adelaide. This stage of peneplanation is therefore to be correlated with the mid- level plane so strongly marked in the hills near Adelaide.
The uniformly level surfaces of Tumby Island and the islands of the Banks Group in Spencer Gulf appear to be topographically continuous with this peneplain, and indicate a former continuity in that direction. Inland from Tumby Bay, where the hills commence, traces of a peneplain can be noted standing at higher elevations, abruptly terminated on the eastern side by the lower coast plains. West, for about 15 miles, this high-level planation extends, though much warped and dislocated.
III. GEroLocicaL FEATURES.
(a) Kecent.—A soft recent limestone, a few inches to many feet in thickness, occurs as a covering on the older rocks over a wide area in the Port Lincoln district; especially is this formation more abundant towards the south. It is found thickest on lower ground, but patches occur high up on the flanks of Winter’s Hill. elevated at least 600 feet. In its unaltered state it is composed of foraminiferal tests and comminuted shell fragments; at other times it is formed of an exceedingly fine calcareous powder, resembling chalk, though sufficiently hard to be of some use as a building stone. Tra- vertinization has developed an upper harder crust, as much as several inches in thickness, and in places downward percolat- ing waters have formed travertine tubes, with a general megascopic appearance, not unlike some species of Litho- thamnion.
A similar limestone formation has been described by various authors from Southern Yorke Peninsula and other parts of the State. According to Mr. Howchin, who is
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well acquainted with this material, it is of wind-blown origin, and of recent age.
(b) Miocene (?).—The more conspicuous peneplains de- scribed are probably of Micocene age, as the aggraded areas are formed of fresh-water sediments, similar to those better known in the vicinity of Adelaide. Pebble beds are fre- quently interbedded with the clays, indicating proximity of origin. On account of their soft nature these beds are much cut into by the erosive action of the sea.
(c) The Pre-Cambrian Complex.—With the exception of the minor developments already described, all the rock ex- posures known to us are probably of Pre-Cambrian age. The data leading to this conclusion rests on petrological and litho. logical grounds, as paleontological evidence, except for nega- tive information, is entirely wanting. The resemblance which the Port Lincoln series of rocks bears to that classed as Pre-Cambrian in Southern Yorke Peninsula is the main support for this decision. In addition, the absence of any beds of the recognized Cambrian series of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and the extreme metamorphism displayed, aids in this same conclusion.
At Port Lincoln the strata trend uniformly in an almost north and south direction, with a tendency to east of north.
At Tumby Bay the rocks are chiefly meta-sedimentary, and preserve a uniform N. 55° EH. direction. There is a distinct possibility, therefore, that these are two separate series, the Port Lincoln rock being referable to an older period. A careful survey of the intervening country will alone settle this point.
At Port Lincoln a great series of schistose rocks, chiefly gneisses, is well exposed at Point Kirton, where quarrying operations are in progress for the railway jetty under con- struction. Here pure white, coarse-grained quartz-felspar gneiss passes into a typical augen variety, with biotite de- veloped along the lines of crush. In places it is intricately folded. Dark-grey basic bands, of fine-grained amphibole granulite, sometimes many feet in thickness, run parallel with the gneiss, sometimes isolated in the midst of the latter. Occasional coarse acid pegmatite veins can be traced passing obliquely across the foliation. One of the most notable fea- tures in the vicinity is the occurrence of a biotite-bearing pilotaxitic dolerite dyke, about 30 feet wide, running with the series. For the most part this rock is entirely fresh, though along certain cracks uralitization was noted to have commenced. No clue to its age is forthcoming. It cannot be very ancient, certainly not comparable in this respect with the intruded rocks.
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Westward of the township, further developments of a similar gneiss, with occasional patches of true granite out- crop at intervals along the old Lake Wangary Road to its summit; at this point an interesting series of rocks, with features more strongly suggestive of a meta-sedimentary origin than any previously noted, is met with. Fine grained felspar-actinolite, mica-felspar-quartz, and epidote-quartz schists alternate in narrow bands with each other. Amongst these is a beautiful actinolite-felspar-quartz schist, in which the actinolite has taken up a radial arrangement identical in appearance with specimens collected at Rocky Gully, near Murray Bridge. Further gneissic rocks, with structures strongly suggestive of a sedimentary origin, outcrop on the west side of Winter Hill. An isolated bed of fine-grained quartz-felspar schist was noted outcropping on the far side of Pinch Swamp.
At Tumby Bay the most attractive feature of the old rocks is a wonderful development of marble in all stages of silication. This belt of rock, though highly metamorphosed, is readily distinguished, and can be followed from near Lip- son Cove, in a south-west direction, past the Port Lincoln Copper Mine, and no doubt extends far in the direction of the Marble Range. Magnesian minerals are largely develop- ed in this belt, serpentine, asbestic, talc, and magnesite being fairly abundant. In places, silication has advanced so far as to produce a nearly pure wollastonite rock.
Bordering on this metamorphic-marble belt are thick strata of highly crushed rock, in which are abundant pseudo pebbles of granulated quartz and felspar; these are embedded in a schist base of fine particles of the same materials, with abundant highly pleochroic (light yellow to deep red) mica and garnets. Some beds in this zone are so exclusively com- posed of garnets as to assume the character of garnet rock; specially good examples of such are met with a few yards west of both the Port Lincoln Copper Lode and the Burra- wing Lode.
At the Port Lincoln Mine, which is on the south-east side of the marble belt, the strata dips steeply to the north- west, whereas an opposite dip was recorded further to the north-west. This fact, taken in conjunction with a sharp syncline observed in certain overlying quartz-felspar schists, possibly indicates a synclinal trough. On either side of this belt, trending in a parallel direction, are rocks of a more igneous character.
Southward, towards Yalluna, is a broad series of gneissic rocks, very beautifully lined, darker areas composed of granular orthoclase, quartz, magnetite and much sea-green
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amphibole, alternating with colourless bands of quartz and felspar, the latter mineral usually arranged as corroded ovoid units. Thus is formed a laminated grey and white rock, and various stages are observable, in which either of the bands become predominantly developed. Though meta-igneous in general appearance, there are grounds for ascribing a possible meta-sedimentary origin for at least a portion of this series. As far as a mile across the strike beyond this are garnet-mica- quartz-felspar schists passing further south into grey gneiss, composed of granulated quartz and felspar, with a little biotite only. Coarse pegmatite dykes are abundant, often carrying tourmaline and hematite.
North-west of the metamorphosed marble belt, in the vicinity of Wadella Springs, much pegmatitic tourmaline bearing granite, forms conspicuous dykes amongst schists and granulites. Eight miles further west, near Chinmina and Cockaleechie, outcrops of quartz-felspar-schist and gneissic eranite types were observed.
IV. Economic MINERAL RESOURCES.
The character of the country, and the prospects so far brought to ight, augur much for the possibilities of economic mining in Eyre Peninsula.
Copper will, no doubt, always stand far ahead of other mineral products. It is interesting to note that about one- sixth the world’s production of this metal is won in the Lake Superior regions from rocks of approximately the same age as the Tumby Bay series.
The main lode of the Port Lincoln Copper Mine is the type that should be further prospected for along the syncline of metamorphosed marble. The ore in this formation is a good quality copper pyrites, introduced as a metasomatic re- placement of the limestone, which, in places, is mineralized for a width of 20 feet along the strike from the underlay side. A quantity of quartz occurs with the ore. Iron pyrites is developed in slaty bands.
South of the main ore-belt copper-bearing fissure veins cross the schists, and, though always narrow and irregular, have yielded a quantity of ore.
Very little mining has been done for other metalliferous minerals.
Much iron ore, chiefly as a surface concentration from iron-bearing schists, is scattered through the district gener- ally, forming prominent hills, a usual feature in the weather- ing of archean schists. Such ores are both hematite and limonite, and often contain a notable proportion of man- ganese ; occasionally, the percentage of this latter element 1s
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so preponderant as to constitute a manganese ore. These ironstone outcrops may, in some cases, harbour copper ore at a depth; especially is this likely in proximity to the marble belt.
Graphite.—A belt of gritty and argillaceous meta-sedi- mentary strata, several hundred yards in width, and situated about a mile west of the Port Lincoln Mine, is charged with graphite to such an extent as to offer possibilities for develop- ment. Other outcrops of graphite-bearing rocks are reported from the district.
Clay.—A wonderful development of remarkably pure kaolin occurs about 15 miles west of Tumby Bay, between Chinmina Creek and Cockaleechie Creek.
Felspar.—A massive pegmatite dyke, with large blocks of orthoclase felspar, cuts the marble series in the Mine Oreek, near the Port Lincoln Mine. This is an example of many similar felspar-bearing formations of economic value developed in the district.
Magnesium Muinerals.—Chrysotile (asbestic), tale, and magnesite are abundantly developed in the marble belt, and cannot long remain unexploited.
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THE WADELLA SPRINGS AND ASSOCIATED BOG-IRON ORE DEPOSIT.
By D. Mawson, B.E., B.Sc. [Read November 6, 1906.]
The Wadella Springs are located on Eyre Peninsula, about seven miles west-north-west of Tumby Bay. Their present aspect is more of the nature of a soakage, water ooz- ing to the surface over an area several hundred yards in length. Coarse reedy grass grows along the creek-bed, drain- ing the boggy ground, and directs attention to the presence of moisture.
The rocks in the vicinity are highly metamorphic schists and gneisses, regarded as of Pre-Cambrian age, intruded by numerous pegmatitic granite dykes. In close proximity, also, is a large body of iron ore, forming a flattish-topped knoll, whose upper surface is elevated about 700 feet above sea
level. The creek draining the springs has cut away the southern end of the deposit in its work of channel develop- ment. The limonite composing the ore-body is exception:
ally pure, and different in character from that usually found composing ironstone outcrops in South Australia. A syndl- cate that one time held the property sank several shafts, and proved the body to be comparatively shallow. The. excava- tions also showed it to be composed in the main of large masses of solid limonite, breaking with a varnish-like frac- ture, set in a matrix of an impure earthy variety; this latter increases in relative bulk towards the base of the deposit, depreciating its value. .
An approximate estimate of the thickness of the mass is some 30 feet towards the centre, gradually decreasing in saucer fashion towards the margin. The superficial area is, roughly, a couple of acres.
The springs are situated about 50 feet below the top of this ironstone rise, on its western and southern borders. When making geological investigations in the district, my interest was enlisted by Mr. G. Carr, the farmer in posses- sion. This gentleman assured me that he had a petroleum spring on his property. He further described it as not any ordinary type, but one which is in the habit of changing its affluent liquid to milk in wet weather, and, at all times, having a powerful corrosive action on rock fragments placed in its waters. With this air of mystery, no further inducement was necessary for me to arrange a visit to the enchanted
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spot. At that time the weather was dry, and the spring water only gently oozed from the ground, trickling away with an irridescent oil-lke scum. ‘Tiny colourless crystals were observed deposited on sticks and other rubbish in its course. These latter proved to be gypsum; the irridescent scum, a hydrated oxide of iron. The water was found to be charged with sulphates, chiefly of calcium.
About six weeks later, it being wet weather, a second visit was made. The waters were, on this occasion, observed flowing away white and milky. The milk-like appearance was found to be due to an abundant fine white precipitate of calcium sulphate.
Putting these observed facts together, it is evident that the Wadella Springs are deep-seated in their origin, and mineralized with abundant sulphate contents. Iron sulphate is a notable constituent, no doubt derived from the oxyda- tion of pyritous bodies below. The iron in such chalybeate waters is readily thrown out as hydrated oxide by calcium carbonate, or organically derived substances, such as ammon- ium humate, occurring in surface waters. Under ordinary conditions the process is slow, and the calcium sulphate formed crystallizes out as gypsum; in wet weather, when surface water, saturated with calcium carbonate, flowing over the ground, meets the spring water, an abundant, fine white pre- cipitate of calcium sulphate (gypsum) takes place, producing the milky appearance.
It is further evident that the bog-iron ore deposit in proximity has originated from these spring waters. The fact that the present outlet of the springs is about 50 feet below the top of the ironstone deposit indicates the lapse of a con- siderable period of time since the maximum phase of activity when notable ore-deposition was in progress. The ore body is very similar to the scattered limonite deposits in the Mit- tagong district of New South Wales.
The Wadella Springs are of further interest, as affording an illustration of how gypsum deposits may originate, thereby aiding to explain the vast accumulations and widespread dis- tribution of the latter mineral in self-contained inland drain- age basins of South Australia, where abundant calcareous and pyritic schists are exposed for denudation.
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A COMPARISON OF SOME FORMS OF ELECTRIC RADIATION.
By W. H. Brace, M.A., F.R.S., Elder Professor of Mathe- matics and Physics, the University of Adelaide.
[Read May 7, 1907.]
We are now aware of the existence of a number of differ- ent types of radiation, each of which is able to ionise a gas, to act on a photographic plate, and to excite phosphorescence in certain materials. Of these the o and canal rays consist of positively charged particles of atomic magnitude; the cathode and ( rays are negative rays, and consist of electrons; the X and y rays are supposed to be ether pulses; and ultraviolet light consists of short ether waves. The 6 rays stand by themselves, for, though they consist of negative electrons like the cathode and f rays, they have so small a velocity that they possess no appreciable ionising powers
The present paper contains an attempt to find whether there is anything to be learnt from a comparison of the pro- perties of the various rays.
It appears to me to be a first deduction from such a comparison that in all cases the bulk of the ionisation which the rays effect is of the same character, and consists in the displacement of slow-moving electrons, or 6 rays, from the atoms of the gas or other substance which they traverse. Let us consider the various rays in turn.
In the case of the cathode rays this principle has been clearly established by Lenard in the course of his long series of beautiful experiments. He has shown that cathode rays of the most varied speeds, impinging on bodies of various kinds, or traversing different gases, cause the liberation of slow-speed electrons from the atoms of the solid or gas. The speed of the electrons is in every case that due to the fall through less than ten volts. This is in no way a contradiction of the fact that cathode rays of high speed are also lberated from a solid surface struck by primary cathode rays; or from the atoms of a gas through which the primary rays pass. But, whether these high-speed secondary rays are scattered pri- mary rays, or are true secondary rays, they must in their turn produce electrons of slow speed in the gas through which they pass; and so, directly or indirectly, by primary or secondary or tertiary or rays still more transformed, eventually
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the great majority of the electrons set free in the ionisation- chamber of ordinary experiment are of the slow-speed type.
In the case of the a rays there is abundant evidence that their impact on, or emergence from, solid surfaces causes the ejection of slow-speed electrons. (J. J. Thomson, Cam- bridge Phil. Soc., Trans., February, 1905; Rutherford, “Na- ture,’ March 2, 1905; Logeman, Proc. Roy. Soc., Septem- ber, 1906.) Now, it is generally characteristic of all these electric radiations that they are concerned with the indi- vidual atoms and molecules, and that they do not recognise any difference between the atom in the solid and the atom in the gaseous condition. Consequently, there is every reason to suppose that the heavy ionisation caused by an « particle in traversing a gas consists in the production of the same slow- speed electrons as are set free from a solid, and indeed no trace of faster-moving electrons has ever been found. The slow-speed electrons originated by a rays have been called 6 rays, and the term may be applied to all such slow-speed elec- trons aS we are now considering.
Again, it has been shown by Fuchtbauer (Phys. Zeit., November 1, 1906) that 6 rays are emitted from a metal sur- face struck by canal rays, and here also there is every rea- son to suppose that gas molecules struck by such rays emit the same 6 particles. The same author has shown by a direct comparison that the velocity cf these particles is the same as that of the 6 rays displaced by cathode rays, 7.e., about 3°3 x 108 cm./sec., or the velocity due to about 20 volts, a velocity only slightly larger than that found by Lenard.
As regards and y rays, it is true that it has not been definitely proved that most of the ionisation which they cause is of the 6 type. But this may be inferred from well- known experiments, such as those of Durack (Phil. Mag., May, 1903), or McClelland (Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc., February, 1906). When a pencil of 6 radiation is allowed to cross an ionisation-chamber normally, and fall upon the opposite wall, it gives rise to a secondary ionisation, less in quantity but not much less in speed than the primary. A tertiary radiation is caused by the secondary rays if they im- pinge on the walls of the chamber, and there will doubtless be still further derivations. But it appears that the quan- tity of the derived radiations dies away much more quickly than the speed. Thus the chamber is crossed and re-crossed (a few times) by electrons of high speed, able to traverse an average path of about 100 cm. in air at atmospheric pressure. If the chamber is first exhausted and air gradually admitted, it is found that the number of ions produced by the £ rays is proportional to the pressure. The paths of thef rays will not
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be appreciably affected by the introduction of the air; and so the experimental results are consistent with the simple hypothesis that the /£ particle (primary or secondary) makes slow-speed ions in proportion to the number of gas atoms traversed. Nor does any other hypothesis seem to be con- sistent with the facts. It cannot be supposed that the bulk of the ionisation which is caused in the ionisation-chamber consists of high-speed secondary rays, though, of course, these are originated when the primary rays strike the metal sur- face of the chamber, and to a small extent when they strike gas molecules. For if all the negative electrons set free by the 6 rays were of high velocity we should expect certain effects, as may be seen from the following considerations, and none of these effects have been observed.
Rutherford has shown (Radio-activity, 2nd edition, p. 434) that the a particle of Ra makes about 86,000 ions in air; that one f particle is emitted from Ra for every four a particles; and that the ionisation due to f particles is of the order of 1 per cent. of that due to a particles in the case of Ra in equilibrium. Thus the f particle of Ra produces some thousands of ions. This is also evident from the ex- periments of Durack (Phil. Mag., May, 1903), who has shown that the ( particle produces about 130 ions per cm. in air at atmospheric pressure. Now, the / particle runs a course in the open air of an average length of 100 em. This leads to an estimate of its ionisation even greater than that obtained by Rutherford. If all the electrons, so liberated, had a high velocity, the energy set free would be out of all proportion to that of the original 6 particle. Yet if we are to ascribe a high velocity to the electrons set free, it must be a very high one, for it has been shown by Allen (Phys. Review, August, 1906), that the sec- ondary radiation of f rays consists of electrons moving with a speed approximating to that of the primary. We cannot suppose that all these electrons are of this high-speed type. Moreover, if this were the case, the free path of such elec- trons would become comparable with the dimensions of the ionisation-chamber, when the air pressure was only mode- rately reduced, and the electrons would then be beyond the control of the electric field. Thus the ionisation would not be proportional to the air pressure, as was found by Durack and McClelland. The difficulty as to the energy is not obviated by supposing each primary / particle to set free only a few secondary electrons of high speed, each of these to become in turn the originator of a few more, and so on. For if that were the case, a reduction of gas pressure would imply, not only that each primary electron set free fewer
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secondary electrons, but that each of the latter set free fewer tertiaries, and so on, so that the ionisation would fall at a far greater rate than the pressure as soon as the free path of the electrons became comparable with the dimensions of the chamber. And, again,~the P rays differ only in speed from cathode rays, which produce quantities of slow-speed electrons, even where their own velocity 1s great.
For these reasons J think it must be concluded that the fB particle (and any high-speed secondary) produces slow- speed electrons along its path, in very much the same way as the a particle does, though not in such great numbers. The high-speed secondary rays, studied by McClelland, Allen, and others, are but few in number compared to the slow- speed electrons, though their greater energy puts them more in evidence. McClelland concludes from his experiment that the 6 rays do not produce any slow-speed electrons, when they strike a metal surface, which are comparable in number with the electrons displaced in the gas through which they have passed. This is quite consistent with what has been said above. There must be a few, but the number to be ex- pected is quite small, for the 6 electrons dive so deep into the metal which they strike, and ionise so few of the mole- cules through which they pass, that very few of the slow- speed, highly-absorbable electrons can be discharged from the surface of the plate. Even in the case of the a particle these electrons are not readily observed; in the case of the PB particle the difficulty must be much greater.
As regards X-rays, we have no such accurate measure- ments of the velocities of the electrons which are ejected from the molecules of a gas traversed by the rays, as we have in the case of the cathode rays, so far as I am aware. But a very large amount of labour has been spent on the investigation of the secondary radiation caused by the X-rays, from which we may gather much indirect evidence on the point. Perrin (Ann. Chim. Phys., xi., p. 496, 1897), has shown that the rate of production of ions per cc. by rays of given intensity is proportional to the pressure of the gas. Again, we know from the investigations of Curie and Sagnac, Townsend, and Barkla that metals struck by X-rays return a secondary radiation, which, in the case of the low atomic weights, may be considered to consist principally of scattered primary radiation, and in the case of the high atomic weights to contain both X-rays more absorbable than the primary and cathode rays. Dorn has shown that the latter have speeds averaging about 5 x 109 cm., so that they must produce con- siderable ionisation, consisting of 6 rays, in the few milli- metres of air close to the metal. The free path of electrons
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having this speed is about one millimetre in air at atmos- pheric pressure. Since the X-rays do not appear to pro- duce cathode rays of any speed from the air molecules, which they traverse, or from the molecules of any gas consisting of atoms of small weight, and since they produce much ioni- sation in some way or other, we may conclude fairly that they produce slow-speed ions themselves. Thus, whether they act directly or indirectly through cathode rays, the result is the same. The principal effect appears to be due rather to secondary than primary. As Sagnac remarks (Ann. Chim. Phys., 23, p. 196): “The transformation of X-rays, by in- creasing the activity at any point, permits the detection there of very penetrating X-rays, which would otherwise have passed unperceived.”
In the case of the y rays, such evidence as we have is also in favour of the existence of slow-speed ions, as the result of their action. It is known that 6 rays of high speed originate where they strike the molecules of a solid body (Eve, Phil. Mag., December, 1904); such an action may, therefore, be expected in the case of gas molecules also. It is possible, however, that there may be a differential effect in respect to heavy and light atoms, as in the case of the X-rays. The rays will produce 6 rays in their turn; and if, as is probably the case the y rays are themselves able to ionise, the product will consist of 6 rays, a conclusion which may be safely adopted from the analogies of the cathode rays on the one hand and the X-rays and ultra-violet light on the other. As in the case of the hard X-rays, the existence of y rays is often made clear by the secondary effects which they produce, as has been shown by Becquerel.
To sum up what has been said, the ionisation which we measure in the ionisation chamber is almost wholly due to the emission of slow-speed electrons from the atoms of the gas contained in the chamber, or of the chamber walls; and this is true for all forms of radiation.
Moreover, there is some evidence to show that the speed of the 6 rays is almost independent of the cause and man- ner of their production. As has already been said, Fucht- bauer found the velocity of the 6 rays, caused by canal rays, to be about 3°3 x 108, and the same in the case of cathode rays. Logeman found the velocity of the 6 rays, emitted from a plate struck by a rays, to be such that they were deflected by a weak magnetic field. Ewers found (Phys. Zeit., March, 1906) the Ss rays of polonium to possess a speed of 3°25 x 108. With these may be compared Lenard’s estimate, viz., 108, of the speed with which the ions leave a plate struck by ultraviolet light. It seems probable that we
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have here a critical speed for the electron. Below this, it is not able to leave the parent atom. If its velocity exceeds the critical amount it possesses powers of penetration and of causing ionisation, the extent of these powers depending on the excess.
The existence of a common speed for all 6 rays may, of course, imply that the ejection is not directly effected by the lonising agent, but that the latter. simply precipitates the discharge. A man running through a battery might pull the triggers of some or all of the guns which it contained, and the velocity of the shot would not depend on the strength of the man, nor the rate at which he ran, nor how much energy he spent in the transit. And so it may be understood why 0 rays are projected at a speed which is independent of the nature of the agent, as has been said above. So also it appears to be independent of the intensity of the agent’s action. Fuchtbauer found the velocity of the drays produced by canal rays to be independent of the intensity of the primary rays; Lenard found the same for ultraviolet light. In my own experiments on the @ rays (Phil. Mag., March, 1907), I have brought for- ward evidence to show that the amount of ionisation produced in an atom is proportional to the volume of the atom approxi- mately. Taking this in conjunction with the rule that the ionisation produced in a gas is nearly proportional to the inverse of the speed, we have the very simple, if approximate, law, that the ionisation produced by an «@ particle in any atom under any circumstances is inversely proportional to the time spent inside the atom. This appears to point to the ionisation as purely a trigger effect. Not that the a particle spends no energy in the atom; it is clear it must do so, since its speed is gradually reduced, but there is not a direct con- nection between the energy spent and the number of ions produced. But whatever energy the ionising agent may spend, or in whatever way it spends it, it seems likely that the issue of the 6 particle is the result of some disruption in the atom, or sub-atom, which is the same for all atoms and under all circumstances.
If we turn our attention now to all secondary radiation other than the 6 rays, it seems to be, in general, a rough reflection or scattering of the primary. Allen has shown that there is only a little less velocity in the secondary rays than in the primary # rays, or in the tertiary than in the secondary. McClelland has measured the total ionisation produced by the secondary as compared with the primary f radiation; and since he used a small ionisation-chamber with which he ex-
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plored the whole space traversed by the secondary rays, which chamber the secondary rays would, as a rule, completely cross if they entered it, it may be taken that he really com- pared the number of / particles in the secondary beam with the number of those in the primary. The numbers which he obtained varied from 15% to 50%, according to the sub- stance, which is the order of things we should expect if the secondary were simply scattered primary radiation. Again, the loss of velocity of the cathode particles, which is found to occur on scattering at a plate, presuming the secondary radiation to be scattered primary, is just what we should ex- pect. In the case of the a rays no secondary radiation other than 5 rays has been found; but a small reflection of canal rays has been observed, ¢.g., by Fuchtbauer (Phys. Zeit., March 1, 1906). Barkla has shown that the secondary radi- ation produced by X-rays consists in part of scattered pri- mary radiation especially when the surface struck is of mate- rial whose atomic weight 1s low. The only cases in which a secondary radiation appears that is neither 6 radiation nor reflected primary are those in which f rays are produced at the impact of X- or y rays, and in which X-rays are produced by cathode rays. It is remarkable that in the former of these cases there is very great difficulty in accounting for the high speed which is possessed by the secondary radiation, caused by X-rays and y-rays (Wien, Ann. d. Phys., December 28, 1905). It may well be that further research will bring these cases into better agreement with the rest.
The next question which it is interesting to consider in relation to the various types of radiatior. is that of the law of absorption in passing through matter.
Absorption in the case of the material radiations appears to be due to two main causes: loss of energy, which causes a gradual loss of speed; and scattering, which means a diminu- tion in the number of particles in the primary beam. There is a possibility of a third, viz., absorption of the flying particle by an atom which it is traversing.
In the case of the « particle, I have shown that the first of these causes operates alone, so that the particle pursues a rectilinear course throughout its career (Australasian Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, January, 1904; Phil. Mag., December, 1904). It is the absence of any effective amount of scattering that makes the study of the motion of an individual a particle comparatively simple. The loss of energy in traversing an atom, or more exactly the probable loss in crossing a given space occupied by an atom, is nearly
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proportional to the square root of the atomic weight, and the effects appear to be exactly additive.
On the other hand, if we consider a stream of ( particles projected into matter, and attempt to find the history of their motion, we are faced with a problem of great complexity. If we look for an answer expressed statistically we must find the number of particles in each unit volume of the absorbing mat- ter as a function of the time, the velocity, and the direction of motion. If, on the other hand, we try to follow the motion of any one particle, we must find the chance that the particle considered has any particular position, velocity, and direction of motion at any given time; which is really equivalent to finding the function just mentioned. Moreover, the data are very uncertain. We know so little of the interior of the atom that we are unable to say with what forces the electrons will be influenced when it penetrates within; whether, for example, we may neglect the action of the positive electricity of the atom, and consider only the electrons as repelling the / particle with a force varying as the inverse square of the dis- tance, or whether we are to consider positives and negatives arranged in doublets, whose moment will be the important power, and whose law of attraction will not be that of the inverse square. It is a certain simplification to suppose that scattering is mainly responsible for the fading away of a stream of f particles. The experiments of Allen, McClelland, and others show that the secondary radiation has a velocity not much less than that of the primary; and, therefore, that this simplification is justifiable; though, clearly, it cannot be pushed too far. This allows us to concentrate our attention on the deflections of the particles only; but even then the difficulties are still immense. It is not like any problem in the kinetic theory of gases, for there we deal with established conditions; here with a gradual development from initial conditions. ()
(1) In his Conduction of Electricity Through Gases, 2nd edition, p. 376, Professor Thomson investigates the motion of a stream of 6 particles through an absorbing layer. It appears to me—lI say it with very great difidence—that the solution does not take a true account of the facts. The solution may be stated briefly thus: —Taking uw, v, w as the components of the velocity V of the moving corpuscle, an expression is found for the probable change in w at the next encounter. Calling this change dw. we have 6u—-uK, say, where K is a function of the mass of the cor- puscle, the effective mass of the electron of the absorbing body, the velocity V of the corpuscle, which is taken as constant, the atomic charge, and the shortest distance between two corpuscles in the atom. K is then multiplied by the probable number of encounters in moving a distance da” along the axis of 2, from which follows an exponential law for w in terms of x. It seems to me, in the first place, that, assuming such a multipli-
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But if we turn from the theoretical to the experimental investigation we find a much more encouraging prospect. The experiments of Lenard are practically a complete graphi- cal solution of the question. (See Taf. iv., Wied. Ann., Bd. 51). We know that an assemblage of atoms behaves just the same in respect to these radiations, when it is condensed in a solid or spread out as a gas. Thus the sketches which Lenard gives us showing the way in which the cathode rays diverge from a small window and scatter in going through various gases at different densities must be quite applicable to solids also.
‘Lenard found that his results could be accounted for on the supposition that there was an absorption according to an exponential law, over and above the weakening due to spreading from a centre.
If a # particle or cathode particle were liable to com- plete absorption by an atom which it entered, such an ex- ponential law would result at once. As a matter of fact, it looks as if several violent deflections might take place before the final disappearance of the particle’s activity. It looks, also, I think, as if deflections were usually not at all great during the progress of the particle through the atom, but were apt to be severe when they did happen, as if, in fact, the field of force which deflected the particle was strong but circumscribed. This would happen if the positives and negatives were arranged in doublets. When a particle is deflected from a beam crossing a thin plate, it starts off on a new path which leads much less directly to the open air, and its velocity is somewhat diminished. It may be, therefore, that the infrequency but severity of the particle’s encounters makes it possible to look upon each encounter as an absolute, or at least a definite, loss to the stream, so that an exponential law results.
Certainly the application of this law to the interpretation of experiments has had very great success, both in respect to cathode and to # and y rays. As examples of the latter we may take Rutherford’s determination of the absorption of the Prays of uranium, and Godlewski’s similar determination
cation to have any meaning, the proper factor should have been greater than that adopted in the proportion of V to wu, for in advancing a distance 5x along the axis of « the corpuscle moves a distance Vox/u, not 5x. Tf this change is made, the expo- nential form disappears from the answer. ~ But, apart from this, it does not seem that the step is justifiable at all. It is tanta- mount to putting the corpuscle back in its old track after each encounter, and is equivalent to neglecting the existence of the function mentioned above, and the absolute. necessity of finding it.
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for actinium (Jahrbuch der Rad. und Elek., Bd. ii1., Heft 2, p- 159). In experiments of this kind the radiating material is spread evenly on a level surface, and sheets of absorbing material are placed upon it. The ionisation produced in the space above the sheets is compared with the thickness of the sheets; and the two variables are found to be connected toge- ther more or less exactly by an exponential law. There is some difficulty whether such measurements give more nearly the number or the energy of the stream of particles which emerges from the plate, as Rutherford (Radio-activity, 2nd Ed., p. 134), and Thomson (Conduction through Gases, 2nd Ed., p. 375), have pointed out. The point was also discussed in my address to Section A of the Aus. Ass. for the Adv. of Science, Dunedin, 1904, p. 69. There is also an uncertainty due to the application of a formula to radiation from an assemblage of points which is really only applicable to a plane wave, or a stream moving normally to the plate. If a point source of radiation is placed below an absorbing plate of thick- ness d, and there is a true co-efficient of absorption A, the fraction that emerges from the further side of the plate is not e—\d; much of the radiation passes obliquely through the plate and is absorbed to a greater degree than that which passes normally. This has often been pointed out, ¢.g., by N. R. Campbell (Phil. Mag., April, 1905, p. 541), who also gives some figures from which the proper curve of absorption may be drawn. I am not aware, however, that it has been noticed that the form of the absorption curve, which is far from an exponential curve for a thin radiating layer, ap- proximates much more closely to it for a thick radiating layer. And it is interesting to find that the experimental curves which are most nearly exponential are those for which the layers of radio-active material were thick compared to the penetration of the rays under investigation. As examples, we may take those of uranium and actinium already mentioned. On the other hand, the curve which H. W. Schmidt (Ann. d. Phys., Bd. 21, 1906, p. 651) has obtained for the f rays of RaC, the radio-active material being deposited in a very thin layer on metal foil, shows just about the amount of depar- ture from the exponential form which is to be expected if the absorption is truly exponential, and there is only one absorption co-efficient, not two, as Schmidt has suggested.
The following figures give the proportional amount of the original radiation which passes through a plate of thick- ness 7/A, where A is the absorption co-efficient: (1) for a thin layer; (2) for a thick layer. The figures are also given, for the sake of comparison, for the case of a plane wave, or a pencil of rays passing through the plate normally :—
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4 Radiation from Radiation from Plane wave (purely
ys thin layer. thick layer, exponential). a0) 1°000 1°000 1°000
od "723 "834 "905
2 573 "702 819
°3 467 “600 742
*4 387 "510 671
9) 323 437 607
6 274 "378 548
ap 235 "328 498
°8 200 283 450 ek ia! "248 “405 U3) "145 214 "368
The absorption of a material used in a thin sheet natu- rally appears greater than the absorption when the thickness of material is increased, because the rays which are moving obliquely are absorbed first.
The absorption of y and X-rays appears to follow a purely exponential law so far as experiment has been made. The 6 rays are absorbed by molecules immediately on their produc- tion, and cannot be said to show absorption effects.
Having thus discussed the properties of the various rays which do exist, it seems interesting to make an attempt at the estimation of the properties of some rays which might exist, though the fact has not been proved as yet. Radio- active substances emit both positive and negative particles. It does not seem at all out of place to consider the possi- bility of the emission of neutral particles, such as, for ex- ample, a pair consisting of one «@ or positive particle and one 6 or negative particle. The recent additions to our know- ledge of the laws of absorption of a and / particles give us some grounds on which we may attempt to found an estimate of the properties of such pairs.
We know that the a particle moves in a rectilinear course throughout its whole range, and passes through the atoms which it encounters without deflection. Jt does not pursue a course which is straight on the whole, but zig-zag in detail; the direction and amount of a particle in motion are the whole characteristics of that motion at any instant, and no memory of any previous motion exists. If, there- fore, a particle pursues a straight line in its motion as a whole, it must keep to that line entirely and make no excur- sions from side to side. We must, therefore, suppose that an atom, or at least an a particle, endowed with sufficient speed, can pass directly through another atom without appre- clable deflection. The a particle loses speed as it penetrates
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atoms in this way; and there can be little doubt that its charge, that is to say, the field which is about it, is a main cause of this loss of energy. But if af particle is asso- ciated with the a particle so that the tubes of induction pass from one particle to the other, and the field is greatly con- tracted, it would seem that the chief cause of the stopping of the a particle has been removed.'2) The penetrating power of & pair might be very great indeed, and its ionising power cor- respondingly reduced; for, although there does not seem to be a direct connection between energy spent and ionisation produced, there can be no doubt that the two are simul- taneous. The limitation of the field of the pair would depend on its moment; if the latter was small, that is to say, if the positive and negative were close together, the field would be more circumscribed. It is, therefore, possible to provide for pairs to have varying penetrating and ionising powers; a pair of small moment being a good penetrater but a bad ioniser. Such a pair would be incapable of deflection by mag- netic or electric fields, and would show no refraction. It is conceivable that it might show a one-sided or polarisation effect, for if it were ejected from a rotating atom it would itself possess an axis of rotation.
When X-rays were first investigated, and again when y rays were discovered, it was often suggested, in each case, that the radiation might consist of material particles. Réntgen himself proposed in the third of his memoirs a theory of this nature. But it was always felt that the difficulty of accounting for the great penetration of these radiations was insuperable. It seems now that this difficulty was quite exaggerated, and even imaginary. It does not appear out of place, therefore, to reconsider the position in the light of the more recent knowledge.
Assuming, then, that the neutral pair has great pene- trating, but weak ionising, powers, is uninfluenced by mag- netic or electric fields, and shows no refraction, it does so far conform to the properties of the y ray. And, further, if it has any moment at all, and therefore any external field, it may at last suffer some violent encounter which will resolve it into a positive and a negative, an a and af particle. Of these the £ particle would be the one possessed of much the greater velocity, and would appear as a secondary ray. Thus, in the neighbourhood of the point of impact, an ionisation would appear of much greater intensity than anything pro- duced along the track of the pair itself. So Becquerel has found the action of the y rays on a photographic plate to be almost entirely due to the secondary rays which they produce.
(2) See also Rutherford’s Radioactive Transformations, p. 272.
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On this view the appearance of the 6 secondary ray would be really a scattering of the incident ray; and this would make the y vay fall into line with other radiations whose secondary radiations are either scattered primary or 6 rays.
If the gradual disappearance of a stream of y radiation were caused by collision in this way, the number disappearing in any unit of length of the course would be proportional to the total number in the stream, so that an exponential law would result.
It appears, therefore, that all the known properties of the y rays are satisfied on the hypothesis that they consist of neutral pairs.
It is interesting to carry the speculation a little further, and to observe that a pair possessing a very circumscribed field might exhibit no ionisation effects whatever, and be capable of very great penetration. Its final end might be an incorporation into an atom traversed (as has been suggested to me by Professor Rutherford in reference to the « particle). Thus, penetrating radiation of this kind might exist in some quantity without our being aware of it, and might be an important agent in the breaking down and building up of atoms.
If we attempt to explain the properties of the X-ray on the supposition that it is a neutral pair, we meet with a diffi- culty which does not occur in the case of the y ray. For it has been shown by Marx (Phys. Zeit., p. 268, 1905) that certain X-rays move with the velocity of electric waves in wires, and therefore of light. Now, it is difficult to conceive that material particles can move with such a speed and yet be scattered on impact with atoms. Yet in other ways the behaviour of X-rays is so consistent with what we should expect on a neutral-pair theory that it does not seem either useless or uninteresting to consider the matter from that point of view.
In the first place we have the necessary absence of de- flection in electric and magnetic fields, and of refraction; the possibility of a kind of polarisation quite different in character to that of light; great penetration, whose amount may vary with the moment of the pair, or with the velocity if the latter is a variable; the production of secondary rays when the ray strikes an atom, with an easy explanation of why the ray, when striking a lght and yielding atom, is reflected more or less unchanged, yet, striking a heavy atom, is shattered with the production of much easily ab- sorbed secondary radiation of the cathode ray type (Barkla, Phil. Mag., June, 1906). If the X-ray is an ether pulse it is difficult to understand, as Thomson has shown (Conduction
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of Electricity through Gases, pp. 294-297), why the spreading pulse should only affect a few of the atoms passed over, why the secondary cathode rays are ejected with a velocity which is independent of the intensity of the pulse which weakens as it spreads, and why it should be able to exercise ionising power when its energy is distributed over so wide a surface as that of a sphere of, say, ten or twenty feet radius. All these phenomena are capable of quite simple explanation if we sup- pose the ray to be a neutral pair which has only a local action, 2.e., can only affect the molecules which it traverses, which can penetrate to great distances, which loses very little speed as it goes, and gives rise to a cathode ray when it is broken by impact.
The hypothesis can readily be developed so as to furnish an explanation of the polarisation effects which Barkla (Joe. cit.) has worked out with so much success. If the cathode particles so affect the motion of an atom as to make it throw off a pair, then the plane of rotation of the pair will contain the direction of its translatory motion. And if such a pair fell upon a reflecting surface, it might naturally be taken up only by an atom revolving in the same plane, and, if ejected again, continue moving and revolving in that plane, thus exhibiting exactly the effects which Barkla has found.
The sudden arrest of a cathode particle must originate an ether pulse. But, as a matter of fact, it has never been shown that such sudden stoppages do take place. Wien has calculated (Ann. d. Phys., December 28, 1905) that the particles must come to rest in a space of about 107° em., if the energy of the X-rays is to be accounted for in this way, even supposing the whole of the cathode rays to be effective; and the appearances of the bundles of reflected & and cathode rays rather point to gradual deviations with a very slow dimi- nution of energy, and therefore very little radiation. On the other hand, we know that atoms are set in motion with very high speeds inside the vacuum tube, and that the gas in the X-ray tube is largely driven into the walls (Campbell Swinton, Chemical News, March 22, 1907) in a manner which reminds us of « rays penetrating a solid.
It is possible that the example of the « particle shows that a pair cannot possess a velocity greater than 10°, since at a higher speed it would be stripped of an electron, and become an « particle. J. J. Thomson has suggested that at this critical speed the « particle becomes electrically neu- tralized by the attachment of an electron. Presumably such a pair would then go on as a y ray. No such consequence has been observed; and on the present hypothesis it would be better to suppose that the a particle ends its career by
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being taken up by an atom, as Rutherford has suggested. There is no reason to suppose the y ray or X-ray to possess any great speed, so as to give it enough penetrating power. The latter might depend rather on the limitation of the field of the pair, and a sufficient range for the velocity can be found between the minimum speed of the a particle and the mini- mum speed necessary for penetration, which appears to be about 10% for a charged particle, but may be less for one with- out charge. A moderate speed would account for the reflection or scattering of the X-ray, and would indeed be necessary for this purpose. It is here that the neutral-pair hypothesis ciashes with the experiment of Marx, and, unless some way out is found, must remain simply an interesting comparison. In the case of the y ray the hypothesis seems to fit in