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THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
AN OFFICIAL RECORD
VOLUME XIX
1917
/i)
(D ^( f
i^i (^jn
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY
CONTENTS
PAGE
Charter Day Address. George Herbert Palmer 227
Dedication of the Library of French Thought 392
Fables from the Heitopadega. Arthur W. Eyder 15
Frederick Ferdinand Low, Ninth Governor of California. Eli T.
Sheppard 109
In Memoriam : R. B 48
In Memory of Eobert Hill Loughridge 446
In Praise of Death. Translated by S. G. Morley 389
Insurance for Salaried Workers. Charles E. Brooks 154
Intuition in Science. Tenney L. Davis 192
Josiah Eoyce : Interpreter of American Problems. J. Loewenberg 39
Lovers' Meeting. Translated by Arthur W. Eyder 364
Meteorology and Aviation in Southern California. Ford Ashman
Carpenter 293
Modern Poland. Ludwik Ehrlich 173
On the American Aviators Who Died before Verdun. Leonard
Bacon 307
Pierre's Prayer. Arthur W. Eyder 247
The Eeconstruction of France after the War. Gilbert Chinard 270
Eural Institutions. Elwood Mead 464
Science as a Vehicle of Education. T. Brailsford Eobertson 30
The Slavs: Past and Present. Ludwik Ehrlich 418
Some Logical Factors in the History of Science. Tenney L. Davis 50
Standardizing the Dollar. Irving Fisher 347
To Henry Morse Stephens. Edward Eobeson Taylor 482
University Meeting Address. Warren Gregory 377
University Meeting Address. William MacDonald 414
University Eecord. Victor H. Henderson 72, 206, 308, 483
The Utilization of Patents for the Promotion of Eesearch: A
Statement by T. Brailsford Eobertson 449
A Vanishing Type. Walter Morris Hart 1
The War and the English Constitution. Ludwik Ehrlich 250
The Youth of Chateaubriand, Helen Virginia Davis 285
Bacon, Leonard. On the American Aviators Who Died before
Verdun 307
Brooks, Charles E. Insurance for Salaried Workers 154
Carpenter, Ford Ashman. Meteorology and Aviation in Southern California 293
in
PAGE
Chinard, Gilbert. The Keconstruction of France after the War.... 270
Davis, Helen Virginia. The Youth of Chateaubriand 285
Davis, Tenney L. Some Logical Factors in the History of Science 50
Intuition in Science 192
Ehrlich, Ludwik. Modern Poland 173
The War and the English Constitution 250
The Slavs: Past and Present 418
Fisher, Irving. Standardizing the Dollar _ 347
Gregory, Warren. Address, University Meeting 377
Hart, Walter Morris. A Vanishing Type 1
Henderson, V. H. University Record 72, 206, 308, 483
Loewenberg, J. Josiah Royce: Interpreter of American Problems 39
MacDonald, William. Address, University Meeting 414
Mead, Elwood. Rural Institutions 464
Morley, S. G. In Praise of Death. (Translation) 389
Palmer, George Herbert. Address at the Charter Day Exercises 227
Robertson, T. Brailsford. Science as a Vehicle of Education 30
The Utilization of Patents for the Production of Research 449
Ryder, Arthur W. Fables from the Heitopade^a 15
Pierre's Prayer 247
Lovers' Meeting. (Translation) 367
Sheppard, Eli T. Frederick Ferdinand Low, Ninth Governor of California _ i09
IV
INDEX
Acme Wire Company of New Haven, Conn., gift, 91.
Adams, Professor G. P., ap- pointed dean of College of Letters, 499.
Adams, Professor E. L., ap- pointed State Farm Labor Agent, 495.
Aero Club of America, gift of medals for essay contest, 219.
Aeronautics, Military, School of, 312, 488.
Agricultural Discussion, winner, 333.
Agriculture, College of: Gen- eral, 214, 328; University Farm, animal industry. 89; Short Courses, 90 ; Boy Farm- ers, 90 ; Women 's Home Farm Demonstrations, 90 ; petition for farm school at Eiverside, 91; Citrus Insti- tute Week, 91; plant for breeding of experimental ani- mals, 91 ; landscape garden- ing exhibit, 106; tropical fruits exhibit, 106; farm ad- visers, 214, 494; farm ac- countants, 214; Forest Serv- ice conference, 214; food conference and survey, 315, 316; dairy cow competition, 330; farm labor agent, 495; Farm Labor Institute, speak- ers, 508.
Albright, George L., death, 209.
Alexander, Miss A. M., gift, 219, 329.
Alexander & Kellogg, gift, 330.
Alumni Association, 87, 489 ; football dinners, 89 ; em- ployment bureau, 317; Mili- tary Intelligence Bureau, 317 ; amendment to make president ex-officio regent, 319 ; Charter Day dinner, 323.
Ambulance and hospital units, 311.
American Association for the Advancement of Science, fac- ulty representatives at, 215; gift for taurin investigation, 501.
Androcles and the Lion, 107.
Appointments, 98, 220, 334, 503.
Appropriations, Legislative, for 1917, 318.
Association of American Agri- cultural Colleges and Experi- ment Stations, faculty repre- sentatives, 94.
Association of American Uni- versities, faculty delegates, 94.
Athalia, 510.
Athletic notes, 333-334,
Austin, S. W., gift, 329.
Aviation, 488.
Baccalaureate sermon, 325, 340.
Barrows, D. P., Address to Uni- versity cadets, 310.
Bell, A. P., gift, 91.
Beta Gamma Sigma, initiation, 97.
Blanding, Gordon, gift, 329.
Boalt, Mrs. Elizabeth J., en- dowment gift, 206, 219; re- gents' resolutions on death of, 208.
Bolton, Herbert E., research lecturer 1917, 94, 323, 338.
Bonnheim, A., gift of scholar- ships, 92; death, 209; re- gents' resolutions on, 209.
Booth, Professor Edward, death, 490.
Bourn, W. B., gift. 329.
Bradley, F. W., gifts, 329.
Brownsill, Dr. Edith, gift to Alumnae Endowment Fund, 501.
Budget, 326.
Buildings and Grounds, and Lands, 75-79, 326, 327, 494.
California Association of Ap- plied Arts and Sciences, 105.
California Cap Company, gift, 92.
California Central Creameries, gift, 330.
California State Board of Health, establishment by, at the University, of Division of Biology, 493.
California Walnut Growers ' Association, gift for research work, 496.
Carnegie pensions and insur- ance, 497; retiring age, 498; ruling on military service, 498.
Carnot debate, winner. 333.
Cebrian, J. C, gift, 329.
Charter Day, 1917, 323, 338.
Chi Omega fraternity, gift, 92.
China Alumni Club, debating trophy, 9(i; winner, 1917, 333.
Citrus Experiment Station, Eiverside, improvements, 78.
Citrus Institute "Week, 91.
Cleveland, Professor Maude, in war service, 499.
Coast Manufacturing and Sup- ply Company of Livermore, gift, 92.
Coleman, Persis H., and Janet B., gift, 501.
Commencement week, 324.
Cort, Professor W. W., ap- pointed to Division of Biol- ogy of the California State Board of Health, 493.
Crocker, W. II., gift, 329, 501.
Crocker, Mrs. W. H., gift, 329.
Davis, Horace, book fund be- quest, 92.
Debating, 96, 333.
Deister Concentrator Company of Fort Wayne, Indiana, gift, 92.
De Laval Separator Company, gift, 331.
Dentistry, College of, four-year course, 83; labor day, 98; Extension course, 225.
Directory of Graduates, 1916, 87.
Dramatic events, 107, 226, 345, 509.
Education, School of, 82.
English Club plays, 107, 346; election of members, 333.
English Department, Readings, 226, 344.
Enrollment figures, 85, 213, 322, 483.
Eta Kappa Nu, initiation, 332.
Everts, Katherine J., reading, 108, 223, 224, 337, 340.
Faculty Matters, 94, 215, 499; Board of Research, 80; Com- mittee on International Re- lations, 82; faculty members of Presidio training camp, 308; war research commit- tees, etc., 314-317; auto- matic increases in salary, 321. See also The University and the War.
Faculty Research Lecture, 1917, 94, 323.
Fellowships and Scholarships, 86.
Fish, P. A., gift, 220.
"Food-Saving Day" exercises in Greek Theatre, 507.
Forestry lectures, 224.
Forner, C. K., gift, 92.
Fraternities, scholarship rec- ords, 217,
Furrey, W. E., gift, 220.
Gifts to the University, 91, 219, 329, 501.
Gilman Hall, 326.
Greek Tragedy, Readings, 344.
Half Hour of Music, 106, 344, 509.
Hearst, Mrs. Phoebe A., gifts, 92, 93, 329, 502.
Helm, F. M., gift, 330.
Hitchcock lecturer, 1917, 98.
Hoffmann, von. Dr. C. A. H., death, 491.
Holdridge, Miss M. M., gift, 331.
Honors, 96, 218.
Howison, George H., death, 72; memory honored by graduate students, 101; regents' reso- lutions, 208.
Howison Foundation, 74.
Hunt, Thomas F., lectures, 102.
VI
Insurance, compensation, se- cured by regents, 215.
Irving Prize, winner of, 219.
■Japan as an international prob- lem, faculty seminar on, 82.
Jeppe-on-the-Hill, 509.
Joshua Hendy Iron Works, of San Francisco, gift, 93.
Junior Farce, 107.
Jurisprudence, School of, en- dowment, 206, 219.
Kellogg, Martin, dedication of marble chair in Greek The- atre, 323.
Kerr, Dr. W. W., death, 318.
Kerr, William Watt, Memorial Fund, 493.
Kofoid, Professor C. A., ap- pointed head of Division of Biology of the California State Board of Health, 493; lecture, 508.
Larrowe Milling Company, gift, 330.
Lawton, Mrs. M. A., gift, 502.
Leaves of Absence, 100, 221, 336, 506.
Lectures, 101, 222, 336, 507.
Lectures: E. B. Abbott, 101, 103, 339; Mrs. A. A. Adams, 223; G. P. Adams, 338; W. C. Alvarez, 103; J. Arnold,
102, 223; W. I. Baldwin, 341 ; E. L. Barney, 341 ; L. A. Barrett, 224; A. L. Barrows, 226; E. L. Beale, 102; A. F. L. Bell, 103; Swift Berry, 225, 342; Jules Bois, 338, 339; H. C. Brvant, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342; Kathleen Burke, 339; Mary E. Calkins,
103, 104; W. W. Campbell, 343; C. E. Chapman, 508; B. F. Cheatham, 339; W. E. Colby, 223; G. W. Corner, 103, 222; C. L. Cory, 340; H. E. Cory, 340, 508; B, H. Crocheron, 102; M. Downing, 338; C. DuBois. 225, 342; A. O. Eberhart, 339 ; Mrs. K. P. Edson, 508; Ludwik Ehrlich, 336, 339, 340; A. I. Elkus, 508; E. Elliott, 507; W. W. Ellsworth, 337; P. L. Faye,
341; CecU Forsyth, 340; F. H. Fowler, 225, '342; Dr. W. S. Franklin, 321; H. D. Gas- kill, 102; E. W. Gififord, 103, 104, 225, 341; Capt. W. W. Gilmer, 337; Colonel Goodier, 340; D. P. Goodwin, 225, 342; J. Grinnell, 226; Dr. A. L. Hagedoorn, 340; G. F. Hall, 508; Dr. W. S. Hall, 222; Eev. E. J. Hanna, bac- calaureate sermon, 325, 340; E. C. Hayes, 337; Eoy Head- ley, 225 ; Edwin Higgins, 101; F. H. Hodder, 508; S. J. Holmes, 342 ; Ealph Hop- ping, 224; Dr. H. Horn, 341; H. Hurwitz, 101; C. T. Hutchinson, 337; L. T. Jones, 339; D. S. Jordan, 508; Cap- tain K. Joyce, 340; E. S. Kilgore, 223; C. A. Kofoid,
102, 342; A. L. Kroeber, 225; G. J. Laing, 337; Aus- tin Lewis, 338, 509; E. P. Lewis, 101, 223; J. O. Lewis, 338; J. Loewenberg, 224; M. E. Lombardi, 223; W. J. Loriug, 103; Percival Lowell, 102 ; Dr. W. P. Lucas,
103, 341 ; Colonel C. S. Lynch, 337, 338, 339, 340; E. L Me- Cormac, 508; E. P. McLaugh- lin, 223; J. A. Marshall, 222, 339; Dr. Alfred Mayer, 226; Dr. A. M. Meads, 223 ; Dr. E. P. Meinecke, 224; J. C. Mer- riam, 103; E. G. Metzger, 103, 222; A. W. Meyer, 338; E. Meyer-Eiefstahl, 104; E, L. Michael, 341; E. A. Milli- kan, 224; S. K. Mitra, 102, 340; E. A. Murray, 508; P. W. Nahl, 337; Eugen Neu- haus, 223 ; L. Outhwaite, 103, 325; E. H. Pace, 509; G. H. Palmer, 338, 343; P. M. Paine, 339; Eobert Payne, 339; A. U. Pope, 102, 222; H. I. Priestley, 337; F. H. Probert, 509; Paul Eadin, 223, 224, 226, 341; W. J. Eaymond, 102, 337; Miss Alice Ehode, 223; T. A. Eick-
Vll
arcl, 222; C. H. Kieber, 340; W. E. Ritter, 342 ; T. B. Eob- ertson, 223; Raymond Rob- ins, 223, 224, 336; W. P. Roop, 103; S. Sargentich, 102; B. R. Sarkar, 222; B. F. Schlesinger, 508; R. F. Seholz, 508; F. H. Seares, 507; C. E. Seashore, 508; C. J. Shepherd, 103; Paul Shorey, 102, 104, 222; C. StoAvell Smith, 225, 242; P. E. Smith, 223; John Spargo, 337; Lincoln Steffens, 509; H. M. Stephens, 102; T. I. Storer, 226, 241 ; E. S. Sund- stroem, 337, 339; Dr. M. Takeoka, 223; B, L. Thane, 102; Dr. R. Thurnwald, 103; Ilya Tolstoy, 338; T. E. Trueblood, 507; L. C. Van Noppen, 337, 343; C. Vroo- man, 508; S. A. Waksman, 224; 0. M. Washburn, 225; H. Wasteneys, 337; T. T. Waterman, 225; D. D. Wav- niek, 337 ; B. I. Wheeler, 102, 338, 508; Luther Whiteman, 224; General J. P. Wisser, 338; F. J. E. Woodbridge,
222, 340; T. D. Woodbury, 225; W. H. Wright, 343.
Lectures at the University: An- thropology, 103, 104, 225, 341; Astronomy, 343; Boys' Clubs addresses, 102; Char- ter Day, 338; Child Welfare, 341; Commerce Club, 103; Cosmopolitan Club, 102, 509; Dutch Literature, 343; Earl Foundation. 343 ; Economics, 104, 342; Faculty Research, 94, 323, 338; U. S. Forest Service, 224, 342; Hitchcock, 224; Jurisprudence, 102; Labor Club, 337, 338, 339, 509; Medical Sciences, 222,
223, 224, 337, 339, 340; Min- ing, 102, 103, 509; Officers' Reserve Training Corps, 337, 338, 339, 340; Petroleum Club, 103, 223, 338, 339; Phi Beta Kappa, 325, 340 ; Philo- sophical Union, 102, 103, 222,
224, 338, 340, 509; Physics, 101, 102, 103, 223, 337, 339 Sather Foundation, 337 Scandinavian Club, 102, 223 Sigma Xi, 340; Zoology, Lo- cal, 226, 341, 342.
Library of French Thought, dedication, 76.
Lick Observatory, Mills expe- dition to the southern hemi- sphere, 329.
London, Jack, death, 88.
Loughridge, Professor R. H., death, 492; endowment be- quest, 502.
Lucas, Dr. W. P., appointed chief of Cliildren's Bureau of the Red Cross for France and for Serbia, 499.
McVicker, Mrs. Emma J., gifts, 93.
McWhae, '08, J. W., death, 490.
Marsden, Mrs. W. L., of Sen- eca, Oregon, gift, 93.
Maslin, E. M., winner of Irving I'rize, 219.
Mats-uo, 510.
Mead, Professor Elwoud, ap- pointed consulting engineer of the U. S. Reclamation Service, 499.
Merritt, R. P., appointed U. 8. Food Administrator, 489.
Militarv Department, 83.
Millbrae Dairv, gift, 330.
Mills, Ogden. gift, 329.
Military Information Office, 486.
Moffitt, Mrs. James, gift, 330.
Moody, Dr. Mary B., gift. 93.
Morrison, Mrs. A. F., gift, 330.
Mountain Plavers, in Jeppe-on- the-EUl, 509.
Musical and Dramatic Events, 107, 226, 345, 509.
Napa Seminary Club, Loan Fund, 220.
Navigation schools, 488.
North Hall, farewell, 324.
Nuttall, Mrs. Zelia, gift, 220.
Nutting, Franklin P., gift, 93.
Officers Reserve Training Corps, 82, 212, 308.
vui
Pacific Coast Physical Society,
meeting, 105. , Palo Alto Stock Farm, gift, 331.
Petroleum Club, 96.
Phelan, Senator J, D., gift, 330.
Phelps, Mrs. T. G., gift, 330.
Phi Beta Kappa, election of new members, 218, 332; an- nual address, 325.
Players' Club, 510.
President's annual report, 207.
Promotions and Changes in Title, 99, 221, 334, 505.
Prudential Insurance Company of America, gift, 330.
Prvtanean Society, initiation, 219; gift, 330.
Publications, Semicentennial, 81.
Quartz Parlor of the Native Sons of the Golden West, scholarship, 93.
Registration. See Enrollment figures.
Eepublic of France, gift of bookplates, 502.
Research Institute of the Na- tional Dental Association, gift, 93.
Eesignations, 100, 221, 336, 506.
Robertson, Dr. T. B., gift, 502.
Royce, Josiah, death, 88.
Rural Credits Commission, 95.
Rutgers College 150th anniver- sary, faculty delegate, 95.
San Jose High School scholar- ship, 93.
Sather Campanile, 494; chimes, 326.
Schevill, Professor R., appoint- ed Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy . of History, 500.
Scholarships and fellowships, 86.
Scripps Institution, new build- ings, 78.
Semicentennial Publications, 81.
Senior Extravaganza, 325, 346.
Sigma Xi, election of members, 332.
Skull and Keys, initiation, 98.
Sloss, Leon, gifts, 503.
Sperry Flour Mills, gift, 330.
Spreckels, A. B., gift, 329.
State Holstein Breeders' Asso- ciation, gift, 331.
State Jersey Breeders' Associ- ation, gift, 331.
Stenzel, F., gift, 330.
Stubenrauch, Professor Arnold v., death, 211.
Students' Union, 77.
Sullivan Machinery Company, gift, 93.
Summer Session, 497; Southern California, 322.
Swedish - American Patriotic League of California, schol- arship, 503.
The Talisman, 510.
Theta Tau, initiation, 332.
Torrey, C. M., resignation, 95.
Treble Clef opera, 107.
Tuberculosis, experiments in treatment of with taurin, 213 ; financial aid given by State Council of Defense, 314.
Undergraduate matters, 96, 218, 331, 500.
U. S. Forest Service Confer- ence, 214.
The University and the War, 81, 308, 317; Faculty com- mittee "Board of Research," 80 ; Committee on Interna- tional Relations, 81; Faculty seminar on the Japanese question, 82 ; recommenda- tions of President Wheeler, 211; action of Faculty Club, 212; student emergency with- drawals, 310, 487; Dean Bar- rows' address to the Univer- sity cadets, 310; ambulance and hospital units, 312; School of Military Aero- nautics, 312, 488; Summer Military Course, 312; special inter-session, 312; research work, 313; food conference and survey, 315, 316; "Food Saving Day" exercises, 508; farm labor problem, 316; Alumni Military Intelligence
IX
Bureau, 317; Military Infor- mation Office, 486; naviga- tion' schools, 488; work of women students, 489; death of J. W. McWhae, '08, 490; faculty members in war serv- ice, 483-486, 495, 499, 500; wartime courses in Depart- ment of Mechanics, 500. See also Alumni Association.
University Examiner, 84.
University Extension, 87 ; in Southern California, 496; de- bating, 322.
University Farm, 89, 90.
University Hospital, 494.
University Infirmary, figures for 1916-1917, 493.
University Library, inscrip- tions, 79; completion, 326.
University medal, 500.
Universitv Meetings, 100, 222, 336, 507.
Walcott, Dr. A. M., gifts, 220,
330. War, The. See The University
and the War. Werson, L. H., death, 95. Western CreamerieB Company,
gift, 331. Western Electric Companv of
Chicago, 330. "What Next?" 107. Wheeler Hall, 75, 326; dedica- tion of auilitorium, 326. Williams, Mrs. Dora, gift, 330. Winged Helmet, initiation, 219. Women students ' war work,
489. Woodbridge, F. J. E., Phi Beta
Kappa address, 325. Woods, Professor B. M., ;ij)-
pointed Universitv Examiner,
84. Xi Psi Phi, gift, 329. Youth Cornea Up, 346.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE '
Vol. XIX JANUARY, 1917 No. 1
A VANISHING TYPE*
Walter Morris Hart
The present is, pre-eminently, an age of leveling, an age in which differences, excellent or other, tend to disappear. Ease of communication is destroying national contrasts. East and west, north and south, meet on common , ground and think more and more alike. The country comes to the city, the city to the country. The efforts of our political parties to differ, the one from the other, are crowned with no very conspicuous success. In our colleges, scholarship is only faintly recognized ; a plan to distinguish honor students is regarded with distrust as being undemocratic. The bachelor-of-arts degree covers a multitude of sins, but not necessarily Latin and Greek. University Extension and the Correspondence School break down the distinction between the man who has been to college and the man who has not. Co-education, suffrage, and a variety of occupa- tions are doing away with the differences between men and women. Our laws are making the rich poorer and the poor richer, and we frame amendments to our constitution to make our neighbors almost as virtuous as we are ourselves. National dress is disappearing; peasant costumes are rele- gated to the masqued ball, or persist here and there only to please tourists ; the soldier has put off his gorgeous uniform to don a commonplace suit of khaki or olive drab ; the officer dresses and looks precisely like his men ; the Chinaman has cut off his queue ; and the president of a great university has exchanged, for solemn occasions, the academic cap and gown for the silk hat and frock coat of the man of the world.
The president of a great university has exchanged cap
* President 's Address, Philological Association of the Pacific Coast, December 1, 1916.
2 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
and gown for silk hat and frock coat. This action is highly significant. He feels, we may infer, that here also a dis- tinction has disappeared, that the academic person no longer differs from the non-academic, that there is no reason why the scholar should be distinguished from the banker or merchant or lawyer or captain of industry; he feels, in a word, that, as a type, the professor is extinct.
Is he right?
For answer I propose to turn, not to life, but to liter- ature. I propose to narrow the problem to the philologist, and to France. I propose to examine the most careful and sympathetic studies of the academic character that I know — those, namely, in two books by Anatole France, The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnarxl and The Chronicle of Our Own Times. I shall attempt to detach Sylvestre Bonnard from the simple story recorded by his own diary. I shall at- tempt to disengage Bergeret from the tangled web of French contemporary life and French politics, and from the situations of a certain Gallic quality, difficult to under- stand and often offensive to English readers, which go to make up La Vie Contemporaine. The first of these books was written in 1881, the second completed in 1901. It may be possible, by comparing their central figures, Bonnard and Bergeret, to get some notion of a possible drift or change in the typical character of the scholar.
The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard is a series of entries in the journal of Bonnard extending from 1845 to 1869, from his sixtieth to his eightieth year. They form two simple stories. The first records the search for a rare manuscript of the Golden Legend and its acquisition by gift of a woman whom in her great need Bonnard had helped and forgotten. In the second story Bonnard finds Jeanne Alexandre, granddaughter of the woman whom he had loved and lost in early youth, in a girl's school in Paris. She is ill-treated because of her poverty. Bonnard befriends her, and all goes well until Mademoiselle Prefere, mistress of the school, falls in love with him, or at least
A VANISHING T¥PE 3
desires ardently to marry him. He is now unable to see Jeanne and she is shamefully ill-used. One night he kid- naps her and carries her off to his friends, Monsieur and Madame de Gabry. This is the crime of Sylvestre Bonnard. Later, matters are arranged, he becomes Jeanne 's guardian, and slie marries his favorite pupil.
IManifestly it was not because of its complexity or in- genuity of plot that this book was crowned by the Academy. Its charm lies rather in its atmosphere, the atmosphere of tranquillity, maturity, mellow calm, of that which has ar- rived; the atmosphere of old Paris, of the Latin quarter, of the banks of the Seine, with their noble buildings, their trees, their book stores and old curiosity shops ; an atmos- phere perfumed with the blended odor of wood smoke, and violets and old books. Yet it is all better than the reality, for it comes to us through the personality of Bonnard, mellow and golden as a Parisian October.
It is, then, this personality that constitutes the essential charm of the book. It succeeds in revealing itself to us completely and without reserve, intimately and informally. Significantly enough, the first sentence of the diary reads: ' ' I had put on my slippers and donned my dressing gown. ' '
Bonnard 's life is a solitary one; if affectionate wishes come to him on New Year's Day, they must, he says, come from the ground, for all those who had loved him had for a long time been buried. The stars which had shone upon all his ancestors awake in him a painful regret that no posterity of his will gaze upon them when he can see them no more. He is comically dependent upon Therese, his aged housekeeper. She pursues him with hat, gloves, and umbrella when he sallies forth without these necessities. She does not allow him the disposition of anything — he cannot find even a cravat without her help — and as she is deaf and losing her memory, he is in a perpetual state of denudation. The companion of his labors is the cat Hamilcar. To him he has the habit of addressing long apostrophes, after the fashion of solitary men.
4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
It does not appear that Bonnartl permits himself the consolation of tobacco. He considers, however, that he has a talent for gustation rather above the average; and he drinks with respect a certain bottle of Chateau-Margaux, that wine of grand race and noble virtue, whose bouquet and fire one cannot too highly praise.
In spite of his tranquil mien, Bonnard is a man of strong emotions: more than once he has lost sleep because of a few pages written by a forgotten monk or printed by a humble apprentice of Peter Schoeffer.
He knows no reading more agreeable than that of a bookseller's catalogue. The mere mention of a certain manuscript so stirs him that even as lie writes of it his hand shakes. At such a discovery the sweat beads his fore- head, his eyes grow dim, his hand trembles, he blushes, and, no longer able to speak, he finds need of uttering a great cry. His walks carry him, on the hunt for treasure, along the quays of the Seine, past the shops and stalls for old books and engravings. The booksellers are all his friends and he rarely passes them without pulling out some old tome that he had needed up to that time without ever being the least suspicious that he needed it. The most pathetic passage in the diary is the account of his selling his library to provide a dowry for his ward. He himself makes the catalogue with a view to a sale by auction, a task which afflicts and at the same time amuses. Far longer than is necessary he turns the leaves of volumes long familiar to his thought, to his hands, to his eyes. It is a farewell ; and it is human nature to prolong farewells.
He is more at home in the fourteenth century than in the nineteenth. When he kidnaps Jeanne, Monsieur de Gabry has the greatest difficulty in making Bonnard under- stand that, under existing laws, he is liable to a terra of not less than five years. He can quote, from medieval laws, whole pages concerning penalties for rape, but he has not even read the code of Napoleon. He is ignorant of the ways of business. He is a terrified and absent-minded trav-
A VANISHING TYPE 5
eler. Arrived at Naples with the mutilated and formless remains of his baggage, and minus his watch, he cannot tell, because he does not know, how he accomplished his journey. He imagines that he has, in that brilliant city, something of the air of an owl in the sun. There is no evidence that he reads a daily paper, or that he has any knowledge of what is going on in the world about him. In the whole diary there is no reference to contemporary events. The only approach to it is the quarrel of the two old men about the character of Napoleon, which separates two families and results in Bonnard's early disappointment in love. He passes winter after winter over his books; spring after spring, the swallows of the Quai Malaquai find him on their return much as they had left him. He who lives little changes little ; and to spend one 's days with ancient texts is scarcely to live at all. Thus he achieves a kind of perpetual youth. Bonnard loves Paris with an immense love ; yet as he grows older he begins to feel a little uncom- fortable in that stimulating atmosphere, where one is com- pelled to think ; he yearns for the calm which he will find one day, and which in the end he does find, in a little house in the country.
By profession Bonnard is an archaeologist and philol- ogist. He has been studying for forty years the history of Christian Gaul, and he is writing a book on the abbes of St, Germain-des-Pres. This is to be his magnum opus, and his great wish is to finish it before he dies. It does not appear that this wish is fulfilled. He has, however, thirty volumes of ancient texts to his credit, he has contrib- uted for twenty-six years to the Journal des Savants. He will be counted among the ten or twelve scholars who have restored to France her literary antiquities. His edition of Gautier de Coincy was, in its inauguration of a judicious method, epoch-making. (French scholars regret that this is not fact but fiction, for the only edition of Gautier, that by the Abbe Poquet, is notoriously inadequate.) Bonnard is a thorough-going philologist. He no longer perceives
6 VNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
things except by means of the signs that represent them. There is nothing in this world for him except words, he says, and he maintains that he is wholly without imagination.
For his own eminence Bonnard must pay the usual price. He presides at societies, congresses, academies ; he is weighted do^v^l with honorary functions. The offices would like to get rid of him and he Avould like to get rid of them ; but habit is stronger than they or he.
Bonnard, created in 1881, when Anatole France was thirty-seven, is a portrait by foreknowledge of a man be- tween sixty and eighty. Bergeret, the central figure in La Vie Contemporaine, 1897-1901, when Anatole France was fifty-three to fifty-seven, is a portrait, based on actual experience of a man in the forties.
If The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard had little plot, The Chronicle of Our Own Times has none at all. Through the earlier volumes run the strange intrigues concerning the appointment of a bishop ; through the later, a royalist plot. With all this Bergeret, an instructor {maitre des confer- ences) in the Faculty of Letters in a provincial university, has little to do. He thinks, he works, he talks with his acquaintances; he gets rid of a faithless wife; in the end he moves to Paris. Characters make their entrances and their exits; intrigues and incidents begin and end, with- out connection one with another ; there is no plan, no causal chain. It is a picture of life as Anatole France sees it.
Bergeret is not happy, for he has an acute mind whose points are not always turned outwards, and very often he pricks himself with the needle-points of his own criticism. Anaemic and bilious, he has a weak digestion and enfeebled senses, which bring him more disgust and suffering than pleasure and happiness. He is reckless in speech, and in unerringness and precision his tactlessness attains the same results as the most practiced skill. With cunning art he seizes every opportunity of injuring himself. He inspires the majority of people with a natural aversion, and being
A VANISHING TYPE 7
sociable and inclined to fraternize with his fellows, he suffers from that fact. He has never succeeded in mould- ing his pupils; and, though the university buildings are new and spacious, he delivers his lectures on Latin liter- ature in a gloomy, damp, deserted cellar, in which he is buried through the dean's burning hatred of him. He has financial worries; he knows the ineleganeies of poverty. He cannot dress as he should.
On New Year's Day Monsieur Bergeret was always in the habit of putting on his black suit the first thing in the morning. Now- adays it had lost all its gloss, and the grey wintry light made it look ashen-eolor. ... In fact, in this dress he always felt strangely thin and poverty-stricken. Even his white tie seemed to his fancy a wretchedly paltry affair, for, to tell the truth, it was not even a fresh one. At length, after vainly crumpling the front of his shirt, he recognized the fact that it is impossible to make mother-of-pearl buttons stay in buttonholes that have been stretched by long v.ear: at the thought he became utterly disconsolate, for he recognized the fact sorrowfully that he was no man of the world.
He could not even impress Gaubert, the porter of the house in which he lived. Gaubert despised him because of his quietness and had no sense of his generosity because it was that of a man of moderate means. Yet whatever Monsieur Raynaud gave him he regarded with respect, although Raynaud gave little when he was able to give much; to Gaubert his hundred-sou piece was valuable be- cause it came from great wealth.
In the presence of men of importance, Bergeret was timid. He stood in awe of Monsieur Fremont, the inspector of fine arts, for he felt himself a poor creature by the side of so great a man. For Monsieur Bergeret, who feared nothing in the world of ideas, was very diffident where living men were concerned.
Outwardly, Bergeret 's life is a narrow and monotonous one. In the town of a hundred and fifty thousand inhab- itants where he lives, the Abbe Lantaigne, one of the can- didates for the vacant bishopric, is the only other person interested in general ideas. In place of a club Bergeret
8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CnRONICLE
frequents Paillot's book shop, wlit-re he fiiuls a group of men who disdiiss a variety of subjects, thouj^h they do not understand Bergeret. Now and again he pulls down a volume from the shelves ; it happens alwiiys to be the same volume, and it falls open always at the same place. It is the thirty-eighth volume of VHistvire Gemrale des Voyages, between pages 212 and 218. This is a spot which, every time he has opened the old book dui-ing the last six years, has confronted him like a fate, to the exclusion of every other page, as an instance of the monotony with which life glides by, a symbol of the uniformity of thase tasks and those days in a provincial univL'rsity which precede the day of death and the travail of the body in the tomb. . . . Monsieur Bergeret reads the first lines of jiage 212: "a passage to the north. 'It is to this check,' said he, 'that we owe the opportunity of bi'ing able to visit the Sandwich Isles again, and to enrich our voyage with a discovery which, although the last, seems in many resi)ects to be the most important that Europeans have yet made in the whole expanse of the Pacific Ocean.' The ha[)py prophecy which these words seemed to denote has unfortunatt-ly ncvi-r been fulfilled."
''And this time, as always, the reading of these lines plunged Bergeret into melanclioly." This incident occurs again and again throughout the book. Its cumulative effect can well be imagined.
Inwardly, however, Bergeret 's life is neither narrow nor monotonous. He is no mere specialist ; he is interested in a vast variety of subjects and capable of speaking on them with authority. He is in close touch with the world about him. He has a theory of the state, prefers a republic to a monarchy, condemns war as murder, would not him- self join a political party, and hopes for universal and lasting peace ; he discusses parliamentary scandals, and holds interesting views of antisemitism ; he is a strong partisan of Dreyfus, and is hooted by the crowds that throw stones through his windows. He is opposed to the death
A VANISHING TYPE 9
penalty and regards civilization as less kind, more ferocious than barbarism in its punishments. He expounds Comte and the Positive Philosophy, the Christian religion and the idea of God, and the nature of good and evil, and doubts if the truth does alwaj^s prevail. He has a theory of edu- cation, a theory concerning the significance of the human hand. He knows the story of the real Macbeth, and has heard from the Lick Observatory the latest news concern- ing Venus. He is not v/ithout esthetic sense ; he is a lover and close observer of nature; he delights particularly in trees; and his sensitiveness to the beauty of women will recall that of Aristotle as conceived by Henri d'Andeli in his famous lai.
It does not seem likely that Bergeret is to achieve suc- cess in his profession. He is introduced as an instructor, in the Faculty of Letters, in a provincial university, already weary, discouraged, disillusioned, careless of appearances or discretion. He is not happy.
He had received no honorary distinction. It is true that he despised honors. But he felt that it would have been much finer to despise them while accepting them. . . . Certainly he despised literary fame. . . . But he suffered at having no intercourse with writers who, like Messieurs Faguet, Doumic, and Pellissier, seemed akin to him in mind. He would have liked to know them, to live with them in Paris, like them to write in reviews, to contradict, to rival, perhaps to outstrip them. He recognized in himself a certain subtlety of intellect, and he had written pages which he knew to be pleasing.
Unfortunately for Bergeret, the rector of the university, Monsieur Leterrier, could not bear him,
. . . and regarded him as a dangerous and misguided man; and Bergeret, in his turn, fully appreciated the perfect sincerity of the dislike he aroused in Monsieur Leterrier. Nor, in fact, did he make any complaint against it; sometimes he even treated it with an indulgent smile. On the other hand, he felt abjectly miserable whenever he met the dean, Monsieur Torquet, who never had an idea in his head, and who, although he was crammed with learning, still retained the brain of a positive ignoramus. ... In doing mis-
10 VNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
chief he showed an activity and a something approaching intelli- gence which filled Bergeret with amazement. Such thoughts as these were in his mind as he put on his overcoat to go and wish M. Torquet a happy New Year. . . .
On the way he met one of his colleagues, who seized his arm and walked on with him.
This was M. Compagnon, the most popular of all the professors, the idolized master who gave his mathematical lectures in the great amphitheatre.
"Hello, my dear Bergeret, happy New Year. I bet you're going to call on the dean. So am I. We'll walk on together."
"Gladly," answered Bergeret, "since in that way I shall travel pleasantly towards a painful goal. For I must confess it is no pleasure to me to see M. Torquet."
On hearing this uncalled-for confidence. Monsieur Compagnon, whether instinctively or inadvertently it was hard to say, withdrew the hand which he had slipped under his colleague's arm.
However, Bergeret is not destined always to remain in disfavor and obscurity. The rector, Leterrier, and he find themselves on the same side in the Dreyfus affair, and become friends. Bergeret, moreover, has friends in Paris. They plan to bring him there; Leterrier does all in his power to help, and one day the thing is done.
In his research Bergeret finds both tribulations and peaceful joys. He is preparing to w^rite an article on Virgilius nauticus, and is compiling a special lexicon for it, slip by slip.
He conceived a sort of veneration for himself as he worked at it, and congratulated himself in these words:
"Here am I, a landlubber . . . who has never seen the sea, . . . acting as interpreter of Virgil the seaman. Here I sit in my study explaining the nautical terms used by a poet who is accurate, learned, and exact, in spite of all his rhetoric, who is a mathema- tician, a mechanician, a geometrician, a well-informed Italian, who was trained in seafaring matters by the sailors who basked in the sun on the seashores of Naples and Misenum, who had, may be, his own galley, and under the clear stars of Helen's twin brothers, ploughed the blue furrows of the sea between Naples and Athens.
A VANISHING TYPE 11
Thanks to the excellence of my philological methods, I am able to reach this point of perfection, but my pupil, Monsieur Goubin, would be as fully equipped for the task as I."
Monsieur Bergeret took the greatest pleasure in this work, for it kept his mind occupied without any accompanying sense of anxiety or excitement. It filled him with real satisfaction to trace on thin sheets of pasteboard his delicate, regular letters, types and symbols as they were of the mental accuracy demanded in the study of philology.
However, the peaceful joy of writing was interrupted by the cook:
Filled with a sense of sadness. Monsieur Bergeret laid down his pen, for he was suddenly overwhelmed with a perception of the uselessness of his work. Unfortunately for his own happiness, he was intelligent enough to recognize his own mediocrity. . . . "Mon- sieur Bergeret," he said to himself, "you are a professor of some distinction; an intelligent provincial, ... an average scholar shackled by the barren quests of philology, a stranger to the true science of language, which can be plumbed only by men of broad, unbiased, and trenchant views. Monsieur Bergeret, you are not a scholar, for you are incapable of grasping or classifying the facts of language. . . . How happy is Torquet, our dean ! How happy is Leterrier, our rector! No distrust of themselves, no rash misgiv- ings to interrupt the smooth course of their equable lives! . . . But I — how comes it that I have such a cruel sense of my own inadequacy and of the laughable folly of all I undertake? ... I am, in fact, but a foolish, melancholy juggler with books. ... It was no zeal for knowledge, but a thirst for gain, that induced me to undertake this Virgilius nauticus, at which I have now been working for three years and which will bring me in five hundred francs: to wit, two hundred and fifty francs on delivery of the manuscript, and two hundred and fifty francs on the day of publi- cation of the volume containing this article. I determined to slake my horrible thirst for gold ! I have failed, not in brain power, but in force of character. That's a very different matter! "
If his research brought joy mixed with tribulation, the condition of his home brought nothing but tribulation :
He was poor, shut up with his wife and his three daughters in a little dwelling, where he tasted to the full the inconveniences of domestic life; and it harassed him to find hair-curlers on his writing table and to see the margins of his manuscripts singed by curling- tongs.
12 VNIVUliSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHltONlCLE
We find him in his study preparing his lectures
... to the shrill iiiechaiiiial aeLOiupauiiiient of the piano, ou which, close by, his daughters were practicing a difficult exercise. . . . This study where he i)olished and repolished his fine scholarly phrases was nothing more than a shapeless cranny . . . behin<l the framework of the main staircase, which, spreading out most incon- siderately in a great curve toward the window, left only room on either side for two useless, churlish corners. Trammeled on either side by this monstrous green-papered paunch of masonry, Monsieur Bergeret had with difficulty discovered in his cantankerous study ... a scanty flat surface where he couM stack his books along the deal shelves, upon which yellow rows of Teubner classics were plunged in never-lifted gloom, ^^onsieur Hergeret himself used to sit squeezed close up against the win>low, writing in a cold, chilly style that owed much to the bleakness of the atmosphere in which he worked. . . . Here, too, stood the tlressmaker 's dummy on which Madame Bergeret used to drape the skirts she cut out at home. There, bolt upright, over against the learned editions of Catullus and Petronius, stood, like a symbol of the wedded state, this wicker- work woman.
After the break with Madame Bergeret he crushes this manikin, tramples it under foot, and flings it into the court below.
In Paris he sets up a new liousehold with Angelifjue, a servant no less wise and devoted than Bonnard's Ther^se ; with his daughter Pauline, who is like her father and under- stands him ; and with Ri(iuet, the dog, who makes a god of his master, whose i)hilosophizing and quaint ways deserve an essay for themselves. It would bring out new and interesting characteristics of Bergeret and I resist with difficulty the impulse to write it. I have not half illus- trated his infinite variety. It may be, however, that I have established his contrast with Bonnard, even given some notion of the complexity and reality of both characters.
This contrast is carried out with remarkable consistency. Bonnard is between sixty and eighty. He has survived friends and relatives; he is unmarried, solitary. He has no occasion to "get on" with people in the world about
A VANISHING TYPE 13
him. Bergeret is in the forties ; he has colleagues, acquaint- ances at the book shop, the Abbe Lantaigne, and the rest. He is married and subject to the same vicissitudes which, if one should believe the French novel, one would suppose characteristic of that state. He has a genius for saying the wrong thing and does not "get on" with the people about him. Bonnard depends upon his servant ; she looks after his clothes; Bergeret is independent of servants and troubled by the shortcomings of his dress. Bonnard 's con- fidant is a cat, essentially unsociable and unresponsive ; Bergeret 's, a dog, the friend of man, sensitive to all his moods. Bonnard lives in agreeable surroundings, in the city of books, in an apartment on the Quai Malaquai; Bergeret in the shapeless storeroom behind the stair-well. Bonnard prides himself on his good digestion and taste in wines ; Bergeret on neither. Bonnard collects first editions and rare manuscripts ; Bergeret uses the Teubner texts and learned modern editions.
Bonnard 's work stirs in him intense though quiet and concealed emotions; he never questions its value. Berge- ret's research serves only to keep his mind occupied with- out anxiety or excitement ; and he is overwhelmed now and then with a sense of its futility. By living little Bonnard changes little and achieves a kind of perpetual youth ; Bergeret finds the monotony of life intolerable ; he is a restless spirit; he will die before sixty. Bonnard is at home, not in the nineteenth century but in the fourteenth ; like Charles Lamb, he cannot make these present times present to him. He is ignorant of business, of travel, of contemporary events. Bergeret is interested in a vast range of subjects, keenly alive to the significance of contemporary events and an active participant in them. Bonnard is a lover of Paris, but finds it too stimulating and seeks a more solitary solitude in the country. Bergeret yearns for Paris and, precisely, for the stimulation of intercourse with men of his own kind. Bonnard is an archaeologist; he is very productive. Bergeret, an obscure instructor in Latin, has
14 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA CHRONICLE
been working for years on a single essay and a special lexicon.
Bonuard has a private fortune, small, but sufficient for his simple needs. He is independent. Bergeret has only his small salary ; he is not independent ; he knows the in- elegancies of poverty ; he is trying to exist as a member of society, as a normal man, on what society is willing to pay him for his labor. He is Robinson Crusoe returned from his island and trying vainly to adjust himself to the world about him. He is not successful. And when, at last, he is called to the Sorbonne and begins a more agreeable way of life, we hear, significantly enough, notliing more of the article on Virgiliiis naiiticus and the special lexicon ; we hear only of his activities in connection with the Dreyfus case, activities sufficiently effective to lead to violent denuncia- tion in the public press. It is not, in a word, as scholar but as publicist that Bergeret becomi's a member of society. Since he is a student of the cla.ssics, his views on all subjects must be sound.
I have known and loved both characters. I have found all their qualities, if not in two individuals, yet scattered, at least — so to speak, iuias.sembled — through a score of colleagues. I recognize many of their nu'ntal states and processes as my own. For the scholar of the older type still persists; he is found most often and most happy in small colleges, far from the confusion of great cities and the tumult of modern life; he refreshes us by his detachment. Long ago he achieved perfection in his kind ; he arrived. The scholar of the newer type is still knocking at the doors of society in the great institutions, the great cities. Society has not yet made up its mind about him. Perhaps he is not going to be "possible" at all. One type is of the past, perhaps the other is of the future; but neither is of the present; neither has precisely a place in the sun in the world today.
FABLES FEOM THE EITOPADEQA 15
FABLES FROM THE HITOPADECA
Translated from the Sanskrit by Arthur W. Eyder
INTRODUCTION
On the bank of the Ganges is a city called Pataliputra. In this city ruled King Sudarcana, and he was blessed with all the virtues that befit a king. Now one day King Sudar- cana heard a man reciting these two stanzas :
Science dispels a world of doubts,
Shows the unseen— if men would heed — Science the blackest darkness flouts:
Who has her not, is blind indeed. Youth, gold, and princely power,
And folly's mad pell-mell: Each is an evil dower,
But all together— Hell!
When he had listened to these verses, the king was troubled in spirit ; and this because his own sons neglected their lessons and continually walked in evil ways, leaving their books unopened. And his anxious thought took this form:
What profits the begetting of a son,
So he be neither good nor wise? With sightless eyeballs what is to be done!
They ache and yet they are not eyes. Choose rather that your son be never born,
Or that he die, than that he foolish be; O'er unborn and o'er dead we grieve forlorn.
Yet only once, not thus incessantly.
16
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
Besides :
Though all alike, as birth succeeds to birth, Enter anew upon this life on earth,
Yet only he is born indeed, whose house Gains new distinction from his sterling worth.
Then, too:
Better one son whose virtue is his boast
Than hundreils, foolish grown: The darkness that defies the starry host,
Yields to the moon alone. Then let his parents be — I care not who, The man of high-strung virtue meets his due; Although the stock be made of choice bamboo, A bow without a string— what can it do? Alas, my foolish, foolish boy. Whose nights are spent in thoughtless joy, Among the wise as ill you stand, As some poor cow in boggy land.
How, then, is virtue to be brought home to ray sons? Men say, it is true :
What shall not be, will never be;
What shall be, must be so: This tonic slays anxiety;
Taste it, and end your woe.
Yet this is nothing but the idle talk of men impotent to
any good.
Trust not to fate for that which is to be. But work yourself for that which is to be; For who would hope for oil of sesame. Except he press the seeds of sesame?
Remember :
Fortune loves men, not feeble folk and frail; "Fate, fate is all," let cowards and boobies wail:
Therefore be strong and show thyself a man; What fault is thine, if the endeavor fail? For fate — if man his duty shuns —
Though working for our weal. Is helpless as a car that runs
Upon a single wheel.
FABLES FROM THE EITOPADEQA 17
Furthermore :
The deeds of former lives, they say,
Determine this life's fate; Then show thyself a man today.
In toil insatiate. Success the strenuous will reap,
And not your pensive sinner; For when the lion fell asleep.
He had no deer for dinner. The fool himself among the wise may shine A little moment, if his dress be fine; But For just one moment, while his mouth is shut.
When the king had thus thought the matter through, he summoned his pandits in council, and said: "Gentle- men scholars, pray listen to me. My sons neglect their lessons and continually walk in evil ways. Is there among you one so wise that he can teach them their moral and social duties and thus regenerate them? For
A bit of glass, if fitly set in gold.
Shines like an emerald to our dazzled eyes; And thus, consorting with good men and wise,
Fools multiply their wisdom many fold.
And what says the proverb ?
If you consort with evil men, my son,
Your mind grows evil too; From common folk, but common wisdom's won;
True wisdom from the few."
Now there was present a learned pandit named Vishnu- carman, and, like Brihaspati himself, he knew the quintes- sence of every work on social ethics. And he said to the king: "Your majesty, these princes are born in a noble family ; therefore I can teach them their social and moral duties. It is true, to be sure, that
A good-for-nothing creature gains no whit From all the pains that you may take with it; A hundred trials to make a heron speak As parrots do, are vain; to him 'tis Greek.
18 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA CHRONICLE
But on the other hand :
No child born to this royal line
His life will waste: How can you, in a ruby mine,
Find jewels of pastel
In six months' time, then, I will aeiiuaint your sons with their moral and social duties." And the king courteously replied :
The worm that nestles in a flowor Upon the good may rest in state; The stone that great men consecrate Wins to itself a godlike power.
You are therefore entrusted witli the instruction of these sons of mine." With these words he respectfully com- mitted his sons to the care of Vishnurarman. So the i)rinces seated themselves comfortably on the palace balcony, the pandit seated himself before them, and said iiy way of introduction :
"Science and poetry suffice
To fill with joy the wise man's day;
But fools will fritter time away In sleep, in brawling, or in vice.
For your delectation, then, 1 will tell the charming story about the crow, the turtle, and others." "Speak, sir," said the princes, and Vishnugarman began his relation.
THE CAT AND THE VULTURE
On the bank of the Ganges is a mountain called Vulture Peak, and on this mountain there grew a great fig tree. In a hole in this tree lived a vulture whom an unkindly destiny had blinded, and his name was Old-bull. Now the other birds who lived in the tree took pity on the vulture, and each of them gave him a little of his own food to eat. And so he contrived to live.
FABLES FBOM TEE EITOPADEQA 19
Now one day a cat named Long-ear came to the tree to eat the young birds. When the young birds saw him coming they began to screech with terror, so that Old-bull heard them, and called out, "Who goes there?" When Long-ear perceived the vulture he was very much fright- ened, and said: "Ah! This is the end of me. I am so near him now that I cannot even escape. Well, let the inevitable happen. I will go up to him anyway." So he approached and said, ' ' I salute you, sir. " " Who are you ? ' ' said the vulture. "I am a cat," was the reply. "Then go away as far as you can," said the vulture, "or else I shall have to kill you." But the eat answered: "I pray you, listen to my words. Then if I deserve to perish, I perish.
Why should a man be honored or be slain Because of social station, low or high?
Eegard his life; if that be free from stain. Then honor him; if not, then let him die."
"Speak freely," said the vulture; "what is your de- sire ? " "I dwell here on the bank of the Ganges, ' ' replied the cat, "until I shall have observed the lunar fast. My ceremonial bath I take daily, I eat no flesh, and I lead the life of a celibate. Now the birds are surely worthy of all confidence, and they are continuallj^ singing your praises before me, and declaring you to be a devoted student of sacred scripture. Therefore am I come hither, to hear the holy law from one who has grown old in wisdom and in years. Can you search the scriptures and then endeavor to kill a guest ? It is they that testify to the duty of a house- holder.
Sweet hospitality is to be paid
Even to him with whom you stand in strife:
The tree does not withhold her welcome shade Even from him who comes to take her life.
And if there is no food in the house, the guest should be honored with words of friendship at least. As the saying is :
20 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHUONICLE
A mat of straw upon the floor,
Water, aud kindly words as well; These things at least, if nothing more,
Are always found where good men dwell.
And again:
A gentle welcome mild
Should comfort and should bless Youth, aged man, or child.
Whose feet your threshold press.
Further :
The good man over sinners grieves;
No crimes his heart of mercy shut: The moon semis light in brilliant sheaves
Into the hangman's squalid hut.
And again :
A guest, if haunted by his dea<l hope's ghost,
Because he did not kindly welcome find, Bears from the house the merits of his host,
And leaves his own long roll of sins behin<l.
And yet again :
The basest man in all the meanest caste,
Who comes a guest, should meet with honor due ;
For paying honor to this man, thou hast Paid honor to each god in heaven, too."
"But cats are fond of fresh meat," said the vulture, "and young birds live here. That is why I spoke as I did." But when the cat heard this, he touched the earth, then touched his ears, and said: "I have studied theology; passion is dead within me; I have taken upon myself this cruel fast. Now theological writings differ on many points, but in this they are all agreed: that the supreme duty is the observance of the Golden Rule. Thus :
The man who will not hurt a living thing, Who patiently endures, when insults come.
To whom all creatures for protection cling, That man is very near his heavenly home.
FABLES FROM TEE EITOFADEQA 21
And again :
Our virtue is the only friend
That follows us in death; All other ties and friendships end
With our departing breath.
Then furthermore :
Whenever whoever eats any one's flesh,
Just see what a difference severs the twain;
The joy in the heart of the one remains fresh For a very short time; and the other is slain.
And another text says:
Remembering the bitter woe
That conies through death to man, Have pity on your fallen foe,
And spare him, if you can.
And finally :
Your way into the forest take;
Delicious fruits grow wild therein; Then, for the wretched belly's sake.
What man could stoop to grievous sin?"
Thus the cat won the confidence of the vulture and made his home in the hole in the tree. Then, as time passed, he fell upon a few of the young birds every day, carried them off to his hole and ate them. And the parent birds, lamenting piteously the loss of their chicks, instituted a thorough investigation. When the cat became aware of this, he slipped out of his hole and escaped. After long searching the birds at last discovered the bones of their chicks there in the hole in the tree. And they immediately made up their minds that the vulture had eaten their children. They therefore fell upon him in a body and killed him. And that is the reason why I said :
. You should not share your house with any guest Whose kin and character you do not know: Old-bull, the poor, blind vulture, shared his nest With one weak cat; and thence came all his woe.
22 UNIFEESITY OF CALIFORNIA CURONICLE
THE BLUE JACKAL
There was once a jackal, and while he was wandering about near a city he fell into an indigo vat and could not get out. So, when morning came, he pretended to be dead, and waited. And the owner of the vat took him out, car- ried him away, and left him. Now when he came to the forest and saw that lie was blue, he thought : "Now I have the royal color. Why should I not make the most of it?" So he called the jackals together and said: "The blessed goddess of the wood took the sap of every plant that grows and with her own hand anointed me king over the forest. Behold my color! Beginning with today therefore, the conduct of all creatures in this forest is to be regulated by my command." Now when the jackals saw that he was indeed clothed in the color of royalty, tlu*y fell to the earth before him, and said: "0 king, live forever!" Thus was his government established over all the creatures that lived in the forest. But when he found that lie had a most noble retinue of lions, tigers, and so forth, he was ashamed when he saw the jackals, and he despised and sent away his own relatives. But one old jackal saw that his people were in despair about the matter, and he made this statement: "Do not despair. We know the weak point in this insolent fellow, and if he treats us with such contempt, why then I shall have to take steps to destroy him. Those tigers and things are simply fooled by his color, and do not know that he is a jackal. Since they take him for a king, you must show him up in his true colors. You must do just as I say. In the twilight you must all gather about him and howl simultaneously as loud as you can, and when he hears that, he will have to howl tooj he can't help himself. For you know
Your nature is a thing you cannot beat;
It is your guide in everything you do; Give a dog all the meat that he can eat,
You can't prevent his gnawing at a shoe.
FABLES FROM THE EITOPABEQA 23
Then some tiger will recognize his howl, and will be sure to kill him. ' ' And when the jackals had done so, the thing happened. As the proverb says :
A foe who knows you well, and all your ways. Your weakness and your strength alike will see;
He ruins you as surely as the blaze Secretly burning in a dried-up tree.
And that is the reason why I said :
The foolish deserter is slain by his foe: The indigo jackal was killed, as you know.
THE TWO GANDEES AND THE TUETLE
In Magadha-land there is a pond named Lotus-blossom. And there were two ganders that had lived there a long time, and their names were Slender and Monster. And with them lived their friend, a turtle named Shell-neck. Now one day some fishermen came there and said: "We must spend the night here, and in the morning we must kill the turtles and fishes and things. ' ' When the turtle heard this, he said to the ganders : ' ' My friends, we have heard what the fishermen said. What am I to do now?" "First, let us learn the facts, ' ' said the ganders, ' ' and then do what is proper." But the turtle said: "No! no! For I see dis- aster ahead. There is a proverb that says:
While Fatalist met with his death, poor waif! Forethought and Eeadywit made themselves safe."
"How was that?" said the two, and the turtle told this story.
Once upon a time fishermen just like these came to this very pond, and three fishes took counsel with themselves. Now one of these fishes was named Forethought. And he said, "I will go to another pond right away." And he went. But the second fish, whose name was Readywit, said : "The matter is all in the future, and I have nothing to ■judge by. So where should I go? When the time comes [ will do what seems best." But Fatalist said:
24 VNIVEKSITY OF CALIFOBNIA CHRONICLE
"What shall not be, will never be;
What shall be, must be so: This tonic slays anxiety;
Taste it, and end your woe."
Now in the morning Readywit was caught in the net, but he pretended to be dead, and waited. By and by, when he was taken out of the net, he jumped off the dry hind and found liimself in deep water. But Fatalist was caught by the fishermen and killed. And that is the reason why I said:
While Fatalist met with his death, jtoor waif!
Forethought and Readywit made themselves safe.
"And so we must today form some plan which will bring me to another pond." And the ganders answered: "If you once reach another pond you are safe, of course. But how can you go on dry land ?" Whereupon the turtle said : "We must invent some scheme by wliich I can go with you through the air." "But how is such a .scheme possiljle?" said the ganders, and the turtle answered: "You must hold a stick of wood in vour bills and let me take it in mv mouth and hang from it. And thus, with the help of your wings, I too shall reach a place of safety." "That is a scheme," said the gander.s, "but, on the other hand.
The good side of a given scheme is weighed By wise men, but the evil side as well:
The foolish heron saw, but could not aid
His chicks, when into mungoose mouths they fell."
"How was that?" asked the turtle, and the two told this story.
In the north country there is a mountain called Vulture Peak, and it stands near the bank of the Reva. In a banvan tree that grew there, lived certain herons. And in a hole at the foot of the tree lived a snake, who used to eat the chicks of the herons. Now there was one old heron who heard the piteous lament of the parent birds, and said: "My friends, I will tell you what to do. You must take
FABLES FBOM THE HITOPABEQA 25
some fishes and scatter them one by one in a long row, be- ginning with the hole where the mungooses live and ending with the hole where the snake lives. Then the mungooses will follow the track where the food lies and will see the snake, and then, because mungooses cannot help hating snakes, they will be sure to kill him. And when the herons had done so, the thing happened. But afterwards the mun- gooses heard the twittering of the young birds up in the tree. So they climbed up and ate every one. And that is the reason why we said, ' ' The good side of a given scheme, ' ' and the rest of it.
' ' Now when people see us carrying you they will be sure to say something. And if you listen and answer them, that will be the end of you. No! You must certainly stay here." But the turtle answered : "Am I a fool? I won't say a word." So the ganders did as the turtle had sug- gested, but while they were carrying him through the air all the cowherds who saw them ran after them and cried : "Here's a wonderful thing — birds carrying a turtle." "If the turtle falls off," said one, "we will cook him and eat him on the spot." "No," said the second, "we will take him home." And another said: "We wall cook him and eat him on the edge of the pond." When the turtle heard these unkind words he became angry, forgot the agreement, and said, "You can eat crow." But even as he spoke he fell from the stick and was killed by the cowherds. And that is the reason why I said :
The man who will not listen to his friend, That man is sure to meet a woeful end; The foolish turtle, falling from his stick, Was caught at once and eaten very quick.
THE BEAHMAjST IN THE POTTER'S SHED
In the city of Devikotta lived a Brahman whose name was Devacarman. And at the equinoctial feast he was given a dish full of barley meal. With this dish he went one night into a potter's shed which was well filled with pots, threw
26
VNIVEESITY OF CALIFOENIA CHEONICLE
himself on a couch in the corner, and thought: "If I can
sell this dish of barley meal for ten coppers, then at the
next equinoctial feast I can buy dishes and jars and things,
and multiply my capital many times by selling them. And
afterwards I can continue the business by trading in betel-
auts and garments and so forth, and thus make iiumy
millions. And then I shall marry four wives. Anil I will
show the most affection for tlie most beautiful of these wives.
Whereupon my other wives will be jealous and will begin
to quarrel. Then I shall be angiy and beat thase wives
with a club — so." With these words he stoocl up and threw
his club and smashed his dish of barley meal, and broke a
great many pots. But the potter heard the crash, came in,
and saw what had happened. So he scolded the Brahman
and threw him out of the shed. And that is the reason
wliy I said :
The man who pins his faith upon a thing In the tlini future, happy as a king, Invites a st-okling on his witless heail, Like the pot-smasher in the potter's shed.
THE BRAHMAN AND THE THREE ROGUES
Tn a village in the Gautama forest lived a Brahman who had begun a sacrifice. Now one day he went to another vil- lage, bought a goat for this sacrifice and started home with it on his shoulder. But tliree rogues saw him coming and said to one another: "It would be a glorious scheme if w^e could get that goat somehow or other and eat it." So they chose three trees that grew beside the long and lonely road which the Brahman had to take, and there they waited. And the first rogue said as the Brahman passed him : "Good Brahman, why are you carrying a dog on your shoulder?" "This is no dog," said the Brahman; "this is a goat for the sacrifice." Now the second rogue had planted himself about a mile farther on, and he said pre- cisely the same thing. This time the Brahman set the goat
FABLES FEOM THE HITOPADEQA 27
on the ground, examined it again and again, then put it back on his shoulder and went on — but his mind was ill at ease. Soon after the third rogue said as the Brahman passed him : ' ' Good Brahman, why should you carry a dog on your shoulder ? " " This certainly must be a dog, ' ' said the Brahman to himself, left the goat behind him, took a bath, and went home. But the rogues carried off the goat and ate it. And that is the reason why I said :
The man who judges others by himself.
Thinking, "All men are honest as are we,"
Will be deceived, like that poor luckless elf. Whose goat was stolen by the knavish three.
THE HEEON, THE FISHES, AND THE CRAB
In the country of Malwa, near Lotus Pond, lived a heron who had grown old and feeble. He therefore pretended to be utterly depressed, and awaited developments. "Why do you fast, sir ? " asked a crab, without coming too near. "I live on fish," replied the heron, "and the fish in this pond are certainly going to be killed by fishermen; for I overheard the deliberations when I was near the city. From now on I shall have nothing to eat, and so I am as good as dead already. Consequently I have grown careless even about my food." When all the fishes heard this they thought : "In this particular case he actually seems to be our benefactor. Suppose we ask him what we are to do. For the proverb says :
Make peace with him who calls himself your foe,
But proves himself your friend, Eather than with the friend who brings you woe,
Your foeman in the end. How do you know a friend f His acts to kindness tend: How can you tell a foe? His actions hurt you so.
So the fishes said : ' ' Good friend, what shall we do to be saved?" "Another pond," said the heron, "would be
28 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
your salvation. I will take you there one by one." And the fishes were so frightened that they consented. And that rogue of a heron took the fishes one by one to a certain spot and ate them up, and then he came back and said : "They are in another pond, thanks to me." Tlien the crab said to him: "My friend, take me there too." Now the heron was anxious for some crab meat, which is so delicious ; he therefore picked up the crab with the greatest respect and carried him to the dry land. l>ut the crab saw tlmt the ground was covered with the skeletons of fishes, and he thought: "Dear me! This is the end of me, poor crab that I am. But at least I will act as the occasion demands. There is a saying:
Fear fearful things, while yet
No fearful thing appears; When dangers must be met,
Strike, and forget your fears.
And again:
When all his safety lies
In fighting, blow for blow, The wise man fights and dies.
And with him dies his foe."
So the crab nipped the heron's neck. And the heron died. And that is the reason why I said :
Though he had eaten many fishes,
The best, the worst, the middling too. The heron cherished further wishes,
Till the crab split his neck in two.
THE ASS IX THE TIGER SKIN
In Hastinapura there lived a washerman, and his name M^as Camphor-joy. Now an ass of his had grown feeble through excessive burden-bearing and seemed to be at the point of death. So the washerman clothed him in a tiger- skin and set him free in a cornfield near a wood. And
FABLES FEOM THE HITOPADEQA 29
when the owners of the field saw him from a distance they thought he was a tiger and ran as fast as they could. So he ate the corn in peace. But at last one of the farmers covered himself with a dust-colored blanket, made ready his bow and arrow, got down on all fours, stood one side, and waited. And the ass, who by this time had gro-wn fat, saw him a long way off, and thought, "There's a she- donkey. " So he began to bray and ran toward him. Then the farmer saw that he was an ass and killed him with ease. And that is the reason why I said :
So long as speech does not begin.
The fool himself may have his dayj
The ass, clad in his tiger-skin.
Was killed when he began to bray.
30 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
SCIENCE AS A VEHICLE OF EDUCATION
T. Bkailsford Robkrtsox
The tendency of the modern school of political thought is to attribute the majority of the great historical events which have attended the various phases of human devi'lop- ment to the operation of unseen underlying economic forces. The recognition of this fundamental truth represents a note- worthy advance towards the completer understanding of the factors underlying and determining the evolution of man and of human institutions, but, admitted that eco- nomic forces wholly or very largely determine the political evolution of mankind, the question still remains, to what in turn are we to attribute the incessant fluctuations of the ever-urging economic forces? It is not that one con- sistent economic pressure, incident everywhere and oper- ating in a definite direction, has continually urged man- kind towards some undeviating goal ; quite the contrary — the economic pressure upon mankind has been fluctuating, variable both in incidence and in direction, and not always advantageous in its immediate outcome.
Not infrequently attempts have been made to correlate these economic forces with geographical conditions, with the happy or unhappy conjunction, here or there, of river, plain and sea. But the ever changing aspects of political geography are not to be interpreted so easily. In relation to the brief life of man, the geographic contour of the earth is well nigh eternal and immutable. Setting aside, with-
FABLES FROM THE HITOPABEQA 31
out underrating their possible importance, the very few historical instances of decisive variation in geography and climate, such as the desiccation of central Asia and the extraordinarily rapid shrinkage of at least one great inland sea. Lake Tchad, it is evident that in the long run, were geographical contour and climate the sole factors under- lying and determining the incidence of economic forces, the political geography of the world would ere this have be- come as static as its physical geography, of which it would be the inevitable and deducible outcome. The ceaseless ferment of international politics, never more turbulent than now, would then remain utterly inexplicable.
To find any analogy corresponding to the bewildering intricacy and rapid fluctuations of political history and geography we must turn to the inward workings of the human mind, of which economic forces are in ultimate analysis merely the outcome and expression, deviated or constrained but not created by the geographical, climatic or biological environment in which they find their outlet. Behind the economic forces which have fashioned human destiny we must seek again the more potent forces of human energy, curiosity and inventiveness.
It is related that when recently the untutored savages of a certain region of East Africa first saw an aeroplane hovering over their heads they worshiped it as a god, or the expression of a god-like power. A group of American high-school or university students would have regarded that same aeroplane with mild curiosity or supercilious indif- ference, so greatly has education, or what passes for edu- cation, blinded our eyes to underlying verities, to truths which are patent to the savage ! For, if we regard it aright, every automobile, every passing electric street-car, every ray of light we cast into the darkness with the touch of a finger, is a miracle and a monument to the creative intellect of man.
It is these things and such as these that determine the economic forces which fashion the history of man. The
32 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA CHRONICLE
discovery of America was not an accident ; it was the out- come of measurement and invention, directed by an in- spired curiosity regarding the structure of the Universe. The discovery of the steam engine was not an accident ; it was the outcome of countless patient investigations inspired by no thought of ulterior gain. Electricity was not har- nessed by financiers, but by the monumental intellectual labors of Oersted, Ampere, and Faraday. Tliese things did not happen by chance ; they did not, like Athena, spring full-armed from the brain of Zeus; they did not rain down upon earth from heaven, nor have they always been. They were not fashioned in the market-place, nor yet achieved by sporadic Hashes of prophetic inspiration. They are the expressions of the creative intellect of man operating under a certain discipline of thought, inspired by the one undevi- ating desire to understand and by understanding to control the environment in which we have our bt*ing.
Essentially the same discipline of thought and essen- tially analogous expansions of economic opportunity have been operative and determinative forces at all stages of man's development. The foreshortening of our remote past, due to its relatively immense distance from our own lives and the accelerated evolution of our own day, tends to render us forgetful of the obscure struggles and achieve- ments of our ancestors. Yet the peoples from whom we sprang did not lack their Faradays or Pasteurs, upon whose accumulated labors they fashioned new civilizations and rose to greater and ever greater mastery over the inanimate, brute forces to which our yet remoter forbears paid the homage inspired by fear. This is the primary impelling force which fashions the fluctuating yet ever progressing evolution of man, the force of creative human intellect, perchance inspired, yet inspired not without preparatory labor, for, in the words of Pasteur, "Chance favors only the prepared mind."
If the woof of the fabric of history is economic, the warp is supplied by the creative curiosity of man, operating
SCIENCE AS A VEHICLE OF EDUCATION 33
under the discipline of thought which we now call "scien- tific" and culminating in discoveries and inventions.
It is strange how little suspicion of these facts enters into the minds of the typical products of modern scientific pedagogy, the vast number of students who in our day patiently submit themselves for years to the exacting dis- cipline of scientific training in order that they may apply it hereafter to the solution of the immediate practical or theoretical problems of their time. The more prolonged and extensive their training, the more intensely specialized their interests become, until the material and spiritual wel- fare of the vast human family, which alone confers mean- ing and dignity upon their task, becomes a matter of utter indifference in comparison with the identification of a dia- tom or the measurement of the angle of a crystal.
There can be little question that as pedagogues and expositors, with a few brilliant exceptions, scientific scholars and investigators have failed and that in a manner and to a degree most disastrous to the welfare of their chosen field of intellectual endeavor. Notwithstanding several decades of widespread training in scientific method and the scien- tific discipline of thought, and notwithstanding, also, the multitude of technically skilled and professionally trained men who have issued from our laboratories, there is as yet little or no sympathy or understanding displayed by the public, or even by our own pupils, with the larger problems and broader aspects of science. The reason is not far to seek ; deficient sympathy and insight have propagated their like and we are merely reaping that which we have sown. We have taught our pupils to regard science as an arid inhuman outgrowth of pure intellectualism, useful per- chance, but not endearing, interesting perchance as chess is interesting, but never touching the deeper problems and broader aspirations of mankind save to wither our illusions and proffer the material bait of utility in their stead. Our discipline of thought has taught us to shun hasty general- ization, but we have taught our pupils never to generalize
34 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
at all, and in teaching them to contemplate and to conquer the difficulties that lie at hand we have deprived them of the exalted vision of the ultimate goals towards which our labors are directed. Thus have we earned, and most richly deserved, the indifference or the veritable hostility of the public, and, crowning absurdity of all, the sciences are everywhere proclaimed antagonistic to the "humanities."
How gross is the caricature of our ideals and our func- tions which we have implanted in the minds of our con- temporaries may be gathered from the words of the great founders of the scientific school of thought. Witness the exalted vision of their labors embodied in the utterances of three great physicists, representatives of three di.stinct epochs of scientific thought : " I do not know what I may appear to the world," said Newton, "but to my.self I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself now and then in finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, while the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." "The laws of nature," said Oersted, "are the thoughts of God," or, in the words of a master of our own day, J. J. Thom.son, "As we conquer peak after peak, we see in front of us regions full of interest and beauty, but we do not see our goal, we do not see the horizon ; in the distance tower still higher peaks, which will yield to those who ascend them still wider prospects, and deepen the feeling, the truth of which is emphasized by every advance in Science, that 'Great are the works of the Lord. ' " Or in regard to the function of science towards the welfare of humanity, compare the prophetic utterances of Harvey: "We can never want matter for new experiments. We are as yet got little further than to the surface of things ; we must be content, in this our infant state of knowledge, while we know in part only, to imitate children, who, for want of better skill and abilities and of more proper materials, amuse them- selves with slight buildings. The further advances we make in the knowledge of nature the more probable and the
SCIENCE AS A VEHICLE OF EDUCATION 35
nearer to truth will our conjectures approach ; so that suc- ceeding generations, who shall have the benefit and advan- tage both of their own observations and those of preceding generations may then make considerable advances, 'when many shall run to and fro and knowledge shall be in- creased,' " with the words of Pasteur, written two hun- dred and fifty years later: "Science is in our age the soul of the prosperity of nations and the living source of all progress. Without doubt the politician with his tedious and perpetual discussions seems to be our guide. Vain illusion! That which leads us is scientific discovery and its applications." And yet the material welfare of man is not the chief justification of science, for, in the words of the same master, ' ' The cultivation of the sciences in their highest expression is perhaps more necessary to the moral welfare of a nation than to its material prosperity."
In these utterances we read, not the cheap hope of material gain nor the paltry personal triumph of the clever solver of an intricate intellectual puzzle, but a sense of ' ' Something far more deeply interfused, ' ' an expression of the awe and abiding wonder which the contemplation of our universe compels, and a deep conviction of the vast underlying import of natural law in the welfare and aspir- ations of mankind. Why, then, do we so diligently wrap up these aspirations and convictions in formulae and con- ceal them under the cloak of a pedantic affectation of hyper- critical exactitude? There is a grandeur in science, wide as the Universe itself. There is a human import of science, embracing the material and social welfare of the totality of mankind. Would it not then be well to convey some suspicion of these facts to our pupils ?
We have succeeded after many years of conflict with educational authorities in introducing scientific studies into the curriculum of schools, but what have we accomplished thereby ? Through the agency of the compulsory dissection of flowers, the unalleviated algebra of statics or the uncer- tain pursuit of the elusive elements of a chemical "un-
36 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LHllONICLE
known" we have given rise to a rooted aversion to science in the minds of many and have attracted a few to the pursuit of science for the sake of material gain, but in how many minds have we implanted the idea of the intrinsic grandeur or the essential ultimate value of their scientific studies? The spectre of specialism has pursued us. ''Science" must be chemistry, physics, geology, botany — anything rather than the study of the dependency of hu- man welfare upon our capacity to control our environment, and the contemplation of the majestic spectacle of the order of nature gradually unfolding itself to man's consciousness and placing in his hand the implements of ever augment- ing power to control his destinies and attain that ultimate comprehension of the universe which has in all ages con- stituted the supreme aspiration of man. Had we offered this, had we employed scientific education rather than scientific training as the introductory chapter of the book of scientific knowledge, then all the educated civilized inhab- itants of the world today would look to science for hope and inspiration, and we would hear no more of the conflict be- tween science and the "humanities," for science would be recognized in its true light, as the first and greatest of the "humanities."
In the universities, even more than in the schools, special- ization has sacrificed education to the exigencies of training. Every opportunity is offered to the student of becoming an expert in the technique and a master of the details of any of the sciences, but on their relation.ship to the larger needs and aspirations of the world our instructors are silent. This silence arises only too often out of indifference, but where indifference does not prevail then an oversensitive defer- ence to professional eticpiette no less effectually imposes silence upon the professional teacher of science. The de- sire not to trespass upon the technical field of a colleague and the desire to avoid the criticism of colleagues which may be aroused by the appearance of over-generalization inhibits in almost every instance any deliberate attempt to
SCIENCE AS A VEHICLE OF EDUCATION 37
open up before the student the deeper foundations and wider implications of the scientific discipline of thought.
As the demands for "vocational training" become more insistent and more complex, this condition becomes more and more aggravated, so that unless measures be deliber- ately taken to check the prevailing tendencies we may antic- ipate, alongside the continual improvement of technical training, the progressive deterioration of scientific education with accompanying decay of scientific philosophy and in- creasing misunderstanding of the purposes and misappli- cation of the products of scientific investigation.
Much may be done by the individual teacher ; still more might be accomplished by a deliberate campaign of popular- ization, by taking the public into our confidence regarding our wider aims and the part played by investigation and discovery in the life and destiny of man. But there is one desirable measure which should be taken by the universities as the official leaders of educational reform, namely, the recognition of the study of the historical development of science in its relationship to human welfare and the evo- lution of human institutions, as a legitimate department of the many-sided curriculum which the modern universities offer to the student-public. It will be admitted, I think, that scientific investigation, discovery and invention have played at least as great a part as war, literature or com- merce in the evolution of civilization and, that being the case, it is nothing less than astounding that while ample facilities are offered by our universities to the student of the history of war, literature or commerce, no facilities and no academic recognition whatever are offered to the student of the history of science.
It is perhaps a debatable question whether this end could best be obtained by the foundation of a new department and a separate chair or lectureship in the history of science, or whether the situation could preferably be met by the co-ordinated effort of existing departments. However this may be, one thing is certain, that the present atomistic
38 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
condition of scientific learning in the minds of our students and the restricted utilitarianism of their outlook will not be corrected by offering them a "course in general science," consisting of a melange of ill-assorted fragments of scien- tific specialities and necessarily failing to furnish either a vehicle of training or a vehicle of education ; nor will it be corrected by offering them courses in another specialty, courses in the history of science in which that history is violently detached from the history of the dt'Vt'lopment of man and of the evolution of his institutions, from the study of the part played by knowledge in determining the re- action of the mind of man to the varying circumstances by which from epoch to epoch he has successively found him- self environed ; for the new course must above all things be one of the "humanities."
JOSIAH EOYCE 39
JOSIAH ROYCE: INTERPRETER OF AMERICAN
PROBLEMS*
J. LOEWENBERG
The nation has lost in Josiah Royce its ideal interpreter and spiritual guide. It is the fashion to regard William James as America's typical philosopher, whereas Royce is credited with having fostered in this country the philo- sophic traditions of Germany. No one, be his knowledge of the Roycean philosophy ever so superficial, will dispute the influence upon it of German speculative thought. Royce himself never forgot the debt he owed to Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer. But this influence has frequently been over- estimated. "The philosopher," Royce insisted, "must not be an echo. He must interpret." And Roj^ce was above all independent and individual. What he said of James surely applies to himself: "He has thought for himself, fruitfully, with true independence, and with successful in- ventiveness."^ The purpose of this sketch is not to deny the importance of Royce 's philosophic antecedents. There is no thinker without antecedents. Philosophy can never be the product of single individuals. The search for "influences" and ' ' origins, ' ' however, may be safely left to the scholiast.
[* Doctor Loewenberg, a pupil of Professor Eoyce, has written this article at the request of the editor of the Chronicle. It deals with a part of Professor Eoyce 's activity perhaps not so familiar to us as his other achievements, but nevertheless of much interest to Americans in general and Californians in particular. — Ed.]
1 William James and Other Essays, New York, 1912, p, 7.
40 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA CEHOSICLE
He may make naught of the originality of every great genius. It is not difficult, for instance, to discover traces of Aristotle in Plato, germs of Plato in Socrates, and so on back to Thalc's. The boundaries of originality are not easily defined. Whatever be the requirements for original genius, it would be difficult not to grant them to Royce. But this is not our topic. What this paper seeks to suggest is that he was no spokesuuin for German i)hilosophy of a bygone generation. He was a thinker truly representative of his age and nation. His occasional writings alone mark him as America's national philosopher in a more precise sense than was William James.
Royce 's constant interest in the needs and problems of the American people suffices to clmracterize him as "national." Not that his nationalism ever assumed the vulgar and aggressive form of "America First." The nation for Royce derives its very meatiing from super- national ideals and values. America for him was no inde- pendent region. Her geographical and spiritual isolation was not the source of his patriotism. He loved America because lier national life had for him an ideal mission. The greatness of any nation can be estimated only in terms of its contribution to the world's civilization. Because Royce felt that this country was in danger of losing sight of its great mission, he incessantly occupied himself with its ideal needs and problems.
Very few thinkers ever have with Royce 's passion and persistence so completely fused their technical interests with the problems of their country. The only historical parallel to Royce appears to be Plato. The well-known observation of James that "when you entered a philosophic cla.ssroom you had to open relations with a universe entirely distinct from the one you left behind you in the street"^ applies to any one but Royce. No one felt and voiced more keenly than he the further assertion of James that "the world of concrete personal experiences to which the street belongs
2 Pragmatism, New York 1914, p. 21.
JO SI AM BOYCE 41
is multitudinous beyond imagination, tangled, muddy, pain- ful, and perplexed."^ The problems of the street lured him continually away from the classroom; they beckoned to him and challenged his deep sympathies. For him ' ' classroom ' ' and ' ' street ' ' never could be wholly sundered ; theory and practice admitted of no complete divorce. From the outset of his philosophic career until its very end the American people had in Royce — the speculative thinker — the interpreter of its practical problems. As a Californian he early evinced a profound interest in the affairs of his state. The two books dealing with California — California from the Conquest in 1846 to the Second Vigilance Com- mittee in San Francisco* and The Feud of Oakfield Creek: A Novel of California Life^ — are notable contributions to the history of American civilization.
Of his novel a few words must suffice. Upon its literary and artistic merit no judgment need here be passed. As a picture of California life it is invaluable. And it reveals a shrewd observation of the facts of the "street" — the world of "picks, pans, cradles, and vigilance committees" — a deep insight into the passions of man, and a fine appreciation of the moral trials of the early Californiaus. But it is the ethical purpose of the book which is most impressive. It was not Royce 's aim to experiment with human situations in accordance with the canons of realistic art. His main interest was to lay bare the waywardness of the heart, to analyze the paradoxes of conduct, and to suggest a moral ideal. How prophetic of his later doctrine of loyalty are the words put into the mouth of one of the characters :
The Great Spirit needs brave children. We are all of us poor specimens of what he's looking for. But alas! he can make us no better. For if it were he that made us better we should be worth nothing. We alone can give ourselves the bravery that he wants. And so, bad as we are, our game is his game, if we only stand up to it, and fight for our side. That's the whole story of life. The
3 Ibid.
4 Boston and New York, 1886.
5 Boston and New York, 1887.
42 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHEONICLE
man that demands more of life than that is a fool. . . . The world is the home of brave men, and the prison of cowards. That 's all I can see in it. Apart from that chance to be a brave fellow, in a good cause, and for one's friends, what is there, after all?«
The estimate of Royce's history of California is left to the professional historian. By those who are competent to judge, it is regarded as authoritative.^ His disclosure of some of the dark facts in California's history, now generally accepted, was pioneer work in a pioneer field. But here again it is the moral purpose which should be noted. The work is the work of a patriot aflame with passion for his duty. He himself puts it thus: "The .story is no happy one; but this book is written, not to extol our transient national glories, but to serve the true patriot's interest in a clear self-knowledge, and in the formation of sensible ideals of national greatness."" As "a study of American character," which is the sub-title of the book, undertaken to understand and to guide his people, it is one of Royce's great "national" achievements. It is perhaps the most passionate denunciation of the immoral slogan, "My coun- try right or wrong, my country." The deepest love for one's nation is after all the love which says:
I could not love thee, dear, so much Loved I not Honour more.
Such love was Royce's. And it is such love which urged him to say: "Our mission in the cause of liberty is to be accomplished through a steadfast devotion to the cultivation of our own inner life, and not by going abroad as mission- aries, as conquerors, or as marauders, among weaker peo- ples."" The dark hours of early California, with the sub- sequent moral and social tribulations, have for Royce a profoundly ethical significance. It is the moral philosopher
6 Op. cit., pp. 437-438.
7 See article on "California" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, eleventh edition.
8 California from the Conquest in 1846, etc., p. 49.
» California from the Conquest in 1846, etc., p. 1.56.
JOSIAH ROTCE 43
and the loyal citizen who witnesses in this historical process "the struggle of society to impress the true dignity and majesty of its claims on wayward and blind individuals. . . . This struggle is an old one, and old societies do not avoid it; for every man without exception is born to the illusion that the moral world is his oyster."^" To escape from this illusion there is but one way. It is the way which Royce then and later regarded as leading out of moral chaos. Moral salvation lies in the direction of loyalty to the social order, in "reverence for the relations of life." This is the lesson which the history of California taught Royce. With remarkable lucidity his later doctrine of the Community is already here formulated. The closing words of the book are too significant not to be quoted in full :
After all, however, our lesson is an old and simple one. It is the State, the Social Order, that is divine. We are all but dust, save as this social order gives us life. When we think it our instru- ment, our plaything, and make our private fortunes the one object, then this social order rapidly becomes vile to us; we call it sordid, degraded, corrupt, unspiritual, and ask how we may escape from it forever. But if we turn again and serve the social order, and not merely ourselves, we soon find that what we are serving is simply our own highest spiritual destiny in bodily form. It is never truly sordid or corrupt or unspiritual; it is only we that are so when we neglect our duty.n
Royce 's interest in California was deep and enduring. With him it was a favorite subject to which he would often return. It is not necessary to name all his articles on this topic. But the paper on "An Episode of Early California Life: The Sqviatter Riot of 1850 in Sacramento "^^ should be mentioned as showing his appreciation even of the local history of his state. And yet it is characteristic that this affair is not merely local for him, but is viewed as "an example of the way in which the solution of the most
10 California from the Conquest in 1846, etc., p. 273.
11 California from the Conquest in 1846, etc., p. 501.
12 In Studies of Good and Evil, New York, 1898, pp. 289-348.
44 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
practical problems of the daily life of a community may involve the ultimate issues of an idealistic i)hilosophy. " Another paper, ' ' The Pacific Coast : A Psychological Study of the Relations of Climate and Civilization"*^ cannot here be ignored, because of its significant analysis of the Cali- fornia temperament. It is doubtful whether California ever had or ever will have an interpreter more acute and more objective than Royce. The shrewdness of his obser- vations may be appreciated from the remark that "in party polities California proves to be an extremely doubtful state. Party ties are not close. The vote changes from election to election. The independent voter is well in place." Witli the recent presidential election still fresh in our memory, these words acquire a peculiar impres- siveness.
The problems of California, however, were not the only American problems for which Royce felt a genuine concern. Whatever was significant in the life of the nation elicited his sympathetic interest. He conceived it his duty to shed what light he could upon important national issues. The negro question in the South, for example, challenged his attention. The paper "Race Questions and Prejudices"** embodies his humane effort to solve that problem. It grew out of his frequent travels to the West Indies. He was struck by the absence of our Southern race-question in the British West Indies, Jamaica, and Trinidad, which islands he often visited, not as passing tourist but as student of social problems. And it is the patriot who asked : ' * How can the white man and the negro, once forced, as they are in our South, to live side by side, best learn to live with a minimum of friction, with a maximum of co-operation?" His studies in the West Indies, based upon personal ob- servation, perusal of their official and historical literature, and consultation wnth their various authorities, suggested to him a solution of the negro question. He viewed that
13 In Race Questions and Other American Problems, New York, 1908, pp. 169-225.
JO SI AH HOYCE 45
question as essentially an administrative one which the South must learn to solve in the way in which it has effec- tually been solved in the West Indies. In his own words:
The Southern race problem will never be relieved by speech or by practices such as increase irritation. It will be relieved when administration grows sufficiently effective, and when the negroes themselves get an increasingly responsible part in this adminis- tration in so far as it relates to their own race. That may seem a wild scheme. But I insist: It is the English way. Look at Jamaica, and learn how to protect your own homes.
Royce's further counsel in dealing with backward and inferior peoples is shrewd and humane and practical. Thus:
Be my superior, quietly, simply showing your superiority in your deeds, and very likely I shall love you for the very fact of your superiority. For we all love our leaders. But tell me that I am your inferior, and then perhaps I may grow boyish, and m^ay throw stones. Well, it is so with races. Grant then that yours is the superior race. Then you can afford to say little about that subject in your public dealilags with the backward race. Superiority is best shown by good deeds and by few boasts.
Of the other American problems with which Royce dealt no account need be given. The titles of some of his contributions to the study of American civilization must suffice. They are : ' ' Present Ideals of American Univer- sity Life";^^ "Provincialism";^*^ "On Certain Limitations of the Thoughtful Public in America" ;^^ "Some Relations of Phj^sical Training to the Present Problems of Moral Education in America" ;^^ "Some American Problems in Their Relation to Loyalty";" "The American College and Life " ;-° " The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement
14 In Bace Questions and Other American Problems, New York, 1908, pp. 3-53.
15 In Scribner's Magazine, vol. 10, 1891, pp. 346-388.
16 In Bace Questions and Other American Problems, New York, 1908, pp. 55-108.
17 Ibid., pp. 109-165.
18 Ibid., pp. 227-287.
19 In Philosophy of Loyalty, New York, 1908, pp. 199-248.
20 In Science, n. s., vol. 29, 1909, pp. 401-407.
46 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA CHRONICLE
of Teaching and the Case of :MiddIebiiry College."-^ These titles speak for themselves. They show Royce 's wide range of interest in public questions. Along with his numerous theoretical and academic researches and activities he inde- fatigably devoted his labors to the practical atfairs of his country.
But his last and most loyal and mo.st memorable service to the nation came during the European war. The war found him in California, lecturing at the Summer Session of the State University. lie was at the same time pre- paring the twenty-fifth annual address before tlie Philo- sophical Union. It was characteri.stic of liim that he should have abandoned a lecture already planneil in onler to apply his philosophic theory to the new problems which the war brouglit to his mind. The outcome was his War and In- surance." Important as is its central idea, that "the cause of the world's peace would be aided if in future the prin- ciple of insurance were gradually and progressively intro- duced into international business," no more than mere mention can be made of it here. It has far-reaching possi- bilities. It is immen.sely practical. And it has a likelihood of being some day applied. Original and practical as is this contribution to the war literature, the essays and ad- dresses now published under the title The Hope of the Great Community-^ will be considered Royce 's most precious gift to a perplexed nation. Concerning one of these — the now famous address on "The Duties of Americans in the Pres- ent War" — it has been truly said that "many will feel that he reached the climax of his greatness when, at Tremont Temple on January 30, 1916, he became the inspired vehicle of righteous indignation. His remarkable address ... at once made Royce a great public figure."-* It would indeed
21 In School and Society, vol. 1, 1915, pp. 145-150.
22 New York, 1914.
23 New York, 1916.
2* Minute on the "Life and Services of Professor Josiah Royce," printed in Harvard University Gazette (November 11, 1916).
JOSIAH ROYCE 47
be vain to convey in words other than his the moral passion of that address and of the other writings of his upon the war; they will long be remembered as the sublimest ex- pression of the American conscience. With the rousing voice of a prophet he spoke : " It is as impossible for any reasonable man to be in his heart and mind neutral as it was for the good cherubs in heaven to remain neutral when they first looked out from their rosy glowing clouds and saw the angels fall. Neutral, in heart or in mind, the duti- ful American . . . will not and cannot be. He must take sides. "-^ And with the inspiration and pathos of the ethical leader he told his nation : ' ' Our duty is to be and to remain the outspoken moral opponents of the present German policy, and of the German State, so long as it holds this present policy, and carries on its present war."-'' In the hour of grave moral perplexity it is the mission of the philosopher to render articulate the vague thoughts and feelings of the multitudes. Here once more Royce is found in the role of the interpreter and spiritual guide of his nation. His last deed was the deed of noble service. The volume of war essays he left behind him is a glowing and enduring tribute to his steadfast devotion and passionate love for the community. "It is the last memorial of him- self which his own hands fashioned and his own heart quickened."-^
The occasional writings of Royce, of which some indica- tion has now been given, alone suffice to secure his position in American civilization. They represent him as the inter- preter of the tendencies, needs, and problems of his age, as the ideal teacher of his people. If he had done no more his nation would owe him much. But he has left in addition many volumes of technical philosophy which will always remain the pride and the glory of original American schol- arship.
25 The Hope of the Great Community, p. 11.
20 Ibid., p. 10.
27 Harvard University Gazette, op. cit.
48 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
IN MEMORIAM: R. B.
Now, in the terrible time of our disasters,
When the great spirits falter that were proud,
It is good to turn again unto our masters,
Whose eyes are luminous, kindly and uncowed:
To Chaucer, whose voice against all time is lifted That more triumphal centuries may know
To what a haven on what tide men drifted In the strong ebb and flood of long ago;
To Shakespeare, rich with grief and rich with mirth, Deciphering the soul's hard palimpsest,
Firm in high heaven, firm upon the earth.
Plucking forth the world's secret from a jest;
To Milton, whom the Cherub Contemplation Visited in the blindness of the night.
Rending the darkness with a revelation
Too great to be endured of feebler sight;
And those who living in this time may be For this time only or for all time great —
I know not. Yet they have ministered to me
Greatly. Therefore their names are consecrate.
Such is that friend who cast the world away, And chose the road to empire o'er the soul,
Spiritual conquest and the hard assay
That gives us reverence and self-control.
But O my master of the Sacred Song,
Who, standing at the crossways of my life,
Spake to me for an instant from the throng. Then passed into the waters of great strife;
IN MEMORIAM: E. B. 49
You from whose verse, as from reverberant wings,
Thunders a noble and a solemn sound. New numbers touching the true heart of things
Till the Promethean spirit is unbound;
You who could labor and fail, strive on and suffer,
Face the defeat, or put away the palm To seek a further conquest and a rougher.
Humanly brave, feigning no godlike calm.
But with the very passion that breaks me, broken. Relenting not, wearying not, and undeterred
You strove, and when the trumpets had outspoken Gave them such answer that the whole world heard.
They understood all of the mystery —
Ah, fortunate — to whom it is revealed. Dauntless their lives that put in jeopardy
Unto the death in the high place of the field.
The critics babble over what lies written.
They cant, discuss, and calculate and weigh. But an iron word into our souls has smitten:
They say ! They say ! What say they ? Let them say !
I will bow down in reverence and wonder.
I will not praise him. To praise is to defile So perfect courage. The black cannon thunder,
But he sleeps well in Scyros in the isle.
50 VNIFERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
SOME LOGICAL FACTORS L\ THE HISTORY OF
SCIENCE*
Texn'ey L. Davis
There seems no reason to doubt that primitive man was successful in his dealings with tilings that he could see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. Eciually there seems every reason to believe that his dealings with things not tangible to the sense were essentially unsatisfactory. His envii-onment was infested with gods and demigods, nymphs and satyrs, giiosts and ghouls, hobgoblins and elves.
Surely primitive man, when he saw a tree or rock day after day, must have acquired the habit of expecting to see it whenever he chose to look. Surely he must have made repeated generalizations from his experience; and, if he did not have science, it could not have been because he did not have inductions. Even lower in the stages of develop- ment, the monkey seems to have something which approxi- mates induction — for, at the zoo, he seems to know when one is going to feed him peanuts. The hand in the over- coat pocket is prohably one that will give him something to eat. The habit of making inductive generalizations is certainly much older than anything which deserves the name of science. The making of what we call "scientific laws" was familiar custom with the ancients; and if their
* This paper was read at Professor Josiah Eoyce 's seminary in methodology, March 7, 1916.
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 51
science was not successful, the blame is not to be laid to the lack of laM's.
Isaac Disraeli says: "Authors are the creators or crea- tures of opinion ; the great form an epoch, the many reflect their age." This is perhaps true of men in general. If, then, we find a great man using a certain mode of thinking, we may be sure that at no far distant period of time a large number wall be exercising the same manner; and, conversely, popular beliefs may be ascribed with justice to some definite, but frequently invisible, source. Where the great men are not to be found, the opinions and customs of the people are our legitimate data.
But fortunately the aphorisms of Hippocrates show us that he — and we know him to have been a creator of opinion — gave exact statement to a large number of scientific laws. Nearly all of the "aphorisms" are such laws. A few will suffice for illustration :^
"Old persons endure fasting most easily; next adults; young persons not nearly so well; and most especially infants, and of them such as are of a particularly lively spirit. ' '
' ' Those who are accustomed to endure habitual labors, although they be weak and old, bear them better than strong and young persons who have not been so accustomed. ' '
' ' When a person is pained in the back part of the head, he is benefited by having the straight vein in the forehead opened. ' '
"In cases of concussion of the brain produced by any cause, the patients necessarily lose their speech. ' '
"If one give to a person in fever the same food which is given to a person in good health, what is strength to the one is disease to the other. ' '
Plainly these aphorisms are generalizations which must have been made as the result of a large number of obser- vations, and Hippocrates in making them was using a thor- oughly scientific induction. It seems fair to suppose that other Greeks, perhaps before him but certainly after, used
1 The Genuine Works of Tnppocrates, translated and edited by Francis Adams (published by the Sydenham Society, London, 1849), Aphorisms, i. 13, ii. 49, v. 68, vii. 58 and 66.
52 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA CHIiOXICLE
Similar methods in tlieir thinking. Arehimctk-s ussurt'dly did when he dealt witli bodies floating ujjon and immersed in liquids.
Experience gives us data, with the relations between pieces of data, and complexes of data, or phenomena, and relations between phenomena. Thus we generalize and make laws about the relation and succession of events, and, in time, about the sequence of phenomena. Hippocrates was thoi-oughly consistent. The science of medicine as taught by liim — and I do not mean here surgery and methods of treatment, for they are pro[)erly arts or methotls of doing thing.s — consisted almost wholly of prognostics. He sought to determine the course which disea.ses pursue when they are left to themselves and the numner in wliicli the course is altered when various drugs are administered. Such knowledge must have been sought by observation and experiment. It is the knowledge of natural law.
The science of diagnosis, of the causation of symptoms, was developed much later in time than that of prognosis. How it came about that the one had reached almast its full growth when the other liad barely begun is an interesting question for the student of tlie history and method of science. Perhaps a profitable line of attack is to be found in the fact that prognosis has to do with laws, while diag- nosis deals with theories, or the conditions without which the phenomena could not be, the inward conditions neces- sary for the production of the outward symptoms.
Hippocrates, then, at least this one of the great Greeks — and the great form an epoch — dealt with a portion of the field of medicine in a manner upon which modern science has not been able to improve. We may suppose accordingly that the Greeks of the epoch of Hippocrates did make first-rate inductive generalizations.
Unfortunately, modern science has never forgiven Aris- totle's error, has never forgiven antiquity in the large for Aristotle's error, in supposing that a heavy body would fall more rapidly than a light one — when the notion might
LOGICAL FACTOES IN THE HISTOEY OF SCIENCE 53
have been shown by experiment at any time to be false. The shadow of this tremendous error has east ancient science into the gloom of disrepute, and we almost believe that there was no science worth mentioning until the time when Galileo dropped a heavy ball and a light one simul- taneously from the Leaning Tower of Pisa and found that they reached the ground at the same time. But it may well be that some of the Greek investigators of nature, if they had been led to investigate falling bodies, would have succeeded as well as Archimedes did with bodies floating and immersed — and v.^ould not have fallen into any such error.
Be that as it may, there is the opinion that the Renais- sance in science was largely due to the throwing off of the ancient tradition and the taking on, in its place, of the habit of experimental verification. The credit for teaching this method has frequently been given to Francis Bacon, but not with justice. De Morgan says on this point r
It seems to us that Bacon's argument is, there can be nothing of law but what must be either perceptible, or mechanically de- ducible, when all the results of law are before us. Now the truth is, that the physical philosopher has frequently to conceive law which never was in his previous thought — to educe the unknown, not to choose among the known. . . . Modern discoveries have not been made by large collections of facts, with subsequent discussion, separation, and resulting deduction of a truth thus rendered per- ceptible. A few facts have suggested an hypothesis, which means a supposition, proper to explain them. The necessary results of this supposition are worked out, and then, and not till then, other facts are examined to see if these ulterior results are found in nature. The trial of the hypothesis is the special object; prior to which, hypothesis must have been started, not by rule, but by that sagacity of which no description can be given, precisely because the very owners of it do not act under laws perceptible to themselves. . . . Wrong hypotheses, rightly worked from, have produced more useful results than unguided observation. But this is not the Baconian plan. . , . Newton, ready prepared with the mathematics of the subject, tried the fall of the moon towards the earth, away from
2 Augustus De Morgan, A Budget of Paradoxes (1872), pp. 51, 55, and 56.
54 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CniiONICLE
her tangent, and fouml that, as compared with the fall of a stone, the law of the inverse square did holtl for the moon. He deduced the ellipse, he proceeded to deduce the effect of the disturbance of the sun upon the moon, upon the assumed tlioory^* of univtrsiil gravitation. lie found result after result of his theory in con formity with observed fact; and, by aid of Klamsteed 's observa- tions, which amended what mathematicians call his constants, he constructed his lunar theory. Hail it not been for Newton, the whole dynasty of Greenwich astronomers . . . might have worked away at nightly observation and daily reduction, without any re- markable result; looking forward, as to a millenium, to the time when any man of moderate intelligence was to see the whole ex- planation. What are large collections of facts for? To make theories from, says Bacon; to try ready made theories by, says the history of discovery; it's all the same, says the iilolater; nonsense, say we!
Bacon hini.self, in tlie Sovnm Onjununi, afti'i- (liscu.s.siiifi; the various ways of interrogating nature, siiys:^
There remains but mere experience, which, when it offers itself, is called chance; when it is sought after, exi)eriment. But this kind of experience is nothing but a loose fagot; and mere groping in the dark, as men at night try all means of discovering the right road, whilst it would be better and more prudent either to wait for day or procure a light, and then proceed. On the contrary, the real order of experience begins by setting up a light, and then show the road by it, commencing with a reijulated and digested, not a misplaced and vague, course of experiment, and thence deducing axioms, and from these axioms new experiments ; for not even the divine word proceeded to operate on the general mass of things without due order.
He speaks here plainly of the experimental verification of hypothesis, but he seems rather to neglect the point by insisting, in his final phrase, merely that the investigation of nature shall be ordered and systematic.
At any rate, the habit of verifying hypotheses either by experiment or by selected observation was certainly in
3 That is, hypothesis of universal gravitation.
* Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, Aphorism 82, third paragraph. The italics are mv own.
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 55
vogue at the time of Bacon. If uot taught by Bacon, it was stated clearly, not long after him, by Sir Thomas Browne. In discussing the magnetism of the earth and the manner in which it is manifested on various parts of the earth's surface he says:"
Now whether these effluviums do flye by striated Atoms and winding particles as Benatus des Cartes conceiveth; or glide by streams attracted from either Pole and Hemisphere of the Earth unto the Equator, as Sir Kenelrn Dighy excellently declareth, it takes not away this vertue of the Earth, but more distinctly sets down the gests and progress thereof, and are conceits of eminent use to salve Magnetical Phenomena's. And as in Astronomy those hypotheses though never so strange are best esteemed which best do salve apjjarencies; so surely in Philosophy those principles (though seeming monstrous) may with advantage be embraced, which best confirm experiment, and afford the readiest reason of observation.
This is exceedingly clear. A few pages farther along'' Browne gives a simple and clear instance of the value of this method. He is discussing the question whether the magnet attracts the iron merely or the iron and the magnet mutually attract each other. He gives the opinion of various ancient and medieval scholars that the attraction is mutual. Then he makes the appeal to experiment:
The same is also confirmed by experiment; for if a piece of Iron is fastened in the side of a bowl or bason of water, a Load- stone swimming freely in a Boot of Cork, will presently make unto it. So if a Steel or Knife untouched," be offered toward the Needle that is touched, the Needle nimbly moveth toward it, and con- formeth unto union with the Steel that moveth not. Again, If a Loadstone be finely filed, the Atoms or dust thereof will adhere unto Iron that was never touched, even as the powder of Iron doth also unto the Loadstone. And lastly, if in two Skiffs of Cork, a Loadstone and Steel be placed within the Orb of their activities, the one doth not move the other standing still, but both hoise sail
5 Sir Thomas Browne, Pseudodoxki Epidemica, II, 2. Works of Sir Thomas Browne, Edinburgh, John Grant, 1912, vol. I, p. 218.
'■'Ibid., vol. I, p. 234.
^ I.e., unmagnetized.
56 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
and steer unto each other. So that if the Loadstone attract, the Steel hath also its attraction; for in this action the Alliciency is reciprocal, which joyutly felt, they mutually approach and run into each others arms.
The entire Pseudodoxia Epidemica is devoted to popular hypotheses which are found, after attempts at experimental verification, to be for the most part false. The book must have had a great elfect upon the thinking of the time.*
These instances, at any rate, make it clear that the veri- fication of hypotheses by experiment was a custom in use at the time of the renaissance of art and literature and after it. Whether it was the cause of the renaissance of science is another question. A new continent had been discovered, the world was found to be round, the Roman church had lost its temper and was soon to lose its authority, old beliefs were shattered, and suspicion was in the air. Who shall say that the habit of careful verification was not a product of the skepticism of the times?
It is not the place here to investigate the causes of the renaissance of literature, yet it is true, so long as men insist upon thinking, that the world cannot remain wholly ignorant age after age. A few cases of incendiary think- ing made the whole world skeptical. Whether this skei)ti- cism was the result of verification by observation or whether the habit of verification was the result of skepticism seems a question that admits of no ready answer. If, however, the habit was practiced well before the Renaissance, then plainly it alone — though it was an important factor — could not have been the cause. Some other manner of thinking, superimposed upon it, must have been necessary to bring
8 Bacon's Novum Organum was printed in 1620; Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica in 1646. The contrast between the contri- butions of these two men to the thought of their time would make an interesting chapter in the history of science. We have on the one hand a man given to ordered observation, hard-headed, and himself a naive observer; on the other hand, a man speculative but skeptical, given to deduction and always ready to pause, to weigh and consider. They represent respectively the tendency to make inductions and the tendency to theorize.
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 57
about this new and far more successful re-beginning of scientific activity.
It is interesting to reflect that the construction of a new mechanism or of any invention is the bringing to actu- ality of the consequences of certain hypotheses which ex- isted earlier in the mind of the inventor. The Egyptians had water wheels. Some one doubtless observed that flow- ing water carried along with it floating chips and twigs. The force of the water was such that the chips resisted, to a greater or less degree, any attempt to detain them. He may have reasoned : ' ' Then, if the mechanical principles which I take to be true, are true, this pull upon the chips may be made to turn a wheel in the same manner that the pull of my arm makes such and such a thing to spin and whirl." Hero of Alexandria invented a kind of steam engine which turned because the steam pressed both against the air which it encountered and against the pipe from which it came. Archimedes, acting on certain hypotheses relative to the conduct of liquids, invented a device for elevating water. There were many inventions made during the Middle Ages. How many were the ingenious devices in the equipment of a medieval fortress — the cross-bow, the culverin, the drawbridge, to mention a few ; and the instru- ments of torture must have required sagacity for their invention and construction. Inventors are prophets, and the finished invention is the embodiment of a successful prediction. Ever since there has been history there have been inventions.
Throughout history there seem to have been inductive generalizations. These commonly offer what is prohahly an universal relation between kinds of phenomena. But, just as all information is of two kinds — that which enables us to do tilings and gives us art or, more properly, crafts- manship; and that which enables us to knotv things and gives us science — so inductive generalizations may, for the present purpose, be divided broadly into two classes : those of the artisan, artificer, or practitioner; and those of the
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scientist or delver into knowledge. Tlie ancients hail both kinds. Instances of the scientific kind have been given. On the other' it is not necessary to dilate, for the enamel and glassware, the engraved precions stones, the Pyramids, and the mummy cases of the Egyptians, as well as the Parthenon, and the Roman sewers, show that the ancient workers were familiar with the "tricks of their trade" — in many cases witii a fanuliarity that we envy today. Further, in the minds of those who woi'k in a certain field, hypotheses arise, and their consequences are tleduced and tested by trial, the results being inn nt ions (of devices or of methotls) for those who are concerned with doing things, and discoveries for those who air concerneil with under- standing things. The ancients certainly ti-ied out their be- liefs in oi'dei- to attain greater facility in doing things. I have not succeeded in finding any cases in which either the ancients or the pi^ople of the Middle Ages tried out their beliefs in order to increase their knowledge.'" This, however, is far from saying that tlu-i-e were no such cases. Yet, even if it could be shown that there were no such cases, would it be fair then to suppose that this habit was the chief cause of the renai.ssance of science?
To sum u[) the argument, whether the beliefs are tried out to improve the doing or to improve the knowing seems to me to be no matter of tremendous moment. The method
'■' The contrast is prettily illustrate<l by a classical instance. For nioilern science it is a law that the alloy of two or more metals fuses at a lower temperature than either of the metals taken singly. Benvenuto Cellini has recordeil that, when he was casting his Perseus, the bronze, not being hot enough, froze ami refuseil to run into the mold. He ordered more fuel to be put upon the fire and sent for all his "j)ewter jdatters, porringers, and dishes, to the number of some two hundred pieces, and hail a portion of them cast, one by one, into the channels, anrl the rest into the furnace. This expedient worked" — the alloy flowed readily, and the Perseus w^as cast perfect in all respects except that it lacked the toes of the right foot. What we consider a part of our scientific knowledge was one of "the tricks of the trade" of Cellini.
10 Perhaps the Ptolemaic hypothesis is a case in point; but so far as I can see, it was an hypothesis which was taken because it seemed to explain the facts, because it worked. I find no evi<lence that its consequences were calculated and tested.
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 59
is the same in either case ; it is only the pnrpose for which it is used that is different. It seems incredible than an old method, turned to a new application, should have brought about the scientific renaissance.
Moreover, the renaissance of science was spread over a much longer period of time than the corresponding move- ment in art and literature. The renaissance of art and literature was follov>-ed promptly by the renaissance of mechanics — in particular, of celestial mechanics. The move- ment in chemistry came considerably later, and that in medicine and the biological sciences, we can say now, oc- curred during the last century.
Why the rebirths of the various sciences should be thus scattered in different periods is a difficult question to an- swer in the light of the belief that they were all brought about by the skeptical habit of careful verification. Why one sooner than the other? There were probably as many alchemists and students of medicine in the time of Galileo as there were students of mechanics.
Through the ages, side by side with the habit of making inductive generalizations, there has been practiced another habit of mind, namely, that of theorizing, of seeking de- ductively after the conditions without which the fact (or palpable phenomenon) could not be. When primitive man reasoned that the woodland brook could not babble unless the invisible water nymphs were laughing, he was attempt- ing to theorize. The anthropomorphic gods were attempts at theories. Primitive man did not see how the phenomena which surrounded him could occur unless there were such superhuman agencies. I do not think that primitive man looked upon his gods and nymphs as hypotheses ; he took them for necessities, as much as Paley did his Maker. Who- ever offers an hypothesis offers what he takes for a possible explanation. He is sophisticated, and admits that other explanations are possible. Primitive man, apparently, be- lieved in these things devoutly; he took them for the sort of thing that I want to call "theories" — ^but he was wrong.
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The reasoning by which lie proceeded from the things that he could see to the things that he could not see was not sound in these cases. The history of human error is, in large part, a chronicle of unsuccessful attempts to theorize.
Yet primitive man undoubtedly did have real theories. He must have known that the medium in which he lived and moved was not mere space, but actually consisted of sonu'thing. Perhaps he reasoned that he could not see bubbles rising from the reptile at the bottom of the stream unless the bubbles were themselves stuff of some kind. Al- though he could not see the atmosphere, he knew full well, of this thing that he did see (I suppose him a naive realist), that he could not see it unless it were some kind of space- occupying substance. At any rate, primitive man certainly attempted to theorize, and the habit of seeking the impli- cations of phenomena is an important factor in the history of science.
The implications of phenomena, provided the logic is right, will be as certain as the phenomena themselves. To seek for them is quite a different thing from seeking for hypotheses which imply the phenomena. The more cases in which a given hypothesis is successful in its implications, the more probable it becomes. Theories, on the other hand, give us new knowledge of a sort which is not immediate to experience, and the knowledge so gained is as sure as the experience by which it is implied.
In earlier papers^^ I have pointed out a number of cases of genuine theory, of recent times and since the time of Galileo. But theories were not unknown to the ancients. Thus, Aristarchus of Samos, in the third century before Christ, as the result of theorizing, learned that the material universe was immensely larger than had been supposed before his time. He noticed that the moon, at certain times, had the appearance of an exact semicircle, and he reasoned that, since the moon is a sphere, this appearance could not
11 See Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, vol. 13, p. 236 (April 27, 1916).
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 61
be unless, from the point of view of the observer, only one- half of the surface of the moon were illuminated. That would mean that the observer is looking at the moon at right angles to the direction from which the light of the sun is falling upon it. He measured the apparent angle between the moon and the sun and calculated how many- times farther away than the moon the sun must be from the earth. His ratio of the distances was as accurate as his measurement of the angle — and as certain (or as true) as his observations of the phenomenon, namely, of the illuminated semicircle.
It is no place here to attempt an exhaustive discussion of the attributes of mind necessary to the successful theo- rizer. He must be a careful observer ; he must be skeptical of his premises and capable of clear and rigid deductions. The medieval thinkers were observant and logical. Yet they had few theories in the present sense of the word. It is necessary, at least, that the successful theorizer should have a clear and distinct conception of the things with which his theory has to deal. He must have definitions. Theories depend for their value, in the end, upon the defi- nition of the terms which they involve. As these definitions are referable to wider and wider fields of experience, so are the theories more and more valuable for the purposes of science.
The rebirths of chemistry and of biology may be traced directly to such fruitful definitions. The new definitions led to new theorizing, new research, new laws, and new hypotheses.
Aristotle's doctrine of forms exercised a tremendous influence over the chemistry, or, more properly, the alchemy, of the Middle Ages. When he taught that the substance of the world, a substance in its essence formless, mani- fested itself through the forms, or with the characteristic properties, of air, earth, fire, and water, or through com- binations of these forms, he was offering a philosophical doctrine in terms of which experience could be easily inter-
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preted. Manifestly the things of experience conkl W- an- alyzed into one ov more of these four "forms," or, as the alchemists called them, "i)rinciples" or "elements." The alchemists made no distinction between form and element ; for them the transmutation of elements was a transmutation of forms — a thing plainly not in contradiction to Aristotle's doctrine.
The Aristotelian in Boyle's Skeptical Chi/mist says:*^
For if you but consiiler a piece of ^reeii woo<l burning in a chimney, you will rea<lily disieru in the ilisbamled parts of it the four elements, of which we teach it and other mixt bodies to be composed. The fire discovers itself in the llame by its own light; the smoake by ascending to the top of the chimney, and there readily vanishing into air, like a river losing itself in the sea, sufficiently manifests to what element it belongs and gladly re- turnes. The water in its own form boiling and hissing at the ends of the burning wooil betrays itself to more than one of our senses; and the ashes by their weight, their firiness, and their <lryness, put it past doubt that they belong to the eletnent of earth.
The interpretation is vei-y palpable, so iiiueb so, in fact, that the expositor thinks it wise to aijologize for its ab- surdly self-evident character. He goes on :
If 1 spoke to less knowing persons, 1 would perhaps make some excuse for building upon such an obvious and easie analysis, but 'twould be, I fear, injurious, not to think such an apology needless to you, who are too judicious either to think it necessary that experiments to j)rove obvious truths should be far-fetched, or to wonder that among so many mixt bodies that are compounded of the four elements, some of them should upon a slight analysis manifestly exhibite the ingredients they consist of.
It is hard to make out a case against such a man. If he likes this way of interpreting things, I do not see how any one can say him nay.
The Egyptian alchemists, the Arabian, and those of the Middle Ages, accumulated a large number of important and useful chemical facts. They made laws — the kind of laws
i2Eobert Boyle. The Skeptical Chymist (Everyman's Edition),
p. 21. First printed in 1677.
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 63
that were useful to them in their art. The speculative side of their science was devoted almost entirely to a consider- ation of the forms under which things were manifested and to an effort to interpret the things of experience in terms of these forms. For Paracelsus and his school, things ex- isted under the forms of salt, sulphur, and mercury (the three elements), which presented respectively the qualities of salinity and incombustibility, of volatility and combusti- bility, and of luster and metallic nature. One of them writes :^^
The Sun (gold) is formed of a very subtile mercury and of a little very pure, fixed, and clear sulphur which has a distinct red- ness; and as this sulphur is not equally colored and as there are varieties of it more colored one than another, thence it happens that gold is more or less yellow. . . . When the sulphur is impure, crude, red, and livid, when its greater part is fixed and its less not fixed, and when it is mixed with a crude and impure mercury in such a manner that there is scarcely more or less of one than of the other, from this mixture there is formed Venus (copper). ... If the sulphur has little fixity and an impure paleness, if the mercury is impure, partly fixed and partly volatile, and if it has only an imperfect whiteness, from this mixture Jupiter (tin) will be made.
This writer must have had in his mind an exact con- ception of what he understood by sulphur and mercury, and no doubt his interpretation of the nature of gold, cop- per, and tin was perfectly plausible. If he liked this way of looking at things, I do not see that we can find fault with him for it. I M^ould be disposed to insist that his explanation cannot, with any justice, be called fanciful and laughed away ; there is nothing wrong with the logic of it. By his terms he understood certain definite things, and these things empirically were present in the metals of which
13 Translated from the French of Louis Figuier, L'Alchimie et les alchimistes (Paris, 1860), p. 9. The passage quoted is referred by Figuier to the ' ' Abrege du parfaite mystere ' ' of the Arab Geber. Marcellin Berthelot has shown, however, that this vx'as the work of a medieval writer who hoped to gain a hearing for his opinions by the use of the well-known name.
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he spoke. Yet such alcheraistical interpretations did very little to advance the science of chemistry.
The doctrine of forms made its last stand in chemistry when it invoked phlogiston to explain the i)henomena of combustion. The overthrow of the phlogiston doctrine marked the renaissance of chemistry, the beginning of the modern science. In that part of this paper which immedi- ately follows I shall consider, as bricHy as the subject per- mits, the rise of this doctrine and the causes which conspired to bring about its downfall. After a discussion of the history, it will be easier to state in exact terms the logical character of the mode of thinking which broiight about this change.
Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682) saw all inorganic ("sub-terrestrial") bodies under the forms of the three "earths," namely, the mercurial, the vitreous, and the com- bustible. He called this last terra pinguis and supposed it to be present in the metals and in all combu.stible bodies. When the substances burned and wlien the metals were converted into their calces (for these are identical pro- cesses), it was the terra pinguis which escaped and pro- duced the phenomena of combu.stion.
Following the views of Becher, Georg Ern.st Staid (1660- 1734) supposed that the combustible substances and the metals contained a certain fire-substance to which he gave the name phlogiston. The name he derived from the earlier writings of Van Helmont. Wood and charcoal burned brightly and quickly and left only a small quantity of earth- like ash. They therefore consisted almost entirely of phlog- iston. Sulphur burned to form an acid substance ; it, there- fore, was a compound of the acid with phlogiston. By the aid of this notion Stahl was enabled to explain the phenomena of oxidation and reduction. Tin, lead, and the like, when heated in the air burned slowly and were con- verted into non-metallic earth-like calces. They were com- pounds of a calx with phlogiston. This statement, more- over, was verified by the fact that the calx, when heated
LOGICAL FACTORS IN TEE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 65
with charcoal, gave the metal back again. The calx com- bined with the phlogiston of the charcoal to reproduce the metal. Also, the acid derived from sulphur could be made, by heating with charcoal, to reproduce the sulphur. Thus those phenomena that we know today by the name of ''oxi- dation" were explained as the loss of phlogiston from the substance; the phenomena of reduction were explained as the recombination of phlogiston with the " dephlogisti- cated" substance and the consequent regeneration of the original material.
The doctrine of phlogiston dominated chemistry for about a century. In its early form it certainly offers an inwardly coherent interpretation of the phenomena with which it is concerned. Plainly it was used by Stahl, not as an hypothesis, of value because of its workings, but rather because it appeared to him to be a suitable way of describing the situation. He did not try to tell anything new. He only used new words to describe the things that any chemist could see for himself. Phlogiston, as defined by Stahl, undoubtedly tvas present in the metal. We may not fancy his use of words; but, if he wanted to attach to them such meaning as he did, then he used his words cor- rectly.
Stahl knew that when a metal was converted into its calx, the calx weighed more than the metal from which it was made. He regarded this fact as interesting but of no especial significance. His indifference to this point shows beyond a doubt that it was the form that he thought important. His successors found this increase in weight more disconcerting. Some of them thought that phlogiston in combining with a calx reduced its weight because it had itself less than no weight, a sort of negative weight or abso- lute levity. The fire-substance, being set free from the metal by the act of combustion, left behind it a residue greater in gravity by the loss of so much levity. The doe- trine still was inwardly coherent.
New facts were brought to light and clamored for
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recoguition. Cavendish (1731-1810) discovered hydrogen. When he dissolved iron, tin, or zinc in hydrochloric acid, a new kind of gas was given off. He proved this to be quite distinct from ordinary air, and named it ' ' inflammable air ' ' or " phlogisticated air." He believed it to be pure phlog- iston. The calces of the metals dissolved readily in acid witliout giving off any gas. The metal gave off gas. There- fore the metal in contact with the acid broke up into phlog- iston and calx ; the calx at once dissolved in the acid, and the phlogiston escaped and could be collected and experi- mented upon. It is to be noticed here that the phlogiston of Cavendish is an entirely different thing from the phlog- iston of Stahl. For Stahl, phlogiston was a form; for Cavendish, it was a suhstance. The old word began to be used definitely in a new meaning. Here the trouble began ; and here, I think, the doom of the old phlogiston doctrine was sealed. Chemists could not use the doctrine after they began dealing with substances.
In 1771 Priestley isolated and examined the gas that we now call "oxygen." He called it " dephlogisticated air." When he heated the calx of mercury, a gas was given off which resembled ordinary air in that it supported com- bustion and respiration. Mice in a confined quantity of this dephlogisticated air lived much longer before suffo- cation than they did in an equal volume of ordinary air, and a candle in this new air burned more rapidly and with a more brilliant flame. He recognized that this gas was one of the constituents of our atmosphere. According to Priestley's view, the phlogiston contained in the combust- ible substance escaped during combustion because it was attracted out by a certain dephlogisticated substance in the atmosphere witli which it immediately combined. As for the way in which he prepared his dephlogisticated air — nothing seemed more natural than that the calx, which consisted of metal minus phlogiston (or of metal plus the dephlogisticated substance), should lose on heating its de- phlogisticated substance and leave the metal behind. He
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 67
found what appeared to be a further verification of his interpretation in the fact that the calx when heated in con- tact with the "inflammable air," or phlogiston, of Caven- dish was converted back into the metal again. The calx (metal minus phlogiston) combined with phlogiston to re- generate the metal; the metal (calx plus phlogiston) gave up its phlogiston to the dephlogisticated air to regenerate the calx.
In 1782 Cavendish showed that when his "inflammable air," or phlogiston, was mixed with the "dephlogisticated air" of Priestley and exploded by means of an electric spark, water was formed. Not long afterwards it was demonstrated that water is also formed when the calx is reduced to the metal by means of inflammable air.
We may sum up these facts very briefly :
1. Metal = Phlogiston + Calx.
2. IMetal -f- Dephlogisticated Air = Calx.
3. Water = Phlogiston -\- Dephlogisticated Air.
4. Calx + Phlogiston = Metal -f Water.
The first equation represents the doctrine of Stahl ; it is an interpretation in terms of forms. The remaining equa- tions represent later discoveries as expressed in the phrase- ology of Priestley and Cavendish. Plainly the first and fourth, if the words of both be taken in the same sense, are incompatible — unless water be considered as equivalent to nothing. Then surely the words in these two expressions are not used in the same sense. This may be demonstrated further. The last three expressions form among themselves a coherent mass of knowledge. Thus, if the algebraic'* value for water given by the third equation be substituted in the fourth, we have :
Calx -|- Phlogiston = Metal + (Phlogiston + Dephlogisticated Air).
1* The warrant for treating these expressions as algebraic equa- tions was established by the brilliant quantitative researches of Lavoisier. Yet these researches would never have been undertaken if he had not had already in practice the habit of looking upon the phenomena as changes in properties unaccompanied by changes in substance.
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Cancelling phlogiston from both sides of this eiiuation, we have :
Calx ^ Metal + l)ei)hlogistieated Air, which is the second expression. In the same way, substi- tuting in the fourth the value for metal given by the second, we have :
(Metal + Dephlogisticated Air) -j- Phlogiston = Metal + Water, which is the same as :
Dephlogisticated Air -f- Pldogiston = Water, the third expression.
On the other hand, if the value given for metal in the first expression be substituted in the second and fourth, we have:
(Phlogiston -j- Calx) + Dephlogisticated Air = Calx, and
Calx + Phlogiston = (Phlogi.ston + Calx) 4- Water, which, after cancellation, prove to be the same as
Phlogiston + Dei)hlogisticated Air= 0, and Water = 0, two expressions which are plainly absurd. The first equa- tion is incompatible with the other three; and we may conclude that Cavendi.sh and Priestle}' used their words in a ditferent sense from Staiil. We see that a new way of looking at things had come into the science. Chemists were now dealing with substances themselves with a dis- regard for their appearance. The manner of thinking can be understood no better than by examining its source.
The modern definition of chemical element was enunci- ated in 1677 — more than a century before the discovery of oxygen. Robert Boyle must have been a "creator of opin- ion," for the contradictory opinions of the phlogiston- period are to be understood only through the belief that many of the chemists of that period held his notion of what an element should be. A century was necessary for this notion to work itself out into a clearly defined method. To Boyle belongs the credit of seeing that the doctrine of forms applied to the wide diversity of chemical phenomena per-
LOGICAL FACTOBS IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 69
mits such latitude of interpretation to individual observers that any agreement is a thing beyond hope. Boyle says:^^
Notwithstanding the subtile reasonings I have met with in the books of the peripatetics, and the pretty experiments that have been shewed me in the laboratories of chymists, I am of so diffident or dull a nature, as to think that if neither of them can bring more cogent arguments to evince the truth of their assertion than are wont to be brought, a man may rationally enough retain some doubt concerning the very number of those material ingredients of mixt bodies, which some would have us call elements, and others principles. Indeed when I considered that the tenets concerning the elements are as considerable amongst the doctrines of natural philosophy, as the elements themselves are among the bodies of the universe, I expected to find those opinions solidly established, upon which so many others are superstructed. But when I took the pains impartially to examine the bodies themselves that are said to result from the blended elements, and to torture them into a confession of their constituent principles, I was quickly induced to think that the number of the elements has been contended about by philosophers with more earnestness than success.
A few pages later the Aristotelian doctrine of forms is discussed, and the facility with which it provides a category of interpretation is pointed out. Boyle then says i^®
Nor has an hypothesis, so deliberately and maturely established, been called in question till in the last century Paracelsus and some few other sooty empirics, rather than (as they are fain to call themselves) philosophers, having their eyes darkened, and their braines troubled with the smoak of their own furnaces, began to rail at the peripatetic doctrine, which they were too illiterate to understand, and to tell the credulous world, that they could see but three ingredients in mixt bodies; which to gain themselves the repute of inventors, they endeavored to disguise by calling them, instead of earth, and fire, and vapour, salt, sulphur, and mercury; to which they gave the canting title of hypostatical principles. But when they came to describe them, they shewed how little they understood what they meant by them, by disagreeing as much as from one another, as from the truth they agreed in opposing: for they deliver their hypotheses as darkly as their processes; and 'tis
15 Robert Boyle, op. cit., p. 15.
16 Ibid., p. 22.
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almost as impossible for any sober man to find their meaning, aa 'tis for them to find their elixir. . . . Principles ought to be like diamonds, as well very clear as perfectly solid.
Finally in the "Paradoxical Appendix" of his book he gives his definition of "element":'"
I now mean by elements, as those chy mists that speak plainest do by their principles, certain primitive and simple, or perfectly unmingled bodies; which not being made up of any other bodies, or of one another, are the ingredients of which all those called per- fectly mixed bodies are immediately compounded, and into which they are ultimately resolved: now whether there be any one such body to be constantly met with in all, and each, of those that are said to be elemented bodies, is the thing 1 now question.
Some of the phlogistonists understood one thing by their words, some another. The doctrines of the time were con- tradictory because words came to be used in a sense for which they were not intended and in which they did not apply. This sense had been defined long bt^fore. It only remained to bring forward the criterion whereby tlie ap- plicability of this sense could be determined. Lavoisier found this criterion in the study of tlie changes in weight which accompanied chemical changes. He gave names to the elements. The " inflammablt.' air," or phlogiston, of Cavendish he called hydrogene; the "dephlogi.sticated air" of Priestley, oxygene; the calx, or compound of the metal with oxygen, he called an oxyde. Coherence and uniformity were introduced. Chemi.stry was reborn.
The science of medicine presents a case parallel to this one in chemistry. From the earliest historical times there had been various notions as to the nature of disease. They were essentially doctrines of form — as, for instance, the doctrine that disease consisted of possession by a devil or demon. If that is the sort of thing that one means by a demon, surely no one has any right to say that the doctrine is wrong. But, just as in chemistry analogous doctrines
17 Op. cit., p. 187.
LOGICAL FACTORS IN THE BISTORT OF SCIENCE 71
led to confusion, so in medicine these led to disputes and conflicting interpretations. Not until Virchow's epoch- making definition of disease had been stated did harmonious and coherent investigation and theorizing become possible. "With this definition at hand, diagnosis became an exact science. Medical men were enabled to say : ' ' These sjTnp- toms correspond to such and such a derangement ; unless so and so were the matter with a certain organ, we should not have these symptoms." That is, they made theories.
How Virchow's definition of disease was thought to be overthrown by the discovery that bacteria were the cause of disease, ^^ and Boyle's defijiition of element by the dis- covery of atomic disintegration and the phenomena con- nected with radium, and how both survived, make an ex- ceedingly interesting chapter in the history of science, and it would be needed in order to complete this outline of the methodological significance of these fertile definitions. The present paper aims to point out that such definitions were an important factor in the rebirth of these two sciences at least. If science were a purely inductive matter, con cerned only with the construction of law and hypothesis, the habit of experimental verification would perhaps pro- vide reason enough. Since, however, it does huild theories, definitions are necessary. A recognition of the importance of the historical role played by these ideas leads at once to an insight into the theorizing tendency.
Throughout history there seem to have been at least two distinct scientific tendencies of mind at work: the one to generalize from observation ; the other to seek deduc- tively the things behind the observation. Primitive man succeeded with the first because his senses were good; he failed with the second because his concepts were not exact.
IS See paper by Professor Josiah Royce, "Some Relations Be- tween Philosophy and Science in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century in Germany," Science, vol. 38, pp. 567-584 (October 24, 1913).
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UNIVEK^ITY KECOKD
ViCTOK H. Henderson
The University of California has lost its greatest teacher, with the death on New Year's eve of George Holmes Howison, I'rofcssor of Philosophy, Emeritus.
Just a month earlier, on the evening of November 22, Professor Howison had been the guest of honor of the graduate students of the University of California, at a gathering held to pay the meed of respect and affection to the first man who ever offered in the Uni- versity of California a course restricted to graduate students, to the great teacher who had just made provision, through the establishment by himself and his wife of the Howison Foundation, for continuing through all time to come his noble life-work of uncovering promising talent and training young men for careers of distinction in the realm of philosophy. On that evening, one after another of Professor Howison 's colleagues and former students told of the meaning of his personality as a liberating and enkindling power. Professor Howison himself responded, with the pithy wisdom and the genial wit which had made his lectures the delight and marvel of students for half a century.
Now, 82 years of age, with a life behind him full of wisdom, courage, nobility, and kindness, he has entered into his place as one of the noblest traditions of the University of California and of university life in America.
It was in 1884 that Professor Ho^vison joined the faculty of the University of California. It is characteristic of his history here that on the very first day he lectured to a class at Berkeley, a young man who had just finished a four-year course in engineering, and who had wandered in to hear that first lecture by the new professor of philo- sophy, found the world transformed for him, and came back to study philosophy, and went on to become himself a Professor of Philosophy
UNIVEESITY RECOED 73
— this was Sidney E. Mezes, long Professor of Philosophy in the University of Texas and now President of the College of the City of New York.
Professor Howison came of old American stock. Born in Mont- gomery County, Maryland, on November 29, 1834, he was the son of Eobert Howison, a native of Prince William County, Virginia (a descendant of Jock Howison of Braehead, near Edinburgh, who obtained the freehold of that estate from James V of Scotland), and of Eliza Holmes Howison of Montgomery County, Maryland, a descendant of two old Maryland families — on her mother's side the Abercrombies. Professor Howison was married on November 25, 1863, at Norton, Bristol County, Massachusetts, to Lois Thompson Caswell, the third and youngest daughter of one of the four children of Alvaris and Ann Sampson Caswell, a niece of Professor Alexis Caswell, once President of Brown University, and through her mother a direct descendant of Captain Myles Standisli and of Peregrine White, the first white child born in Plymouth Colony after the landing of the Pilgrims.
Professor Howison won the degree of A.B., ' ' with highest hon- ors, ' ' at Marietta College in 1852, received an A.M. from Marietta College, honoris causa, in 1855; graduated from Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati in 1855 ; studied at the University of Berlin in 1881-82; and received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Marietta College in 1883, from the University of Michigan in 1909, and from the University of California in 1914.
For four years after graduating from the Lane Theological Sem- inary— from 1855 to 1859 — Professor Howison was principal of Mari- etta Academy in Ohio ; for the next year, principal of the High School at Portsmouth, Ohio ; superintendent of the public schools in Harmon, Ohio, in 1861-62 ; and master of the Public High School in Salem, Massachusetts, from 1862 to 1864.
He began his career as a university teacher twelve years after having graduated from college — by serving as Assistant Professor of Mathematics at Washington University, in St. Louis, from 1864 to 1866, and as Tileston Professor of Political Economy there until 1869. He was master in the English High School in Boston from 1869 to 1871; from 1871 to 1879 he was Professor of Logic and the Philo- sophy of Science in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; in 1879-80 he was lecturer on Ethics in Harvard University, and in 1883-84 he was lecturer on Philosophy in the University of Michigan.
By vote of the Eegents of the University of California on Decem- ber 19, 1883, offer of the first appointment as Mills Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy and Civil Polity, a chair to endow which Eegent D. O. Mills had given $100,000 to the University, was made to
7-1 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
Professor IlGwisou, and on June 3, 1884, it was reported to the Kegents that he had accepted. On June 10, 1891, his title was changed to "Mills Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy and Civil Polity. ' ' With July 1, 1909, he became Professor of Philo- sophy, Emeritus.
Tlie first published writing which Professor Howison has recorded in his own bibliography was "The Principles of Primary Teaching," published in 18G1 in the Ohio Journal of Education, and the next, "The Religiousness of Speculative Culture," i)ublish('d in The Radical, in Boston, in 1866. There followed in the next half-century a long series of papers in various philosophical journals, and a num- ber of books, including A Treatise on Analytic Geometry, first pub- lished in 1869 ; The Conception of God, his comments on the Annual Address by Professor Josiah Koyce on the same subject in the Publi- cations of the Philosophical Union of the University of California, and The Limits of Evolution and Other Essays in Philosophy, pub- lished in 1901, with a second edition in 1904. Ilis last published writing was ' ' Josiah Royce ; the Significance of his Work in Philoso- phy," a paper in the Philosophical Review for May, 1916, in which Professor Howison discusses the life-work of that distinguished grad- uate of the University of California.
Besides serving as editor of the publications of the Philosophical Union of the University of California, a society of which he was him- self the founder, and long the president. Professor HoAvison was editor also of the University of California Publications in Philosophy, co-operating editor of the Psychological Review, and American edi- torial representative of the Hibbert Journal, of London.
Noble memorial to Professor and Mrs. Howison, as well as assur- ance of the continuance of their life-work, ■\vill be the Howison Foundation, to endow which they have given to the University a fund of more than $70,000. The income is to go to Mrs. Howison throughout her lifetime, and thereafter, save for certain small an- nuities for relatives of Mrs. Howison, to maintain the Howison Fellowship, of $1200 or $1500 per annum, which is to be a traveling fellowship to be held for three years by some student in the Graduate School of the University of California who has taken an A.B. here or in some other university of equal rank, with honors in philosophy, and who is thoroughly grounded in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology, and possessed of a free reading command of Greek, Latin, German, and French; the Lois Caswell Fund for the Dean of Women, to aid deserving women students; beds in the Infirmary; and three or four Anne Sampson Scholarships or Fellowships for women students of English Literature and Criticism in the Depart- ment of English, in honor of Mrs. Howison 's mother. Any surplus
UNIVEESITY EECOED 75
of the income is to go to the general uses of the Department of Philosophy.
COMPLETION OF BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER HALL
Benjamin Ide Wheeler Hall, the first to be completed of the buildings to be erected from the $1,800,000 of University Building Bonds voted by the people of California through approval of an initiative measure proposed by the alumni, will be put into use with the opening of the new University year, on January 15, 1917. This granite building will contain sixty-two classrooms seating 4899 per- sons, including the large central lecture-hall seating 1050 people, a dignified room for meetings of the faculty, and forty-eight studies, practically all of these intended for two members of the faculty each. Admirably planned and arranged, the building makes an impression of comfort and well-being, with the cheerfulness of its great window spaces and the excellent results of the use throughout the classrooms of acoustic felt. The main lecture-room will be of very great useful- ness, since it will make possible the combining into a single section of various large classes for which lectures must now be given twice, instead of once, and since it wall provide accommodations for general University lectures. Of great service to the welfare of the University will be the fact that nearly a hundred members of the faculty will now have convenient and congenial quarters on the campus, for use as their private offices and studies, while a hundred more wUl find similar shelter in the other new permanent buildings now under way.
The completion of Wheeler Hall wUl make possible the removal during the summer of 1917 of North Hall, of well-beloved memory, but long a menace through risk from fire.
Other Building Operations Early in the spring work will be finished on the completion of the University Library, of which the first portion was built in 1910, at a cost, including equipment, of $880,000, mostly provided by the generosity of the late Cliarles Franklin Doe. The new wing will cost $525,000. The completed buUding will contain a second reading- room, large enough for 240 readers, found necessary in spite of the fact that the present reading-room is exceeded in size by only one other reading-room in America, twenty new seminar rooms, and twenty-two studies for members of the faculty. The entire space eventually to be devoted to book-stacks, with a future capacity of a million and a quarter volumes, has now been permanently enclosed, but for the present only enough book-stacks will be provided to bring the storage capacity of the main stack up to a total of 600,000 volumes.
76 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHEONICLE
A "French Koom" is to be equipped in the new University Library, at an expense of $3000, in order to provide an appropriate setting for the noble collection of 6000 volumes given to the Uni- versity by the Republic of France at the close of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition.
By the beginning of the University year 1917-18, two other new buildings, erected in concrete from the University Building Bonds, will be completed — Hilgard Hall, at a cost of $350,000, and the first unit of the new Cliemistry Building, at a cost of $220,000. Hilgard Hall, named in memory of the honored scientist who served for a generation as Dean of the College of Agriculture, will house the new Forestry Division, now one of the best professional scliools of forestry in America; agronomy, the science of field crops; citri- culture; genetics, concerned with teaching and investigation of the fundamental principles of breeding plants and animals; zymology, dealing with fermentation, the preservation of foods, improved methods of making by-products from California fruits, etc.; and pomology, dealing with tlie deciduous fruits of California. There will be a cold-storage plant, laboratories for the study of soils, and sixty-three studies and research laboratories for members of the faculty of these divisions.
The unit of the future Cliemistry Building now being erected will be devoted to advanced and graduate students and will be especially equipped for those researches in physical, technological, and inorganic chemistry in which the members of this department are winning high reputation for themselves and for the University. The building will be especially fitted out for electro-chemical investi- gations and exact thermometric measurements, and for work at high and at low temperatures.
The completion of the Sather Campanile has been followed by the development, also through Mrs. Sather 's gift, of the Sather Esplanade, a broad terrace running north and south from the tower which has boon adorned with balustrades of granite, with stairways of brick and granite, with walks of red brick, and with lawns and planting of European sycamores. The twelve Sather Bells have been shipped from Loughborough in England and will soon be hung in the open belfry of the Campanile.
A new unit has been added to the central heating and power plant at a cost, including equipment, of $70,000, to meet the needs of the new buildings being erected from the University Building Bonds, the cost of this work being defrayed from the same source.
A wooden wagon-bridge, with footways on either side, is being constructed at the College-avenue entrance to the campus, to facilitate the movement of crowds to and from the Greek Theatre.
UNIVERSITY BECORD 77
A STUDENTS' UNION PROPOSAL
A definite proposal for the realization of that long-deferred hope, a Students ' Union or Alumni Hall, to serve as center of the activi- ties of the student body, has now been made by the Associated Students. The first unit of such a building Avould cost, including equipment, approximately $250,000. There is on hand at present in the Alumni Hall Fund $11,396, and in the Associated Students' Store Building Fund $10,530, and in various other funds enough to bring the total now available to $27,562. The students have asked the Regents to finance the remaining $222,437.50 by a loan to the Associated Students. The students propose to pay off this advance by means of a semi-annual assessment of one dollar on each student, yielding $12,000 per annum, approximately; by the use of $10,750 per annum in earnings of the Associated Students ' Store, and by the earnings of a cafeteria which it is proposed to place in the Students' Union, these earnings being estimated at $3560. From this total of $26,310 would need to be deducted $6100 per annum, according to the student estimates, to provide for upkeep of the building. The students estimate that this would leave an annual net income of $20,200 to meet interest and sinking fund toward the cost of the building. An amount of $17,000 per annum would amortize a debt of $222,000 in twenty-five years.
A committee of the Associated Students has worked earnestly on this project throughout the present half-year. The Executive Com- mittee has appointed a committee consisting of Professor Matthew C. Lynch, G. W. Cohen, '17, and H. A. Hyde, '17, to present the matter to the Regents. The Associated Students in meeting assembled have expressed their hearty desire that the plan should be undertaken.
The plan proposed is that this first unit should contain offices for the Associated Students, a cafeteria, quarters for the Associated Students' Store, offices for the student publications and for various student organizations, a clubroom for the men and another for the women students, and various other features. With the removal of North Hall planned for next summer, the ' ' Co-op ' ' and the student publications face the prospect of being without a habitation. But particularly do the students urge that with the great growth in number of the students of the University it is important that pro- vision be made for a common gathering-place for student life where the spirit of democracy may flourish wholesomely.
BUILDING WORK OFF THE CAMPUS Elsewhere than at Berkeley, various building undertakings have been in progress during the year. At La Jolla, through the con- tinuing kindness of Miss Ellen B. Scripps, improvements have been
78 VNIFEESITY OF CALIFOENIA CHEONICLE
provided which will greatly facilitate the scientific investigations of the Scripps Institution for Biological Research. A thousand-foot concrete pier has been built out into the ocean, at which the collect- ing-boat can dock, and a pumping equipment and sedimentation tank provided, so that pure sea-water may be supplied for the aquarium and the laboratories. A library and museum building have been erected and equipped, a "commons" provided for the staff, nine cottages erected, and a public aquarium built, representing an ex- penditure during the year of $80,071.50, as a gift from Miss Scripps. Mr. E. W. Scripps also has contributed generously toward the Scripps Institution, including funds for a new speed motorboat, additions to the library, and various material improvements, and Miss Scripps has given $9000 and Mr. Scripps $1500 as their annually recurring gift toward the maintenance of the Scripps Institution. The staff are engaged in researches of broad scope, which are yielding not only new understanding of the processes of life and the explanation of the behavior of living creatures, but are contributing also valuable improvements to the mathematical and mechanical methods of bio- logical research.
At Riverside, also, material development is in progress. On the new site of 471 acres, purchased for the Citrus Experiment Station and Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture at a cost of $55,000, with money appropriated by the Legislature, the irrigation system has been installed, planting of experimental orchards begun, and work started on a laboratory building, a director 's residence, a super- intendent's cottage, farm buildings, etc., which will cost approx- imately $125,000. The work at Riverside has already yielded results of much value in regard to maintenance of soil fertility by the use of cover-crops and of low-grade nitrogenous fertilizers, as proposed by Professor Lipman. Many other fundamental researches are in prog- ress which promise yield of greatest value to the horticulture of California.
In recognition of the importance of affording opportunity for members of a faculty to keep themselves in health and vigor by out- door exercise, the Regents on September 12, 1916, appropriated $250 toward the expense of a handball court for the use of the faculty of the Medical School and the staff of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research.
As an investment, the Regents are about to undertake the erection of a six-story and basement reinforced concrete building, of the warehouse type, to be known as the Buckingham & Heeht Building, with a frontage of 68 feet 10^4 inches on the east side of First Street, near Market Street, San Francisco, of which the two upper floors will be leased to Blake, MoflBtt & Towne, wholesale dealers in
UNIVEESITT BECORD 79
paper, and the four lower floors to Buckingham & Hecht, wholesale shoe merchants. The building will cost approximately $110,000. The architects are John Bakewell, Jr., '93, and Arthur BroAvn, Jr., '96.
THE LIBRAEY INSCRIPTIONS
Here are the names which wiU be inscribed in the frieze of the new reading-room: Dante, Gutenberg, Erasmus, Machiavelli, Cer- vantes, Shakespeare, Galileo, Descartes, Voltaire, Adam Smith, Kant, Gibbon, Goethe, Cuvier, and Darwin. These names were chosen by Cliarles Mills Gayley, Professor of the English Language and Literature, Henry Morse Stephens, Sather Professor of History, concurring.
In making the selection Professor Gayley suggested that the field of choice be limited to modern times and that the following principle of selection be adopted : ' ' That only such men be included as had been unique contributors to progi'ess through the medium of books, and whose work represents some typical chapter of thought or has transformed for the better the conditions of civilization; each name should indicate to the student who sees it, day in and day out, a subject of profitable inquiry and inspiration ; as for denotation, the names should represent the five principal divisions or currents of progress: (o) Bibliographical Science, (h) Imaginative Literature, (c) Philosophy, (d) Social Science (Historical, Political, Economic), (e) Natural Science, and (/) a cross-division — Transformations of Civilization. ' '
On this basis the committee suggested fifteen men as leaders of progress in the five or six principal nations of Europe and as men whose names have not been ' ' staled with custom. ' ' They reluctantly omitted such great contributors to law as Grotius, Coke, or Black- stone, or the religious writers, such as Luther and Calvin, on the ground that professional subjects, such as law, medicine, and religion, have schools and libraries of their own. The list finally came out as follows :
Dante, 1265-1321, as representing imaginative literature and poli- tical thought; Gutenberg, 1397-1468, as founder of the printing art; Erasmus, 1456-1.536, as representing education and the Renaissance; Machiavelli, 1469-1527, political thought and the Renaissance; Cer- vantes, 1547-1616, imaginative literature; Shakespeare, 1564-1616, imaginative literature; Galileo, 1564-1642, philosophy and experi- mental j)hilosophy; Descartes, 1596-1650, philosophy; Voltaire, 1694- 1778, imaginative literature, philosophy, and social science, and as representing the "Illumination"; Adam Smith, 1723-1790, eco- nomics; Kant, 1724-1804, philosophy; Gibbon, 1737-1794, historical
80 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRONICLE
science; Goethe, 1749-1832, imaginative literature, philosophy, and natural science; Cuvier, 1769-1832, natural science; Darwin, 1809- 1882, natural science.
Of these names, those of Gutenberg, Erasmus, Machiavelli, Shake- speare, Galileo, Descartes, Voltaire, Adam Smith, Kant, Goethe, Cuvier, and Darwin were all regarded as so associated with a "trans- formation of civilization" as to have an added claim to recognition on that count.
Bene Legere Sacda Vincere, or "To read well is to vanquish the centuries" — such is the motto which Isaac Flagg, Professor of Greek, Emeritus, has devised for chiseling in the marble over the doorway of the reading-room in the new portion of the University Library — on the east side of the building, toward the Sather Campanile.
A BOARD OF RESEARCH
The community has come to understand the illimitable value to the state of liberal provision for scientific research in agriculture. It has not yet been generally recognized that equally rich harvest will be reaped by the whole community when adequate provision is made for university investigation in chemistry, in the industrial processes, in the problems of mining and metallurgy and of engineer- ing in general, in preventive medicine, in social problems, or in the problems of economies and of industry.
As part of the campaign for national preparedness, the National Academy of Sciences has undertaken a study of industrial prepared- ness in the United States, through the organization of a National Eesearch Council.
For 1916-17, $2000 has been provided by the University in addi- tion to special funds already available, to aid researches of promise in various departments of the University. A faculty committee called a "Board of Research" has been created. The members of this board are to acquaint themselves with the men available for research in the University, with the facilities existing in the University, with the needs of men in the matter of books, material, equipment, assist- ance, traveling expenses, or leaves of absence, in matters of research, and to make to the President of the University such recommendations from time to time as the Board may see fit. The Research Board ■wishes to keep in close touch with the problems which are now being put forth by the United States Government, by the State, by the National Eesearch Board, and by the various national committees on research in different branches of science, and to establish as efiicient a co-operation as possible between the research activities of the Uni- versity and other research organizations for the purpose of solving problems of the day in pure and applied sciences.
UNIVEBSITY FECORD 81
SEMI-CENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS
The semi-centennial of the establishment of the University is to be commemorated in 1918 by the issuance of the Semi-Centennial Publications. Already thirty-nine titles have been accepted by the Editorial Committee for this series. These Semi-Centeunial Publica- tions ^vill include not only volumes issued by the University, but a number of books by members of the faculty Avhich will be published elsewhere but made a part of the series.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
That increased emphasis be placed by the University on teaching and research relating to international and racial problems was recom- mended to the Academic Senate at a meeting in September by a Committee on International Relations consisting of Professors Ed- ward Elliott, Thomas H. Reed, and J. C. Merriam, Cliairman. Emphasizing the value of such work already in progress in the University, the committee pointed out the gTeatness of the harvest waiting to be reaped.
"It is evident, ' ' reported the committee, ' ' that a large part of the materials necessary for adequate judgments on international questions of gi-eatest moment and of especial significance to the Commonwealth of California have, in proportion to their ultimate importance, much less adequate representation in the sum of our available knowledge than do many other matters assumed to be of immediately jiractical significance. Your committee feels that at this time of world upheaval no problem overshadows in importance that concerning the relations of this country with its neighbors. We assume that however great the capacity for wise and accurate judg- ment, proper adjustment of our national position to changing con- ditions cannot be made without full and well-organized knowledge concerning the real viewpoint of our neighbors. This must include a wide range of information relating to the environment, history, attainments, social instincts, and ideals which together determine the attitude of nations. ' '
Deeming a university better organized than any other institution for "assembling, compending, and organizing the knowledge required in the solution of international problems," the committee urged California 's special responsibilities and opportunities for understand- ing the international problems of the Pacific area.
As an initial suggestion, the committee proposed increase of emphasis on instruction concerning questions of international rela- tions in the Pacific area, both for purposes of general culture and as a basis for the work of graduate students. It recommended also the
82 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA CHRONICLE
establishment of a chair primarily for research in international rela- tions, appointments to be for limited periods only, and to go to men of proved ability to do constructive work on international problems, either to members of the faculty deserving opportunity for scien- tific investigation, or to others who might contribute to available knowledge.
The recommendations of the Committee on International Rela- tions Avere adopted as the sense of the Academic Senate, at a meet- ing on September 6, 1916. A faculty seminar, consisting of Profes- sors Barrows, Elliott, Hutchinson, Kofoid, Kroeber, Merriam, and Stratton, has taken up the problem of finding out what the people of Japan really think as to their relations to the United States, the question of growth of population and industrial change in Japan, and tlieir relation to the problem of Japanese expansion, the status of Japanese nationalistic ideas, and the legislation of Pacific-Ocean countries in its relation to international problems.
TRAINING FOR TEACHERS
* ' Hearty commendation ' ' of the action of the University in estab- lishing a School of Education and the new higher degree of Graduate in Education was voted by the California State Board of Education on July 19, 191G, and appreciation expressed "of the excellent work of the School of Education under the direction of its Dean, Dr. Alexis F. Lange, in advancing the educational interests of the State of Cali- fornia." The resolutions further urged "that the University author- ities be earnestly urged to broaden the scope of the School of Educa- tion to include advanced courses in psychology, vocational education, and elementary education, in order that more adequate professional opportunities may be provided for progressive elementary school teachers, supervisors in special branches, and superintendents," and added, that the State Board of Education ' ' express approval of the action of the Board of Regents of the University establishing the University High School for the training of teachers for the high schools of this State, and urge that adequate financial [jrovision therefor be made at the next session of the Legislature."
RESERVE OFFICERS' TRAINING CORPS Reserve Officers' Training Corps are now to be established in the land-grant colleges, and elsewhere, as a means of training up a large body of men thoroughly equipped to serve as officers for units of the large armies upon which the safety of the country might de- pend in time of national emergency.
VNIVEBSITY EECOKD 83
In the institutions where units of the Eeserve Officers' Training Corps are establislied, all male students must receive military train- ing, as at present, for two years. At the end of Sophomore year, those men who have shown special aptitude will be given opportunity to agree to devote an average of at least five hours a week to military work for the ensuing two years. Military uniforms wUl be provided at the cost of the government for all male students, and in addition men in the upper two years of the work may be furnished "com- mutation of subsistence, " to be inaugurated on the basis of seven dollars a month. Attendance at certain summer camps will also be required of the Juniors and Seniors serving as cadet officers and non- commissioned officers in the Eeserve Officers ' Training Corps.
It is manifestly the duty of the University of California to apply for the establishment of a unit of the Eeserve Officers' Training Corps at Berkeley. A necessary preliminary, however, is that the University should provide a locker-room containing locker and dress- ing space for about sixteen hundred cadets, increased office space to provide for three officers, five sergeants, clerk, and cadet first ser- geants, store and issue rooms, work space for the armorers and for cadets in cleaning the rifles and equipments issued for their use, and a six-target shooting gallery, instead of the present two-target gallery. "While some temporary provision might be made for these purposes, there is an evident need for the erection on the campus of an adequate armory, estimated to cost $200,000.
A place on the United States War Department's roll of "dis- tinguished colleges" has again been won by the Military Department of the University. In the report of the annual inspection made on May 1, 1916, Captain Tenney Eoss of the General Staff says of the University Cadets, "This is by far the best-instructed cadet corps I have seen, ' ' and he explicitly commends in many particulars the high character of the work being done in the Department of Military Science and Tactics under the direction of Major John T. Nance.
DENTISTEY A FOUE-YEAE COUESE
The course in the College of Dentistry will be changed from three years to four years in the fall of 1917. Meanwhile, the Academic Senate has declared that the ideal toward which the College of Den- tistry should work, in close co-operation with the Medical School, is that eventually students of dentistry should be required to obtain preliminary training of the same character as that which is reqmred for admission to the Medical School, to be folloAved by the same training as is provided for medical students in the basic medical sciences of anatomy, physiology, and pathology, this teaching to be
84 VNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA CHUONICLE
done by the same departments, and further, that certain courses in dentistry ought eventually to be made available for election by regu- lar medical students in the last half of their fourth year, so that it may be possible for medical students to enter upon the study of dentistry as a specialty. This plan for the future recognizes that dentistry is coming to be recognized as a specialty in medicine.
For the present, however, funds are not available for putting instruction in dentistry in the University of California on such a six-year basis.
The College of Dentistry hopes soon to offer a course of study having for its object the training of dental hygienists, or dental nurses, on the basis of one year 's instruction.
Largely through the initiative of the College of Dentisti-y, a public school dental clinic has now been established in San Fran- cisco. Preliminary studies showed that 95 per cent of the children needed dental attention, and that 90 per cent never used a tooth- brush, though some reported the occasional use of a " family ' ' tooth- brush.
OFFICE OF UNIVERSITY EXAMINER ESTABLISHED
Migration of students from other institutions to the University of California is a rapidly increasing tendency. One out of every five undergraduate intrants enters with standing higher than that of the Freshman year. During the year ending September 30, 1916, some thirteen hundred applications for admission were presented by students who were not recommended graduates of California high schools.
To deal individually with the problem of every student who applies for admission to advanced undergraduate standing, and to take up the important problem of the best possible co-operation be- tween the University and the Junior Colleges of California, a new office has been created — University Examiner. On October 10, 1916, B. M. Woods, Assistant Professor of Theoretical Mechanics, was called to this ncAV administrative task.
The University Examiner will have to do with the entrance exam- inations for such high school students as do not present full recom- mendations in prerequisite subjects — in the past these examinations have been conducted by the individual departments concerned ; he will deal with undergraduates coming from high schools outside of Cali- fornia, from other universities and colleges, and from the Junior Col- leges of California. He will aid the Recorder of the Faculties in affairs pertaining to the University 's relations wnth other institutions, he will be the executive officer of the Committee on Credentials of the
UNIVEBSITY BECOBD 85
faculty, and as a member of the Committee on Schools he will examine the Junior Colleges of California.
When the establishment of Junior Colleges was begun in Califor- nia seven years ago, it was widely believed that these institutions would minister primarily to a local need. It has developed, however, that more than three-fourths of all the students in the Junior Colleges declare it their intention to go, after one or two years in the Junior College, to a university, for completion of an undergraduate course.
Already there are twenty-four Junior Colleges at work in Cali- fornia, with an enrollment of nearly eight hundred students. Besides, there are twenty-five high schools which offer courses planned for high school graduates. Thus far the graduates of the Junior Colleges who have entered the University of California have averaged well in scholarship. The University 's experience with them so far has been very satisfactory.
The University is desirous, through the University Examiner, of establishing helpful co-operation with this important new development in education in California, and of encouraging the communities which establish Junior Colleges to provide proper equipment and adequate support.
GEOWTH IN STUDENTS
The students at Berkeley have more than doubled in number in the past ten years, and more than quadrupled in the past twenty years. The graduate students have about doubled in number in the past five years. Eapid growth may be expected to continue, for in the past thirteen years enrollment in the high schools of Cali- fornia has increased more than fourfold, from 21,450 in 1903-04 to 93,400 in 1915-16.
The enrollment of full resident students for this year, up to No- vember 1, 1916, exclusive of the Summer Session, was 6467. Of this nearly a thousand are graduate students. Including the Summer Ses- sion of 1916, but deducting duplicates, the total enrollment is 9575. This does not, however, include any extension students nor any in courses not requiring high school graduation for admission. It does not include those enrolled in the three-year course in the University Farm School, 278; in the California School of Fine Arts, 230; in the Short Courses in Agriculture, 174; in the "Wilmerdiug Trades School, 395 ; in University Extension classes, 1862 ; or in University Exten- sion correspondence courses, nor the correspondence students in the State prisons, nor those doing Extension class work in State prisons. To include all these means nine thousand more. Nor does it include the ten thousand who are taking correspondence courses this year in
86 VNIFEESITT OF CALIFOENIA CHRONICLE
agricultural subjects. Through its various instrumentalities of edu- cation the University reaches, directly and personally, not less than a quarter of a million individuals in California every year.
The new undergraduates of the fall term of 1916-17 numbered 1757, of whom 881 were men and 876 women, as compared with 1575 a year ago, of whom 812 were men and 703 women. The increase was 97, as compared with 111 for the previous year. Of the intrants, 49 per cent were women. Of the 1757 new undergraduates, 1004 came from California high schools, 139 from high schools in other states; 139 from California and 24 from non-California private schools; 70 from California and 28 from non-California normal schools; 75 from CaUfornia Junior Colleges; 87 from California and 155 from non- California colleges; 3 were teachers admitted because of their pos- session of a life diploma; 27 came from other countries; 4 were admitted on examination ; and 2 for mi.scellaneous reasons. Only 5 students were admitted who offered less than 42 out of the 45 units required for admission, and only 28 otliera admitted who offered more than 42 but less than 45 units. Special students numbered 79, of whom 40 were men and 39 women. All of these were more than 21 years of age.
Although 134 students were debarred for reasons of scholarship in May, 1916, this number was reduced to 123 by revision of rulings. Of the total, 93 were men and 41 women. Of the 134, there were 33 special students and 70 first-year undergraduates.
FINANCIAL AID TO STUDENTS How considerable have come to be the scholarships and fellowships maintained in the University by the income on endowments or by annual gift is sho^\^l by the fact that at last Commencement announce- ment was made of the award of ten Phoebe A. Hearst Scholarships for women, twenty-five Carrie M. Jones Scholarships for young men, seventeen undergraduate and six graduate Joseph Bonnheim Memorial Scholarships, thirty Levi Strauss Scholarships, two each of the Wil- liam E. Davis, Bertha Dolbeer, John Dolbeer, Helen DuBois, and San Francisco Girls' Union Scholarships, five Willard Dawson Thompson Memorial Scholarships for students from Utah, and the Cornelius B. Houghton Memorial, Albert Sidney Johnston Memorial, Horatio Stebbins Memorial, Eleanor Gates, Catherine Allen, Alumna, Anna M. Tietzen, and Cliarles P. Cole Scholarships, and also a scholar- ship in the California College of Pharmacy, given by the Directors.
Among the endowed and gift fellowships and scholarships for graduate students awarded for this year are the LeConte Memorial Fellowship, endowed by the Alumni Association, the three Sheffield
UNIVERSITY RECORD 87
Sanborn Scholarships, two each of the John W. Mackay, Junior, Fel- lowships in Electrical Engineering, tlie University Fellowships in Pacific Coast History, given by the Order of the Native Sons of the Golden West, the Wliiting Fellowships in Physics, the Frank M. Pixley Scholarships in Law, the Cora Jane Flood, Professor F. V. Paget, Therese F. Colin, F. M. Anderson, Martin Kellogg, and Bertha Henieke Taussig graduate fellowships and scholarships, and the Bonn- heim Eesearch Fellowship in English, given by Mr, Albert Bonnheim. The expenditure to maintain fellowships and scholarships for the year ending June 30, 1917, will be approximately $50,000.
UNVEESITY EXTENSION WOEK Few people realize how vast a volume of work is being accom- plished by the University Extension Division. By November 30, one hundred and thirty-five different University Extension classes were being conducted in San Francisco and Oakland, with more than two thousand individuals in attendance, and a total of 2453 enrollments. For 1913-14 the enrollment in University Extension classes, in- cluding certain evening courses at the University, was 14G4; for 1914-15, counting only courses given away from the University, 1095; for 1915-16, 1903 ; for the fall semester of 1916-17, 2007 ; making a total of 6469 different persons and a total enrollment for courses of 8717 since the establishment of this class work in 1913.
For the first three years of work in correspondence instruction, the individuals enrolled numbered 1343, 1531, and — for the year ending June 30, 1916—2060, or a total of 4934 individuals. These 4934 people enrolled for 5613 courses, the annual enrollments being 1506, 1893, and 2214. Since July 1, 1916, 1008 paid enrollments have been recorded, not including the large number of prisoners in the State institutions who have been receiving correspondence instruction without charge.
SOME ALUMNI MATTEES
That 13,950 degrees have been conferred upon 12,706 individuals is shown by the new Directory of Graduates, edited by Harvey Eoney, Secretary of the Alumni Association, and published in October, 1916. Only one out of ten of the 11,826 living alumni dwell outside of California. The Freshmen from outside of California are in pro- portion twice as numerous as the alumni who live elsewhere. More students have graduated since 1907 than in the previous forty-six years of the University's history. In 1916, 628 Bachelor's degrees were conferred, or more than in the whole of the first thirty years
88 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA CHKONICLE
of the life of the University. Of the 8890 who have received a Bach- elor'a degree, 5197 are men and 3693 are women. The University has conferred the Master's degree on 1076; Ph.D. on 148; J.D. on 124, and honorary degrees on 58. The professional degrees bring the total of degrees other than the Bachelor's degree to 3643. Of the recipients of degrees, 880 have died. There are 1903 alumni who are engaged in educational work, 1261 lawj-ers, and 1253 who are re- 3orded as "homemakers" — but many of tlie women alumni who are married are recorded in the new Directory under some other occupa- tion than that of ' ' homemaker. ' '
The occupations of the alumni are recorded as follows: Account- ing 25, Advertising 9, Agriculture 279, Architecture 54, Army and Navy 21, Art 9, Author 16, Business Management 329, Cliemistry 112, Civil Engineering 542, Clerical Work 152, Consular Service 12, Con- tracting 30, Dentistry 772, Editorial 47, Education 1903, Electrical Engineering 89, Finance 78, Geology 31, Government 78, Homemaker 1253, Insurance 52, Judiciary 17, Law (besides Judiciary) 12tjl, Library 29, Manufacturing 47, Mechanical Engineering 44, Medicine 929, Mercantile 192, Metallurgical Engineering 19, Mining Engineer- ing 148, Ministry 47, Music 11, Pharmacy 713, Playwright 6, Pub- lisher 10, Eeal Estate 77, Secretarial 48, Social Service 72, Student 107, Transportation 21, Eetired 18, Unclassified 106, Occupation Un- known 2116, Class of 1916 not included 773, total 12,706.
The locality indices show that there are more alunmi of the Uni- versity of California in China than in any other foreign land. There are 327 who live abroad. Of the 11,600 living alumni whose addresses are known, 9816 live in California. Of the 35,000 Harvard alumni, 15,000 reside in Massachusetts, and of the 16,000 Yale alumni, only 3500 in Connecticut.
By the death of Josiah Royce, '75, Alford Professor of Natural Religion, Moral Philosophy and Civil Polity in Harvard University, at Cambridge on September 14, the University lost one of its most distinguished sons. Professor Royce was Instructor in English Literature and Logic in the University of California from 1878 to 1882, leaving Berkeley then to spend the next thirty-four years as a member of the Harvard faculty.
The death of Jack London on November 22, at his ranch home near Glenn EUen, from uremic poisoning, ended the life of a man Avho had won a more brilliant and widespread literary reputation than any other man who had ever been a student in the University of Cali- fornia. He was for only a single term a student of the University — as a member of the class of 1900 — leaving to go to Alaska with the first wave of the tide of gold-seekers that flooded into the Klondike. He had lived in his brief forty years more of action and experience
VNIVEBSITY BECOBD 89
than half a dozen ordinary lives. He leaves as his monument forty volumes of fiction, travel, and sociological disquisition, all marked by a native genius and a profound sympathy with the progress of liberty and opportunity among mankind.
The alumni held their customary football dinner at the San Francisco Commercial Club on November 17, the eve of the "big game" with Washington, Avith 311 present. Justice Henry A. Melvin, '89, of the California Supreme Court, was toastmaster, and the speakers were President Wheeler, Professor David P. Barrows, Dean of the Faculties; George F. Noble, '95, of Stockton; Edward W. Mahan, the assistant football coach ; James Hopper, '98 ; Milton H. Schwai'tz, '01; Judge W. W. Morrow of the United States Circuit Court of Appeals; Stephen T. Mather, '87, Assistant Secretary of the Interior; Oscar Sutro, '94, President of the Alumni Association; and W. W. Smith, '00, half-back on the famous '98 'Varsity. Glee Club alumni furnished the music.
The women alumnae held a football reunion dinner, with an at- tendance of 120, at Hearst Hall on Friday evening, November 17, with Mrs. Benjamin Ide Wheeler and Miss Lucy W. Stebbins, Dean of Women, as guests of honor.
GEAND CHAMPION STEEES
The University Farm has performed a cattle-raising feat never before achieved by an American agricultural college. It has won the Grand Qiampionship at the International Livestock Show in Chicago for a steer of its own breeding and feeding. Not only did "California Favorite" win the Grand Championship, but the second award also came to the University of California, with the winning of the Eeserve Grand Championship by "University of California Jock, ' ' an animal which weighed 1880 pounds, or more than any two- year-old steer that has ever won a grand championship at the Inter- national. "California Favorite" sold for $1950, or $1.75 a pound on the hoof, the highest price ever paid in the history of American livestock shows.
The excellence of the opportunities for study of animal industry at the University Farm is further attested by the fact that at the recent State Fair at Sacramento the University livestock won twenty- three first prizes, six championships, one reserve grand championship, and — the highest possible honor — three grand champiousliips, and a large number of lesser prizes. Every one of these prize-winning ani- mals— bulls, fat steers, draft horses, swine, sheep, goats, etc. — was bred and fed at the University Farm.
90 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOENIA CHRONICLE
BOY FAKMERS WIN PRIZES
For the third time the University held this Tall a conveutiou at the University Farm, from October 12 to 14, attended by 323 prize- winners from among the 1157 boys enrolled in 107 high school agri- culture clubs. Twenty-five of the boy champions were then taken on a 9000-mile month 's journey in a private car to see the chief types of American agriculture from the Pacific to the Atlantic.
Now the University is going to co-operate with tlie high schools in organizing similar crop-growing contests in the elementary schools. There are now forty-nine California high schools where agriculture is taught. It is planned that the high school teachers of agriculture shall devote their summers and their spare time throughout the year to work in their particular neighborhoods with boys' crop-gi"owing contest clubs, in co-operation with the University Farm Advisers, the local community to meet local traveling expenses and the University to contribute the salary of the agriculture teacher for his community work during the summer.
The young champion farmers sent East averaged 17 years in age and 138 pounds in weight ; tlieir home farms averaged 482 acres in size; on the average they milk three cows apiece before breakfast every day; they had already traveled an average of 662 miles; the majority of them entered the University 's crop-growing contests this year for the second time ; 75 per cent of them plan to enter the Uni- versity, and all but four of these intend to take the four-year course in Agriculture at Berkeley.
SOME AGRICl-'LTURAL MATTERS
The annual Short Courses at the University Farm were attended this fall by 268 people, general agriculture enrolling 89, the poultry course 54, dairy manufactures 26, cheese-making 23, horticulture 29, and traction engineering 83.
"Women's Farm Home Demonstrations" are now being held by the Agi-icultural Extension Division wherever requested by a com- munity, a women 's club, or any group of neighbor women. During the past year and a half 140 such demonstrations were held in twenty- eight California counties, before more than seven thousand women. The women field agents usually conduct these meetings in some farm home, and there show modern labor-saving ways, discuss proper plumbing and proper equipment for the farm home, discuss the plan- ning of a family dietary, and give counsel in matters of the selection of fabrics and materials and in questions of clothing and of home adornment.
UNIVERSITY EECOBD 91
The Fifth District of the Congress of Mothers and Parent Teachers' Associations has petitioned for the establishment at Eiver- side of a farm school similar to that at Davis. Dean Hunt visited Riverside to conduct a hearing on this subject. He has pointed out that study of enrollment in the University Farm School at Davis and in the Short Courses there shows that there is no correlation between the location of the University Farm School and the sources of attend- ance. The tendency is for all the various parts of the State to be represented approximately in proportion to the population. It is the conviction of the University authorities that additional farm schools ought not to be established in response to any geographical argument, but, instead, established in succession, as each preceding farm school attains a maximum of desirable size, to provide some distinctive type of agricultural education, so that California may offer to young men the greatest possible variety of educational opportunity.
A "Citrus Institute Week" Avas held at the Citrus Experiment Station and Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture at Riverside from November 20 to 24, attended by aproximately a thousand,